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Advanced Mechanics of Materials

Elementary Mechanics of Materials
Engineering structures and machines such as airplanes, automobiles, bridges, space crafts, buildings, electric generators, gas turbines etc are usually constructed by connecting various parts. In most of the structures or machines the primary function of each member is to transfer or support loads (external forces) acting on it without failure. A member may fail under load whe when it is loaded beyond its capacity to resist fracture, yielding, excessive deflection or instability. All these varieties of failures depend on the nature of the load and type of member. In elementary mechanics of materials (solid mechanics) simple formula formulas s for the stress and deflection of members subjected to Axial Loads, Bending Moments or Torsional loads (twisting Moment or Torque) are derived and applied to physical problems. All these formulas are derived based on simplifying assumptions. However in advanced ad strength of materials or advanced mechanics of materials all these formulas are used and extended to more complex problems with certain restrictions. Before dealing with topics under advanced mechanics of materials some of the basic formulas in soli solid mechanics are reviewed and limitations to their application to new types of problems are highlighted.

Case (1): Axially Loaded Members

For an axially loaded member (say a member under Tension) as shown, axial stress (Tensile Stress) (units )

where P = axial load (F) A = area of cross section of the member ( )

Deformation of the member (elongation) is given by member of elasticity or Youngs modulus ( . The relation ).

(L units ). Axial strain in the

is known as Hookes law. Here E is modulus

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Restrictions: 1. The member must be prismatic (Straight and of constant or uniform cross secti section). 2. The Material must be homogeneous, that is constant or uniform material properties at all points throughout the member). 3. The load P must be directed along the Centroidal axis of the member. 4. The stress and strain are restricted to linear elastic range range. ( ). Further at the ends generally stress concentration may exist depending on the fashion of application of load. Hence stress is always defined away from the ends of the member.

Case (2): Tosionally Loaded Members

Consider a straight Torsional member of circular cross section of radius as shown. The member could be a rod, bar or tube. A rod or bar is in general a straight member of circular cross section and a tube is a straight hollow cylinder.

For a torsion member shear stress in the me member mber is given by the relation where T = Torque or Twisting moment (FL) J = polar Moment of Inertia of the Cross section ( )

(units

),

= radial distance from the centre of the cross section to the point of in interest on the cross section (L) Rotation or angle of twist of the cross section at the end B relative to that at the end A is given by Where L = Length of the member between the ends A and B (L) G = shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity of the material ( Then shear strain at a point in the cross section is given by )

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Restrictions: 1. 2. 3. 4. The member must be prismatic and circular in cross section Material must be homogeneous and linearly elastic The angle of twist at any cross sectio section of the member is small. The torque is applied at the ends of the member and no additional torque is applied between the sections A and B. 5. Sections A and B are remote from the ends of the member. Hence no stress concentration effect.

Case (3): Bending of Beams

A beam is a structural member whose length is large compared to its cross sectional dimensions and loaded by forces and/or moments that produce deflections perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. Consider a beam of given cross section (say rectangular for instance) subjected to forces and moments as shown.

For such a beam element the stress acting normal to the cross section of the beam at section X from the end A is Where ( )

= positive B.M on the section X (FL) I = M.I. of the cross section of the beam about its Neutral Axis ( ) Y= Vertical coordinate from Centroidal axis (Neutral Axis) to the point of interest on the cross section (L)

The displacement (deflection) of the beam the beam material.

is given by

, where here E = Modulus of Elasticity of

Shear stress distribution on the cross section of the beam is given by

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Where

= shear force on the cross section at section x (F) Q = First moment of the cross sectional area above the level y from neutral axis about neutral axis ( ) and b = Width of the beam cross section at the height y = y1 from the neutral axis (L)

First moment of the cross sectional area is given by section beam shown in figure Restrictions: .

( ) and for a rectangular cross

1. Bending stress equation is valid for bending about principal axes of the beam cross section. 2. Material of the beam must have linear elastic material behaviour. 3. The deflection equation is valid only for small deflections as only then approximation for the curvature of the beam. is a good

Methods of Analysis
In most of the theories on mechanics of materials, relations between load and stress or between load and deflection for a system or a member of a system are derived. In deriving these relations, the problem definition starts with description of loads on the system (or members), the geometry of the member (system), boundary conditions and properties of the materials in the system. Load-stress relations describe either distribution of normal and shear stresses on the cross section of the member or the stress components that act at a point int in the member. For example consider a beam under BM; normal stress distribution is stress distribution is and the shear

. For a shaft under torque shear stress distribution is

. And when a

bar is subjected to axial tension the stresses on any oblique plane at a point P are both normal and shear as shown in figure.

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Here Therefore And

and

and

Requirements for Load-Stress Stress Relations

1. Equations of Equilibrium 2. Equations of Motion for bodies not in Equilibrium 3. Compatibility Conditions (Continuity Conditions) (Compatibility requirement is that deformed volume elements in the member to fit together without overlap or tearing) 4. Constitutive Relations

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Methods of Analysis:
Two different approaches (Methods) are used to satisfy the requirements: a. Equations of Equilibrium and b. Compatibility Conditions. They are 1. Method of Mechanics of Materials 2. Method of general Continuum Mechanics. In Method of Mechanics of Materials, first the load-stress relations are derived and they are in turn used to obtain the load-deflection relations for the member.

Method of Superposition:
When a simple structural (machine) member like a circular shaft of constant cross section is subjected to complex loads producing multi axial state of stress on any cross section of the member, then these complex loads may be reduced to several simple loads of type Axial, Torsional and Bending. Methods of Mechanics can be used to obtain load-stress relations for each type of load. If the deformation of the member due to each type of load do not influence those due to other types of load and material is linearly elastic under combined effect of all the loads on the member, the stress components resulting from each type of load can be added together. This is known as Method of Superposition.

Method of Continuum Mechanics:

Most of the problems we encounter in practice have mutli-axial states of stress of such complexity that method of mechanics of materials cannot be used to derive load-stress and loaddeflection relations. Hence Method of Continuum Mechanics is used in such cases. If in a member subjected to complex loading, each load may have significant influence on each component of state of stress, then method of mechanics of materials becomes cumbersome and the use of Method of Continuum Mechanics is more appropriate. When the member under load has small displacements and has linear elastic material behaviour, then general Continuum Mechanics reduces to method of Theory of Linear Elasticity.

Theory of Linear Elasticity:

In theory of linear elasticity, an infinitesimal volume element at a point in body under load is used to derive the load-stress and load-deflection relations. Differential Equations of Equilibrium (or simply Equilibrium Equations), differential Equations of Compatibility (or simply Compatibility Conditions) and Material response requirement or Constitutive Relations (or Elastic Constants) for the material are used to get the load-stress and load-deflection relations. In the study of Advanced Mechanics of Materials, mainly Isotropic materials for which only two elastic coefficients are required are considered. Material response for linearly elastic behaviour is determined by one or more

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experimental perimental tests that define the elastic coefficients (Elastic Constants) for the material. These coefficients in general can be obtained from a test on a Tension specimen if both axial and lateral stains are measured.

Method of Mechanics of Materials Materials:

In this method simplified assumptions related to geometric deformation (Compatibility Conditions) are used. A basic assumption is that plane sections before loading remain plane after loading. This assumption is exact for axially loaded members of uniform cr cross section, for slender straight Torsion members with uniform circular (Solid or hollow) cross section and for slender straight beams of uniform cross section subjected to pure bending. However this assumption for other types of problems results in approximate imate solutions.

Demonstration of Method of Mechanics o of f Materials for bending Problem:

The steps used in the derivation of flexure formula , are reviewed to illustrate the Method of Mechanics of Materials and how the three requirements for the derivation of load-stress and load-deflection relations are used. Consider a symmetrically loaded straight beam of uniform cross section subjected to a moment M that produces pure bending bending. Plane of bending lies in the plane of symmetry of every cross section of the beam. Assume that normal stress is the major stress component and other effects are ignored. To determine the normal stress distribution for a specified cross section of the beam, beam pass a section through the beam eam at that section in order to cut the beam in to two parts as shown.

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Considering the free body diagram of one part part (say the right side part as shown), the applied moment on this part of the beam is in equilibrium with internal forces (sum of forces) that result from the normal stress acting over the area of the cut sect section. ion. Since no external forces are acting, sum of forces (equilibrium equations) is zero. That is . Or .. (1)

Also applied external moment must be in equilibrium with the resisting moment over the cross section due to internal forces. That is Or (2)

Here y is the distance from neutral axis of beam to the elemental area dA as shown. Hence first the Equilibrium quilibrium equations are used to relate load to stress or to derive load load-stress stress relations. To evaluate the integrals, the distribution of stress over the cross section must be known. Since stress distribution is not known it is determined indirectly through strain distribution using the Compatibility Conditions. Continuity (Compatibility) Conditions, , the second requirement is examined by considering two cross sections of undeformed beam at an infinitesimal angle at the centre of curvature as shown in the figure. With the assumption that plane sections before loading must remain plane after loading, the cross sections must rotate with respect to each other under the influence of applied moment . There is a straight line in each cross section along which strains are zero and that straight line is known as Neutral Axis of the beam. Since plane sections remain plane, the strain distribution must vary linearly with the distance as measured from the neutral eutral axis of the beam. i.e. or . (3), where is a proportional constant.

To obtain the relation between strain distribution and stress distribution Constitutive relations, the third condition is employed. From the stress- strain diagram of Tension and Compression tests, it is known that for small strains, stresses and strains are linearly related and their ratio is a constant called as Modulus odulus of Elasticity of the material. Hence . Or . (4).

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We may also write (5)

From equations (2) and (4), we can write     . Here  are constant for the beam and integral is Moment of Inertia of the cross section about neutral axis. i.e. )(

Therefore we can write  (6) and from equations (5) and (6) . Or .. (7) Hence flexure formula for a beam under pure bending moment , is given by