Summary of Key Concepts

Concept 16.1 Prokaryotic life began on a young Earth. (pp. 356359)

Scientific evidence indicates that Earth is about 4.6 billion years old, and fos-
sils show that life existed by about 3.5 billion years ago. These ancient fossils
are found in rocks called stromatolites, which are made up of thin layers of
sediment pressed tightly together. Stromatolites are very similar to layered
mats formed by colonies of prokaryotes living today. Experiments support a
possible four-stage process for how life first developed on Earth. First, small
organic molecules formed from simple molecules. Second, these small mol-
ecules joined together into proteins and nucleic acids. Third, molecules that
could copy themselvessuch as RNAprovided a way for molecular informa-
tion to be inherited. Fourth, various organic moleculessuch as RNA and
polypeptidesformed pre-cells. Membranes separated these pre-cells from
their surroundings. The first life may have formed in environments similar to
that of deep-sea hot-water vents, where prokaryotic organisms live today.
1. What is a hypothetical four-stage sequence for how life could have first
developed on Earth? _________________________________________________
2. In what kind of environments might life on Earth have begun? __________
Concept 16.2 Diverse prokaryotes populate the biosphere. (pp. 360366)
Two of the three domains of organismsArchaea and Bacteriaconsist of
prokaryotes. All prokaryotes lack nuclei. Their DNA is concentrated in parts
of the cell called nucleoid regions. Archaea are prokaryotes, many of which
live in some of the most extreme environments on Earth. Genetic studies sug-
gest that archaea may be at least as closely related to eukaryotes as they are
to bacteria. Bacteria are prokaryotes that differ from archaea in several fea-
tures. Archaea and bacteria have key differences in the information contained
in their nucleic acids and in certain enzymes. Introns, the noncoding portions
of genes, are absent in bacteria but present in archaea. Finally, bacterial cell
walls contain a polymer called peptidoglycan that is not found in archaea.
Biologists classify bacteria based partly on three characteristics: cell shape,
cell wall structure, and type of movement. The three basic shapes are spherical
bacteria, or cocci; rod-shaped bacteria, or bacilli; and spiral-shaped bacteria, or
spirochetes. Bacteria have one of two types of cell walls. One type is composed
mostly of peptidoglycan. The other type has less peptidoglycan and an additional
outer membrane. About half of all prokaryotes can move. Prokaryotic cells copy
their DNA almost continuously and divide repeatedly. Simple cell division in
prokaryotes is called binary fission. Binary fission produces cells that are geneti-
cally identical. Genetic mixing, or recombination, can result from three processes.
Guided Reading and Study Workbook/Chapter 16 65

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Prokaryotes and Viruses CHAPTER 16
In transformation, bacteria take up pieces of DNA from the environment. In con-
jugation, two bacterial cells temporarily join and directly transfer genetic mater-
ial between them. In transduction, viruses that infect bacteria carry genes from
one cell and inject them into another. Some bacteria can survive extended periods
of very harsh conditions by forming specialized resting cells, or endospores.
Prokaryotes are also classified according to how they obtain energy (from
sunlight, inorganic compounds, or organic compounds) and carbon atoms
(from carbon dioxide or organic compounds). One group of bacteria, called
cyanobacteria, generates oxygen as a waste product of photosynthesis. Scien-
tists hypothesize that the oxygen produced by cyanobacteria early in Earths
history changed the atmosphere and, as a result, changed life on Earth.
3. What are the differences between archaea and bacteria? ________________
4. What are the three important characteristics by which biologists distin-
guish bacteria? ______________________________________________________
Concept 16.3 Prokaryotes perform essential functions in the biosphere.
(pp. 367368)
Prokaryotes play an important role in chemical recycling. Many prokaryotes break
down, or decompose, organic wastes and dead organisms in the environment. For
example, heterotrophic prokaryotes consume complex organic molecules. They
return carbon to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide (CO
2
). Some species
of bacteria change nitrogen gas to nitrogen compounds that can be used by plants.
Humans use prokaryotes in many ways. The use of organisms to remove
pollutants from water, air, and soil is called bioremediation. An example is
using bacteria to treat sewage. Some companies use bacteria to make vita-
mins and antibiotics. Genetic engineers use prokaryotes to make copies of
eukaryotic genes and proteins.
5. How do prokaryotes recycle chemicals in the environment? _____________
6. How are bacteria used in treating sewage an example of bioremediation?
Concept 16.4 Some prokaryotes cause disease. (pp. 369371)
Bacteria and other microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens.
Some bacteria cause disease by invading tissues and destroying cells. How-
ever, most pathogenic bacteria cause disease by producing one of two types of
poison. Some bacteria secrete poisonous proteins. In other bacteria, part of the
cell wall is a poison. Washing hands and dishes, careful food preparation, and
attention to water quality reduce the risk of pathogen infection. The mucous
lining of your mouth, nose, and digestive system, as well as your immune sys-
tem, protect you against infection. One way to fight bacterial diseases is with
antibiotics, chemicals that slow or prevent the growth of microorganisms.
Name _______________________________ Class __________________ Date_______________
66 Biology: Exploring Life

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7. How do most pathogenic bacteria cause disease? ______________________
8. What behaviors can minimize the risk of pathogen infection? __________
Concept 16.5 Viruses infect cells by inserting genes. (pp. 372375)
A virus is made up of a short piece of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein
coat. A virus cannot reproduce on its own. Instead, a virus must infect living
cells and use them to reproduce. Viruses that infect bacteria and reproduce
are called bacteriophages, or phages. In the lytic cycle, a phage attaches to the
host cell and injects its DNA into the host. The host cell makes copies of the
viral DNA and viral proteins. The host cell then bursts open, releasing new
viruses. In the lysogenic cycle, a phage injects its genes into the host, and the
viral DNA adds itself directly to the host cells DNA. When the bacterium
reproduces, it copies the viral DNA.
Treatments for viral infections are different from treatments for bacterial
infections. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses. HIV, the virus that causes the
disease AIDS, is a retrovirus. A retrovirus is a virus that reverses the usual
DNA-to-RNA flow of genetic information. The immune system is critical in
fighting viruses. The immune system provides the basis for vaccines. A vaccine
is a deactivated variety or small piece of a pathogen that causes the immune
system to defend against the actual pathogen. Although vaccines can prevent
certain illnesses, they are not effective in preventing others, such as AIDS.
9. What is a virus made up of? _________________________________________
10. Describe two basic ways in which viruses infect bacteria. ______________
Reading Skills Practice
Outlining Make an outline of Concept 16.2, pages 360366. Use the blue head-
ings in your textbook for the first level of your outline. Include a definition of each
boldfaced Key Term.
Vocabulary Review and Reinforcement
In 14, write true if the statement is true. If the statement is false, replace the under-
lined term with a term that makes the statement true.
1. In conjugation, some bacteria take up pieces of DNA
from the environment.
2. Prokaryotes are also classified according to how they
obtain energy and hydrogen atoms.
Guided Reading and Study Workbook/Chapter 16 67

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3. The simple division of prokaryotic cells is called
binary fission.
4. The name of the specific virus that results in AIDS is
RNA.
In 510, fill in the blanks with the appropriate terms from the chapter.
5. Large spiral-shaped bacteria are called .
6. The use of organisms to remove pollutants from water, air, and soil is
called .
7. Some bacteria can survive extended periods of very harsh conditions by
forming specialized resting cells, or , within themselves.
8. Some ancient fossils are found in dome-shaped rocks composed of thin
layers of sediment pressed tightly together, called .
9. Prokaryotes that have a cell wall containing peptidoglycan are called
.
10. In the , the host cell bursts open, releasing new viruses.
WordWise
Use the clues to identify Key Terms from Chapter 16. Then put the numbered letters
in order to find the answer to the riddle.
Clues
1. virus that reverses the usual flow of DNA-to-RNA genetic information
2. prokaryotes that often live in extreme environments
3. spherical bacteria
4. rod-shaped bacteria
5. bacteria that carry out photosynthesis
6. process of simple cell division in prokaryotes
7. bacteria and other microorganisms that cause disease
Key Terms
1.
1
2.
2
3.
3
4.
4
5.
5
6.
6
7.
7
Riddle: What medical treatment can prevent certain bacterial and viral
diseases?
Answer:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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68 Biology: Exploring Life

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