Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
&
ANTENNAS
By
Pragnan Chakravorty
Director, CARET
M.Tech (IIT Kharagpur), Member-IEEE(USA), ACM(USA)
Member IEEE :-
Communication. Soc,
Microwave Theory and Techniques Soc,
Antenna & Wave Propagation. Soc
Clique for Applied Research in Electronic Technology
Advaita Corporation
Vector Algebra ,Coordinate Systems
& Vector Calculus
Clique for Applied Research in Electronic Technology, Advaita Corporation
Vectors & Vector Algebra
The study of Electromagnetics has an intensive involvement of vectors
where entities are expressed by their magnitudes and directions.
Vector additions subtractions multiplications and divisions operate on
two or more vectors which often have different directions, this make
all algebraic operations in vectors different from those in scalars. For
example
2 2
2
2
2
2
. 0 ( )
( )
A A A A A Vector Addition
A A A Scalar Addition
AxA A Scalar Multiplication
A A Vector Multiplication dot product
A A A Vector Multiplication cross product
+ = + =
+ =
=
=
=
x y
x y
x y z
a a
a a
a a a
Scalar Product (Dot or Inner Product)
cos ( , )
cos
AB
AB
AB
=
=
A B A B A B -
_
cos
AB
B =
AB
A
B
cos
AB
A =
AB
Enclosed Angle
cos
cos
BA
AB
BA
AB
=
=
=
A B B A - -
( ) ( )
cos cos
AB AB
=
cos
arccos
AB
AB
=
| |
=
|
|
\ .
A B
A B
A B
A B
-
-
Vector Product (Cross or Outer Product)
sin ( , )
sin

AB
AB
AB
C
AB
S
=
=
=
=
C AB
A B A B
_
AB
A
B
C
AB
S
and C A C B
Surface
( )
+ ( )
( )
x y z
x y z
y z z y
z x x z
x y y x
A A A
B B B
A B A B
A B A B
A B A B
x y z
x
y
z
a a a
a
a
a
=
=
+
AB
Conclusive Points:
Vectors are expressed as their magnitudes multiplied with a unit
vector corresponding to their directions.
Vector algebra is different fromscalar algebra
Vector can not be added to /subtracted froma scalar
Vector and a scalar can undergo scalar multiplication
Dot products and cross products are always between vectors
Dot product of two vectors is a scalar
Cross product of two vectors is a vector
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Coordinate systems express the magnitude and the direction of a point
located in space. From a reference point the magnitude and direction
of a point in space is measured .Though magnitude can be measured
from a reference point(origin),the direction needs reference axis to
be specified. Thus the combination of a reference point and axes ( two
for 2D and 3 for 3D) constitutes a coordinate system. Further to specify
a point uniquely in space the reference axes in a coordinate system
should be orthogonal to each other. Conclusively, coordinate systems
represent vectors in space.
Cartesian Coordinate System: Coordinate Surfaces, Unit
Vectors, Surface Elements and Volume Element /
x
a
y
a
z
a
( , , ) P x y z
const. z =
const. y =
const. x =
xz
dS
xy
dS
yz
dS
Cylindrical Coordinate System: Coordinate Surfaces, Unit
Vectors, Surface Elements and Volume Element
a
z
a
const. z =
const. =
const. =
z
dS
xy
dS
z
dS
d
d
( , , ) P z
Spherical Coordinate System: Coordinate Surfaces,
Unit Vectors, Surface Elements and Volume Element,

const. =
const. R =
a
r
a
r
dS
dS
r
dS
sin d r
sin r
d r
( , , ) P r

Differential Volume and Surface Elements
Cartesian Coordinate System Cylindrical Coordinate System Spherical Coordinate System
d d d d
d
( ) d d
d d
d
( ) d d
d d
d
( ) d d
d d
z
z
z
z
z
V z
S
a a z
a z
S
a a r z
a r z
S
a a
a

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
dS n
dS n
dS n
2
2
2
d sin d d d
d
( ) sin d d
sin d d
d
( ) sin d d
sin d d
d
( ) d d
d d
r
r
r
r
r
V r r
S
a a r
a r
S
a a r r
a r r
S
a a r r
a r r
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
dS n
dS n
dS n
(
(
(
d d d d
d
) dy dz
dy dz
d
) dx dz
dx dz
d
) d d
d d
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
dS n
dS n
dS n
yz
y z
x
xz
z x
y
xy
x y
z
V x y z
S
a a
a
S
a a
a
S
a a x y
a x y
Dot Products of Unit Vectors
Spherical Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates Cartesian Coordinates
x
y
z
cos
sin
z

sin cos
sin sin
cos
r
r
r

2 2
arctan
x y
y
x
z
+
z
sin
cos
r
r
2 2 2
2 2
arctan
arctan
x y z
x y
z
y
x
+ +
+
2 2
arctan
z
z
+
r
Transformation Table
z
y
x
Coordinates of Different
Coordinate Systems
Cartesian Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates
x y z
A A A
x y z
A a a a = + +
z
A A A A
z
a a a

= + +
r
A A A
r
a a a

+ + A =
x
y
z
A
A
A
cos sin
sin cos
z
A A
A A
A

+
sin cos cos cos sin
sin sin cos sin cos
cos sin
r
r
r
A A A
A A A
A A

+
+ +
cos sin
sin cos
x y
x y
z
A A
A A
A

+
+
z
A
A
A
sin cos
cos sin
r
r
A A
A
A A
sin cos sin sin cos

cos cos cos sin sin
sin cos
x y z
x y z
x y
A A A
A A A
A A

+ +
+
+
sin cos
cos sin

z
z
A A
A A
A
r
A
A
A
Transformation Table
Scalar Vector Components in Different Coordinate Systems
Vector Calculus
We know that calculus is the mathematics of infinitesimal /differential
quantities ,the divisions of these differential quantities (differential
calculus) and addition of these quantities(integral calculus) become
vector calculus when these differential quantities bear directions. For
example:
; ;
; ;
; ;
; ;
2 ;
dx dy dz Scalar Differential Quantities
dx dx dx Vector Differential Quantities
d d d
Scalar Differentiations
dx dy dz
d d d
Vector Differentiations
dx dy dz
d d
Vector Differentiation in D
dx dy
d
dx
+ =
+
x y z
x y z
x y
x
a a a
a a a
a a
a 3 ;
; ; integrals; ; ; integrals
d d
Vector Differentiation in D
dy dz
dx dy dz Scalar dx dy dz Vector
+ =

y z
x y z
a a
a a a
Del (Nabla), Grad, Div, and Curl Operator in Cartesian
Coordinate System
curl/rot =
x y z
| |
= + +
|

\ .

x y z
a a a
div =
x y z
| |
= + +
|

\ .
x y z
a a a - -
grad
x y z

= = + +

x y z
a a a
Gradient
Divergence
Curl
del
x y z

= = + +

x y z
a a a
Del (Nabla) Operator
Physical Significance of the differential operators
grad
x y z

= = + +

x y z
a a a
Gradient
It is the vector with magnitude as maximum rate of change of a scalar quantity
directed along the direction of maximum rate of change. For example:
div =
D D D
x y z x y z
Where D D D
| | | |
= + + + +
| |

\ . \ .
= + +
- -
x y z
x y z
D a a a D =
D a a a
Divergence
Divergence of a Vector flux density D is the net outflow or inflow of the flux through
an enclosed volume per unit volume(volume shrinks to zero).For example
Therefore divergence can be
interpreted as the measure of net
in flow or out flow of a vector flux
through an enclosed volume
curl/rot =
x y z
| |
= + +
|

\ .

x y z
H a a a H =
Curl
Curl of a vector H is the net circulation of the vector around a closed path divided by
the area enclosed as the area shrinks to zero. For example
Stokes Theorem
Curl is therefore the measure of circulation
of a vector around a closed path
Conclusive Points:
Vector differentials are expressed as their magnitudes multiplied with
a unit vector corresponding to their directions.
Vector calculus is different fromscalar calculus
Gradient is always a vector because its a scalar multiplication of del
and any scalar
Divergence is always a scalar because its a dot product of del and any
vector
Curl is always a vector because its a cross product of del and any
other vector
Laplacian operation is scalar because it is divergence of gradient
Vector Differential Operators in the Different Coordinate Systems
Cartesian Coordinates Cylindrical
Coordinates
Spherical Coordinates
dR d d d x y z + +
x y z
a a a d d dz
+ +
z
a a a d d sin d r r r

+ +
r
a a a
grad
= x y z

+ +

x y z
a a a
1
z

+ +

z
a a a
1 1
sin r r r

+ +

r
a a a
div
=
A
A -
y
x z
A
A A
x y z

+ +

( )
1 1
z
A A
A
z

+ +

2
2
1 ( ) 1 (sin ) 1
sin sin
r
A
r A A
r r r r

+ +

curl
rot =
=
A
A
A
y
z
x z
y
x
A
A
y z
A A
z x
A
A
x y
(

(

(
+
(

(
+
(

x
y
z
a
a
a
1
( )
1
z
z
A
A
z
A
A
z
A A
(

(

(
+
(

(
+
(

z
a
a
a
(sin )
1
sin
( )
1 1
sin
1 ( )
r
r
A
A
r
r A
A
r r
r A A
r r
(
+
(

(
+
(

r
a
a
a
Cartesian
Coordinates
Cylindrical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates
2
Laplace
=
=
-
2
( )
A
A
2 2 2
2 2 2
x y z

+ +

2 2
2 2 2
1 1
r
r r r r z

| |
+ +
|

\ .
2
2 2
2
2 2 2
1 1
sin
sin
1
sin
r
r r r r
r

| | | |
+
| |

\ . \ .
| |
+
|
\ .
2
2
2
x
y
z
A
A
A
+
+
x
y
z
a
a
a
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 2
1 2
r
r
z
A
A A
A
A A
A
(

(

(
+ +
(
z
a
a
a
2
2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2cot 2 2
sin
2 1 2cos
sin sin
2 1 2cos
sin sin sin
r r
r
r
A
A
A A A
r r r r
A
A
A A
r r r
A
A
A A
r r r
(

(

(
+ +
(

(
+ + +
(

r
a
a
a
Vector Differential Operators in Different Coordinate Systems
Important Vector Formulae
Maxwells Equations & Uniform Plane Waves
Maxwells Equations & Associated Laws
v
s
s
L
; . Q...............(1) Gauss Law, Electric Fields
0; 0.................(2) Gauss Law, Magnetic Fields
; . I ................(3) Ampere' s Circuital Law, Electromotive &
Magnetostatic F
= =
= =
= =
D D.ds
B B.ds
H J H.dl
L
v
s
ields
; . v .....(4) Faraday' s Law, Electromotive &Magnetomotive
t t
Fields
; I ...................(5) ContinuityEquation; Electric Fields
t

= = =

= =
B
E E.dl
J J.ds
Electromagnetic
Point Form Integral Form Associated Law
Equation (4) depicts Faradays law and shows that in time varying
fields
......(4)
t
B
E
emf
.dl 0 V =
Unlike the above result, in electrostatic fields.

Equation (3) shows amperes circuital law for electromotive (but
Magnetostatic) fields, Maxwell had to correct it with the concept of
displacement current which became the mathematical root for
existence of electromagnetic waves(time varying electric and magnetic
fields).Our subsequent discussion shows the inconsistency of amperes
circuital law and the subsequent Maxwells correction.
.dl 0 =

Equations (4) & (5) certainly show incompatibility with each other. To
make these equations compatible we add a termin equation (4) which
becomes,
Correction in Maxwells Equation for time varying Fields:
The fact that divergence of curl of any vector field is zero makes
equation (4),
.( ) 0 . ......(4) = = H J
But according to continuity equation
v
. 0......(5)
t

=
J
....(4) = +
d
H J J
Deducing the relationship of J
d
with field quantities:
d
( . )
.( . . = 0; . . .
t t t
.....(6) I . (6.1) Equation (4) can now be rewritten as
t
......(4)
t

= + = = =

= =
= +
v
d d
d d
c
D D
H) J J J J =
D
J J ds......
D
H J
J
d
in equation (6) is known as displacement current density and I
d
is
known as displacement current. I
d
is the equivalent current
representation for electromagnetic waves and time varying
electromagnetic fields
Wave Equations (UniformPlane Waves):
The equations for uniform plane waves are derived from Faradays law
and corrected Amperes law. Here, one dimensional wave equation is
derived for source less medium. Rewriting the above Maxwells
equations (3 & 4) generally:
If we take an x polarized Electric field then the corresponding magnetic
field intensity is polarized along y; this is because waves in general
travel in TEM(Transverse Electro Magnetic mode) where in the electric
field the magnetic field and the direction of propagation are
orthogonal to each other. Therefore equations (7) & (8) can be written
as,
......(7) ......(8)
t t t t

= = = = =

d
D E B H
H J E
Equation (9) & (10) can now be condensed as,
Assuming time harmonic variations in the above equations
Assuming frequency dependent and which accounts for magnetic
and dielectric losses can be written in complex form as:
Equations (11) & (12) are stated as:
y
x
y
x
H
E
......(9)
z t t
H
E
......(10)
z t t

= = =

= = =

x x
y y
E
H a a
H
E a a
y
x
y
x
H (z, t)
E (z, t)
......(11)
z t
H (z, t)
E (z, t)
......(12)
z t
=

j t j t
x y
E(z, t) Re[E (z)e ] and H(z, t) Re[H (z)e ]......(13)

= =

( ) j ( ) j

= =
( )
( )
y
x x
x
y y
dH
j ( )E yE ......(14) Here y j ;
dz
dE
j ( )H zH ......(15) Here z j
dz

= = = +

= = = +
Differentiating with respect to z and combining the above differential
equations only in terms of E
x
or H
y
we get,
(16)
....(17)
2
2
x
x
2
2
y
2
y
2
d E
+k E = 0......
dz
d H
+k H = 0..
dz
( )( )
o o o
o r r
k zy j j ; k k for freespace;
k k for anylossless dielectric medium.

= = + + = =
=
k is known as the wave number and is complex valued number it is
related to attenuation constant and phase constant as, jk = +j, The
solutions of (16) & (17) are
jkz jkz jkz jkz
x o o y o o
E E e E e ......(18) H H e H e ......(19)
+ +
= + = +
Rewriting the above equations by substituting the time harmonic
relation,
This should be noted that the - sign associated with z indicates wave
motion along positive z. This is because to maintain t-kz = constant,
with increase in time, z in -kz moves in positive direction. t-kz =
constant indicates the motion of equiphase along positive z direction
with increase in time.
z
E or
H
t
1
t
2
t
3
Equiphases, t-kz = constant at time t
1
t
2
and t
3
p
p
p
8
p
0 0
p
p
t kz constant
differentiating with respect to time
dz
k k 0
dt
dz 1
(in freespace) 3 10 m/ s; k 2
dt k
2
; f ;
k k
here is wavelenght, f is linear frequency, is phase velocity.
Whenever zis equal to
= =
= = = =
= = =
, the phase kz k 2 = =
Assuming time harmonic field quantities and source less medium the
three dimensional wave equation can also be derived very simply in
one line as follows
The Faradays law and Amperes circuital law has been used to derive
the above equation. The point form of Amperes circuital law takes
only displacement current into consideration because here wave
equation is being derived
Animated Wave Motion
(a) Lossy magnetic dielectric General case as shown above
(b) Lossy Dielectric
Intrinsic Impedance is defined as
This in lossless medium becomes:
Using equation (22) equation (18) & (19) can be rewritten as:
Assumptions for particular cases of material medium
o r
o o
r o
z
( 0) where (in freespace) 120 377 ......(23)
y

= = = = = =
jkz jkz jkz jkz
o o
x o o y
E E
E E e E e ......(24) H e e ......(25)

+
+
= + =
z j , y j

= = +
z j , y j
= =

z j , y j ; For metals
= = + =
z j , y ; For metals , here

= = = >
(c) Lossless Dielectric
(d) Bad Conductor
(e) Good Conductor
Now we will elaborate cases (b) lossy dielectric and (e) Good
conductor
Lossy Dielectric:
In lossy dielectric and are found to be,
Perfect Conductors:
Here we define =1/ as skin depth. From equation (28),
E
x
Envelope E
o
e
-z
+ - z
x o
E = E e cos( t - z)
z
1/ 2
1/ 2
Re{jk} 1 1 ......(26)
2
Im{jk} 1 1 ......(27)
2

| |

| |
= = + |
|
|
\ .
\ .
| |

| |
= = + + |
|
|
\ .
\ .
Assuming z j &y ; ; ......(28)
2 2

= = = = =
wheref is linear frequency......(29)
Calculating from in equation (28),
f
......(30); isintrinsic resistanceand is alsoknown assurface resistancein metals
2

= =
1
=
f
Interaction Between Waves:
Two waves with same polarization and travelling in the same direction
interact with each other to form constructive and destructive
interference . The resulting wave is a travelling wave and its amplitude
decreases to minimum where there is destructive interference and is
maximumwhere it is constructive
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR):
Any two waves with same polarization, traveling in opposite directions
will always form standing waves. If they have same magnitude then
they form pure standing waves. The two waves interact in phase in
some points and 180
0
out of phase at some other points. The ratio of
maximum amplitude (in phase interaction) to the minimum amplitude
(180
0
out of phase interaction) of the standing wave is known as
standing wave ratio (SWR).It is often called VSWR (Voltage standing
wave ratio).
E
1
+ E
2
E
1
- E
2
1 2
1 2
E E
s SWR
E E
+
= =
1 |s|
s = for purely standing waves
s = 1 for purely traveling waves
z z
x 1 2
E E e E e

= +
( )
-....z
r
+ - ....z
i
1
2
-z
0
+ - z
0
E e Reflected wave
= = ......(31)
E e Incident Wave
1+
s -
s = ; = ...... 32
1- s +1
For twomaterial mediums (mediumof incident f ield)
and (mediumwhich reflects theincident field )
E e Reflected wave
= =
E e Inciden
+ - z
t 2 1 2
+ - z
2 1 i
2
2 1
E e - transmitted wavein
= ; = =
t Wave + E e Incident Wave
2
= ......(33)
+
Poynting Theoremand Power
Electromagnetic energy can be transmitted from one place
(transmitter) to another place (receiver). Rate of this energy
transmission can be derived fromMaxwells equation,
Dotting both the sides of equation (34) with E,
......(34)
t t
......(35)
t t

= = + = +

= =

d
D E
H J + J E E
B H
E
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
. E ......(36) for any two vectors and
t
. . ......(37)
. . E ; fromeqution(35),
t
. . . ......(38)
t t 2 t
1 H 1
E
2 t 2

= =

| | | |
= = =
| |

\ . \ .

=
E
E H +E. E H
. H E E H H E
E
. H E + H E E H +E.
H.H
B H
H E H H
. E H +
2
E
......(39)
t
( )
( )
2 2
2
v v v
2 2
2
v v
Rearranging the terms and taking volume integral:
1 E 1 H
.dv dv E dv
t 2 t 2 t
Applyingdivergence theorem,
1 E 1 H
.d dv E dv......(40)
t 2 t 2 t

| |
= +
|

\ .
| |
= +
|

\ .

s
. E H
E H S
Total power
leaving the
closed surface
Rate of decrease
in stored
magnetic and
electric energy
Dissipation as
ohmic(conductor)
loss
Poynting theorem states that the net power flowing out of a given
volume v is equal to the time rate of decrease in the energy (magnetic
and electric) stored within v minus the conductor losses.
Poynting vector in W/m
2
is given by
......(41) =
y
P E H
( )
( )
z z
o
o
2
2 z
o
T
2
2 z
o
0 s
E
Since, (z, t) = E e cos(wt z) and (z, t) = e cos(wt z )
E
(z, t) e cos cos(2wt 2 z )
2
Averagingover time periodT
E 1 1
(z, t) = e cos = Re ......(42); = .d
T 2 2

= +
=
ave ave
x y
y z
y y z ave y
E a H a
P a
P P a E H P P S......(43)
2 2
2 z
o o
E E
0 e cos = ......(44)
2 2
= = =
ave
y z z
P a a
Now assuming lossless transmission:
Polarization of waves:
Let us consider a traveling wave in which both E
x
and E
y
are present,
( )
jkz
x y
y
x
x y
E E e ......(45)
Now :
(a)if E 0 the waveis linearlypolarizedalong x
(b)if E 0 the waveis linearlypolarizedalong y
(c)if E and E are both real(or complex with equal phases)
the waveis linearlypolarizedinclinedat
= +
=
=
x y
E a a
1 2
y 1
x
x y
j j
1 2
E
an angle tan with x axis
E
(d)if E and E are both complex with different phases the waveis ellipticallypolarized
e ; e waveis ellipticallypolarized
(e)if and waveis circularlypolariz
2

| |
|
\ .
= =
= =
x x y y
x y
E E E E
E E ed
It is right-circularly polarized if E rotates in the direction of fingers of right hand when thumb
points the direction of propagation,It is left-circularly polarized if the direction is just opposite
1 2
.
If two circularly polarized wave of equal magnitude and phase travel in oposite directions then they
cancel each others phase
0which corresponds tocase(c) =
Linear Polarization
Circular Polarization
Elliptic Polarization
Transmission Lines
Transmission Lines
Lz
I(z,t)
Gz
I
Cz
I(z +z),t)
z + z
V(z +z),t)
V(z,t)
I(z,t)
Main
node
Note that z0 ;( R /m; L H/m) in conductor ;( G S/m, C F/m) in Dielectric
Rz
z
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the outer loop of the above circuit we get:
I(z, t) V(z z, t) V(z, t) I(z, t)
V(z, t) R zI(z, t) L z V(z z, t) RI(z, t) L
t z t
- ......(1)
+
= + + + = +

V(z, t) I(z, t)
= RI(z, t) +L
z t

Applying Kirchhoffs current law to the main node of the above circuit we get:
Equations (1) & (2) are known as telegraphists equation. Assuming
time harmonic variations
Equations (1) & (2) are known as telegraphists equation. Assuming time
harmonic variations, Equations (1) & (2) can be modified as:
Differentiating with respect to z and combining the above differential
equations only in terms of V
s
or I
s
we get
I(z z, t) I(z, t) V(z z, t)
I(z, t) I(z z) I GV(z z, t) C
z t
)
......(2)
+ +
= + + = + +

I(z, t V(z, t)
- = GV(z, t) +C
z t

j t j t
s s
V(z, t) Re[V (z)e ] and I(z, t) Re[I (z)e ]......(3)

= =
(4) (5) where j (R j L)(G j C) = + = + +
2 2
2 2
s s
s s
2 2
d V d I
- V = 0...... or - I = 0......
dx dx
s
s s
s
s s
dV
(R j L)I ZI ......(3.a)
dz
dI
(G j C)V YV ......(3.b)
dz
= + =
= + =
Equations (4) & (5) are known as the wave equations for transmission lines where:
is propagation constant( in per meter ); is attenuation constant( in
nepers/meter or db/m) and is phase constant(in radians/meter)
Solutions of the differential equations (4) & (5):
Here + and superscripts indicate wave motion along positive and
negative z direction respectively. Keeping the above values of V
s
(z) and I
s
(z) in the equation (3):We obtain:
This should be noted that the - sign associated with z indicates wave motion
along positive z. This is because to maintain t-z = constant, with increase in
time, z in -z moves in positive direction. t-z = constant indicates the motion
of equiphase along positive z direction with increase in time.
2 2
2 2
s s
s s
2 2
d V d I
V 0 and I 0 are
dx dx
......(6)
......(7)
= =
+ - z - +z
s 0 0
+ - z - +z
s 0 0
V (z) = V e + V e
I (z) = I e +I e
......(8)
.....(9)
+ - z - z
0 0
+ - z - z
0 0
V(z, t) = V e cos( t - z) + V e cos(t +z)
I(z, t) = I e c os( t - z) +I e cos(t +z).
z
V or
I
t
1
t
2
t
3
Equiphases, t-z = constant at time t
1
t
2
and t
3
t z constant
differentiating with respect to time
dz dz
0 ;Since is phaseconstant; 2
dt dt
2
; f ; here is wavelenght, f is linear frequency, is wave velocity

= = = = =
= = =
......(10)
+ -
0 0
o o o
+ -
0 0
V V R+ j L R+ jL Z
Z = = - = = = = = R + jX
I I G+ jC G+ jC Y
Z
o
can be calculated by substituting values from eqns (6) & (7) into eqns (3.a &3.b)
In Lossless Transmission line(R = G = 0): the conductors are perfect(R = 0) and
dielectric separating them is lossless (G = 0).
In distortion-less Transmission line (R/L = G/C): should be frequency
independent and should linearly vary with frequency to avoid distortion.
Transmission Line Characteristics (Table-1)
Type Propagation Constant
= + j
Characteristics
Impedance
Z
o
= R
o
+jX
o
General
Lossless(R = G= 0)
Distortionless(R/L = G/C)
(R j L)(G j C)
ZY
+ +
=
(R j L) Z
(G j C) Y
+
=
+
/ 1/ LC
0 j LC j

= =
+ =
L
j0
C
+
RG j LC +
L
j0
C
+
Note that for the case of lossless line, in the real part becomes zero where as in Z
o
the imaginary part becomes zero.
Input Impedance:
Lets consider a transmission line, of length l with and Z
o
specified which is
connected to a load Z
L
. From equations (6), (7) & (10) the corresponding voltage and
current equations will be:
From equations (11) & (12), calculating V
s
(z) and I
s
(z) for z = 0 (Sending-end) and z = l
(Receiving-end),
......(11)
......(12)
+ - z - +z
s 0 0
+ - z - +z
0 0
s
0 0
V (z) = V e + V e
V e V e
I (z) = -
Z Z
V
g
Z
g
I
o
+
V
L
_
+
V
o
_
Z
L
z = 0 z = l
Z
in
......(13)
.....(14)
+ -
s o 0 0
in
+ -
s 0 0
+ l - -l
0 L o L 0 L o L
V (z = 0) Z (V + V )
Z = =
I (z = 0) (V - V )
1 1
V = (V + Z I )e andV = (V - Z I )e .
2 2
Substituting the values Eqn.(14) in Eqn.(13) we get:
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR):
Any two waves with same polarization, traveling in opposite directions will always
form standing waves. If they have same magnitude then they form pure standing
waves. The two waves interact in phase in some points and 180
0
out of phase at
some other points. The ratio of maximum amplitude (in phase interaction) to the
minimum amplitude (180
0
out of phase interaction) of the standing wave is known as
standing wave ratio (SWR).It is often called VSWR (Voltage standing wave ratio).
It should be noted that the equiphase is lost and hence the wave become non
propagating(standing).Time and space can vary independently
.....(15)
.....(16)
(
(

(
(

L o
in o
o L
L o
in o
o L
Z + Z tanh .....l
Z = Z (lossy).
Z + Z tanh .....l
Z + Z tan .....l
Z = Z (lossless where = 0, = j).
Z + Z tan l
{ }
z j t j t
x 1 2
x 1 2
V (z, t) Ve e V e .....(17)
Re V (z, t) V cos( t z) V cos( t z); for Lossles medium
2cos( t) cos( z)

= +
= + +
=
V
1
+ V
2
V
1
- V
2
1 2
1 2
V V
s SWR
V V
+
= =
s = for purely standing waves

s = 1 for purely traveling waves
1 |s|
z
r
i
V e Reflected wave
......(18)
V e Incident Wave
1
s 1
s ; ......(19)
1 s 1
z
+
= =
+

= =
+
L o
L
L o
Z Z
......(20)
Z Z
=
+
Reflection coefficient:
If the oppositely traveling wave is a result of reflection from the
incident wave then the reflection coefficient is defined as:
Reflection coefficient at load in the transmission lines considered above
will be:
Type of Load Reflection Coefficient Standing Wave Ratio
S
Shorted Line(Z
L
= 0) -1 (pure standing wave)
Open Circuited Line(Z
L
= ) 1 (pure standing wave)
Matched Line (Z
L
= Z
o
) 0 1 (pure traveling wave)
L
Reflection characteristics at different load conditions (Table-2)

Shorted Line(Z
L
= 0) Open Circuited Line(Z
L
= )
Matched Line (Z
L
= Z
o
)
1 =
L
1 =
L
0 =
L

2
L o o
in o
o L L
'
o in
o in o
o L
Z Z tan / 2 Z
Z Z [here / 4or (2 / )( / 4) / 2]......(21)
Z Z tan / 2 Z
Therefore :
Z Z
Nowif Z isselectedsuch that Z Z then
Z Z
......(22)
l l
(
+
= = = = =
(
= =
'
o o L
Z = Z Z
Impedance Matching and Quarter Wave (/4) transformer:
It is obvious from the above table that if the load impedance is not
matched with the characteristics impedance then reflections are
bound to happen and standing waves are bound to form. So to avoid
the formation of standing waves thereby losses in the transmission
line, Z
L
is matched (apparently made equal) to Z
o
. This can be done
with the help of Quarter Wave (/4) transformer.
/4
Z
L
Z
o
Z
in
= Z
o
ANTENNAS
What is an Antenna
An antenna can therefore be defined as a device which matches the impedance
offered to an EM wave in a guided medium to that of free space and vice-versa
Fig 1.1
Fig 1.2
Fig 2.1
Fig 2.2
Fig 2.3
Fig 2.4(a)
Fig 2.4(b)
Antenna Equivalent Circuit
Maximum Effective Aperture of a small dipole
Vector Magnetic Potential A
This is a purely hypothetical variable used for mathematical simplicity. Since
potential function give easy mathematical expressions in electrostatics same is
conceptualized for magneto-statics
:
;
4 4
in electromot
v
V
solutiontothese differential eqns are
dl dl
V

=

=
= =

2
2 2
; =
Since = ( . )- - - - vector Identity.also . =0 in magnetostatics
=- ..poissons equation; similar to
B A B A
A A A A
A J
I
A
R R
2 2
2 2
ive and magnetomotive fields poisson's eqns are replaced byinhomogenous helmholtz eqn
&
( , , , ) (
;
4
v
V K V
K
and the solutions become functionof space time and are knownas retarded potentials
x y z t dl
V
+ =
+ =
= =
- A A J
I
A
R
, , , )
4
x y z t dl
R
2
Hfieldis obtainedfromrot of A
1
sin ; 0
4
jkr o
r
I l jk
H e H H
r r
field canbe found from y

= =
(
= + = =
(

=
B H A
E H E = j E

2
In far field:
sin ;
4
1
2
jkr
o
yave r
jI kl
H e E H average power density becomes
r
P H W

= =
= =
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2 3 5 7 2 4 6 8
0
2 4 6 8
2 2
... ; cos 1 ...
8 2! 4! 6! 8! 2! 4! 6! 8!
2 2 2 2
15 ... 36.56
2 2! 4 4! 6 6! 8 8!
o
rad o o
I y y y y y y y y
dy y
P I I

( (
+ + = + +
( (

(
= + + (
(

=
ANTENNA ARRAYS
The maximum value of the array factor given above is N, to normalize the array
factor so that its maximum value becomes unit we do the following
)
Broadside
Endfire
---
SPECIAL ANTENNAS
Resonant or Standing wave Antennas
Resonant antennas is a category of antennas where current and voltage
distribution with in the antenna form standing wave or resonant pattern. This
happens due to reflections from open ends. Examples include linear antennas like
dipole antenna
Non-Resonant or Travelling wave Antennas
Antennas can be designed which have travelling wave(uniform) patterns of
current and voltage. With proper termination of antenna reflections can be
minimized and a travelling wave or non-resonant distribution of current and
voltage can be achieved. e.g. Long Wire Antenna ,V Antenna, Rhombic Antenna
Hfieldis obtainedfromrot of A
field canbe found from y
= =
=
B H A
E H E = j E


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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

sin cos sin sin cos

Unlike the above result, in electrostatic fields.

Clique for Applied Research in Electronic Technology, Advaita Corporation

s = for purely standing waves

Reflection characteristics at different load conditions (Table-2)

Clique for Applied Research in Electronic Technology, Advaita Corporation

Clique for Applied Research in Electronic Technology, Advaita Corporation

Clique for Applied Research in Electronic Technology, Advaita Corporation

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