Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Bill Franklin
PTRA and retired physics teacher
Technical Consultant Robert Beck Clark Texas A&M University, College Station, TX Editorial Review Board Larry Bader Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH Robert Beck Clark Texas A&M University, College Station, TX Jim Nelson Seminole County Public Schools, Sanford, FL
Table of Contents
Preface and Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i i i 1 Introduction What This Manual Is All About . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2 2 Background Material The Impulse-Momentum Equation Is Just Newtons Second Law. . . . . . . . . . . .2.2 When Are Momentum and Energy Conserved? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.2 Newtons Cradle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Bumpers, Fender Crumpling, Seat Belts, and Air Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Analysis of a Ticker Tape Collision Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Low-Friction Environments: Hovercraft and Winter Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.6 Sample Data and Error Discussion for the Air Impulse Rocket Lab . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Slow Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.10 Rockets, Propellers, and Sails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 Airplane Lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 Curve Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.14 An Interesting ApproachWould You Use It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.15 Articles Reprinted by Permission From The Physics Teacher Newtons Cradle and Scientific Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.16 Figuring Physics (ice sailcraft) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.21 The Answer Is Obvious. Isnt It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.22 3 Laboratory Activities Egg Pitching Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.2 Labs With One-Dimensional Collisions and Explosions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.2 1. Head-on collisions of rolling carts or air track gliders . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.2 2. Head-on collisions of bifilar pendula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.3 3. Air impulse rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.3 4. Collision of a cart or air track glider with a force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . .3.3 5. Spring powered explosions of rolling carts or air track gliders . . . . . . . .3.4 6. Tennis ball or bottle stopper cannons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.4 7. Firecracker between cans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.4 8. Ballistics pendulum (or box) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.4 Labs With Two-Dimensional Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.5 1. Colliding air table pucks, air pucks, and billiard balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.5 2. Colliding pendula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.5 Air Impulse Rocket and Launcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.6 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.6 Parts List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 An Impulse Lab Using the Air Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Data Collection Sheet for the Air Impulse Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 The Reaction Force on a Hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.12 Bungee Cart (CBL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.13 Student Hovercraft Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.15 4 Demonstrations The Tablecloth Trick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.2 Multi-Purpose Cart Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.3 Cart Accessories: Fan Cart With Sails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.7 Cart Accessories: Elastic and Inelastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.10 The Fan-Driven Sailboat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.11 Building a Fan Cart to Demonstrate Momentum Exchanges with Air . . . .4.12 Parts List for the Fan Cart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.14
2005 AAPT
Newtons Cradle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.15 Clackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.15 Toppling a Block With a Pendulum Blow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16 Slime Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16 Sad and Happy Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16 Cheapskate Elastic/Inelastic Collision Demonstrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17 Stacked Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.18 Coefficient of Restitution Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.18 Rotating Sail Magnus Effect Demonstrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.19 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.19 The Forces on a Rotating Object in Flowing Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.20 Parts for the Rotating Sail Magnus Effect Demonstrator . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.20 Homemade Fan Unit, Robert Morse Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.21 5 Assignments and Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.2
6 Computer Applications Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 1. Laboratory interfacing programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 2. Data analysis programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 3. Simulation programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 4. Problem generating programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 5. Websites with useful information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Simulation Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 1. Interactive Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 2. OnScreen Particle Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 3. Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 4. Physlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.3 A Graphing Calculator Solution for Elastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 7 Media Resources Cinema Classics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2 Songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2 M Times V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2 Pool Table Physics Rap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 An Impulse to Sing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 8 Physics Olympics or Contests Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Inertia Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Egg Drop, No Soup Please . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Bernoulli Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 9 Modern Physics Applications Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Classical (Except for Varying Mass) Applications of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Nonclassical Applications of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Symmetries and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Laboratory Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 10 Assessment Questions Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Sample Test Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10.2 Sample Test Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10.3 11 Appendix A Periodical Subject Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11.1 Periodical Resource List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11.2 12 Appendix B Approximate Timing for Some Activities Appropriate for Teacher Workshops . .12.1
ii
2005 AAPT
Preface
As a veteran of more than 30 years of teaching high school physics students and 20 years of providing in-service training for other physics and physical science teachers, I wrote this manual as a guide for teaching about a topic that I consider to be very important in developing a big-picture understanding of the physical world. I hope that it will prove to be useful for classroom teachers, my target audience, and also for those providing pre-service or in-service training for teachers. The manual includes a number of unique demonstrations and laboratories that I have developed over the years, along with instructions for building the apparatus for them quite inexpensively. Several of these designs have won low-cost apparatus awards in AAPT apparatus contests. It also contains references to many standard laboratories, which are not duplicated in the manual, but which are widely available elsewhere. By design, I do not provide a rigid sequence of activities. Rather, I present an array of possibilities that the teacher can select to suit a given audience. Some of the included activities are suitable for introductory level students; others are challenging for the advanced placement or college level. My aim is to build teachers conceptual understanding so that they will feel comfortable making their own curriculum decisions, rather than being dependent upon the decisions of others. I do encourage the reader to include an emphasis on automobile safety for every audience. Everyone needs to be persuaded to use seat belts to reduce collision forces and to keep passengers within the vehicle structure. Everyone should also be aware of how the survival of occupants depends upon the relative velocities and the crumple zones of colliding vehicles. In my opinion, physics students should leave our classrooms with a heightened awareness of the importance of driving safely, and as advocates for laws requiring crumple zones in all vehicles. Some guidance for preparing teacher workshops is provided in Appendix B.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the following people for their contributions to this manual: Robert Beck Clark, Texas A&M University, for specific suggestions and permission to reprint his article about driving a boat with a fan as well as for much support and encouragement. Judy Franklin, my wife, for her active involvement at every stage, from encouraging me to talk through explanations, to proofreading, to song writing, to shopping for materials and bagging them into kits. Albert Bartlett, University of Colorado, Boulder, for many patient exchanges about hoses and nozzles. David Gavenda, University of Texas, Austin, for permission to reprint his article about Newtons cradle and his help in improving my discussion of it. Mike Saathoff, for help with computer problems, for his help over the years in improving the test writing program that we shared and the bank of questions we wrote for it, and for many hours talking physics. Jim Nelson, for his encouragement and his tireless efforts on behalf of physics teaching in general and the PTRA program in particular. Clarence Bakken, for offering his bungee lab and providing access to it through his website. Paul Hewitt, Judith Edgington, and James Earle, for permission to reprint their materials. Cathy Ezrailson, Jane Nelson, Rob Adams, Nina Daye, and Steven Henning, for suggesting available materials that should be included in the manual. Scot Gill, Warren Hein, and Robert Morse, for reporting problems and offering suggestions regarding the fan cart. Peggy Schweiger, for allowing me to include a graphing calculator solution for one-dimensional elastic collision problems, as well as suggesting some Internet resources. Robert Morse, for allowing me to reprint his fan unit construction plans. Jane Chambers, for reformatting the entire book, checking it carefully, and incorporating many additions and corrections patiently. Any errors in the manual are the responsibility of the author, not of these generous people who helped. Bill Franklin
2005 AAPT
iii
Section
1
Introduction
Section 1
1.2
2005 AAPT
Section
2
Background Material
Section 2
Airplane Lift
In 1970, Norman Smith, a NASA engineer disgusted by textbook treatments of airplane lift, submitted an article on the subject to The Physics Teacher. To his astonishment, it was rejected. He asked a friend, the science coordinator in my district, to set up a meeting with physics teachers so that he could find out what physics teachers didnt like about his article. He showed us a textbook illustration similar to the top sketch at the right, which pictured a wing with a flat horizontal bottom and a curved top with air flowing around it. The text claimed that the air flowing over the top had to travel farther, and because it had to meet back up with the air it was separated from at the leading edge of the wing, had to travel faster. Smith quite correctly denied that that was the case, pointing out that some wing shapes were symmetrical. But he went on to say that because this explanation of why air travels above the wing faster than it does below it was incorrect, the Bernoulli principle argument used to explain lift was incorrect. He argued that the correct way to explain lift was in terms of Newtons third law. The wing
2.12
2005 AAPT
Background Material
is tilted upward at the leading edge, as in the bottom sketch to deflect air downward, forcing the air to push up on the wing. This certainly is a correct way to explain lift, but I was sure that the Bernoulli effect was valid as well, and that it was his denial of this that had triggered the rejection of his article. I drew a sketch like that at the right, and pointed out that tilting the wing required it to push forward, as well as downward, on the air below it. This slows the air as well as deflecting it downward. On the other hand, the air above the wing is pushed backward as well as upward by the wing, speeding it up. This means that air is moving faster over the top of the wing, and gives a valid way to explain the speed and pressure differences needed for a Bernoulli explanation. (In the sketch only the force is labeled on the top, and only the components on the bottom, to reduce the welter of arrows.) I urged him to rewrite the article to advocate the third law argument as a better way to deal with lift, but to avoid saying that a Bernoulli explanation was wrong. His revised article was printed in the November 1972 issue. It helped to extinguish many textbook errors, and it remains a good reference. One advantage of the momentum approach is that it can deal more naturally with the fact that wings need to be tilted more steeply (or have flaps lowered) to maintain lift at low speeds. A lower speed means that the mass of air, m, flowing by in a given time interval, t, is smaller. The impulse must remain equal to the weight of the plane times t, however, or the plane would fall. The reduced m must be compensated by a larger v (in the vertical direction), which requires a greater tilt of the wing (or flaps). Recently, I found a wonderful source for explaining lift (and many other aspects of flying). It is a soon-to-be-published book See How It Flies (ISBN 7016405) by John Denker. It will be available from McGraw Hill for about $35. As of March 2004, it is available on the Internet. The main menu is at: http://www.av8n.com/how. Chapters can be accessed from there. Denker pointed out another way to explain the pressure differences that provide lift. The sketch at the right approximates the flow around a wing producing lift by deflecting air downward. Note that this causes the air to follow a curving path. Like anything in a curving path, it requires a centripetal force and can only get it from the pressure of the air around it. That means the pressure must decrease downward from the wing so that each layer (shaded band) of the flow has higher pressure above than below it. Since the pressure is atmospheric far away from the wing, it must be higher than atmospheric near it. A similar argument applies to the air above the wing. The pressure must increase upward above it so that each layer has more pressure above it than below it. Again, the pressure is atmospheric far away, therefore must be lower than atmospheric near the wing. Thus the pressure below the wing is higher than that above, based only on the fact that air is deflected downward by the wing, with no specific reference to either the Bernoulli effect or Newtons third law. In addition, lift can be ascribed to circulation around the wing or to the production of vortices. These also are treated by Denker in an unusually accessible manner, but I think that these more abstract approaches are more difficult for high school students. The nice thing is that all of these explanations are compatible. You could begin early in the year with a Newtons laws explanation. Then you could return to look at it in terms of impulse and momentum, which is very nearly the same approach. When centripetal force is studied, lift becomes another interesting application for that. And when you get to fluids, you can add the Bernoullis principle, and perhaps even circulation and vortices. What a lot of approaches there are, and what connectedness lift provides among them!
2005 AAPT
2.13
Section
3
Laboratory Activities
Laboratory Activities
The rocket is accelerated by a pulse of air pressure. We will calculate the net impulse during the acceleration from pressure measurements and compare it to the momentum change found by measuring the launch speed directly, using a light sensor and a flag attached to one fin of the rocket. Only if these agree within our experimental uncertainty, will we find support for the statement that net impulse equals momentum change. To collect the necessary data, drill a 3/8 hole in the elbow and insert a 1/4 I.D., 3/8 O.D. polyethylene tube in it, long enough to extend to the exit end of the launch tube, as shown below. The 1/4 O.D. tubing of a pressure sensor fits tightly into the lower end of the tube, and the upper end samples the pressure experienced by the rocket. Also tape a 10 cm long posterboard flag to one fin of the rocket. We will find the launch speed by measuring the time that this flag interrupts the light reaching a light sensor. The pressure sensor must be connected to a computer or calculator capable of collecting data very quickly; the launch will take only milliseconds! This can be done with almost any interface system, since data can be collected in the lab by firing the rocket into a box. But these instructions will refer to the Texas Instruments CBL system, on the grounds that it is just more fun to go outside where the rocket can go places.
Setting up the program:
Verniers PHYSICS program makes data collection pretty easy. If you dont have it, you can copy it from the calculator of someone who does, or you can download it from TI (http://www.ti.com) or Vernier (http://www.vernier.com). To get it from your computer to your calculator, you will need TI GraphLink software and cables. There are different versions for the TI-82, 83, 86, etc. The software is free. Once the program is in your calculator, connect the calculator to the CBL with a link cable, plug the pressure sensor into channel 1 and the light sensor into channel 2 of the CBL, and connect the pressure sensor tube to the tube emerging from the elbow of the launch tube. Turn on both the CBL and the calculator. Select the PHYSICS program and follow the menus. Specify 2 probes, pressure in channel 1 and light in channel 2. Accept the stored calibrations for both sensors. For pressure use kPa for units. (1 kPa = 1000 N/m2.) The range for light isnt critical, since we only look for a dip in the level as the flag goes by. Next go to the options menu and set up triggering on channel 1. For a threshold, use 110. (Atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa.) For prestore, use 20. This means that the calculator will keep some data prior to the trigger point, in this case, 20% of the total. This is needed to ensure that you dont miss the beginning of the event. It will also give you a reference level for atmospheric pressure. From the collect data menu, pick time graph. For time between samples, use 0.0003 seconds. For number of samples, use 300. (Except for the TI-82, which can only collect 99 samples. For it, use 0.0006 seconds and 99 samples. You will get less detailed, but usable, data.) Then you agree to use the time setup, and alert the CBL. The calculator tells you that it is waiting for the trigger.
Collecting data:
Inflate the bottle if it is flat, place the rocket over the launch tube, adjust the launch angle, and be sure that the flag will interrupt light to the light sensor very shortly after the rocket has cleared the
2005 AAPT
3.9
Section 3
end of the launch tube. Make sure that the rocket wont hit anyone, then stomp on the center of the bottle. In a few seconds, the calculator will tell you that time data is in list 1, pressure data is in list 2, and light data is in list 3. When you press enter, the pressure vs. time graph is displayed. Press enter again for the light intensity vs. time graph. The calculator is in trace mode during the display of these graphs, so you can read points of interest by moving the cursor with the right and left arrows and reading the x (that is, t) and y (pressure or light intensity) values at the bottom of the screen. If you are satisfied with the graphs or if you want to change the settings, then decline the offer to repeat by selecting no. If the settings are OK, but the data is not, then select yes. If you selected no, then you are back at the main menu. You may change the triggering or data collection values and try again, or if you were happy with the data, you might want to consider the options menu, where you can select a region or integrate to find the area of the pressure vs. time A graph from the screen of a TI-83. graph during the acceleration. Or you can quit, then look at the data columns by going to STAT and EDIT. If you have GraphLink, you can transfer the data to a computer to get a more detailed graph, to print it, or to have more sophisticated ways to analyze the data.
Analyzing the data:
We want to find the net impulse (the product of net F and time) given to the rocket and, from that, the launch speed. Since p = F/A, then F = p*A, where A is the area of the rocket cross section. Since we want net F, and atmospheric pressure The same graph as above, drawn on a computer. acts on the front of the rocket, we need to find (p patm)*A. The net impulse is the net F*t, summed up over the time of the impulse. This is just the shaded area of the graph. Find it in any convenient way. (One way is using integrate from the options menu, but be sure to subtract atmospheric pressure.) We can estimate the launch speed by setting the net impulse equal to the momentum change, m*v. Check this against the speed from the light sensor data. Do they agree? Do you see any other interesting features of the graph?
3.10
2005 AAPT
Laboratory Activities
17. What we ask of this (or any) experimental test is that the results be within experimental uncertainty. If possible, estimate the percent uncertainty in each factor in the net impulse and in the momentum change and add all of these together to find the experimental uncertainty. How does it compare to the percent difference? What results did other groups get? What does this mean? Other appropriate topics for discussion are: the relationship of the results of this lab to other labs and to the laws of nature that we have studied, any observations you made during the lab that are not dealt with in the above calculations, and variations, extensions, or improvements for this lab.
2005 AAPT
3.11
Section
4
Demonstrations
Demonstrations
An older example is the Pelton water wheel. In that device, a jet of water was directed into curved blades to reverse the waters direction and nearly double the force exerted on the blade, compared to letting a flat blade stop the water. More exquisitely designed blades are used today to squeeze as much thrust as possible from the steam or exhaust gases in steam or gas turbines. The fan-sail effects can be effectively demonstrated with a fan cart. Make your own using lowfriction wheels or an air track glider. Or buy one from any of several vendors. They can be used to show how the air stream from the fan can be deflected by a sail to produce forward or backward motion or, with a flat sail perpendicular to the air stream, no motion at all. Actually, the greatest effect is obtained by removing the sail entirely! In that case, the impulse acting to speed the air is accompanied by an equal impulse acting on the fan (Newtons third law again), without being partially canceled by an impulse on the sail. All four cases are sketched below, where the arrows are a rough indication of the air flow. The carts are omitted for clarity, but in each sketch, the fan and the sail must be attached to the same cart.
2005 AAPT
4.11
Section 4
Complete construction plans for a device to demonstrate the behavior of fan-driven sails follow. It consists of an inexpensive DC motor and fan blade mounted on the same base as a sail made of a plastic plate. The base is made to fit a PASCO dynamics cart. If you do not have one, low-friction wheels, such as PASCOs ME-9492 (four wheels on two axles for $19) or ME-6957 (eight wheels on four axles for $30). can be attached to the base with one screw per axle. This allows the wheels to be easily removed to be used elsewhere. The other parts cost less than $5. Adding the sails to an existing fan cart reduces the cost to only about $1.
5 or 4
Construction:
Step 1.
Step 3.
4.12
2005 AAPT
Demonstrations
Step 4.
Steps 57.
8. Now insert one of the masts into the coupling. Place the base into the tray of a PASCO
dynamics cart, and place the cart near the center of a carefully leveled track. Then add AA cells, turn on the fan, and see what happens. Small lengths of Christmas tree tinsel or other small streamers can be taped to the edges of the sails to make the direction of the air stream visible. The three sail configurations are shown below (without the carts). The fourth possibility is to have no sail at all, as in steps 57.
Step 8.
9. If you dont have a PASCO cart and track, you can keep
costs to a minimum by cutting shallow grooves in the bottom of the base to hold the axles of low-friction wheels, such as the PASCO ME-9492 (four wheels on two axles for $19) or ME 6957 (eight wheels on four axles for $30). The axles can be attached with one short screw per axle. This makes them easily removable to use elsewhere. See the sketch for Step 9, which is a bottom view of the base.
Step 9.
2005 AAPT
4.13
Section 4
Item lumber, 1x4, 8 wood dowel, 36 CPVC pipe, 10 CPVC coupling 6d coated sinker nails, 1 lb. Solo plastic plates, 10.25 Solo plastic plates, 9 craft sticks, 3/4x6, pkg. 300 propeller, 5, #850632, pkg. 25 DC motor, 1.5-6V jumper leads, pkg. 10 battery holder, 4 AA cells
Source building supply building supply building supply building supply building supply grocery grocery craft store kelvin.com electronics outlet* electronics outlet* electronics outlet*
Cost $0.16 $0.13 $0.28 $0.16 $0.01 $0.10 $0.10 $0.04 $0.35 $0.50 $0.13 $0.75 $2.78
* Try allelectronics.com, jameco.com, and kelvin.com. Radio Shack is generally higher. Also needed: screwdriver, hot melt glue gun, soldering iron, wire cutters, drill, 5/64, 1/2 and 13/16 bits
4.14
2005 AAPT
Demonstrations
Newtons Cradle
A popular toy these days is a row of bifilar pendula that just touch when hanging at rest. It goes by various names, one of which is Newtons Cradle. It is actually quite an old device that was instrumental in the development of the concepts of momentum and kinetic energy. See Section 2 for a fuller discussion of this. The device can be used to demonstrate highly elastic collisions in which both momentum and kinetic energy are very nearly conserved. Pull one pendulum back, as shown in the diagram at the right, and release it. When it strikes the remaining pendula, the last in the row, the one nearest us, flies off almost as fast as the first one hit the row, while all of the others, including the first, remain nearly at rest. Remarkable enough, but it gets better. Release two, and two fly off the other end. Release three, and when they strike the remaining two, three fly off, and two remain at rest. Release four, and four fly off, leaving only the first at rest. All pretty spooky. Even if you look at the total momentum and conclude that it is conserved, you have to admit that many other outcomes could also conserve momentum. If one ball is released, for example, momentum would also be conserved if the first ball stopped and two balls left the other end of the row half as fast. It would even be conserved if the first ball bounced back just as fast as it came in, while a ball left the other end twice as fast. Yet only the first possibility ever occurs. What other rule is being followed that excludes other possibilities? Christian Huygens proposed a second rule: that the product of mass and the square of speed is also conserved. Today, we use the term kinetic energy for 1/2 m v2, half of the quantity that Huygens used. But if some quantity is conserved, then half of it is also conserved. This rule fits the facts. It is consistent with one ball moving at the end, but not with two. As long as you use highly elastic balls, both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved, to a good first approximation. Actually, two rules are adequate only as long as only two balls interact, with only two unknown velocities after the collision. This is the case if the balls are slightly separated, so that there is a series of two ball collisions. Commercial versions usually have the balls touching, which greatly complicates the analysis. For more details, see Section 2. Of course many collisions are only partially elastic, that is, the objects dont stick together, but some kinetic energy is still lost. The next few items deal with that.
Clackers
A simpler device that displays fairly elastic collisions is sometimes called Clackers. The device has two fairly elastic plastic balls connected to a handle by plastic supports in such a way that they can rotate freely. When the handle is held horizontally and jiggled, two patterns of collisions between the balls are possible. By jiggling the handle up and down, you can get both balls moving so that they make a collision at the top, then at the bottom, etc., somewhat like flapping bird wings. A circular motion of the handle can make one ball make one revolution and collide with the other. The first ball stops, and the second makes one revolution before hitting the first, and so on. The impression this motion gives is that one ball is moving, but changes color with each collision. Because the collisions are not perfectly elastic, either of these motions damps out rather quickly if you stop pumping energy into the system by jiggling the handle.
Teaching About Impulse and Momentum
2005 AAPT
4.15
Demonstrations
Construction
1. Drill a 3/16 hole about 1 from each end of the short wood block
(cart socket). Place it near the center of the bottom (unmarked) side of the bottom block. Attach it with two 1-1/4 dry-wall screws through the holes in the cart socket, as shown in the Step 1 drawing. 2. Drill 3/16 holes in the center of each 1/2 PVC end cap. Use the nail and a hammer to make starter holes at the marks near each end of the top and bottom boards. Attach an end cap at each starter hole using four 1/2 #8 screws, as shown in the Step 2 drawing. 3. Press the two PVC pipes gently into the end caps to tentatively connect the top and bottom boards into one unit, as shown in Step 3. 4. Cut the alligator clip lead into two equal parts and strip 3/8 of insulation from each of the cut ends. Slip one stripped end through the hole in one motor terminal and wrap it around the terminal, making a good mechanical connection. Repeat with the other wire and motor terminal. Solder both connections, heating the terminal from one side and touching the solder to the other side. Do not touch the solder directly to the soldering iron. 5. Run the wires along the side of the motor to the shaft end. Being careful to avoid shorting the wires to the metal motor parts, press the motor (terminal end first) into the 1 hole, as shown in Step 5. 6. Drill a 3/16 hole in the center of the bottom of the 2-liter bottle and a 1/16 hole in the center of the cap. Screw the cap firmly onto the bottle. Slip the cap onto the motor shaft. Push the nail through the hole in the top board and into the hole in the bottom of the bottle. Press the top and bottom boards together firmly, but not so tightly that the bottle rubs on the top board. The bottle should spin freely. 7. Attach the battery holder to the bottom block and add a AA cell (one fresh cell is enough), with the flat end of the cell in contact with the spring of the holder. Place the apparatus on a low-friction cart. The cart socket is made to fit a PASCO dynamics cart. Connect the wires to the battery holder. The motor should spin the bottle. Aim a fan at the apparatus from the side. The cart should move either forward or backward. Reverse the battery connection to reverse the spin direction. This should also reverse the direction that the cart moves.
2005 AAPT
Step 1.
Step 2.
Step 3.
Step 4.
Step 5.
4.19
Section 4
Source
building supply building supply building supply building supply building supply building supply electronics outlet* electronics outlet* electronics outlet* trash can
Quantity
13.75 two 12.5 4 4 2 1.5 1 1 1 1 total per kit
Cost
$0.44 $0.23 $0.72 $0.10 $0.03 $0.06 $0.50 $0.25 $0.45 -$3.54
*Try allelectronics.com, jameco.com, and kelvin.com. Radio Shack is generally higher. Also needed: soldering iron, wire cutters, Phillips screwdriver, hammer, hot melt glue, drill, and 5/64, 5/32, 3/16, & 1 bits
4.20
2005 AAPT
Section
7
Media Resources
Media Resources
3.
An Impulse to Sing
Written by Judy and Bill Franklin for the Impulse and Momentum unit for the 1999 PTRA summer workshop in San Antonio, Texas. Sung to the tune of The Yellow Rose of Texas
Momentum is a concept As real as it can be; The product of an objects mass And its velocity. Its direction and its size are fixed. They never change a bit, Unless a force acts for a time (An impulse acts on it). It takes a mile to stop a train Thats loaded down with freight. Although velocity is slow, Its mass is very great. A bullet from a rifle Is rather short on mass. But deadly speed it has to spare, So duck and let it pass. To set a thing in motion, To get it off the dime, We must apply an impulse; We push it for a time. Its just as hard to stop it. Here, too, impulse we need. Both time and force will slow it And make it give up speed. Momentum is a vector, So objects will not swerve, Unless some sideways impulse Is used to make them curve. Momentum is a concept As real as it can be; The product of an objects mass And its velocity.
Teaching About Impulse and Momentum
2005 AAPT
7.3
Section
8
Physics Olympics or Contests
Section 8
Overview
This section has a few ideas that can be used for a Physics Olympics or just a classroom competition. In general, the more involved you get students in using concepts, the better they learn them. Contests often help.
Inertia Ball
I have used Inertia Ball early in the year as an introduction to centripetal force. Students discover that it takes a sideways force to coax a moving object into a circular path, as well as forces to speed it up and slow it down. If saved for momentum, the focus is on changes in either the magnitude or the direction and the impulses required to produce them. The shape and size of the course can be adjusted to fit your area. Chalk marks on a sidewalk work well, or you can use masking tape on floor tile or carpet. The pylons can be 2-liter bottles. The start/finish box should be about 1 meter square. A relatively stiff broom makes the direction of the force more obvious. For Olympics, the score is the team average. For classroom use, you could use either individual or group scores. I like to let only one group at a time be in the area. They can learn from watching those going before them, and they can coach one another.
Inertia Ball Instructions (modified by Bill Franklin from an idea by Tom Gordon)
The object is to push a bowling ball around the course as quickly as you can by touching it only with a broom. The following penalties apply: hitting a pylon: 1 s for the 1st one hit, 2 s for the 2nd, 3 s for the 3rd, etc. touching the ball with your foot or hand: 5 s per occurrence. overshooting the finish square: 10 s. going out of bounds: 2 s. The ball is replaced where it went out; the clock keeps running.
8.2
2005 AAPT
Section
9
Modern Physics Applications
Moder n Physics
2005 AAPT
9.3