Notes Chapter 1

Chapter 1
ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND

CURRENT
1
Prepared by WAY/JKE/PKS
Chapter 1
1.1
ALTERNATING CURRENT
2
Alternating Current
AC, or alternating current means the electrical current is
alternating directions in a repetitive pattern
Alternating currents continuously reverse the direction of electron
flow through the circuit, and the electromotive force (voltage) E,
causing such currents varies with the time.

3
Differentiate Between Direct
Current And Alternating Current
Chapter 1
1.1
4
Alternating Current Direct Current
Amount of energy
that can be carried:
Safer to transfer over longer city
distances and can provide more power
Voltage of DC cannot travel very
far until it begins to lose energy

Flow of Electrons:

Flow of Electrons:
Electrons keep switching directions-
forward and backward
Electrons move steadily in one
direction or 'forward'

5
Cause of the direction of
flow of electrons:
Rotating magnet along the wire Steady magnetism along the wire

Frequency:
The frequency of alternating
current is 50Hz or 60Hz
depending upon the country.
The frequency of direct current is
zero.
Direction:
It reverses its direction while
flowing in a circuit
It flows in one direction in the
circuit
Current:
It is the current of magnitude
varying with time
It is the current of constant
magnitude
6
Types:
Sinusoidal, Trapezoidal, Triangular,
Square
Pure and pulsating
Waveform

Obtained from:
A.C Generator and mains Cell or Battery
Passive Parameters:
Impedance Resistance only
Power Factor:
Lies between 0 & 1 It is always 1
Symbol
7
Why AC is used in preference to DC
Chapter 1
1.1
8
Why AC is used in preference to
DC
Output Of
Power
Change Of
Voltage
Cost Of Plant
Technical
Advantages
Connection &
Flows
9
Why AC is used in preference to DC
The output of power stations comes from a rotary turbine, which
by its nature is AC and therefore requires no power electronics to
convert to DC
It is much easier to change the voltage of AC electricity for
transmission and distribution
The cost of plant associated with AC transmission (circuit breakers,
transformers etc) is much lower than the equivalent of DC
transmission
AC transmission provides a number of technical advantages.
When a fault on the network occurs, a large fault current occurs.
It is also easier to meter AC connections and monitor power
flows across a network.
10
The source of alternating current
AC
Chapter 1
1.1
11
Source Of AC
AC is created by generators in power plants, coal burning power
stations, the electricity grid, the power outlet on your wall and
other sources.

This AC current is delivered to our homes and businesses by the
power lines we see everywhere

Generator is one of the alternating current source. It is a machine
that applied the electromagnetic induction principles that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. There are 2 methods
used to generate alternating current:-
By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil
By rotating a coil in a magnetic field

12
Chapter 1
1.2
THE GENERATION OF AN
ALTERNATING CURRENT
13
The Generation Of An Alternating
Current
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in the
magnetic field or by rotating a magnetic field within a
stationary coil.

The value of the voltage generated depends on-
The number of turns in the coil.
Strength of the field.
The speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.

14
Faradays And Lenzs Law Involved
In Generating AC Current
Chapter 1
1.2
15
HOW DOES AN ELECTRIC GENERATOR WORK?
16
It is based on the principle of production of dynamically (or
motionally) induced e.m.f (Electromotive Force).
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced
e.m.f. is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of
Electromagnetic Induction.
This e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is
closed.
Hence, the basic essential parts of an electric generator are :
A magnetic field and
A conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut
the flux.
PRINCIPLE :
17
An E.M.F. is induced in a conductor (i.e. a coil) when the magnetic field around it
changes. The magnitude of the E.M.F. is proportional to the rate of change of the
field, or rate of cutting flux, while its direction depends on the direction of the rate of
change.

The constant of proportionality is equal to N, the number of turns in the coil
cutting the flux, so :

The term N df is called flux linkage, and is given by the product of the number of
coils and the field lines.

FARADAYS LAW
18
Lenzs law
Lenzs Law:
The induced emf or
current always tends
to oppose or cancel
the change that
caused it.
19
Draw The AC Waveforms Produced By A
Simple Alternating Current Generator
Chapter 1
1.2
20
AC Waveforms Produced By A Simple
Alternating Current Generator

When the coil rotating across the magnetic field in a constant angular
velocity, an sinusoidal e.m.f will be produced.
21
THE SINUSOIDAL AC WAVEFORM
22
An Equation Of A Sinusoidal Waveform
Chapter 1
1.2

23
After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned through an angle t. If the line BC is constructed
perpendicular to 0A as shown, then
sin t =
BC
0B
. c BC = 0B sin t
If all such vertical components are projected on to a graph of y against angle t(in radians), a sine
curve results of maximum value 0A. Any quantity which varies sinusoidally can thus be represented as
a phasor.

A sine curve may not always start at 0. To show this a periodic function is represented by

y = sin t +
where = phase (or angle) difference compared with y = sin t.

Hence the general sinusoidal voltage,
e =
m
sn t +

24
Chapter 1
1.3
A Sinusoidal Voltage and
Current Values
25
Frequency, Period, Peak Value & Amplitude
Chapter 1
1.3

26
Frequency & Period
Given the general sinusoidal voltage,
e=Emsin(t+)
Then
Frequency
= 2 tcn =
2
Ez
Period
=
1
=
1
2
=
2

27
Peak value & Amplitude
From:
e=Em sin(t+)

Peak to peak value
Pck to pck :luc = 2

Amplitude @ peak value
AmpltuJc or xmum luc =

28
The various voltage and current value of a
sine wave
Chapter 1
1.3

29
Instantaneous value
Instantaneous valuesare the values of the alternating quantities at any instant
of time. They are represented by small letters, i, v, e, etc.

=
m
sn
Where
a = instantaneous value (current, i ; voltage, v ; emf, e)
A
m
= the maximum or peak value
= the angular displacement in degrees or radians

30
rms Value
RMS voltage is the amount of dc voltage that is required for
producing the same amount of power as the ac waveform.
For a sine wave:
rms vlue =
1
2
peh vlue
= . 77 peh vlue

31
Average value
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity, (such as a sine
wave), is the average value measured over a half cycle, (since over a complete
cycle the average value is zero).
For a sine wave:
verge vlue =
2
peh vlue = . 37 peh vlue

32
Form factor
Iurm Itur =
rms vlue
verge vlue

For a sine wave,
foim factoi =
ims value
aveiage value
=
u.7u7
u.6S7
= 1.11

33
Peak factor
peh Itur =
peh vlue
rms vlue
=
peh vlue
. 77 peh vlue

For a sine wave,
peak factoi =
peak value
ims value
=
peak value
u.7u7 peak value
=
1
u.7u7
= 1.414

34
Calculation
Chapter 1
1.3

35
Example 1.1
A sinusoidal voltage has an r.m.s. value of 240 V. What is the
peak value of the voltage?

36
Example 1.1 (Solution)

ims value =
1
2
peak value = u.7u7 peak value

Hence

peak value =
ims value
u.7u7
=
24u
u.7u7
= SS9.4v

37
Example 1.2
Given a sinusoidal current with frequency 50Hz and 20A (rms
value)
a) Find the peak value of the sinusoidal current
b) Find the average value of the sinusoidal current
c) Draw a labelled diagram of sinusoidal current (wave)
d) Find the value of current at t = 0.0025s
38
a) peak value =
rms vaIuc
0.707
=
20
0.707
= 28.S A
b) aveiage value =
2
peak value =
u.6S7 peak value = u.6S7 28.SA = 18 A

c) w

d) i = I
m
sin t + =
28.Ssin 2t +u = 28.Ssin 2 Su u.uu2S = u.4 A

39
Example 1.3
A sinusoidal waveform is defined as:
Vm = 169.8 sin (377t) volts
Calculate the RMS voltage of the waveform, its frequency and
the instantaneous value of the voltage after a time of 6mS.

40
General expression given for a sinusoidal waveform is:
=
m
sn t

Then comparing this to our given expression for a sinusoidal waveform above of Vm = 169.8
sin(377t) will give us the peak voltage value of 169.8 volts for the waveform.

The waveforms RMS voltage is calculated as:
ims value =
1
2
peak value = u.7u7 169.8 = 12uv

The angular velocity () is given as 377 rad/s. Then 2 = 377. So the frequency of the
waveform is calculated as:
=
2
=
S77
2
= 6uEz

The instantaneous voltage Vi value after a time of 6mS is given as:
v
= v
m
sin t = 169.8 sin S77 6m = 169.8 sin 2.262 = 1Su.8

41
Example 1.4
An alternating current is represented by
i = 70.71 sin 520t
Determine :
a) the peak value.
b) r.m.s value
c) average value
d) the frequency
e) the current 0.0015 second after passing through zero and
increasing positively.

42
a) Peak Current, I
p
= 70.71 A

b) r.m.s value, I
rms
= 70.71 0.707= 50 A

c) Average current, I
average
= 70.71 0.637= 45 A

d) f =
2
=
520
2
= 82.8 Hz

e) i = 70.71 sin 520 (0.0015s)= 70.71 sin (0.78)= 70.71
(0.7)= 49.7

43
Method To Measure A Sine Wave In
Terms Of Angle
Chapter 1
1.4
44
Coil Angle
()
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
e = Emax .
sin
0 70.71 100 70.71 0 -70.71 -100 -70.71 -0
Given:
e = 1 sn
45
The points on the sinusoidal waveform are obtained by projecting across from
the various positions of rotation between 0 and 360 to the ordinate of the
waveform that corresponds to the angle, and when the wire loop or coil
rotates one complete revolution, or 360, one full waveform is produced.

From the plot of the sinusoidal waveform we can see that when is equal to
0, 180 or 360, the generated EMF is zero as the coil cuts the minimum
amount of lines of flux.

But when is equal to 90
o
and 270
o
the generated EMF is at its maximum
value as the maximum amount of flux is cut.

The sinusoidal waveform has a positive peak at 90
o
and a negative peak at
270
o
.

Positions B, D, F and H generate a value of EMF corresponding to the
formula:
c =
sin

46
Example 1
Calculate the instantaneous amplitude of a 100V peak sinusoidal voltage such as
the one showed in figure 30 into the cycle and greater than 90.

Solution

at 30
c =
sin = 1uu sin Su = 1uu u.S = Su

The instantaneous voltage at 30 degrees is 50V.

47

at 200

200 degrees

is in the third quadrant. It is in the first-half of the
negative half-cycle of the waveform.

Value of the voltage lies in the negative half-cycle, and therefore, it is a
negative value.

34.2V ) (120 sin 100V sin V e
m

48
Radians
Chapter 1
1.4
49
Radians
The Radian, (rad) is defined
mathematically as a quadrant of a
circle where the distance subtended
on the circumference equals the
radius (r) of the circle.

Since the circumference of a circle
is equal to 2 x radius, there must
be 2 radians around a 360
o
circle,
so 1 radian = 360
o
/2 = 57.3
o
.
50
Convert Radians To Degree

auians =
18u
value in uegiees

Begiees =
18u
value in iauians

51
Example 2
Convert the value below in radians:
a) 30 b) 90

Solution
a)
18u
Su =
6
iau
b)
18u
9u =
2
iau

52
Example 3
Convert the value below in degrees:
a) 5 / 4 rad b) 3 / 2 rad

Solution
a)
18u
S
4
= 22S

b)
18u
S
2
= 27u

53
The Phase Angle Of A Sine Wave
Chapter 1
1.4
54
PHASE ANGLE OF A SINE WAVE
The phase angle of a waveform is angular
difference between two waveforms of the
same frequency.

Math symbol: (theta)
Unit of measure: degrees or radians

55

A leading waveform is one that is ahead of a
reference waveform of the same frequency.
In this example, the blue waveform is taken as the
reference because it begins at 0 degrees on the
horizontal axis.
The red waveform is said to be lagging because it
has not yet completed its cycle while the reference
waveform is beginning a new one at 0 degrees.

A lagging waveform is one that is behind a
reference waveform of the same frequency

In this example, the blue waveform is taken as
the reference because it begins at 0 degrees on
the horizontal axis.
The red waveform is said to be leading
because it is already at about 90 degrees when
the reference waveform begins at 0 degrees.

LEADING AND LAGGING PHASE ANGLES
56
Phase Difference Equation
A
t
= A
sin t _

Where:
A
max
= Maximum amplitude of the waveform.
t = Angular frequency of the waveform in radian/sec.
= Phase angle in degrees or radians that the waveform has
shifted either left or right from the reference point.

57
Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal
Waveform
58
Chapter 1
1.5
A PHASOR TO REPRESENT A SINE
WAVE
59
Phasor
Chapter 1
1.5

60
Phasor
"Phasor" is a scaled line whose length represents an AC quantity that has both
magnitude ("peak amplitude") and direction ("phase") which is "frozen" at
some point in time.
A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies partly the
maximum value of the vector quantity ( V or I ) and partly the end of the vector
that rotates.

61
How Phasors Are Related To The
Sine Wave Formula
Chapter 1
1.5

62
How Phasors Are Related To The Sine
Wave Formula
63
How Phasors Are Related To The Sine
Wave Formula
As the single vector rotates in an anti-clockwise direction, its
tip at point A will rotate one complete revolution
of 360
o
or 2 representing one complete cycle.
If the length of its moving tip is transferred at different
angular intervals in time to a graph as shown above, a
sinusoidal waveform would be drawn starting at the left with
zero time.
Each position along the horizontal axis indicates the time that
has elapsed since zero time, t = 0.
When the vector is horizontal the tip of the vector represents
the angles at 0
o
, 180
o
and at 360
o
.

64
Phasor Diagram
Chapter 1
1.5

65
Phasor Diagram
66
Identify Angular Velocity
Chapter 1
1.5

67
Angular velocity
Angular velocity can be considered to be a vector quantity, with direction along
the axis of rotation in the right-hand rule sense.
For an object rotating about an axis, every point on the object has the same
angular velocity.
The tangential velocity of any point is proportional to its distance from the axis
of rotation. Angular velocity has the units rad/s.

: = r or =
:
r

68
Example 4
Given
1
= Susn 1Sut +7u and
2
= 2usin 1Sut

Solution
1
= Susin 1Sut +7u -wave in the negative side, so
change to positive side
1
= Susin 1Sut +7u 18u
1
= Susin 1Sut 11u
2
= 2usin 1Sut
2
lcJs
1
11u
69
Chapter 1
1.6
THE BASIC CIRCUIT LAWS OF
RESISTIVE AC CIRCUITS
70
Apply Ohms Law To Resistive
Circuits With AC Sources
Chapter 1
1.6
71
Resistive Circuit
Resistors are "passive" device and do not
produce or consume any electrical energy,
but convert electrical energy into heat.

In DC circuits the linear ratio of voltage to
current in a resistor is called its resistance.

However, in AC circuits this ratio of
voltage to current depends upon the
frequency and phase difference or phase
angle ( ) of the supply.

So when using resistors in AC circuits the
term Impedance, symbol Z is the
generally used and we can say that DC
resistance = AC impedance, R = Z.

72
V-I Phase Relationship and Vector
Diagram
For resistors in AC circuits the
direction of the current flowing
through them has no effect on the
behavior of the resistor so will rise
and fall as the voltage rises and falls.

The current and voltage reach
maximum, fall through zero and
reach minimum at exactly the same
time. i.e, they rise and fall
simultaneously and are said to be "in-
phase"

At any point along the horizontal axis
that the instantaneous voltage and
current are in-phase because the
current and the voltage reach their
maximum values at the same time,
that is their phase angle is 0
o
.
73

The instantaneous voltage across the resistor, V
R
is equal to the supply voltage, V
t
and is given
as:
sin t

The instantaneous current flowing in the resistor will therefore be:

I
sin t = I
sin t

As the voltage across a resistor is given as V
R
= I.R, the instantaneous voltage across the
resistor above can also be given as:

= I
sin t
74
Example 5
Find the current and voltage drop at all the resistors in the
circuit shown below:

Solution:

V R I V
V R I V
V R I V
mA
k R
V
R R R R
total R
total R
total R
total
total
total
4 400 ) 10 10 (
5 500 ) 10 10 (
1 100 ) 10 10 (
10
1
10
I
1k @ 1000 400 500 100
3
3 3
3
2 2
3
1 1
total
3 2 1

75

KIRCHHOFFS LAW IN ALTERNATING CURRENT

Kirchhoff s Current Law
At any point in an electrical circuit where charge density is not changing
in time, the sum of currents flowing towards that point is equal to the
sum of currents flowing away from that point.

Kirchhoff s Voltage Law
The algebraic sum of various potential drops across an electrical
circuit is equal to the electromotive force acting on the circuit

76
Determine Power In Resistive AC
Circuits
Chapter 1
1.6
77
Power in resistive AC circuit
Since for resistors in AC circuits the phase angle between the
voltage and the current is zero, then the power factor of the
circuit is given as cos 0
o
= 1.0.
The power in the circuit at any instant in time can be found by
multiplying the voltage and current at that instant.
Then the power (P), consumed by the circuit is given as;
P = Vrms cos (watt)
But since cos = 1 in a purely resistive circuit, the power
consumed is simply given as, P = Vrms the same as for Ohm's
Law.

78
This then gives us the "Power" waveform and which is shown below as a series of
positive pulses because when the voltage and current are both in their positive half
of the cycle the resultant power is positive.

When the voltage and current are both negative, the product of the two negative
values gives a positive power pulse.
79
Power equation
= v
R(rms)
I
rms
= I
rms
2
=
v
rms
2

Where,
P = average power in Watts
V
rms
= rms supply voltage in Volts
I
rms
= rms supply current in Amps
R = resistance of the resistor in Ohm's () or
Z to indicate impedance

80
Chapter 1
1.7
USE AN OSCILLOSCOPE TO MEASURE
WAVEFORM
81
Use An Oscilloscope To Measure
Chapter 1
1.7
82
Oscilloscope
83
Part No. Item Function
1 On/Off Do not use the wall plug as an on/off switch. Good switches help to
control electrical transients which can be harmful to sensitive circuit
components.
2 Intensity Adjust the brightness of the trace until you can just see all the details
of the waveform. If the trace is too bright you will not get the best
data, your eyes will get very tired, and you could damage the scope.
3 Focus Rotate this button until the trace is sharp.
4 Beam finder If you do not find a trace, push this button. The screen will display
what quadrant the trace is in. You can then use the horizontal (#10)
and vertical controls (#15) to move the trace to the middle of the
screen.
5 Triggering source and mode You will use the scope to observe signals that repeat frequently. The
scope must start the sweep at the same point on the waveform every
time in order to produce a stable image on the screen. This function is
called "triggering". For many common applications you should the
source switch on "internal" and the mode switch to "auto". This lets
the scope decide when to trigger.
84
6 Trigger Slope Usually the signal voltage will equal the triggering voltage twice, once
going up and once coming down. A trigger slope control enables you to
select which voltage the scope will trigger on.
7 Trigger Level Usually the signal voltage will equal the triggering voltage twice, once
going up and once coming down. A trigger slope control enables you to
select which voltage the scope will trigger on.
8 Sweep calibration This enables you to change the horizontal scale. Unless this knob is
turned all the way clockwise, the scope is not calibrated and your data
will be worthless. Turn this knob clockwise until it clicks and check it
frequently as you take data.
9 Sweep This determines the horizontal scale for the oscillograph. The scale is
read in the upper white window. Its units are seconds/division. See
Timebase illustration
10 Horizontal position This enables you to move the signal back and forth along the X-axis.
This determines, in effect, the value the signal will have at the origin.
11 Channel select Most oscilloscopes are dual trace. This means that they can display two
signals at once, which is why there are two signal ports and two
sensitivity controls.
85
12 Signal ports There is one signal port for each channel. It is a BNC connector for
this oscilloscope.
13 Sensitivity calibration This knob is used to change the vertical scale. If it is not turned all the
way clockwise, the scope will be uncalibrated and your data will be
worthless. Check this knob frequently as you take data.
14 Sensitivity This determines the vertical scale. It is read in the left hand white
window. The units are volts/division.
15 Vertical position This knob controls the vertical position of the trace. You will find it
very convenient when you are setting or reading voltages.
16 AC/DC select When this is set to "AC" the DC part of the signal is filtered out by a
capacitor placed in series between the signal input and the scope.
When the selector is set to "ground", the beam will move to zero
volts. When the selector is set to "DC", the entire signal will be
displayed on the scope
86
MEASURING THE AMPLITUDE OF A WAVEFORM
Amplitude (peak voltage V
p
) = peak-peak voltage
V
p
=

pp
V
2
1
87
MEASURING THE AMPLITUDE OF A WAVEFORM
V
pp
=(number of division) X (number of volts per- division) X
Probe Multiplier
V
pp=
Vert div x VOLT/DIV x Probe multiplier

R.M.S Value (voltage/Current) = X Peak Value (Voltage/Current)

Vrms = 0.707 X Vp

2
1
88

MEASURING THE PERIOD AND FREQUENCY OF A WAVEFORM

Tie T= 1cycles distace X Tie/Div

Frequency =

Hertz(Hz)
1
T
89

90

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Chapter 1

ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND

peh vlue = . 37 peh vlue

sin = 1uu sin Su = 1uu u.S = Su

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