Concept of Compensation, Exploring and Defining Compensation Compensation Dimensions, Concept of Reward and System of Compensating

Context,

By Dr. G C Mohanta, BE, MSc (Engg. , MB!, "hD (Mgt. , "rofessor, !l#$%rmoshi &nstit%te of B%siness Management, 'ydera(ad, &ndia &ntrod%ction Compensation is a systematic approach to providing monetary value to employees in exchange for work performed. Compensation may achieve several purposes assisting in recruitment, job performance, and job satisfaction. Compensation management, also known as wage and salary administration, remuneration management, or reward management, is concerned with designing and implementing total compensation package. The traditional concept of wage and salary administration emphasized on only determination of wage and salary structures in organizational settings. However, over the passage of time, many more forms of compensation, entered the business field which necessitated to take wage and salary administration in comprehensive way with a suitable change in its nomenclature. Beach has defined wage and salary administration as follows "Wage and salary administration refers to the establishment and implementation of sound policies and practices of employee compensation. It includes such areas as job evaluation, surveys of wages and salaries, analysis of relevant organizational problems, development and maintenance of wage structure, establishing rules for administering wages. Wage payments, incentives, profit sharing, wage changes and adjustments, supplementary payments, control of compensation costs and other related items" Concept of Compensation The literal meaning of compensation is to counter!balance. "n the case of human resource management, compensation is referred to as money and other benefits received by an employee for providing services to his employer. #oney and benefits received may be in different forms ! base compensation in money form and various benefits, which may be associated with employee$s service to the employer like provident fund, gratuity, and insurance scheme, and any other payment which the employee receives or benefits he enjoys in lieu of such payment. Cascio has defined compensation as follows "Compensation includes direct cash payments, indirect payments in the form of employee benefits and incentives to motivate employees to strive for higher levels of productivity Exploring and Defining Compensation Context Compensation Dimensions %ased on above description of compensation, we may identify and define various dimensions of compensations as follows Wage and Salary:

&age and salary are the most important component of compensation and these are essential irrespective of the type of organization. &age is referred to as remuneration to workers particularly, hourly!rated payment. 'alary refers to as remuneration paid to white!collar employees including managerial personnel. &ages and salary are paid on the basis of fixed period of time and normally not associated with productivity of an employee at a particular time. Incentives: "ncentives are the additional payment to employees besides the payment of wages and salaries. (ften these are linked with productivity, either in terms of higher production or cost saving or both. These incentives may be given on individual basis or group basis. Fringe Benefits: )ringe benefits include such benefits which are provided to the employees either having long! term impact like provident fund, gratuity, pension* or on occurrence of certain events like medical benefits, accident relief, health and life insurance* or facilitation in performance of job like uniforms, Canteens, recreation, etc. Perquisites: These are normally provided to managerial personnel either to facilitate their job performance or to retain them in the organization. 'uch per+uisites include company car, club membership, free residential accommodation, paid holiday trips, stock options, etc. Wages: ,ccording to economic theory, wages are defined broadly as any economic compensation paid by the employer to his labourers under some contract for the services rendered by them. "n its actual sense which is prevalent in the practice, wages are paid to workers which include basic wages and other allowances which are linked with the wages like dearness allowances, etc. Concept of Reward , reward is an appetitive stimulus given to a human to alter its behavior. -ewards typically serve as reinforcers. , reinforcer is something that, when presented after a behavior, causes the probability of that behavior$s occurrence to increase. .ote that, just because something is labelled as a reward, it does not necessarily imply that it is a reinforcer. , reward can be defined as reinforcer only if its delivery increases the probability of a behavior. -eward or reinforcement is an objective way to describe the positive value that an individual ascribes to an object, behavioral act or an internal physical state. /rimary rewards include those that are necessary for the survival of species, such as food, sexual contact, or successful aggression. 'econdary rewards derive their value from primary rewards. #oney is a good example. They can be produced experimentally by pairing a neutral stimulus with a known reward. Things such as pleasurable touch and beautiful music are often said to be secondary rewards. )or example, there is a good deal of evidence that physical contact, as in cuddling and grooming, is an unlearned or primary reward. -ewards are generally considered more desirable than punishment in modifying behavior. System of Compensating

Minimum Wage: , minimum wage is one which has to be paid by an employer to his workers irrespective of his ability to pay. ,ccording to the above committee, "!inimum wage is the wage which must provide not only for the bare sustenance of life, but for the preservation of the efficiency of the wor"ers. #or this purpose, minimum wage must provide some measure of education, medical re$uirements and amenities. " 'ubse+uent to the committee$s report, 0overnment enacted legal provisions regarding minimum wages under the #inimum &ages ,ct. 1234. This ,ct does not define the concept of minimum wages but empowers the Central 0overnment as well as 'tate 0overnments to fix minimum wages from time to time. &herever this ,ct applies, the payment of minimum wages is mandatory. "n 1256, "ndian 7abour Conference elaborated the concept of fixation of minimum wages which were termed as need!based minimum wages. #or the calculation of wages, the Conference suggested the following guidelines% ! The standard working class family should be taken to consist of three consumption units for the earner* the earnings of women, children and adolescents should be disregarded. ! The minimum food re+uirements should be calculated on the basis of the net intake of 8,699 calories per adult. ! The clothing re+uirements should be estimated at a per capita consumption of 14 yards per annum per person. ! "n respect of housing, the norms should be the minimum rent charged by the 0overnment in any area for houses provided under subsidized housing scheme for low!income groups. ! )uel, lighting and other miscellaneous items of expenditure should constitute 89 per cent of the total minimum wage. Living Wage: ,long with the minimum wage the Committee on )air &ages has given the concept of living wage which has been defined as follows "& living wage is one which should enable the earner to provide for himself and his family not only the bare essentials of food, clothing and shelter but a measure of frugal comfort including education for his children, protection against ill'health, re$uirements of essential social needs and a measure of insurance against the more important misfortunes including old age. " 7iving wage is more than the concept of minimum wage. 'uch a wage is determined keeping in view the national income and paying capacity of industrial sector. The Committee also observed that since the national income did not support the payment of living wage, it should be implemented in three phases. "n the initial stage the wages to be paid to the entire working class were to be established and stabilized. "n the second phase fair wages were to be established in the community and industry. "n the final phase the working class was to be paid the living wage. Fair Wage: The concept of fair wage is linked with the capacity of the industry to pay. The Committee has defined fair wage as follows

"#air wage is the wage which is above the minimum wage but below the living wage. (he lower limit of the fair wage is obviously the minimum wage% the upper limit is to be set by the capacity of the industry to pay. " Thus, fair wage depends on different variables affecting wage determination. 'uch factors are labour productivity, prevailing wage rates, the level of national income and its distribution and the capacity of industry to pay. ,t present, the concept of fair wages is followed by the most business organizations. Methods of Wage Payment: "n devising system of wage determination, the critical +uestion that emerges is whether the wage will be linked to time spent on the workplace or output achieved during a specified period. This results into two types of wages time wage and piece wage. These two basic systems have their own relative merits and demerits. 'ometimes, in order to avoid hardship to employees, a combination of these two methods is followed to ensure the payment of minimum wages. This method is known as balance method. 7et us see how these methods work. Time Wage Method: "n time wage method, the wage is determined on the basis of time worked which may be hourly, daily, weekly, monthly or any other time base. , worker is paid wage for the time worked irrespective of his output during that time. /erhaps, this is the oldest and most prevalent system of wage payment. !erits of (ime Wage% This method is applied more commonly because it has certain inherent merits which are as under ! There are certain jobs in which output within a specified period is not easily measurable, e.g. the job of a peon. "n such a case wage payment is linked to time. ! "t is +uite easy to understand and calculate the amount of wages to be paid. ! Thus, even an illiterate worker can understand it. ! %oth employers and workers know well in advance the amount of wages payable and they can adjust their budgets accordingly. ! "t ensures the payment of regular and specific wages which is beneficial from social point of view. ! /roduct:service +uality tends to be high as workers are not in hurry to produce more without regard to +uality. )emerits of (ime Wage% Though adopted more commonly, time wage system suffers from a number of drawbacks and if the workers are not ade+uately motivated for higher performance, this system can generate inefficiency in the following ways ! 'ince there is no direct linkage between performance and wages, employees tend to take easy approach. ! This system does not differentiate between efficient and inefficient workers* gradually, inefficiency percolates to efficient workers too. ! "t de!motivates efficient workers for more output as they are put at par with inefficient ones. ! 7abour cost of production becomes difficult to determine in advance because wages are not linked to output.

! 'ince productivity is not a criterion for fixing wages. There is a possibility that wrong employees are placed on the job. *arious merits and demerits of time wage system suggest that this system can be followed in some jobs but not in all. (his system is more suitable in the following situations% ! &here units of output are not measurable precisely like office work. ! &here individual employees do not have direct control on their outputs like assembly work. ! &here +uality of work is more pronounced and re+uires creative imagination like artistic work. ! &here machinery and raw materials are +uite sophisticated which re+uire handling with utmost care like processing of precious metals. ! &here work is of highly varied nature and standards of outputs cannot be ascertained like research work. ! &here workers$ unions oppose the introduction of piece rate system. ! &here supervision is good and the supervisors can estimate a fair day$s work. Piece Wage Method: "n piece wage method workers are paid wages according to the +uantity of output during a specified period. This may be calculated on the basis of number of units produced or the completion of a job where output is not measurable in terms of individual units. /iece wage method too has its own merits and demerits. !erits of +iece Wage% /iece wage method has the following merits ! There is a direct relationship between output and wages which works as a motivating factor to workers to produce more. ! "t differentiates efficient and inefficient workers and provides incentives to inefficient workers to become efficient. ! This is fair and e+uitable so far as utilization of human resources is concerned. ! "t re+uires less supervision if there is in!built system for product +uality control. ! The organization can estimate its cost of production well in advance because wage cost is directly proportional to output. )emerits of +iece Wage% /iece wage system has the following demerits ! There is a problem in fixing piece rate in the absence of any standardized procedure. ! There is a tendency on the part of the employers to cut piece rate if workers$ earnings are +uite high. ! The method does not ensure minimum wages as output may be adversely affected by factors beyond control. ! The product +uality and machinery conditions are likely to suffer because workers concentrate more on +uantity rather than +uality. ! There may be jealousy and interpersonal conflict among workers because of their uneven earnings at the same workplace. ! Trade unions generally oppose this system because of the fear of discrimination among workers based on their working. *arious merits and demerits of piece wage system indicate that this system is not suitable for all conditions but only to specific conditions which are as follows%

! &here the output of each individual worker can be measured precisely. ! &here the +uantity of output is a direct result of skills and efforts of individual workers. ! &hen the flow of work is regular and work interruptions do not occur. ! &here production methods are standardized and job is of repetitive nature. ! &here workmanship is not re+uired. Balance Method: %alance method also known as debt method, is essentially a combination of time wage and piece wage methods. ;nder this method, a worker is guaranteed a fixed wage based on time rate with a provision of piece wage method. Thus, if a worker produces more +uantity in a period, usually on weekly or monthly basis, and earns more than his time wage, he is given credit for additional output which is compensated in another period in which production +uantity falls below the time wage. This method provides a sense of security to a worker so far as his wage earning is concerned. ,t the same time, he is also motivated to produce more because of inclusion of piece wage system. This method has its relevance in a workplace where the work flow is irregular like docks. Factors Affecting Wages: ,n the basis of above discussion, we may summarize the factors affecting wage rates as under% ! )emand for and supply of labour% <emand and supply conditions of labour have considerable influence on the determination of wage rates. ! "f there is a short supply of labour, the wages may be high, whereas if there is no dearth of labour, the wages tend to be low. ' -abour unions% "f the labourers are well organized into strong trade unions, their bargaining power would be high and they can demand higher rates of wages. (n the other hand, if the labourers are not organized, the management may fix low wages. ! Cost of living% The cost of living of workers also has a strong influence on the rate of wages. "f this factor is not considered, the labourers may not be in a position to make both ends meet and this will affect their efficiency. Hence progressive employers consider this factor also. ! +revailing wage rates% /revailing wages in a particular industry are also taken into account by the employers while deciding wage levels for their employees. %y considering the prevailing wage level, employers will come reasonable close to the wage level of competitors, and this will enable them to retain and attract +ualified workers to the organizations. ! &bility to pay% The wage level, to a large extent, is determined by the ability of the enterprise to pay its workers. The ability to pay in turn is determined by the profit!earning capacity of the enterprise. ! .ob re$uirements% =ob re+uirements are also an important factor affecting wages. =obs re+uiring specialized knowledge or involving much mental or manual effort are priced higher than those which are light or which do not need any specialized knowledge. ! /tate regulation% 'tate regulation is another important factor influencing wage rates. ,s the 'tate assumes responsibility for safeguarding the interest of citizens, it has to step in to regulate the wage rates of labourers through legislative measures.

! Increment system% "n some organizations wages automatically increase annually at a prescribed rate without any relation to workers> performance. "n some other organizations annual increases based on merit. Thus, the prevailing system of granting increments also affects wages. &ncenti)es* ?"ncentive> may be defined as any reward of benefit given to the employee over and above his wage or salary with a view to motivating him to excel in his work. "ncentives include both monetary as well as non!monetary rewards. , scheme of incentive is a plan to motivate individual or group performance. The following are some of the definitions of the term ?"ncentive> ! @&age incentives are extra financial motivation. They are designed to stimulate human effort by rewarding the person, over and above the time rated remuneration, for improvements in the present or targeted resultsA B The .ational Commission on 7abour. ! @"t refers to all the plans that provide extra pay for extra performance in addition to regular wages for a jobA B Hummel and .ickerson. ! @"t is any formal and announced programme under which the income of an individual, a small group, a plant work force or all the employees of a firm are partially or wholly related to some measure of productivity outputA B 'cott. eed for incentive: "t is true that monetary compensation does constitute very important reason for the working of an employee. %ut this compensation alone cannot bring job satisfaction to the workers. (ne cannot expect effective performance from a worker who is dissatisfied with its job, even if he is well paid. 'ociologists and industrial psychologists also view that the financial aspect is not the only dominant motivating force. Confidence in the management, pride in the job and in firm and concern for the overall good cannot be brought by a bonus. Hence the modern authorities on management science have recognized the need for the provision of incentives to build up good morale. Incentives for !or": Incentives can ta"e any form. &ccording to 0. Clar" )ic"inson the important incentives for wor" can be listed as follows% ! <esire for livelihood and fear of want. ! <esire for approval of master and fear of punishment. ! <esire for praise and fear of being dismissed. ! "mpulse to activity or joy in work and dislike of inactivity. ! The moral command and fear of conscience. 1obert 2. /alton has mentioned the following nine factors as the !otives for wor"% ! <oing something worthwhile C0oodD. ! Trust in leadership. ! <oing my share C/articipationD ! " count for something C-ecognitionD. ! , decent living C)air &agesD. ! , chance to get somewhere C(pportunityD. ! , safe future C'ecurityD.

! Enow what>s going on CCommunicationD. ! Conditions at work CFnvironmentD #lassification of Incentives: ,ll forms of incentives can be broadly classified into two kinds namely, ! )inancial "ncentives, and ! .on!financial "ncentives. Financial Incentives )inancial incentives or pecuniary incentives are the most original of all the incentives. "t is given in the form of money. The financial incentives still form the most important influencing and motivating factor up to a certain limit. %ecause it is only by virtue of the monetary compensation that the workers can satisfy their fundamental needs such as food, clothing, shelter, etc. The financial incentives may be either direct or indirect. <irect incentives include wages, bonus and other incentives directly given to the workers in the form of cash. "ndirect financial incentives include subsistence allowance expenses, medical expenses etc. $ther Incentives: (ther incentives like +uick promotion, provisions of facilities for development and training, provision of labour welfare, amenities, etc. also have a significant role to play in motivating the employees. Merits of &ncenti)es The following are the advantages derived by providing incentives to employees 3igher output% %y providing incentives to his employees, the employer is able to induce them to work better. This leads to higher output. 4reater profits% .eedless to say, higher output results in greater profits for the business. This happens in two ways. )irst, the cost per unit becomes less and second, the enterprise is able to keep the selling price low and this result in greater sales. 5o problem of idle time% "n an organization where no proper incentives are available for the workers, the tendency will be to kill the time. &hen suitable incentives are available, the workers become time conscious* they begin to see every minute in terms of money. /upervision does not pose any problem% &hen suitable incentives are available, the workers become duty conscious* the need for close supervision, thus, does not arise. 2fficient wor"ers are able to earn more% 'uch of those workers who are highly efficient are able to earn more by way of performance bonus, higher commission and so on. +ossible to identify inefficient and dull wor"ers%

"f, in spite of the incentive schemes, some workers are able to earn only their normal wage, it should mean that they are basically dull. The employer, therefore, has to decide whether to retain them or subject them to rigorous training. 1ate of labour turnover is bound to be low% "f ade+uate incentives are available to the workers, they may not have a feeling of dissatisfaction. 'uch workers are sure to have greater work commitment and therefore may not leave the organization. The rate of labour turnover, as a result, is bound to be low. 1eduction in complaints and grievances% ,s the organization makes available suitable incentives to the workers, they may not have anything to complain about. This leads to reduction in complaints and grievances. "ro(lems arising o%t of incenti)es The following problems are bound to arise while implementing an incentive plan 6uality of wor" may suffer% The workers, those in the production department in particular, may give undue importance to the +uantity of output produced neglecting the +uality of output. 'uch a problem can be overcome only if the organization has a perfect system of +uality control. Inter'personnel relationships may suffer% (nly those employees who are really efficient will be benefited out of incentives. This may promote ill feelings among the employees of an organization. Wear and tear of machines may be more% ,s the employees are keen on increasing the output all the time, they may handle the machines carelessly. This increases the wear and tear of machines. 3ealth of the wor"ers may get affected% 'ome workers tend to overwork in order to earn more and this may affect their health. Increase in accidents% There is always a preference to step up output disregarding even safety regulations and this may increase the rate of accidents in the workplace. Increase in paper wor" /roper administration of any incentive scheme involves lot of paper work. "t necessitates the maintenance of proper records and books. 1e$uirements of a sound incentive plan% , good incentive plan shall fulfil the following re+uirements (rust and confidence% The success of any incentive plan depends on the existence of an atmosphere of trust and confidence between the workers and the management. "n the absence of such an atmosphere, the workers may resist any such proposal by the management.

Consensus re$uired The management should not take a unilateral decision while evolving an incentive scheme. Consensus between the workers and the management is necessary for the success of the plan. &ssured minimum wage% /ayment to any worker should not be totally related to his performance. Fvery worker should be assured of a minimum wage notwithstanding performance. (nly then the workers would have a sense of security. 5o scope for bias or favouritism The standards set under the incentive plan should be based on objective analysis. "t should not expect too much out of the employee nor should it give scope for bias or favouritism. /imple to operate The incentive plan should not involve tedious calculations. "t should be so simple that the worker will be in a position to work out his total earnings himself. Beneficial to both the wor"ers and the management% The incentive plan should be beneficial to both the workers and the management. )rom the management$s point of view, it should be cost effective. )rom the workers$ point of view, it should offer return, at a rate higher than the normal rate of wages, for the extra efforts made by them. /ound system of evaluation , perfect system of evaluating the employee>s performance should be created in the organization. The results of evaluation should be made known to the employees at the earliest. 1edressing grievances% 0rievances and complaints are bound to arise whenever any incentive plan is in vogue in the organization. /roper machinery should be installed for the +uick handling of all such complaints. 1eview The progress of the incentive scheme should be periodically reviewed. (nly then it would be possible to notice and remove defects, if any, in the plan. +ringe Benefits The fringe %enefits are categori&ed as follo!s: ! /ayment for time not worked %enefits under this category include ! sick leave with pay, vacation pay, paid rest and relief time, paid lunch periods, grievance time, bargaining time, travel time, etc. ! Fxtra pay for time worked This category covers the benefits such as ! premium pay, incentive bonus, shift premium, old age insurance, profit sharing, unemployment compensation, Christmas bonus, <eewali or /ooja bonus, food cost subsidy, housing subsidy, recreation.

,rganizations provide a variety of fringe benefits. (he fringe benefits are classified under four heads as given here under% 2mployment /ecurity% %enefits under this head include unemployment insurance, technological adjustment pay, leave travel pay, overtime pay, leave for negotiation, leave for maternity, leave for grievances, holidays, cost of living bonus, call!back pay, retiring rooms, jobs to the sons:daughters of the employees and the like. 3ealth +rotection% %enefits under this head include accident insurance, disability insurance, health insurance, hospitalization, life insurance, medical care, sick benefits, sick leave, etc. ,ld &ge and 1etirement% %enefits under this category include deferred income plans, pension, gratuity, provident fund, old age assistance, old age counselling, medical benefits for retired employees, travelling concession to retired employees, jobs to sons:daughters of the deceased employee and the like. +ersonnel Identification, +articipation and /timulation% This category covers the following benefits anniversary awards, attendance bonus, canteen, cooperative credit societies, educational facilities, beauty parlour services, housing, income tax aid, counselling, +uality bonus, recreational programs, stress counselling, safety measures etc. 2mployee /ecurity% /hysical and job security to the employee should also be provided with a view to promoting security to the employee and his family members. The benefit of confirmation of the employee on the job creates a sense of job security. )urther a minimum and continuous wage or salary gives a sense of security to the life. 1etrenchment Compensation% The "ndustrial <isputes ,ct, 1236 provides for the payment of compensation in case of lay! off and retrenchment. The non!seasonal industrial establishments employing 59 or more workers have to give one month>s notice or one month>s wages to all the workers who are retrenched after one year>s continuous service. The compensation is paid at the rate of 15 days wage for every completed year of service with a maximum of 35 days wage in a year. &orkers are eligible for compensation as stated above even in case of closing down of undertakings. -ay'off Compensation% "n case of lay!off, employees are entitled to lay!off compensation at the rate of 59G of the total of the basic wage and dearness allowance for the period of their lay!off except for weekly holidays. 7ay!off compensation can normally be paid up to 35 days in a year. /afety and 3ealth% Fmployee>s safety and health should be taken care of in order to protect the employee against accidents, unhealthy working conditions and to protect worker>s capacity. "n "ndia, the )actories ,ct, 1234, stipulated certain re+uirements regarding working conditions with a view to provide safe working environment. These provisions relate to cleanliness, disposal of

waste and effluents, ventilation and temperature, dust and fume, artificial humidification, over!crowding, lighting, drinking water, latrine urinals, and spittoons. /rovisions relating to safety measures include fencing of machinery, work on or near machinery in motion, employment of young person on dangerous machines, striking gear and devices for cutting off power, self!acting machines, easing of new machinery, prohibition of employment of women and children near cotton openers, hoists and lifts, lifting machines, chains ropes and lifting tackles, revolving machinery, pressure plant, floors, excessive weights, protection of eyes, precautions against dangerous fumes, explosive or inflammable dust, gas, etc. /recautions in case of fire, power to re+uire specifications of defective parts of test of stability, safety of buildings and machinery, etc. $%'ectives of Fringe Benefits: The view point of employers is that fringe benefits form an important part of employee incentives to obtain their loyalty and retaining them. The important objectives of fringe benefits are ! To create and improve sound industrial relations. ! To boost up employee morale. ! To motivate the employees by identifying and satisfying their unsatisfied needs. ! To provide +ualitative work environment and work life. ! To provide security to the employees against social risks like old age benefits and maternity benefits. ! To protect the health of the employees and to provide safety to the employees against accidents. ! To promote employee>s welfare by providing welfare measures like recreation facilities. ! To create a sense of belongingness among employees and to retain them. Hence, fringe benefits are called golden hand!cuffs. ! To meet re+uirements of various legislations relating to fringe benefits. eed for ()tending Benefits to (m*loyees: ! -ising prices and cost of living has brought about incessant demand for provision of extra benefit to the employees. ! Fmployers too have found that fringe benefits present attractive areas of negotiation when large wage and salary increases are not feasible. ! ,s organizations have developed the elaborate fringe benefits programs for their employees, greater pressure has been placed upon competing organizations to match these benefits in order to attract and keep employees. ! -ecognition that fringe benefits are non!taxable rewards has been major stimulus to their expansion. ! -apid industrialization, increasingly heavy urbanization and the growth of a capitalistic economy have made it difficult for most employees to protect themselves against the adverse impact of these developments. 'ince it was workers who are responsible for production, it was held that employers should accept responsibility for meeting some of the needs of their employees. ,s a result, some benefits!and!services programs were adopted by employers. ! The growing volume of labour legislation, particularly social security legislation, made it imperative for employers to share e+ually with their employees the cost of old age, survivor and disability benefits. ! The growth and strength of trade unions has substantially influenced the growth of company benefits and services.

! 7abour scarcity and competition for +ualified personnel has led to the initiation, evolution and implementation of a number of compensation plans. ! The management has increasingly realized its responsibility towards its employees and has come to the conclusion that the benefits of increase in productivity resulting from increasing industrialization should go, at least partly, to the employees who are responsible for it, so that they may be protected against the insecurity arising from unemployment, sickness, injury and old age. Company benefits!and!services programs are among some of the mechanisms which managers use to supply this security.