Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 112

Review

Soft magnetic composite materials (SMCs)

H. Shokrollahi , K. Janghorban
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, School of Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Received 4 July 2006; received in revised form 1 January 2007; accepted 20 February 2007

Abstract Soft magnetic composites (SMCs), which are used in electromagnetic applications, can be described as ferromagnetic powder particles surrounded by an electrical insulating lm. SMC components are normally manufactured by conventional PM compaction combined with new techniques, such as two step compaction, warm compaction, multi-step and magnetic annealing followed by a heat treatment at relatively low temperature. These composite materials offer several advantages over traditional laminated steel cores in most applications. The unique properties include three-dimensional (3D) isotropic ferromagnetic behavior, very low eddy current loss, relatively low total core loss at medium and high frequencies, possibilities for improved thermal characteristics, exible machine design and assembly and a prospect for greatly reduced weight and production costs. With expanded applications of soft magnetic composite materials expected in the future, a review of the magnetic properties, characteristics, processing and applications of SMCs is presented in this article. 2007 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Keywords: Soft magnetic composites; Core loss; Magnetic properties; Organic coating; Inorganic coating

Contents
Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Magnetic characteristics and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Core loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4.1. Hysteresis loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4.2. Eddy current loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6. Classication of soft magnetic composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6.1. Sintered soft magnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6.2. Powder cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 7. Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 7.1. Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 7.2. Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 8. Materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 8.1. Pure iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 8.2. FeNi alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 8.3. FeSi alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 8.4. FeCo alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 9. Particle size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 10. Coated iron-based powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 10.1. Organic coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 10.2. Inorganic coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 11. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1. 2. 3. 4.

Corresponding author. E-mail address: shokrola@shirazu.ac.ir (H. Shokrollahi).

0924-0136/$ see front matter 2007 Published by Elsevier B.V. doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2007.02.034

H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 112

1. Literature review Magnetic materials have revolutionized our lives. These materials are used in electronic, computer and telecommunication industries. During the last decades different types of magnetic materials have been used including pure iron and its alloys, such as FeNi, FeNiP, FeNdB and FeSi and soft and hard ferrites, such as NiZn, MnZn and Ba ferrites. Different aspects of processing, properties, effect of additives on magnetic properties and applications of these ferrites were discussed by many researchers [150] including these authors who studied the effects of additives, such as V2 O5 and MoO3 in MnZnferrites for low consumption lamps and high frequency applications [39,40]. New materials including amorphous materials, amorphous wires, nanocrystalline materials and todays soft magnetic composite materials are the latest development in magnetic history [4683]. It is worth reviewing the highlight of the magnetic materials development very briey, before going to more details about SMCs. The idea of using ironresin composites for soft magnetic applications is not new. It appeared more than 100 years ago but ironresin composites have been rarely used because their properties, the processing technology for making parts and real needs for these materials were not sufciently developed. However, these limitations were being overcome with the development of improved raw materials and new shaping technologies. These composites nd increasing use in electrical motors, replacing existing laminate materials [53,56,59,65,6873]. These materials are being developed to provide materials with competitive magnetic properties (good relative permeability and magnetic saturation), but with high electrical resistivity [49]. Insulated iron powder (Fig. 1) offers several advantages over traditional steel in some applications, for example, the isotropic nature of the SMC combined with the unique shaping possibilities opens up for 3D-design solutions [55,56]. In recent years, effects of particle size, particle composition (FeNi, FeNiCo, FeSi) [18], compaction parameters (warm compaction, pressure, lubricant), resin and wet chemical methods for creation of insulation layer around particles have been veried [2,6,7,53,60]. A literature survey in the eld of soft magnetic composite materials is given in Table 1, where a summary of some recent developments is presented.

2. Introduction During the last several years, interest in the study of soft magnetic composites (SMCs) has been increasing at an accelerating rate, stimulated by recent advances in materials synthesis and characterization techniques and the realization that these materials exhibit many unique and interesting physical and chemical properties with a number of potential technological applications. They play a key role in power distribution, make possible the conversion between electrical and mechanical energy, underlie microwave communication, and provide both the transducers and the active storage material for data storage in information systems. New developments in powder composites make SMC materials interesting for applications in electrical machines, when combined with new machine design rules and new production techniques. These composites have several advantages, such as reduction in weight and size. Weight can be reduced through several types of technology improvements; in materials, design techniques and fabrication processes. To establish the design rules, one must pay attention to electromagnetic loss characteristics of SMC materials. Several different series of ironbased SMCs are: (1) pure iron powder with resin, (2) sintered iron-based powders, (3) pure iron powder with additions of Znstearate and carbon, (4) iron-based powder alloys (Fe, Ni, Co, Si), (5) commercially available iron powder Somaloy [7075]. Among these, the composite materials minimize fringing ux due to their distributed air gap. An interesting example of recent commercial progress for SMC applications is the BDC-motor, shown in Fig. 2 for ABS type brake systems produced by Asian Seiki Co. Ltd., Japan [65]. The SMC machine must be designed using short magnetic path length and minimum weight. In some applications, such as magnetic cores and magnetic machines, these composites are able to replace electrical steel sheets or ferrites [63]. 3. Magnetic characteristics and properties Two key characteristics of an iron core component are its magnetic permeability and core loss characteristics. The magnetical, electrical and mechanical characteristics depend on the preparation and processing of the components. In addition the materials purity, shape and size of particles inuence the overall magnetic response. Two basic types of soft magnetic materials are extensively used, depending on the application and its requirements. These materials are: (a) Ferrimagnetic materials, which are based on ceramic oxides of some metals, such as ferrites and are applicable to frequencies from a few kilohertzs to well over 80 MHz. (b) Ferromagnetic materials based on iron and nickel, which are for lower frequency applications, <2 kHz, consist of iron-based alloys which have low to medium frequency applications in electric machines. SMCs are ferromagnetic materials with signicantly improved medium to high frequency properties which made them a viable alternative to

Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of the component elements of a powder core [65].

H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 112 Table 1 Literature survey in the eld of soft magnetic composite materials Researchers Lefebvre, L. Philippe Sylvain P. Laurent, G. Viau M.E. McHenry, M.A. Willard P. Gilbert, H.G. Phan L. Pennander, A. Jack I. Chicinas, O. Geoffroy E. Bayramli, O. Golgelio Y.G. Guo, J.G. Zhu A. Hamler, V. Gorican K. Janghorban, H. Shokrollahi Subject Soft magnetic composites (complex shape production and isotropic magnetic behavior, high resistivity) Effect of the magnetic fraction on the complex susceptibility of soft magnetic composite materials Amorphous and nanocrystalline materials (review paper) Development of soft magnetic composites (low-loss applications) Soft magnetic iron powder material AC properties and their application in electrical machines Soft magnetic composite based on mechanically alloyed nanocrystalline Ni3 Fe Powder metal development (electrical motors) 3D and 2D vector magnetic properties of soft magnetic composite materials The use of SMCs in synchronous electric motor Effect of different compaction methods on the magnetic properties of SMCs Year 1993 1996 1999 2002 2003 2005 2005 2005 2006 2006

Reference [49] [50] [42] [5] [65] [8] [56] [55,57,58] [59] [61,62]

Fig. 2. Commercial ABS motor: (a) original laminated motor and (b) improved new SMC design [65].

steel laminations in a range of new applications, such as rotating machinery, sensors and fast switching solenoids. The unique properties of the soft magnetic composite materials include magnetic and thermal isotropy, very low eddy current loss and relatively low total core loss at low to high frequencies, high magnetic permeability, high remanent magnetization, high resistivity, reduction in size and weigh, large anisotropy constant, low coercivity and high Curie temperature [77]. Soft magnetic composites are isotropic, have improved high frequency performance and can be compacted to 3D-shapes using the established PM compaction route. The soft magnetic composites have also certain limitations: on a part they have maximum permeability and magnetic induction than laminates, on the other part the powder metallurgical procedures used in principal for the obtaining of soft powdered cores are not suitable for all sizes and shapes of the core components. Fig. 3 shows the applicable regions for soft magnetic materials used in AC magnetic elds. Soft ferrite has low core loss in the high frequency region, but due to its low magnetic ux density, it has the drawback of requiring a large core. Electrical steel sheets have high ux density, but electrical sheets cannot be used in the high frequency region due to excessive core loss. Powder cores are magnetic materials which cover the region where the former two magnetic materials cannot be used [69]. 4. Core loss Traditionally, the contributions to the dissipation in magnetic materials are classied into three categories:

1. Hysteresis loss (Ph ); 2. Eddy current loss (Pe ); 3. Residual loss (Pr ). The residual losses are not too well understood and perhaps represent an expression of our ignorance of the system. Residual losses are a combination of relaxation and resonant losses. These losses are only important at very low induction levels and very high frequencies and can be ignored in power applications. The total core loss of a magnetic device is the sum of the eddy current losses and hysteresis losses [13]. 4.1. Hysteresis loss At low frequencies the hysteresis loss is the main core loss part and can be reduced by large particle size, higher purity

Fig. 3. The applicable regions for soft magnetic materials used in AC magnetic elds [69].

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of the iron in the particles and stress relieving heat treatment. Hysteresis loss can be expressed by [13]: Ph = f H dB

where Ph is the hysteresis loss, f the frequency, H the magnetic eld strength and B is the magnetic induction. In an iron powder material, impurities in the iron particles and stressed regions give rise to pinning sites that hinder domain wall motion. The coercive force raised by these causes can be reduced by using a high purity iron for the particles and provide a heat treatment procedure following the compaction to improve the stressed regions. Another source of hindering the domain wall motion is possible grain boundaries inside the particles. The heat treatment procedure following the compaction is the main step to be taken to reduce hysteresis loss. 4.2. Eddy current loss Eddy current loss is due to electrical resistance losses within the core caused by the alternating electric eld. When eddy currents are induced in materials, two main effects are observed: incomplete magnetization of the material (skin effects) and increase in core losses. Eddy current loss can be expressed as [13]: Pe = CB2 f 2 d 2
Fig. 5. Concept for iron loss reduction [63].

coating in reducing the normalized total loss is signicant at higher temperatures. Fig. 5 lists concept for iron loss reduction [63]. 5. Applications The uses for soft magnetic materials are typically classied as either DC or AC applications [5375]. DC or direct current applications are characterized by a constant applied eld (from a battery type device). The most common DC applications are found in automobiles. Key magnetic characteristics for DC applications are permeability, coercive force, and saturation induction. For AC or alternating current applications, a variable eld is applied. The materials for AC electromagnetic circuits require high induction and low dynamic (eddy current) losses. These are strongly inuenced by the work frequency and induction, and also by the magnitude of density and electrical resistivity of materials. Key magnetic parameters in AC applications are permeability, saturation, and total core losses resulting from the alternating magnetic eld. However, the recent introduction of polymer coated iron powers has opened the door for P/M to be utilized in AC applications. These polymer coated powders are usually used in the as pressed condition; i.e. no sintering is required. In applications where saturation induction is the key magnetic parameter, these applications are ideal for the unalloyed iron materials. Soft magnetic composites containing iron powder nd use in a variety of applications including; design of the composite core with three dimensional isotropic ferromagnetic behavior, powder cores for switch reluctance power supplies, DC out put chokes, resonant inductors, sintered materials for antilock braking sensors, electromagnetic actuation devices, substitute for laminate steels in brushless DC motors, rotating machineries, low frequency lters, induction eld coils, magnetic seal systems, transformers coil, magnetic eld shielding, high temperature applications, such as in aircraft engine electric components.

where Pe is the eddy current loss, C the proportionality constant, B the ux density, f the frequency, the resistivity and d is the thickness of the material. Eddy current loss can be minimized in a number of ways. First, resistivity is increased by addition of Si to the iron powders. Another common technique to reduce the eddy current loss is to use thinner laminates. The latest technique is the insulated iron powder (Fig. 1) with smallest eddy current loss. The insulating coating of every particle gives very small eddy current paths inside a particle and a relatively high resistivity of the bulk material. The small non-magnetic distances between every particle act as air gaps and decrease the permeability of the bulk material. Fig. 4 shows the total losses for ring shaped components with un-coated and coated iron powder particles [65]. The effect of

Fig. 4. The total losses for ring shaped components with un-coated and coated iron powder particles [65].

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These materials can be used in alternators, generators and electric motors, which are used in a wide variety of applications involving power tools, such as drills, saws, sanding and grinding devices and yard tools, such as edgers and trimmers, just to name a few such tools. 6. Classication of soft magnetic composites Soft magnetic parts produced by PM processes can be broadly divided into sintered magnetic cores, which are manufactured by the conventional PM process and powder compressed magnetic cores which are manufactured without sintering. 6.1. Sintered soft magnetic materials The DC magnetic properties of sintered compacts are determined by the chemical composition of the material and the density and crystal grain size of the sintered part. Pure iron sintered compacts display comparatively high magnetic ux density. In general, the ux density of iron-based materials shows a strong relationship with the purity of the material and density of the sintered part. Accordingly, high ux density can be obtained by using high purity iron powders and manufacturing a high density sintered compact by applying warm compaction, die wall lubricant and high compaction techniques. In sintered parts, addition of a small amount of phosphor (P) to pure Fe powder encourages grain growth, making it possible to produce sintered compacts with a coarser grain size [77]. In addition to the material composition and density of the sintered compact, the AC magnetic properties of sintered components are also strongly related to the shape of the part. Examples are electromagnetic actuators, used in various kinds of motors in AC magnetic elds. Core loss occurs when soft magnetic materials are used in an AC magnetic eld. 6.2. Powder cores Powder cores are made from magnetic powder particles approximately 100 m in size, which are insulated individually. In manufacturing these types of cores, the iron-based powders with a size of around 100 m are insulated with an inorganic insulating layer, and the powder is mixed with a small amount of an organic resin as a binder. The mixture is then compacted and heat treated. In this case, the heat treatment must be performed at a temperature which will not destroy the inorganic insulating layer or the organic resin binder. This means that densication as a result of the sintering process, as in sintered magnetic materials, cannot be expected with powder cores [77]. Therefore, high density must be realized in the compaction process. 7. Processing Soft magnetic powders are the main component of SMCs that are covered by an insulation layer, Fig. 1. Depending on how the combination of materials and processing parameters are chosen, a wide range of properties can be obtained.

Soft magnetic composites are produced by traditional powder compaction techniques followed by a heat treatment at low temperatures which does not destroy the insulating layer between the iron particles. Different magnetic and mechanical properties are obtained depending on binder, lubricant additives and organic coatings on the iron particles as well as warm or cold compaction. Preparation of SMCs consists of the following steps: (a) providing a low carbon powder of a soft magnetic material selected from the group consisting of an atomized or sponge powder of essentially pure iron or an iron-based prealloyed powder containing Si, Ni, Al or Co, (b) providing the particles of the powder with an electrically insulating layer, (c) mixing the powder of the electrically insulated particles with a lubricant, (d) compacting the powder to a composite body and (e) heating the composite body at a temperature between 400 and 700 C. Fig. 6 shows the sample preparation ow chart [77]. The key to lowering the coercive force is either by developing a coating that can withstand annealing temperatures or applying a compaction method that does not introduce the deleterious cold work. One technique to eliminate the deleterious effects of cold working the iron powder was pioneered by Dr. Kugimiya [49]. In this technique, the surface of the powder was rst oxidized; the powder was then hot pressed to full density (this material is referred to as NANOCON material). This processing produced high bulk resistivity with excellent permeability and low total core losses. Table 2 shows the typical changes of some material properties due to variations in composition and the fabrication process [85]. For a given application a compromise between the parameters in the table denes the composition and fabrication process that gives the optimum behavior. In a material with a binder the strength increases with increasing compaction while the opposite behavior occurs in a material without binder. 7.1. Compaction At present, hot pressing is not an economical process for the mass production of commercial components. Ideally, the most cost effective production method is to die compact the insulated iron powder and follow the compaction step with a
Table 2 Parameter dependence on composition and the fabrication process [85] I Permeability Maximum ux density Coercivity Resistivity Thermal conductivity Strength II III IV a V

(I) Increasing particle size; (II) addition of lubricant; (III) addition of binder; (IV) increasing compaction pressure; (V) heat treatment. a In a material including a binder the strength increases up to typically 200 C (Gelinas et al., 1998) and (Jansson, 2000), due to an improved distribution of the binder, further increase deteriorates the binder and the strength decreases. A material without a binder (including a lubricant) shows a monotonously increase in strength with increasing temperature (Jansson, 1998).

H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 112

Fig. 6. Sample preparation ow chart [77].

low temperature anneal to reduce the internal stress of the iron powder. New compaction technologies are being explored that could eliminate the cold working of the iron powders. New tooling and lubricant techniques are needed to signicantly reduce the need for premixed powder lubrication. Generally two types of samples are produced for magnetic measurements; these are rods and toroids. According to the magnetic tester, size and dimensions can be varied. The combination of heated powder and high compaction pressure result in ow of the polymer forming a continuous matrix around the iron powder particles. Density has a signicant effect on the part performance. Higher density P/M parts exhibit increased permeability and saturation induction without any degradation of the coercive force. Techniques to increase the part density include double press/double sinter, warm compaction, or restriking a fully sintered part. Table 3 lists encapsulated green strength and density data [75]. High velocity compaction (HVC) increases the competitiveness of SMC as well as expands the range of applications as high density components with enhanced electromagnetic properties can be mass produced [54]. In the manufacture of powder components, new compaction methods, such as warm compaction and two step compaction are being explored that could eliminate the cold working of the iron powder and could increase the material density. Density and residual stresses have a signicant effect on the magnetic losses and part perforTable 3 Encapsulated green strength and density data [75] Process parameters Powder temperature Die temperature Standard P/M: Admixed lube Density (g/cm3 ) Compacted at 50 (psi) TRS (psi) Microencapsulated powder Density (g/cm3 ) Compacted at 50 (psi) TRS (psi) RT RT 75 F 150 F

mance. Warm compaction and two step compaction methods increase magnetic induction, magnetic permeability and density and decrease core losses [61]. 7.2. Annealing Annealing is required to minimize the deleterious effects of cold work on the magnetic performance of the core material. Results of an annealing process can greatly vary by the process history of the material, the underlying material composition and other factors. The hysteresis loss is partly due to stresses introduced in the material at compaction. In order to reduce hysteresis, a stress relieving heat treatment most often follows the compaction, but the heat also degrades the insulation between powder particles and thus increases the presence of eddy currents in the material. Fig. 7 shows effect of annealing on the magnetic properties. Annealing is effective for controlled development of induced anisotropy, adjustment of a well dened domain structure, controlled microstructural changes and nanocrystallization. Generally, annealing can be classied into three categories: multi-step thermal annealing, magnetic eld annealing and thermalmagnetic eld annealing. Recently, the effect of different annealing conditions on the magnetic properties of SMCs was investigated [86]. It was found that magnetic loss of annealed powder was smaller than that of unannealed powder

125 F 250 F

175 F 350 F

225 F 450 F

225 F 550 F

6.92 2250

6.94 2310

6.97 2750

6.97 3100

7.1 3,250

7.05 4,150

7.04 3448

7.08 3224

7.07 4343

7.15 4732

7.18 10,670

7.25 16,660

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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

low hysteresis losses; low eddy current losses; high permeability at low eld strength; high saturation value; no aging effects; uniform magnetic characteristics.

Fig. 7. Effect of annealing on the magnetic properties [84].

after 100 h ball-milling process. Annealing treatments can eliminate residual stresses and some internal defects and help to domain growth and domain wall movement. Also, the magnetic loss of samples which had two steps milling and annealing process was smaller than the samples with one-step process. It was found that at low frequencies (<10 kHz) the magnetic loss in the high-temperature magnetic annealed state is smaller than that in the low-temperature magnetic, magnetic annealed and without annealing states. On the contrary, the magnetic loss in the high temperature-magnetic annealed state is larger at high frequencies (>10 kHz) than the others. Fig. 8 shows the magnetic loss as a function of frequency (at low frequencies) [86]. 8. Materials selection The proper choice of metallic powder is different for AC and DC magnets and must be dealt with separately. It is a common knowledge that the magnetic properties of powders are a function of their chemical composition, melting practice, hardening process and heat treatment. The magnetically soft alloys must combine as many as possible of the following characteristics at moderate cost:

Soft magnetic powders or iron-based alloys are one of the components of the SMCs that are currently replacing electrical steel sheets or ferrites in some applications. The most common function of magnetic iron-based alloys is as cores in power and distribution transformers. Pure iron is the most prototypical soft magnetic material. It has a very high saturation ux density, Bs = 2.2 T, and its cubic anisotropy leaves it with a relatively small magnetocrystalline anisotropy, K1 4.8 104 J/m3 , and small magnetostriction constants, 1 0 0 = 21 106 , 1 1 1 = 20 106 [87]. The term iron applies not only to substantially pure iron but to the well known alloys used for such purposes. Fe alloys contain up to 20 wt% of one or more of the elements, such as Al, Si, Cr, Nb, Mo, Ni and Co. Alloyed irons provide higher magnetic permeability and lower total core losses and result in devices having higher efciencies than devices using pure iron cores [88]. Addition of elements to iron increases resistivity but eddy losses are still too high, even at 50 Hz. Carbon impurities and stress can be large contributors to the hysteresis loss. Most steels used for laminations have low carbon content, and often 13% silicon by weight. To provide optimal magnetic performance, these alloys possess very low levels of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. They rely on various additions of phosphorus, nickel, silicon, or cobalt to optimize permeability, coercive force, or induction. Table 4 illustrates DC magnetic properties for PM materials [75]. 8.1. Pure iron The irons or electrical irons are low carbon alloys that offer a little more magnetic permeability than the ironcobalt alloys. They have been used in relays, solenoids and magnets in vacuum equipments, particularly in direct current magnetic eld applications. For applications, taking into account the purity, a powder with lower content of C (<0.01 wt%), S (0.01 wt%) and O2 as well as H2 content <0.06 wt% was produced with the trade name of DP200HD by Iron Powder Plant from Buzau, and PERMITE 75 and SOMALOY by HOgan as [89]. Fig. 9 compares the initial ux density curves for two iron specimens with two purities. The superior behavior of 99.99% pure Fe is evident [84]. 8.2. FeNi alloys The nickeliron alloys possess the highest permeability by far of all the soft magnetic alloys. The nickeliron alloys exhibit the least amount of ux density. These alloys, therefore, are considered foremost for applications requiring high permeability and rather low ux density. Properties vary over composition range. Optimum composition must be selected for a particular appli-

Fig. 8. Magnetic loss as a function of frequency (logarithmic level) at low frequencies (<10 kHz).

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Table 4 DC magnetic properties for PM materials [75] Alloy system Fe Fe/P Fe/Si 50 Ni/50 Fe Density (g/cm3 ) 6.87.2 6.87.4 6.87.3 7.27.6 Maximum permeability 18003500 25006000 20006000 50001500 Coercive force (Oe) 1.52.5 1.22.0 0.81.2 0.20.5 Maximum induction (G) 1013 1014 913 914 Resistivity ( cm) 10 30 60 45

cation. High Ni content alloys have high permeability; around 50 wt% Ni has high saturation magnetization and low Ni content have high electrical resistivity. Magnetic FeNi alloys are generally called permalloys. Originally permalloy was the registered trademark for certain FeNi alloys, but it has now become a generic term. There are three major FeNi compositions of technical interests: (1) 78% Ni permalloys (e.g., Supermalloy, Mumetal, Himu 80) where the highest initial permeability is required. (2) 65% Ni permalloys (e.g., A Alloy, 1040 Alloy) which show a strong response to eld annealing while maintaining K1 0.3) 50% Ni permalloys (e.g. Deltamax) which have high ux density (Bs = 1.6 T) [86]. All the FCC FeNi alloys with Curie temperatures in excess of 400 C respond very well to magnetic eld heat treatments so that BH loops with a variety of shapes can be achieved. 8.3. FeSi alloys These grades all have more hardness and electrical resistivity than the irons. They have been found suitable for alternating magnetic eld applications, such as relays and solenoids. These alloys are for applications requiring very low hysteresis loss, high permeability, low residual magnetism, and freedom from magnetic aging. 6.5 wt% SiFe alloy is a well known alloy, because of the excellent soft magnetic properties, such as high saturation magnetization, near zero magnetostriction and high resistivity, which

suggests that the core loss should be reduced compared to those of comparable alloys with 34 wt% silicon [84]. 8.4. FeCo alloys Ironcobalt alloys have the highest magnetization saturation of all known magnetic alloys as shown in Fig. 10. The ironcobalt alloys, with slightly improved permeability, generally have been preferred for their high magnetic saturation of ux density. This property maximizes the amount of magnetism available for magnetic circuits. Alloys in this family have been used most frequently for aerospace motor and generator laminations, electromagnets, high performance transformers and magnetic bearings. Inuence of ternary additions on the saturation of FeCo alloys, such as Ti, V, Cr, Ni, Cu was found to be detrimental [3], with the exception of Mn. Table 5 also shows the effect of V and Nb addition on the saturation induction of FeCo-based alloys after furnace cooling from 760 C. No gain was resulted from these alloys. 9. Particle size Low frequency permeabilities of small particle composites have larger values than those of large particle ones and natural resonance frequency of small particle composites is lower than that of large particle ones. Magnetic nanoparticles show a variety of unusual magnetic behavior compared to bulk materials or thin lm systems [42], mostly due to surface/interface effects, including symmetry breaking, electronic environment/charge transfer, and magnetic interactions. When the size of the particles is reduced below the single domain limit (1520 nm for iron oxide), they exhibit superparamagnetism at room tempera-

Fig. 9. Initial ux density curves for two iron specimens: (a) 99.9% pure Fe and (b) 99.99% pure Fe [84].

Fig. 10. The SlaterPauling curve showing the mean atomic moment for a variety of binary alloys as a function of their composition [3].

H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 112 Table 5 Saturation magnetization for different FeCo-based alloys after furnace cooling [3] Alloy FeCo2 V FeCo3.6 V FeCo1 Nb FeCo2 Nb FeCo3 Nb Saturation induction (T) 2.32 2.29 2.34 2.29 2.2 Estimated volume fraction of second phase (%) Not measured 7 11 14

(b) powder coating technology, which has been applied on an industrial scale for some 30 years. In general, insulating coatings are classied into two main categories, Inorganic and organic coatings. Inorganic coatings can be subdivided into several categories; metallic oxide coatings (such as Fe2 O3 ), phosphate coatings (zinc phosphate, iron phosphate and manganese phosphate), and sulfate coatings. Organic coatings can be divided into two categories, thermoplastic coatings and thermosetting coatings. 10.1. Organic coatings To provide the maximum magnetic permeability the amount of interparticle insulation should be minimized and iron content maximized. Effect of epoxy content on the core loss is shown in Fig. 12. It is evident that high epoxy content >6.5 vol% is not constructive at higher frequencies. Cores made from polymerbonded iron particles should have as low a polymer content as is possible which unfortunately tends to reduce the physical strength of the core. A summary of typical magnetic properties for a variety of isolated particle materials is given in Table 6 [78]. It has been proposed to coat magnetic core iron particles with polymers in a number of ways including: (1) dispersing the particles in a solution of the polymer dissolved in a solvent and driving off the solvent, (2) polymerizing the polymer in situ on the surface of the particles, and (3) coating the particles in a uidized bed with the polymer dissolved in an appropriate solvent [90]. Unfortunately, the more common polymers that one might expect to survive hostile environments, do not have the process ability characteristics needed to completely coat the particles and/or to readily mold high density, high strength cores with the desired physical and magnetic properties. Indeed most polymers otherwise suitable for hostile environments are thermosets which after having been once cured about the iron particle cannot be dissolved, reprocessed or compression/injection molded. On the other hand, most thermoplastics which might be both moldable and capable of withstanding the hostile environment cannot practically be coated uniformly and continuously onto small iron particles primarily because they are either essentially insoluble in industrially acceptable solvents (for example, crys-

ture followed by a spin-glass like transition at low temperature [42]. Soft magnetic nanocrystalline alloys have high coercivity and low remanence magnetization. Two important factors to improve the remanent magnetization are the nanocrystalline grain size and the degree of coherence across interphase boundaries (it should be sufcient to enable adjacent phases to be exchange coupled). Fig. 11 shows variation of coercivity (HC ) with particle size (D) for magnetic material [84]. Once the magnetic particle is in a nanometer size, the eddy current produced within the particle is also negligibly small. Therefore, conductivity of the magnetic constituent is no longer a factor in the material selection consideration and metallic material selection consideration and metallic materials can be used as magnetic phase. The advantages of magnetic nanocomposite include: (1) reduction in total core power losses, (2) the high ux capabilities at elevated temperatures that the nanocomposite cores are expected to support, thereby enabling manufacture of smaller power devices, and (3) broadband devices. 10. Coated iron-based powders SMCs are basically pure iron powder particles coated with a very thin, electrically insulated layer (Fig. 1). Good insulation and ne particles are generally required to minimize eddy currents in high frequency applications. At low frequency, insulation is less critical but nevertheless needed in order to minimize the negative effect of the eddy currents on the magnetization of the material. There are two principal technologies that are the back bone of the coating industries [90]: (a) liquid coating technology (wet), which has been applied for more than two centuries;

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram showing variation of coercivity (HC ) with particle size (D) for magnetic material [84].

Fig. 12. Core loss/cycle vs. frequency at 1 T; green samples compacted without admixed lubricant [56].

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Table 6 Typical mechanical and magnetic properties for several isolated particle materials [78] Material SC100 SC120 SC600 TC80 AP500 LS AP500 HS Cured AP500 HS Warm Press AP500 High Perm LCM Polymer coating (w/o) 0.75 0.60 0.25 0.75 Oxide Compaction temperature coating (powder/die) ( C) No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 150/260 150/260 150/260 150/260 Cold Cold Cold/150 Cold/150 Cold/260 Curing temperature ( C) 315 315 315 315 480 150 None 480 650 Density at 690 MPa (g/cm3 ) 7.20 7.30 7.40 7.15 7.22 7.15 7.45 7.20 7.25 Strength (MPa) 210 210 100 210 35 95 90 35 25 i 100 120 140 80 85 80 90 80 125 m 400 425 600 210 425 230 300 520 245 Hc (Oe) 388 380 380 380 243 380 388 307 356 B (T) 1.09 1.12 1.27 0.77 1.27 0.86 0.99 1.29 0.80

talline thermoplastics), do not coat the particles well, cannot be readily handled in a heated condition preparatory to molding and/or have too high a melt viscosity for proper lling out of the shaping die during molding. The selection of a thermoset instead of a thermoplastic is done to minimize the effect of the temperature variations on the magnetic and mechanical properties of the composites. There are many advantages that make the choice of applying thermosetting powder coatings so attractive to the coating companies. These are: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) powder is immediately ready for use; less powder waste during the application process; reduced health hazard in case of exposure of operators; superior cured-lm properties; lower capital investment costs.

sulfates can be used for creating of electrically insulated particles. There are two general methods for applying an inorganic coating on the iron-based particles, wet chemical and dry chemical methods. In wet chemical method, a suitable inorganic layer, such as FeZn phosphate precipitates on the metallic surface. In dry process, the metallic powders, for example, are oxidized in a furnace at a suitable temperature and atmosphere. It should be considered that, wet chemical processing of powders compared to a bulk material is more difcult and needs the control of time, temperature and bath composition. For example, phosphating time for powders is very shorter than bulk materials. Three principal types of phosphate coatings that are in general use are based on zinc, iron and manganese. These coatings can be applied by spray or immersion, and mechanical alloying. 11. Conclusions

Some of the thermosets which are used for coating are listed in Table 7 [91]. 10.2. Inorganic coatings Inorganic coatings including several inorganic compounds, such as, phosphates (zinc/iron/manganese phosphates), oxides,
Table 7 Some of the thermosets which are used for coating [91] Name Epoxy powders Descriptions For high gloss and smooth coatings with excellent adhesion, exibility and hardness, solvent and chemical resistance Widely used in surface coatings, with good gloss and color retention on exterior exposure, heat and alkali resistance General performance between epoxy and acrylic powders, excellent durability, high resistance to yellowing under ultra-violet light Epoxy powders containing a high percentage of special polyester resin (sometimes exceeding 50%) with resistance to overbake yellowing and weatherability, main backbone of the powder coating industries Good all-round physical and chemical properties, good exterior durability

Acrylic powders

Polyester powders

Epoxy-polyester hybrid powders

Polyurethane powders

The ideal soft magnetic material is an isotropic media with very high magnetic permeability, low coercivity and high saturation induction. In addition, the material could be easily shaped into three-dimensional structures in order to fully take advantage of the materials isotropic nature. SMCs do in many respects resemble the ideal material, as they are isotropic materials consisting of small insulating iron particles. Intricate 3D-shapes could be obtained by the well-established, cost-effective P/M-compaction processes. Saturation induction is close to the laminates and eddy current losses are signicantly lower due to the smaller size of the particles (typically 5200 m) compared to the thickness of the steel sheets (normally 2001000 m). However, SMCs have a distributed air-gap, leading to lower permeabilities and further, plastic deformation of the particles that takes place during the compaction step, results in higher hysterisis losses. A heat treatment after compaction partly relieves the stresses. Raising the compaction pressure (to increase density) increases the mechanical strain induced in the iron particles, resulting in higher coercive force and hysteresis loss unless the material is given a stress-relieving heat-treatment. The latest ironresin composite grades attempt to combat these effects by reducing the volume of resin, combining the insulating material characteristics with lubricity to improve compressibility, and oxidizing the iron particle surfaces to increase resistivity.

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The SMC concept is very exible as the nal properties of component depend on the composition of the iron powder, coating, lubricant/binder, compaction and heat treatment. Using new techniques in compaction (such as warm and two steps compaction), annealing conditions (such as two steps annealing/magnetic annealing), new powder compositions (FeNi, FeCo, FeSi alloys), nano particle size, and suitable insulation layers, improve the magnetic properties of SMCs. References
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