UTM Slide

CIRCUIT BREAKER
Abdullah Asuhaimi Mohd.Zin

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS
Introduction
A power system network needs a switchgear
for its switching and or isolation under
normal or abnormal operation conditions.

Two functions of switchgear :

1. To permit plant and distributors (transmission lines)
to be conveniently put into and taken out of service.
2. To enable the same plant and lines when these
become faulty to be rapidly and safely isolated by
automatic means.
Introduction
The function of a circuit breaker is to isolate
the faulty part of the power system in case of
abnormal conditions.
A protective relay detects abnormal
conditions and sends a tripping signal to the
circuit breaker. After receiving the trip
command from the relay, the circuit breaker
isolates the faulty part of the power system
Introduction
A circuit breaker has two contacts a
fixed contact and a moving contact.
Under normal conditions these two
contacts remain in closed position.
When the circuit breaker is required to
isolate the faulty part, the moving
contact moves to interrupt the circuit.
Introduction
On the separation of the contacts, the
flow of current is interrupted, resulting in
the formation of arc between the
contacts, as shown in Figure 5.1. The
contacts are placed in a closed
chamber containing some insulating
medium (liquid or gas) which
extinguishes the arc.
Introduction
Figure 5.1 Separation of the contacts of circuit breaker
Arc Voltage
Figure 5.2 shows the wave shape of arc voltage. The
voltage drop across the arc is called arc voltage.

As the arc path is purely resistive, the arc voltage is
in phase with the arc current.

The magnitude of the arc voltage is very low,
amounting to only a few per cent of the rated voltage.
A typical value may be about 3 per cent of the rated
voltage.
Arc Voltage

Figure 5.2 Short circuit current and arc voltage
Arc
Interruption
There are two methods of arc
interruption:

1. High Resistance Interruption
2. Current Zero Interruption
1. High Resistance
Interruption
In this method of arc interruption, its
resistance is increased so as to
reduce the current to a value
insufficient to maintain the arc.

The arc resistance can be increased
by cooling, lengthening, constraining
and splitting the arc.
1. High Resistance
Interruption
When current is interrupted the energy
associated with its magnetic field
appears in the form of electrostatic
energy.

A high voltage appears across the
contacts of the circuit breaker.

1. High Resistance
Interruption
If this voltage is very high and more than
the withstanding capacity of the gap
between the contacts, the arc will strike
again.

Therefore, this method is not suitable for a
large-current interruption. This can be
employed for low power arc and dc circuit
breakers.
2. Current Zero
Interruption
This method is applicable only in case
of ac circuit breakers.

In case of ac supply, the current wave
passes through a zero point, 100
times per second at the supply
frequency of 50 Hz.

2. Current Zero
Interruption

This feature of ac is utilised for arc
interruption. The current is not interrupted
at any point other than the zero current
instant, otherwise a high transient voltage
will occur across the contact gap. The
current is not allowed to rise again after a
zero current occurs.
2. Current Zero
Interruption
There are two theories to explain the
zero current interruption of the arc.

1. Recovery rate theory (Slepains
Theory)
2. Energy balance theory (Cassies
Theory)
2. Current Zero
Interruption
Recovery rate theory

The arc is a column of ionised gases.

To extinguish the arc, the electrons and ions are to
be removed from the gap immediately after the
current reaches a natural zero.

Ions and electrons can be removed either by
recombining them into neutral molecules or by
sweeping them away by inserting insulating
medium (gas or liquid) into the gap.
2. Current Zero
Interruption
Recovery rate theory (cont.)

The arc is interrupted if ions are removed from the
gap at a rate faster than the rate of ionisation.

In this method , the rate at which the gap recovers
its dielectric strength is compared with the rate at
which the restriking voltage (transient voltage)
across the gap rises.

.
2. Current Zero
Interruption

If the dielectric strength increases more rapidly
than the restriking voltage, the arc is extinguished.

If the restriking voltage rises more rapidly than the
dielectric strength, the ionization persists and
breakdown of the gap occurs, resulting in an arc
for another half cycle.

Figure 5.3 explains the principle of recovery rate
theory.
2. Current Zero
Interruption
Figure 5.3 Recovery rate theory
2. Current Zero
Interruption
Energy balance theory

The space between the contacts contains some
ionised gas immediately after current zero and
hence, it has a finite post-zero resistance.

At the current zero moment, power is zero
because restriking voltage is zero.

When the arc is finally extinguished the power
again becomes zero, the gap is fully de-ionised
and its resistance is infinitely high.
2. Current Zero
Interruption
Energy balance theory (cont.)

In between these two limits, first the
power increases reaches a maximum
value, then decreases and finally
reaches zero value as shown in Fig. 5.4.

Due to the rise of restriking voltage and
associated current, energy is generated
in the space between the contacts.
2. Current Zero
Interruption

Figure 5.4 Energy balance theory
2. Current Zero
Interruption

The energy appears in the form of heat. The
circuit breaker is designed to remove this
generated heat as early as possible by cooling the
gap, giving a blast of air or flow of oil at high
velocity and pressure.

If the rate of removal of heat is faster than the rate
of heat generation the arc is extinguished. If the
rate of heat generation is more than the rate of
heat dissipation, the space breaks down again
resulting in an arc for another half cycle.
5.3 Restriking Voltage and Recovery Voltage
The voltage across the contacts of the circuit breaker is arc
voltage when the arc persists.

This voltage becomes the system voltage when the arc is
extinguished. The arc is extinguished at the instant of current
zero.

After the arc has been extinguished, the voltage across the
breaker terminals does not normalise instantaneously but it
oscillates and there is a transient condition.

The transient voltage which appears across the breaker
contacts at the instant of arc being extinguished is known as
restriking voltage.
5.3 Restriking Voltage and Recovery Voltage (cont.)
The power frequency rms voltage,
which appears across the breaker
contacts after the arc is finally
extinguished and transient oscillations
die out is called recovery voltage.

The instantaneous recovery voltage at the instant of
arc extinction is called active recovery voltage.
The instantaneous recovery voltage is given by :

V
ar
= kV
m
sin

Where k=1 if the three-phase fault is grounded and
k=1.5 if the three-phase fault is isolated. V
m
is peak
recovery voltage and is the power factor angle.

Figure 5.5 shows the restriking and recovery voltage.

Figure 5.5 Restriking and recovery voltage
5.3.1 Expression for Restriking Voltage and RRRV
Figure 5.6(a) shows a short circuit on a
feeder beyond the location of the circuit
breaker.

Figure 5.6(b) shows an equivalent electrical
circuit where L and C are the inductance and
capacitance per phase of the system up to
the point of circuit breaker location,
respectively.
5.3.1 Expression for Restriking Voltage and RRRV

Figure 5.6 (a) Fault on a feeder near circuit breaker
(b) Equivalent electrical circuit for analysis of
restriking voltage
5.3.1 Expression for Restriking Voltage and RRRV (cont.)
When the circuit breaker is closed, the short
circuit current flows through R, L and the
contacts of the circuit breaker, the
capacitance C being short-circuited by the
fault.

When the circuit breaker contacts are opened
and the arc is extinguished, the current is
diverted through the capacitance C, resulting
in a transient condition.
The inductance and the capacitance form a
series oscillatory circuit. The voltage across
the capacitance which is restriking voltage,
rises and oscillates, as shown in Fig. 5.5.

The natural frequency of oscillation is given
by

LC 2
1
f
n
=
The voltage across the capacitance
which is the voltage across the contacts
of the circuit breaker can be calculated
in terms of L, C, f
n
and system voltage.
The mathematical expression for
transient condition (neglecting
resistance) is as follows.
}
= + E dt i
C
1
dt
di
L
Where E is the system voltage at the
instant of arc interruption. As the
transient oscillation is a fast
phenomenon, E can be regarded as a
constant for a short duration.

Where v
c
= voltage across the capacitor
Therefore

dt
) d(cv
dt
dq
i
c
= =
Substituting these values in the equation
given above, we get

Taking Laplace Transform of both sides of
the equation, we get

Where (S) is the Laplace Transform of

E v
t d
v d
LC
c
2
c
2
= +
S
E
) ( v ) ( S LC
c
2
= + S S v
c
where v
c
(S) is the Laplace Transform of v
c
Other terms are zero as initially q = 0 at t = 0,

or

, therefore

=
=
LC
w
n
1
=
2
n
LC
1
=
or

)
(S
(
S
) S(S
E
(s) V
2
n
2
n n
2
n
2
2
n
c
+
=
+
=
E
Taking the inverse Laplace, we get
}
=
t
0
n n c
t sin E (t) V
t
0
n
n
n c
t cos
E (t) V
(
=
As

= 0 at t = 0, constant = 0
(t) = E(1 cos w
n
t ) , or

= Restriking voltage
The maximum value of restriking voltage = 2 E
peak
= 2 x peak value of the system voltage
The Rate of Rise of Restriking voltage (RRRV)
=
(1 - cos w
n
t) = w
n
E sin w
n
t

The maximum value of RRRV = w
n
E
= w
n
E
peak

Assignment
Example 5.1
Example 5.1 For a 132 kV system, the reactance and
capacitance up to the location of the circuit breaker is 3 ohms
and 0.015 F, respectively. Calculate the following:

a. The frequency of transient oscillation.

b. The maximum value of restriking voltage across
the contacts of the circuit breaker

c. The maximum value of RRRV

Example 5.1
Solution

(a)The frequency of transient oscillation

L =
, f = 50, the system frequency
= 0.00954 H =
= =
=
= 13.291 kHz =
Example 5.1
(b) The restriking voltage

= E [ 1 - cos w
n
t ]
The maximum value of the restriking voltage = 2 E
peak

= 2 x
= 215.56 kV
(c) maximum value of RRRV = w
n
E
peak

1000 2
3
132
2 x x x f
n
t =
V/s x1000 2 x
3
132
x 0 13.291x100 2 x =
kV/V 9.01045 V/s 10 x 9010.45
6
= =
sec
Example 5.2
Example 5.2 : In a short circuit test on a 132
kV 3-phase system, the breaker gave the
following result : p.f. of the fault 0.4, recovery
voltage 0.95 of full line value, the breaking
current is symmetrical and the restriking
transient had a natural frequency of 16 kHz.
Determine the rate of rise of restriking voltage.
Assume the fault is grounded.
Example 5.2
Solution :

The peak value of line to neutral voltage =

kV 107.75 2
3
132
=
( )
kV 93.85 0.916 x 102.4
0.4 cos sin x x107.75 0.95 V
1
ar
= =
=

Example 5.2
The maximum restriking voltage = 2 x 93.85
= 187.7 kV

sec
16 x 2
10
2f
1
t where
t
V
RRRV
3
n
= = =
kV/V/ 6.0
kV/sec 10 x 187.7 x 32
10
16 x 2 x 187.7
RRRV
3
3 -
=
= =
sec
Determination of Recovery Voltage
The recovery voltage is an indication of
the severity of the test.
Less than the normal system voltage
due to voltage drop.
A typical recovery voltage oscillogram is
shown in the figure

Determination of Recovery voltage
YELLOW PHASE V
In this oscillogram, Line LL is drawn through the point
of final arc extinction, this point being determined
from an examination of the three corresponding
current waveforms.
Line MM and NN are drawn at half-cycle intervals
from LL.
The peak to peak recovery voltage (V
1
,V
2
, etc) are
measured during the second complete half-cycle
after final arc extinction, that is between the lines MM
and NN.
If a peak to peak voltage occurs exactly on these
lines, it is measured on NN, as shown.
The above measurements are made during the
second half-cycle so as to allow a reasonable time for
the high frequency restriking transients to disappear
and for the voltage recovery to commence.
The rms recovery voltage for any phase is obtained
by dividing the peak to peak value by 2\2.
Average recovery line voltage for a three-phase
breaker is

1 2 3
( )
3
2 2 3
V V V
x
+ +

5.4 Resistance Switching
To reduce the restriking voltage, RRRV and severity of
the transient oscillations, a resistance is connected
across the contacts of the circuit breaker.

This is known as resistance switching. The resistance is
in parallel with the arc.

A part of the arc current flows through this resistance
resulting in a decrease in the arc current and increase in
the deionization of the arc path and resistance of the
arc.
This process continues and the current through the
shunt resistance increases and arc current decreases.
Due to the decrease in the arc current, restriking voltage
and RRRV are reduced.

The resistance may be automatically switched in with
the help of a sphere gap as shown in Fig. 5.7.

The resistance switching is of great help in switching out
capacitive current or low inductive current.
Figure 5.7 Resistance switching
The analysis of resistance switching can be made to find
out the critical value of the shunt resistance to obtain
complete damping of transient oscillations. Figure 5.8
shows the equivalent electrical circuit for such an
analysis.
Figure 5.8 Circuit
for analysis of
resistance switching
The voltage equation is given by
R C C
i i i and E dt i
C
1
dt
di
L + = = +
}
Therefore, the above equation become
E
dt
) i d(i
L
C
R C
= +
+
E
dt
di
L
dt
di
L
C
R C
= + +
dt
) d(C
dt
dq
i
c
C
= =
Therefore,
2
c
2
2
c
2
c
dt
d
C
dt
) (C d
dt
di
= =
dt
d
R
1
dt
/R) ( d
dt
di
c c R
= =
Substituting these values in the main equation, we get
E
dt
d
R
L
dt
d
LC
C
c
2
C
2
= + +
v v
Taking Laplace Transform, we get
Other terms are zero, as
For no transient oscillation, all the root of the equation should
be real. One root is zero, i.e. S = 0 which is real. For the
other two roots to be real, the roots of the quadratic equation
in the denominator should be real. For this, the following
condition should be satisfied.
C L/
Therefore, if the value of the resistance connected across the
contacts of the circuit breaker is equal to or less than
there will be no transient oscillation.
If R > there will be oscillation. R = is known as critical resistance.
Figure 5.9 shows the transient conditions for three different values of
R. The frequency of damped oscillation is given by
Figure 5.9 Transient oscillations for different value of R
Example 5.3 In a 220 kV system, the reactance and
capacitance up to the location of circuit breaker is 8O
and 0.025 F, respectively. A resistance of 600 ohms
is connected across the contacts of the circuit breaker.
Determine the following:
1. Natural frequency of oscillation
2. Damped frequency of oscillation
3. Critical value of resistance which will give no
transient oscillation
4. The value of resistance which will give damped
frequency of oscillation, one-fourth of the natural
frequency of oscillation.
f = 3.413 kHz
f =

(ii) Frequency of damped oscillation is given by
=

kHz 413 . 3
9
10
36 . 6
10
2
1
10 10
=
t
=
(iii) The value of critical resistance

O = = = 35 . 504
10 x 0.025
0.02544
2
1
C
L
2
1
R
6 -
5.5 Current Chopping
When low inductive current is being interrupted and
the arc quenching force of the circuit breaker is more
than necessary to interrupt a low magnitude of
current, the current will be interrupted before its
natural zero instant.

In such a situation, the energy stored in the magnetic
field appears in the form of high voltage across the
stray capacitance, which will cause restriking of the
arc.
The energy stored in the magnetic field is Li
2
, if i is the
instantaneous value of the current which is interrupted. This
will appear in the form of electrostatic energy equal to cv
2
.
As these two energies are equal, they can be related as
follows.
Figure 5.10 shows the current chopping phenomenon.

If the value of v is more than the withstanding capacity of the
gap between the contacts, the arc appears again.

Since the quenching force is more, the current is again
chopped.

The phenomenon continues till the value of v becomes less
than the withstanding capacity of the gap.

The theoretical value of v is called the prospective value of the
voltage.
Figure 5.10 Current chopping
Example 5.4 A circuit breaker interrupts the magnetising
current of a 100 MVA transformer at 220 kV. The
magnetising current of the transformer is 5% of the full load
current. Determine the maximum voltage which may appear
across the gap of the breaker when the magnetising current
is interrupted at 53% of its peak value. The stray
capacitance is 2500 F. The inductance is 30H.
Solution

The full load current of the transformer
=
= 262.44 A
Magnetising current =
x 262.44 = 34.44 A
Current chopping occurs at 0.53 x 34.44 = 25.83 A
5.6 Interruption Capacitive Current
The interruption of capacitive current produces high voltage
transients across the gap of the circuit breaker.

This occurs when an unloaded long transmission line or a
capacitor bank is switched off.

Figure 5.11(a) shows an equivalent electrical circuit of a
simple power system. C represents stray capacitance of the
circuit breaker. C
L
represents line capacitance. The value of
C
L
is much more than C.

Figure 5.11(b) shows transient voltage across the gap of the
circuit breaker when capacitive current is interrupted
(a)Electrical circuit of a simple power system
Figure 5.11 Interruption of capacitive current
At the instant M, the capacitance current is zero and the
system voltage is maximum. If an interruption occurs, the
capacitors C
L
remains charged at the maximum value of the
system voltage. After instant M, the voltage across the breaker
gap is the difference of V
c
and V
CL
. At instant N, i.e. half-cycle
from A, the voltage across the gap is twice the maximum value
of V
c
. At this moment, the breaker may restrike.

If the arc restrikes, the voltage across the gap becomes
practically zero. Thus, the voltage across the gap falls from
2V
cmax
to zero. A severe high frequency oscillation occurs.
The voltage oscillates about points between R and N, i.e.
between -3e
max
and e
max
.

When restriking current reaches zero, the arc may be
interrupted again. At this stage, the capacitor C
L
remains
charged at the voltage -3e
max
.

At instant P, the system voltage reaches its positive
maximum shown by the point T in the figure, and at this
moment the voltage across the gap becomes 4e
max
. The
capacitive current reaches zero again and there may be an
interruption.
If the interruption occurs at this moment, the transient
voltage oscillates between P (-3e
max
) and Q (+5e
max
).

In this way, the voltage across the gap goes on increasing.
But in practice, it is limited to 4 times the peak value of the
system voltage.

Thus, it is seen that there is a problem of high transient of
high transient voltage while interrupting a capacitive
current.
5.7 Classification of Circuit Breaker
The classification of circuit breakers has been made
on the basis of insulating medium employed in the
circuit breakers to extinguish the arc. Depending
on the arc quenching medium employed, the
following are important types of circuit breakers.
(i) Oil Circuit Breakers
(ii) Air Blast Circuit Breakers
(iii) Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF
6
)
Circuit Breakers
(iv) Vacuum Circuit Breakers
5.8 Oil Circuit Breaker
Mineral oil has better insulating properties
than air. Due to this very reason it is
employed in many electrical equipment
including circuit breakers.

Oil has also good cooling property. In a
circuit breaker when arc is formed, it
decomposes oil into gases. Hence, the arc
energy is absorbed in decomposing the oil.
5.8 Oil Circuit Breaker
The main disadvantage of oil is that it is
inflammable and may pose a fire hazard.

Other disadvantages include the possibility of
forming explosive mixture with air and the
production of carbon particles in the oil due to
heating, which reduces its dielectric strength.

There are various types of oil circuit breakers
developed for use in different situations. Some
important types are discussed below.
5.8.1 Plain-break Oil Circuit Breakers
In a plain-break oil circuit breaker there is a fixed and a
moving contact immersed in oil. The metal tank is strong,
weather tight and earthed.

Figure 5.12 shows a double break plain oil circuit breaker.

When contacts separate there is a severe arc which
decomposes the oil into gases. The gas obtained from
the oil is mainly hydrogen. The volume of gases
produced is about one thousand times that of the oil
decomposed. Hence, the oil is pushed away from arc and
the gaseous medium surrounds the arc.
Figure 5.12 Plain-break oil circuit breaker
The arc quenching factors are as follows:

(i) Elongation of the arc

(ii) Formation of gaseous medium in between the
fixed and moving contacts. This has a high
heat conductivity and high dielectric strength.

(iii) Turbulent motion of the oil, resulting from the
gases passing through it.
A large gaseous pressure is developed
because a large amount of energy is dissipated
within the tank.

Therefore, the tank of the circuit breaker is
made strong to withstand such a large
pressure.

When gas is formed around the arc, the oil is
displaced.
To accommodate the displaced oil, an air
cushion between the oil surface and the tank is
essential.

The air cushion also absorbs the mechanical
shock produced due to upward oil movement.
It necessary to provide some form of vent fitted
in the tank cover for the gas outlet.

A sufficient level of oil above the contacts is
required to provide substantial oil pressure at
the arc
Certain gap between the contacts must be created
before the arc interruption occurs.

To achieve this, the speed of the break should be as
high as possible.

The two breaks in series provide rapid arc elongation
without the need for a specially fast contact. The
double break also provides ample gap distance before
arc interruption.

But this arrangement has the disadvantage of unequal
voltage distribution across the breaks.
Figure 5.13 shows voltage distribution across
breaks. C is the capacitance between the fixed
contact and moving contact, C is the
capacitance between the moving contact and
earth. V
1
is the voltage across the first contact
and V
2
across the second contact. Suppose
the fault current is i.
The voltages V
1
and V
2
will be expressed as follows :
Figure 5.13 Voltage
distribution across
breaks
The capacitance between the moving contact and
earth C is in parallel with C, the capacitance of
the second break.
Taking C = 8 pF and C = 16 pF, we get

V
1
+ V
2
= V = system voltage
V
2
= 25% of the system voltage
and
V
1
= 75% of the system voltage
To equalise the voltage distribution across the breaks,
non-linear resistors are connected across each break.

The plain break circuit breakers are employed for breaking
of low current at comparatively lower voltages. They are
used on low voltage d.c. circuits and on low voltage a.c.
distribution circuits. Their size becomes unduly large for
higher voltages.

Also, they require large amount of transformer oil. They
are not suitable for autoreclosing. Their speed is slow.
They can be used up to 11 kV with an interrupting capacity
up to 250 MVA.
5.8.2 Self-generated Oil Circuit Breakers
In this type of circuit-breakers, arc energy is
utilised to generate a high pressure in a
chamber known as explosion pot or pressure
chamber or arc controlling device.

The contacts are enclosed within the pot.

The pot is made of insulating material and it is
placed in the tank. Such breakers have high
interrupting capacity. The arcing time is
reduced.
Since the pressure is developed by the arc itself, it
depends upon the magnitude of the current. Therefore,
the pressure will be low at low current and high at high
values of the current. This creates a problem in
designing a suitable explosion pot.

At low current, pressure generated should be sufficient
to extinguish the arc.

At heavy currents, the pressure should not be too high
so as to burst the pot. Various types of explosion pots
have been developed to suit various requirements. A
few of them have been discussed below.
Figured 5.14 shows a plain explosion pot.

This is the simplest form of an explosion pot.

When the moving contact separates a severe arc is
formed. The oil is decomposed and gas is produced. It
generates a high pressure within the pot because there
is a close fitting throat at the lower end of the pot.

The high pressure developed causes turbulent flow of
streams of the gas into the arc resulting in arc-
extinction.
Plain explosion pot
Plain explosion pot (cont.)
Figure 5.14 Plain explosion pot
If the arc extinction does not occur within the pot, it occurs
immediately after the moving contact leaves the pot, due
to the high velocity axial blast of the gas which is released
through the throat.

Since the arc extinction in the plain explosion pot is
performed axially, it is also known as an axial extinction
pot. This type of a pot is not suitable for breaking of heavy
currents. The pot may burst due to very large pressure.

At low currents, the arcing time is more. Hence, type of an
explosion pot is suitable for the interruption of currents of
medium range.
Plain explosion pot (cont.)
Figure 5.15 shows a cross-jet explosion pot.

It is suitable for high current interruptions. Arc splitters
are used to obtain an increased arc length for a given
amount of contact travel. When the moving contact is
separated from the fixed contact, an arc is formed, as
shown in Fig. 5.15(a).

The arc is pushed into the arc splitters as shown in Fig.
5.15(b), and finally it is extinguished, as in Fig. 5.15 (c).
In this type of a pot, the oil blast is across the arc and
hence it is known as a cross-jet explosion pot.
Cross-jet explosion pot
Figure 5.15 Cross-jet
explosion pot
Self-compensated explosion pot
This type of a pot is a combination of a cross-jet explosion pot
and a plain explosion pot.

Figure 5.16 shows a self-compensated explosion pot. Its upper
portion is a cross-explosion pot, and the lower portion a plain
explosion pot.

On heavy currents the rate of gas generation is very high and
consequently, the pressure produced is also very high.

The arc extinction takes place when the first or second lateral
orifice of the arc splitter is uncovered by the moving contact.
The pot operates as a cross-jet explosion pot.
Self-compensated explosion pot (cont)
Figure 5.16 Self-compensated explosion pot
Self-compensated explosion pot (cont)
When the current is low, the pressure is also low in the
beginning. So the arc is not extinguished when the tip of the
moving contact is in the upper portion of the pot.

By the time the moving contact reaches the orifice at the
bottom of the pot, sufficient pressure is developed.

The arc is extinguished by the plain explosion pot action.
Thus, it is seen that the pot is suitable for low as well as high
current interruptions.

5.8.3 Double Break Oil Circuit Breakers
To obtain high speed arc interruption, particularly
at low currents, various improved designs of the
explosion pot have been presented.

Double break oil circuit breaker is also one of
them. It employs an intermediate contact
between the fixed and moving contact. When
the moving contact separates, the intermediate
contact also follows it.
The arc first appears between the fixed contact
and the intermediate contact. Soon after, the
intermediate contact stops and a second arc
appears between the intermediate contact and
the moving contact.

The second arc is extinguished quickly
employing gas pressure and oil momentum
developed by the first arc. Figure 5.17 (a) shows
an axial blast pot and Fig. 5.17(b) shows a cross
blast pot.
Figure 5.17 Double break oil circuit
breakers
5.8.4 Bulk Oil and Minimum Oil Circuit
Breakers
In bulk oil circuit breakers, oil performs two
functions.

It acts as an arc extinguishing medium and it also
serves as insulation between the live terminals and
earth. The tank of a bulk oil circuit breaker is
earthed.

Its main drawback is that it requires a huge amount
of oil at higher voltages. Due to this very reason it is
not used at higher voltages.
Breakers
A minimum content oil circuit breaker does not employ a
steel tank. Its container is made of porcelain or other
insulating material.

This type of a circuit breaker consists of two sections namely
an upper chamber and a lower chamber.

The upper chamber contains an arc control device, fixed and
a moving contact. The lower chamber acts as an insulating
support and it contains the operating mechanism.

These two chambers are filled with oil but they are physically
separated from each other.
Breakers
The arc control device is placed in a resin bounded
glass fiber cylinder (or backelised paper encloser).

This cylinder is also filled with oil. The fibre glass
cylinder is then placed in a porcelain cylinder. The
annular space between the fibre-glass cylinder and
the porcelain insulator is also filled with oil.
Minimum oil circuit breakers arc available in the
voltage range of 3.3 kV to 420 kV. Now-a-days they
are superseded by SF
6
circuit breakers
Breakers
One of the important advantages that the bulk
oil circuit breaker has over both the low
content oil circuit breakers and air blast circuit
breakers is that the protective current
transformers can be accommodated on the
bushings instead of being supplied as a
separate piece of apparatus
Breakers
The number of interrupter units contained in a tank
depends upon the fault current to be interrupted,
and the system voltage. Up to 11kV voltage, the
minimum oil circuit breakers generally employ a
single interrupter per phase.

The typical figures for higher voltages are, two per
phase at 132 kV, and six per phase at 275 kV. Each
interrupter has a provision of resistance switching (a
typical value being 1200 O , linear wire wound
resistor) to damp restriking voltage.
5.9 Air Blast Circuit Breakers
In air blast circuit breakers, compressed air at a pressure of
10-30 kg/cm
2
is employed as an arc quenching medium.

Air blast circuit breakers are suitable for operating voltages of
132 kV and above. They have also been used in 11kV-33 kV
range for certain applications.

At present, SF6 circuit breakers are preferred for 132 kV and
above. Vacuum circuit breakers are preferred for 11 kV 33
kV range.

Therefore, the air blast circuit breakers are becoming
obsolete.
The advantages of air blast circuit breakers over oil circuit
breakers are:

1. Cheapness and free availability of the interrupting
medium, chemical stability and inertness of air.
2. High speed operation
3. Elimination of fire hazard
4. Short and consistent arcing time and therefore, less
burning of contacts.
5. Less maintenance
6. Suitability for frequent operation
7. Facility for high speed reclosure

The disadvantages of an air blast circuit breaker are as
follows.

1. An air compressor plant has to be installed and
maintained.
2. Upon arc interruption the air blast circuit breaker
produces a high-level noise when air is discharged to the
open atmosphere. In residential areas, silencers need to
be provided to reduce the noise level to an acceptable
level.
3. Problem of current chopping
4. Problem of restriking voltage
Switching resistors and equalising capacitors are
generally connected across the interrupters. The
switching resistors reduce transient overvoltages
and help arc interruption. Capacitors are employed
to equalise the voltage across the breaks.

The number of breaks depends upon the system
voltages. For example, there are 2 for 66 kV, 2 to 4
for 132 kV, 2 to 6 for 220 kV, 4 to 12 for 400 kV, 8 to
12 for 750 kV.


The breaking capacities are, 5000 MVA at 66
kV, 10,000 MVA at 132 kV, 20,000 MVA at
220 kV; 35000 MVA at 400 kV, 40,000 MVA at
500 kV; 60,000 MVA at 750 kV.

Circuit breakers for higher interrupting
capacity have also been designed for 1000
kV and 1100 kV systems.
An air-blast circuit breaker may be either of
the following two types.

1. Cross-blast Circuit Breakers

2. Axial-blast Circuit Breakers
5.9.1 Cross-blast Circuit Breakers
In a cross-blast type circuit breaker, a high-pressure blast of
air is directed perpendicularly to the arc for its interruption.

Figure 5.18 (a) shows a schematic diagram of a cross-blast
type circuit breaker.

The arc is forced into a suitable chute. Sufficient lengthening
of the arc is obtained, resulting in the introduction of
appreciable resistance in the arc itself. Therefore, resistance
switching is not common in this type of circuit breakers.

Cross-blast circuit breakers are suitable for interrupting high
current (up to 100 kA) at comparatively lower voltages.
5.9.1 Cross-blast Circuit Breakers
Figure 5.18 (a) Cross-blast circuit breaker (b) Single blast type axial-blast
circuit breaker (c) Double blast type ( or radial-blast type) axial-blast circuit
breaker
5.9.1 Axial-blast Circuit Breakers
In an axial-blast type breaker, a high-pressure
blast of air is directed longitudinally, i.e. in line
with the arc. Figure 5.18 (b) and (c) show
axial-blast type circuit breakers.

Figure 5.18(b) shows a single blast type.
Whereas Fig. 5.18(c) shows a double blast
type or radial blast type.

Figure 5.18
(d) : axial-
blast type
circuit
breakers.

Axial blast circuit breakers are suitable for EHV and
super high voltage application. This is because
interrupting chambers can be fully enclosed in
porcelain tubes. Resistance switching is employed
to reduce the transient overvoltages.

The number of breaks depends upon the system
voltage, for example, 4 at 220 kV and 8 at 750 kV.
Air-blast circuit breakers have also been
commissioned for 1100 kV system.
5.10 Air-break Circuit Breakers
Oil circuit breakers are not suitable for heavy
current interruption at low voltages due to
carbonisation of oil, whereas air-break circuit
breakers are quite suitable for high current
interruption at low voltages.

In this type of a circuit breaker, air at
atmospheric pressure is used as an arc
extinguishing medium.
Figure 5.19 shows an air-break circuit breaker. It
employs two pairs of contacts main contacts and
arcing contacts.

The main contacts carry current when the breaker is in
closed position. They have low contact resistance.

When contacts are opened, the main contacts separate
first, the arcing contacts still remain closed. Therefore,
the current is shifted from the main contacts to the
arcing contacts. The arcing contacts separate later on
and the arc is drawn between them.
Figure 5.19 Air-break
circuit breaker
Figure 5.19 Air-break
circuit breaker
In air-break circuit breakers, the principle of
high resistance is employed for arc
interruption. The arc resistance is increased
by lengthening, splitting and cooling the arc.
The arc length is rapidly increased employing
arc runners and arc chutes. The arc moves
upward by both electromagnetic and thermal
effects. It moves along the arc runner and
then it is forced into a chute. It is splitted by
arc splitters.
A blow-out coil is employed to provide
magnetic field to speed up arc movement and
to direct the arc into arc splitters. The blow-
out coil is not connected in the circuit
permanently. It comes in the circuit by the arc
automatically during the breaking process.
The arc interruption is assisted by current
zero in case of ac air break circuit breakers.
High resistance is obtained near current zero.
AC air-break circuit breakers are available in the
voltage range 400 to 12 kV. They are widely
used in low and medium voltage system.

They are extensively used with electric furnaces,
with large motors requiring frequent starting, in a
place where chances of fire hazard exist, etc.

Air-break circuit breakers are also used in dc
circuit up to 12 kV.

5.11 SF
6
Circuit Breakers
Suphur hexafluoride (SF
6
) has good dielectric
strength and excellent arc quenching property.

It is an inert, nontoxic, nonflammable and heavy
gas.

At atmospheric pressure, its dielectric strength is
about 2.5 times that of air.

At 3 atmospheric pressure its dielectric strength is
equal to that of transformer oil.
5.11 SF
6
Circuit Breakers
It is an electronegative gas, i.e. it has high affinity for
electrons.

When a free electron comes in collision with a neutral
gas molecule, the electron is absorbed by the neutral
gas molecule and a negative ion is formed.

As the negative ions so formed are heavy they do not
attain sufficient energy to contribute to ionization of the
gas. The property gives a good dielectric property.
5.11 SF
6
Circuit Breakers
Besides good dielectric strength, the gas has an
excellent property of recombination after the
removal of the source which energizes the arc.

This gives an excellent arc quenching property.

The gas has also an excellent heat transfer
property. Its thermal time constant is about 1000
times shorter than that of air.
5.11 SF
6
Circuit Breakers
Under normal conditions, SF
6
is chemically inert and it does
not attack metals or glass. However, it decomposes to SF
4
,
SF
2
, S
2
, F
2
, S and F at temperatures of the order of 1000
o
C.

After arc extinction, the products of decomposition recombine
in a short time, within about 1 microsecond.

In the presence of moisture, the decomposition products can
attack contacts, metal parts and rubber sealings in SF
6
circuit
breakers. Therefore, the gas in the breaker must be
moisture-free. To absorb decomposition products, a mixture
of soda line (NaOH + CaO) and activated alumina can be
placed in the arcing chamber.
5.11 SF
6
Circuit Breakers
One major disadvantage of SF
6
is its condensation at low
temperature.

The temperature at which SF
6
changes to liquid depends on
the pressure. At 15 atm. Pressure, the gas liquefies at a
temperature of about 10
0
C.

Hence, SF
6
breakers are equipped with thermostatically
controlled heaters wherever such low ambient temperatures
are encountered.
5.11 SF
6
Circuit Breakers
SF
6
circuit breakers are manufactured in the voltage range
3.6 kV to 765 kV. However, they are preferred for voltages
132 kV and above.

The dielectric strength of SF
6
gas increases rapidly after final
current zero. SF
6
circuit breakers can withstand severe
RRRV and are capable of breaking capacitive current without
restriking. Problems of current chopping are minimised.

Electrical clearances are very much reduced due to high
dielectric strength of SF
6
.
5.11.1 Types of SF
6
Circuit Breakers
This is the early design of SF
6
circuit breakers. Its operating
principle is similar to that of air-blast circuit breakers.

In this type of a circuit breaker, the gas from a high-pressure
compartment is released to the low pressure compartment to
extinguish the arc.

Because of its complicated design and construction, and its
need for various auxiliaries such as gas compressors, filters
and control devices, this type of circuit breakers have
become obsolete.
Double-pressure SF
6
circuit breakers
5.11.1 Types of SF
6
Circuit Breakers
This type of circuit breakers are also sometimes
called single-pressure or impulse type SF
6
circuit
breakers.

In this type of breakers, gas is compressed by a
moving cylinder system and is released through
a nozzle to quench the arc. This type is
available in the voltage range 3.6 kV to 765 kV.
Puffer-type SF
6
circuit breakers
5.11.1 Types of SF
6
Circuit Breakers
Figure 5.20 (a) shows a puffer-type breaker in
closed position. The moving cylinder and the
moving contact are coupled together.

When the contacts separate and the moving
cylinder moves, the trapped gas is compressed.
The trapped gas is released through a nozzle and
flows axially to quench the arc as shown in Fig.
5.20(b).
Puffer-type SF
6
circuit breakers (cont.)
5.11.1 Types of SF
6
Circuit Breakers
Figure 5.20 Puffer-type SF
6
circuit breaker
5.11.1 Types of SF
6
Circuit Breakers
There are two types of tank designs. Live
tank design and dead tank design.

In live tank design, interrupters are supported
on porcelain insulators. In the dead tank
design, interrupters are placed in SF6 filled-
tank which is at earth potential. Live tank
design is preferred for outdoor substations.
Puffer-type SF
6
5.11.1 Types of SF
6
Circuit Breakers
A number of interrupters (connected in series) on
insulating supports are employed for EHV systems up to
765 kV. Two interrupters are used in a 420 kV system.
Breaking time of 2 to 3 cycles can be achieved.

In the circuit breaker the steady pressure of the gas is
kept at 5 kg/cm
2
. The gas pressure in the interrupter
compartment increases rapidly to a level much above its
steady value to quench the arc.
Puffer-type SF
6
5.12 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
The dielectric strength and arc interrupting ability of high
vacuum is superior to those of porcelain, oil, air and SF
6
at
atmospheric pressure.

SF
6
at 7 atm. pressure and air at 25 atm. pressure have
dielectric strengths higher than that of high vacuum. The
pressure of 10
-5
mm of mercury and below is considered to
be high vacuum.

Low pressures are generally measured in terms of torr; 1 torr
being equal to 1 mm of mercury. It has now become
possible to achieve pressures as low as 10
-8
torr.
When contacts separate in a gas, arc is formed due to the
ionized molecules of the gas.

The mean free path of the gas molecules is small and the
ionization process multiplies the number of electrons to form
an electron avalanche. In high vacuum, of the order of 10
-5

mm of mercury, the mean free path of the residual gas
molecules becomes very large. It is of the order of a few
meters.
Therefore, when contacts are separated by a few
mm in high vacuum, an electron travels in the gap
without collision. The formation of arc in high
vacuum is not possible due to the formation of
electron avalanche.

In vacuum arc electrons and ions do not come from
the medium in which the arc is drawn but they come
from the electrodes due to the evaporation of their
surface material.
The breakdown strength is independent of gas
density. It depends only on the gap length and
surface condition and the material of the electrode.

The breakdown strength of highly polished and
thoroughly degassed electrodes is higher. Copper-
bismuth, silver-bismuth, silver-lead and copper-lead
are good materials for making contacts of the
breaker
The breakdown strength is independent of gas
density. It depends only on the gap length and
surface condition and the material of the
electrode.

The breakdown strength of highly polished and
thoroughly degassed electrodes is higher.
Copper-bismuth, silver-bismuth, silver-lead and
copper-lead are good materials for making
contacts of the breaker
When contacts are separated in high vacuum,
an arc is drawn between them. The arc does
not take place on the entire surface of the
contacts but only on a few spots.

The contact surface is not perfectly smooth.
It has certain microprojections. At the time of
contact separation, these projections form the
last points of separation.
The current flows through these points of
separation resulting in the formation of a few
hot spots.

These hot sports emit electrons and act as
cathode spots. In addition to thermal
emission, electrons emission may be due to
field emission and secondary emission.
Figure 5.21 shows the schematic diagram of a vacuum
circuit breaker. Its enclosure is made of insulating
material such as glass, porcelain or glass fibre
reinforced plastic.

The vapour condensing shield is made of synthetic
resin. This shield provided to prevent metal vapour
reaching the insulating envelope.

As the interrupter has a sealed construction a stainless
metallic bellows is used to allow the movement of the
lower contact.
Figure 5.21 Vacuum
circuit breaker
One of its end is welded to the moving contact.
Its other end is welded to the lower end flange.
Its contacts have large disc-shaped faces.

These faces contain spiral segments so that the
arc current produces axial magnetic field.

This geometry helps the arc to move over the
contact surface.
The movement of arc over the contact surface
minimises metal evaporation, and hence erosion
of the contact due to arc.

Two metal end flanges are provided. They
support the fixed contact, outer insulating
enclosure, vapour condensing shield and the
metallic bellows. The sealing technique is
similar to that used in electronic valves
The vacuum circuit breaker is very simple in
construction compared to other types of circuit breaker.

The contact separation is about 1 cm which is adequate
for current interruption in vacuum. As the breaker is
very compact, power required to close and open its
contacts is much less compared to other types of
breaker.

It is capable of interrupting capactive and small inductive
current, without producing excessive transient
overvoltages.
Vacuum circuit breakers have other
advantages like suitability for repeated
operations, least maintenance, silent
operation, long life, high speed of
dielectric recovery, less weight of moving
parts, etc..
In a.c., when the current decreases, vapour emission
decreases. Near current zero, the rate of vapour emission
tends to zero.

Immediately after current zero, the remaining vapour
condenses and the dielectric strength increases rapidly.

At current zero, cathode spots extinguish within 10
-8
second.
The rate of dielectric recovery is many times higher than that
obtained in other types of circuit breakers. Its typical value
may be as high as 20 kV/s.
Vacuum circuit breakers have now
become popular for voltage ratings
up to 36 kV. Up to 36 kV they
employ a single interrupter.
5.13 Operating Mechanism
To open and close the contacts of a
circuit breaker, one of the
following mechanisms is
employed
(i) Spring
(ii) Solenoid
(iii) Compressed Air
Opening and closing of a circuit breaker should be quick
and reliable. Closing is slow compared to opening.
For reliability, both operations should be independent
of the main supply.

The force for the opening of a circuit breaker may be
applied by spring or compressed air. When spring is
used for opening, it is precharged, i.e. compressed .
The precharging may be done by hand or a motor or
by the closing mechanism. The closing mechanism
may be spring, solenoid or compressed air.
If the system uses spring for both opening as well as closing,
the closing spring has a higher energy level and is
charged by motor-driven gears. Two separate springs
are employed, one for closing and the other for opening.

The force of the closing spring is utilized for closing the
breaker and also for charging the spring which is used for
opening. The closing mechanism also latches the moving
contact in the closed position.

When the tripping signal is received, a small solenoid is
energised, which releases the latch and permits the
spring to exert its force to open the contact.
For large oil circuit breakers, solenoid is used for
closing and a spring is used for opening.

For medium size breakers, where provision of
battery for solenoid is uneconomical, spring is
employed for closing as well as opening.

In EHV oil circuit breakers, compressed air is used
for closing and a spring is used for opening. The
spring is charged during the closing stroke.
In air blast circuit breakers, compressed air is used for both
closing and opening.

In some cases of air blast circuit breakers, the moving
contact is held in closed position by a spring.

When compressed air enters the arc chamber and its
pressure exceeds the spring force, the contacts
automatically come in the closed position by the spring
action when the supply of compressed air is stopped.
Therefore, the supply of compressed air must be
maintained till the auxiliary circuit breaker switch is
opened.
In SF
6
circuit breaker, compressed air may be used for
closing and a spring for opening or compressed air for
both closing as well as opening.

In vacuum circuit breakers, a solenoid or spring mechanism
is fixed to the lower end to move a metallic bellows
upward or downward inside the chamber during closing
or opening the contacts.

The closing mechanism must be tripfree, i.e. if a tripping
signal comes during the closing operation, the circuit
breaker must trip immediately
Spring are very good for opening as their force is large in the
beginning and gradually decreases as the distance of
travel of the moving contact increases. But it is not
suitable for closing because the closing operation must
be a smart one. However, in circuit breakers of small
capacity, it is also used for closing.

The spring which is used for closing is charged by hand or a
motor. In small circuit breakers, the spring can be
charged by hand. For large ones, it is charged by means
of a motor. The spring which is used for opening is
charged by the closing mechanism.
Solenoids are very good for closing. The force of attraction
increases when the distance between the contacts
decreases. They are not suitable for opening because
they are slow in action.

Compressed air is suitable for both closing as well as
opening as its force remains almost constant even when
the distance between the contacts increases or
decreases.

Figure 5.22 shows the characteristics of the opening and
closing mechanisms.
Figure 5.22 Characteristics of operating mechanism
5.14 Selection of Circuit Breakers
Table 5.1 shows the summary of
various types of circuit breakers,
their voltage ranges and arc
quenching medium they employ.

Table 5.2 shows the choice of circuit
breakers for various voltage
ranges.
Type Arc Quenching Medium Voltage Range and Breaking
Capacity
Miniature circuit breaker Air at atmospheric pressure 400-600 V; for small current
rating
Air-break circuit breaker Air at atmospheric pressure 400 V 11 kV; 5-750 MVA
Minimum oil circuit breaker Transformer oil 3.3 kV 220 kV;
150 25000 MVA
Vacuum circuit breaker Vacuum 3.3 kV 33 kV;
250 2000 MVA
SF
6
circuit breaker SF
6
at 5kg/cm
2
pressure 3.3 765 kV;
1000 50,000 MVA
Air blast circuit breaker Compressed air at high pressure
(20-30 kg/cm
2
)
6.6 kV 1100 kV;
2500 60,000 MVA
TABLE 5.1 Types of circuit breaker
Rated Voltage Choice of Circuit Breakers Remark
Below 1 kV Air-break CB
3.3 kV 33 kV Vacuum CB, SF
6
CB, minimum oil CB Vacuum preferred
132 kV 220 kV SF
6
CB, air blast CB, minimum oil CB SF
6
preferred
400 kV 760 kV SF
6
CB, air blast CB SF
6
is preferred
TABLE 5.2 Selection of Circuit Breakers
Earlier oil circuit breakers were preferred in the
voltage range of 3.3 kV - 66kV.

Between 132 kV and 220 kV, either oil circuit
breakers or air blast circuit breakers were
recommended.

For voltages 400 kV and above, air blast circuit
breakers were preferred.

The present trend is to recommend vacuum or SF
6

circuit breakers in the voltage range 3.3 kv
33kV.

For 132 kV and above, SF
6
circuit breakers are
preferred. Up to kV, air break circuit breakers are
used.

Air blast circuit breakers are becoming obsolete and
oil circuit breakers are being superseded by SF
6

and vacuum circuit breakers.
5.15 High Voltage DC Circuit Breakers
At present, HVDC transmission lines are used for point
to point transmission of large power over long
distance.

Such lines have many advantages over ac transmission
lines such as lower cost, less stability problems, less
corona loss and less radio interference, etc.

HVDC circuit breakers are not essential for single HVDC
transmission lines which are used for point to point
transmission.
The current in HVDC lines is controlled by controlling
the firing circuits of the thyristors employed in
rectifiers and inverters.

Switching operations are performed from ac side with
the help of ac circuit breakers.

If HVDC circuit breakers are available, parallel HVDC
lines, HVDC lines with a tap-off line, closed loop
circuit, etc. can also be planned and designed.
The additional circuit creates artificial current zeros which
are utilised for arc interruption as shown in Fig. 5.23.
Figure 5.23 Artificial current zeros in DC
Figure 5.24 shows the schematic diagram of a
HVDC circuit breaker.

It is consists of a main circuit breaker MCB
and a circuit to produce artificial current zero
and to suppress transient voltage.

The main circuit breaker MCB may either be
an SF
6
or vacuum circuit breaker.
Figure 5.24 HVDC circuit breaker
R and C are connected in parallel with the main circuit
breaker to reduce dv/dt after the final current zero.

L is a saturable reactor in series with the main circuit
breaker. It is used to reduce di/dt before current zero.

C
p
and L
p
are connected in parallel to produce artificial
current zero after the separation of the contacts in the
main circuit breaker MCB.

A non-linear resistor is used to suppress the transient
overvoltage which may be produced across the contacts
of the main circuit breaker.
Switch S, which is a triggered vacuum gap, is switched
immediately after the opening of the contacts of the main
circuit breaker.

The capacitor C
p
is precharged in the direction as shown
in the figure.

When S is closed, the precharged capacitor C
p

discharges through the main circuit breaker and sends a
current in opposition to the main to the main circuit
current.

This will force the main circuit current to become zero
with a few oscillations. The arc is interrupted at a current
zero
5.16 Rating of Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker has to perform the
following major duties under short-circuit
conditions.
(i) To open the contacts to clear the fault
(ii) To close the contacts onto a fault
(iii) To carry fault current for a short time
while another circuit breaker is clearing
the fault
5.16 Rating of Circuit Breakers
Therefore, in addition to the rated voltage,
current and frequency, circuit breakers
have the following important ratings.

(i) Breaking Capacity

(ii) Making Capacity

(iii) Short-time Capacity
5.16.1 Breaking Capacity
The breaking capacity of a circuit
breaker is of two types

(i) Symmetrical breaking capacity

(ii) Asymmetrical breaking capacity
Symmetrical breaking capacity

It is the rms value of the ac
component of the fault current that the
circuit breaker is capable of breaking
under specified conditions of recovery
voltage.
Asymmetrical breaking capacity

It is the rms value of the total current
comprising of both ac and dc
components of the fault current that
the circuit breaker can break under
specified conditions of recovery
voltage.
Figure 5.25 shows a short-circuit current wave.

The short-circuit current contains a dc
component which dies out gradually as shown in
the figure.

In the beginning, the short-circuit current is
asymmetrical due to the dc component.

When dc dies out completely, the short-current
becomes symmetrical.
Figure 5.25
Short-circuit
current
waveform
The line X-X indicates the instant of contact separation.

AB is the peak value of the ac component of the current
at this instant.

Therefore, the symmetrical breaking current which is the
rms value of the ac component of the current at the
instant of contact separation is equal to current AB/2.

The section BC is the dc component of the short-circuit
current at this instant. Therefore, asymmetrical breaking
current is given by
( )
2
2
asym.
BC
2
AB
I + |
.
|
\
|
=
The breaking capacity of a circuit breaker is generally
expressed in MVA. For a three-phase circuit breaker, it is
given by

Breaking capacity = 3 x rated voltage in kV x rated
current in kA.
The breaking capacity will be symmetrical if the rated
current in the above expression is symmetrical (British
practice).

The breaking capacity will be asymmetrical if the rated
current is asymmetrical (American practice). The rated
breaking current is taken by designer as 1.6 times the
rated symmetrical current.
5.16.2 Making Capacity
The possibility of a circuit breaker to be closed on short-
circuit is also considered.

The rated making current is defined as the peak value of
the current (including the component) in the first cycle at
which a circuit breaker can be closed onto a short-circuit.

I
p
in Fig. 5.25 is the making current.

The capacity of a circuit breaker to be closed onto a
short-circuit depends upon its ability to withstand the
effects of electromagnetic forces.
5.16.2 Making Capacity
Making current = 2 x 1.8 x symmetrical breaking
current.

The multiplication by 2 is to obtain the peak
value and again by 1.8 to take the dc component
into account.

Making capacity = 2 x 1.8 x symmetrical breaking
capacity
=2.55 x symmetrical breaking capacity
5.16.3 Short-time Current Rating
The short-time current rating is based on thermal and
mechanical limitations.

The circuit breaker must be capable of carrying short-
circuit current for a short period while another circuit
breaker (in series) is clearing the fault.

The rated short-time current is the rms value (total
current, both a.c and d.c components) of the current that
the circuit breaker can carry safely for a specified short
period.
5.16.3 Short-time Current Rating
According to British standard, the time is 3 seconds if the
ratio of symmetrical breaking current to rated normal
current is equal to or less than 40 and 1 second if this
ratio is more than 40.

According to ASA there are two short-time ratings; one is
the current which the circuit breaker can withstand for 1
second or less. Another is rated 4-second current which
is the current that the circuit breaker can withstand for a
period longer than 1 second but not more than 4 seconds.
5.16.4 Rated Voltage, Current and
Frequency
In a power system, the voltage level at all points
is not the same. It varies, depending upon the
system operating conditions. Due to this reason
manufacturers have specified a rated maximum
voltage at which the operation of the circuit
breaker is guaranteed. The specified voltage is
somewhat higher than the rated nominal voltage.

The rated current is the rms value of the current
that a circuit breaker can carry continuously
without any temperature rise in excess of its
specified limit.
5.16.4 Rated Voltage, Current and
Frequency
The rated frequency is also mentioned by
the manufacturer. It is the frequency at
which the circuit breaker has been
designed to operate.
The standard frequency is 50 Hz.
If a circuit breaker is to be used at a
frequency other than its rated frequency, its
effects should be taken into consideration.

Example 5.5
The rating of a circuit breaker are as follows : 3-phase, 1500
amp, 100 MVA, 3.3 kV, 3 seconds. Calculate symmetrical
breaking current, making current and short-time current rating.

Solution :
Given
Rated voltage = 3.3 kV
Rated normal current = 1500 amp
So,
Rated symmetrical breaking current (rms) = = 17.5 kA

Rated making current = 17.5 x 1.8 x \2 = 44.62 kA
Short-time current rating is 17.5 kA for 3 seconds.

3 . 3
3
100
x
Example 5.6
The portion of the test oscillograms which were
obtained during a make-break test on a circuit
breaker is shown in the figure. Given A = 20kV, B =
30kA, X = 21kA and Y = 12kA. Determine:-
a) The line voltage rating of the breaker
b) The peak making current for the red phase only.
c) The AC and DC components of breaking current at
the instant of contact separation for yellow phase
only. Hence determine whether the test is
symmetrical or asymmetrical, and estimate the
breaking current.
Solution
a) Peak to peak phase system voltage = A = 20 kV.
rms phase system voltage = 20/(2\2) = 7.07 kV
line voltage rating of breaker = \3 * 7.07 = 12.25
kV
b) Peak making current = B = 30 kA.
c) AC component of making current = 21 kA.
DC component of making current = 12 kA.
Y/X = 12/21 = 0.578, therefore the test is
asymmetrical. (Note : greater than 0.5)
asymmetrical breaking current :
5.16.5 Rated Operating Duty
The operating duty of a circuit breaker prescribes its
operations which can be performed at stated time
intervals. For the circuit breakers which are not meant for
autoreclosing, there are two alternative operating duties
as given below:

(i) O-t-CO-t-CO
(ii) O-t-CO

Where O denotes opening operation, CO denotes closing
operation followed by opening without any intentional
time lag, and t, t and t are time intervals between
successive operations. According to IEC, the value of t
and t is 3 minute and t is 15 seconds.
For circuit breakers with auto-reclosing, the operating
duty is as follows.

O Dt CO, where Dt is the dead time of the circuit
breaker, which is expressed in cycle.

According to B.S.S there in only one operating duty for
the circuit breakers not intended for auto-reclosing. It is
written as follows

B-3-MB-3-MB, where B denotes breaking and MB
denotes making followed by breaking without any
intentional time delay. Three is the time-interval in
minutes.


For circuit breakers with auto-reclosing, the
operating duty is written as

B Dt MB

Dt is the dead time and it is expressed in
cycles.
5.17 Testing of Circuit Breakers

There are two types of tests of circuit breakers namely
routine tests and type tests.

Routine test are performed on every piece of circuit
breaker in the premises of the manufacturer. The
purpose of the routine tests is to confirm the proper
functioning of a circuit breaker.

Type tests are performed in a high voltage laboratory;
such tests are performed on sample pieces of circuit
breakers of each type to confirm their characteristics and
rated capacities according to their design.

These tests are not performed on every
piece of circuit breaker.

All routine and type tests are performed
according to Indian Standard (IS) codes or
International Electromechanical
Commission (IEC) codes or British
Standard (BS) codes.

A few important type tests, such as breaking
capacity, making capacity, short-time current
rating tests will be discussed here.

These tests come in the category of short
circuit testing of circuit breakers.

For circuit breakers of smaller capacity, these
tests are carried out by direct testing
techniques..

Circuit breakers of large capacities are tested
by the synthetic testing method.

In addition to short circuit tests, mechanical
test, thermal tests, dielectric tests (power
frequency tests, impulse tests), capacitive
charging-current breaking test, small inductive
breaking current test, etc. are also performed.
For details see the relevant IS codes.
5.17.1 Short-circuit Testing Stations

There are two types of short-circuit testing
stations.

(i) Field types testing station

(ii) Laboratory type testing station

In field type testing station, the power required for testing
is derived from a large power system. The circuit breaker
to be tested is connected to the power system. Large
amount of power is easily available for testing. Hence,
this method of testing is economical for testing of circuit
breakers, particularly high voltage circuit breakers. But it
lacks flexibility. Its drawbacks are :
(i) For research and development work, tests cannot be
repeated again and again without disturbing the power
system.
(ii) The power available for testing varies, depending upon
the loading conditions of the system.
(iii) It is very difficult to control the transient recovery
voltage, RRRV, etc.

In the laboratory type testing station, the power required for
testing is taken from specially designed generators
which are installed in the laboratory for such testing. Its
advantages are:
(i) For research and development work, tests can be
carried out again and again to confirm the designed
characteristics and capacity.

(ii) Current, voltage, restriking voltage, RRRV, etc. can be
controlled conveniently

(iii) Tests for circuit breakers of large capacity can be
carried out using synthetic testing

The drawbacks of laboratory type testing
stations are:

(i) High cost of installation

(ii) Availability of limited power for testing
of circuit breakers.

In a laboratory, short-circuit generators are used to
provide power for testing.

The design of such generators is different from a
conventional generator. These are specially designed to
have very low reactance to give the maximum short-
circuit output. To withstand high electromagnetic forces
their windings are specially braced and rugged.

They are provided with a flywheel to supply kinetic
energy during short circuits. This also helps in speed
regulation of the set. The generator is driven by a three-
phase induction motor.
Short-circuit generator

The short-circuit current has a demagnetising effect on
the field of generator. This results in reducing the field
current. Consequently, the generators emf is reduced.

Impulse excitation or super excitation is employed to
counteract the damagnetisation effect of armature
reaction.

At the time of short-circuit, the field current is increased to
about 8 to 10 times its normal value.
Short-circuit generator (cont.)

Such a transformer has a low reactance and it is
designed to withstand repeated short-circuits. To get
different voltages for tests, its windings are arranged in
sections. By series and parallel combinations of these
sections, the desired test voltage is obtained.

To get lower voltage than the generated voltage, a three-
phase transformer is generally used. For voltages higher
than the generated voltages, normally banks of single
phase transformers are employed.

As the transformer remains in the circuit for a short time,
they do not pose any cooling problem.
Short-circuit transformer

It is used as a backup circuit breaker. If the circuit
breaker under test fails to operate, the master circuit
breaker opens.

The master circuit breaker is set to operate at a
predetermined time after the initiation of the short-circuit.
After every test, it isolates the circuit breaker under test
from the supply source. Its capacity is more than the
capacity of the circuit breaker under test.
Master Circuit Breaker

This switch is used to apply short-circuit current at the
desired moment during the test.

The making switch is closed after closing the master
circuit breaker and the test circuit breaker.

It must be bounce-free to avoid its burning or contact
welding.

To achieve this, a high pressure is used in the chamber.
Its speed is also kept high.
Making Switch

Capacitors are used to control RRRV.

They are used in synthetic testing which will be
discussed while describing such testing.

Capacitors are also used for voltage measurement
purpose.
Capacitors

Resistors and reactors are used to control
short-circuit test current.

They also control power factor.

The resistor controls the rate of decay of
the d.c. component of the current.

They control the transient recovery voltage.
Reactors and Resistors
5.17.2 Testing Procedure

During the short-circuit test, several switching operations are
performed in a sequence in a very short time. For
example, the sequence of switching operations for
breaking capacity test is a follows.

(i) After running the driving motor of the short-circuit
generator to a certain speed it is switched off.

(ii) Impulse excitation is switched on

(iii) Master circuit breaker is closed
5.17.2 Testing Procedure

(iv) Oscillograph is switched on
(v) Making switch is closed
(vi) Circuit breaker under test is opened
(vii) Master circuit breaker is opened
(viii) Exciter circuit of the short-circuit generator is
switched off

It is not possible to perform this sequence of operations
manually. There is an automatic control for the purpose.
The time of operation for the above sequence is of the
order of 0.2 second.
5.17.3 Direct Testing

In direct testing, the circuit breaker is tested under
the conditions which actually exist on power
systems.

It is subjected to restriking voltage which is expected
in practical situations.

Figure 5.27 shows an arrangement for direct testing.
The reactor X is to control short-circuit current. C, R
1

and R
2
are to adjust transient restriking voltage.

Short-circuit tests to be performed are as follows :
Figure 5.27 Direct testing of circuit breaker

Test for breaking capacity

First of all, the master circuit breaker and the circuit breaker
under test are closed.

Then the short-circuit current is passed by closing the
making switch.

The short-circuit current is passed by closing the making
switch. The short-circuit current is interrupted by opening
the breaker under test at the desired moment.

The following measurements are taken

(i) Symmetrical breaking current

(ii) Asymmetrical breaking current

(iii) Recovery voltage

(iv) Frequency of oscillation and RRRV

The circuit breaker must be capable of
breaking all currents up to its rated
capacity.

As it not possible to test at all values of
current, tests are performed at 10%, 30% ,
60% and 100% of its rated breaking
current.

Test for making capacity

The master circuit breaker and the making
switch are closed first, then the short-circuit is
initiated by closing the circuit breaker under
test.

The rated making current, i.e. the peak value of
the first major loop of the short-circuit current
wave is measured.

Duty cycle test

The following duty cycle tests are performed

(i) B-3-B-3-B tests are performed at 10%, 30%, and 60%
of the rated symmetrical breaking capacity.
(ii) B-3-MB-3-MB tests are performed
(a) at not less than 100% of the rated symmetrical
breaking capacity and
(b) at not less than 100% of the rated making capacity.

This test can also be performed as two separate tests.
(a) M-3-M make test,
(b) B-3-B-3-B break test


(iii) B-3-B-3-B tests are performed at not less than
100% of the rated asymmetrical breaking
capacity

Here B denotes the breaking operation and M
denotes the making operation, while MB denotes
the making operation followed by the breaking
operation without any intentional time delay

Short-time current test

The rated short-time current is passed through the
circuit breaker under test for a specified short
duration (1 second or 3 second) and current is
measured by taking an oscillograph of the current
wave.

The short-time current should not cause any mechanical
or insulation damage or any contact welding. The
equivalent rms short-time current is evaluated as
follows.
Short-time current test (cont.)

The time-interval is divided into 10 equal parts. These are
marked as t
o
, t
1
, t
2
, t
9
, t
10
.

The asymmetrical rms values of the current at these intervals
are marked as I
0
, I
1
, I
2
,I
9
, I
10
.

The equivalent rms value of the short-time current using
Simpson formula is given by

I =
5.17.4 Indirect Testing

The testing of HV circuit breakers of large capacity also
requires very large capacity of the testing station, which
is uneconomical.

It is also not practical to increase the short-circuit capacity of
the testing station. Therefore, indirect methods of testing
are used for the testing of large circuit breakers.

The important indirect methods of testing are:
(i) Unit testing
(ii) Synthetic testing
Unit testing

Generally, high voltage circuit breakers are designed with
several arc interrupter units in series.

Each unit can be tested separately. From the test results of
one unit, the capacity of the complete breaker can be
determined.

This type of testing is known as unit testing.
Synthetic testing

In this method of testing, there are two sources of power
supply for the testing, a current source and a voltage
source.

The current source is a high current, low voltage source. It
supplies short-circuit current during the test.

The voltage source is a high voltage, low current source. It
provides restriking and recovery voltage.
.
Synthetic testing(cont.)

There are two methods of synthetic testing-parallel current
injection method and series current injection method.

Parallel current injection method is widely used as it is
capable of providing RRRV and recovery voltage as
required by various standards.
Figure 5.27 shows a circuit for synthetic testing. It is
a circuit for parallel current injection method of
synthetic testing. The high current source is a motor
driven generator. It injects a high short-circuit
current I
1
into the circuit breaker under test at a
relatively reduced voltage, V
g
. The inductance L
1
is
to control the short-circuit current. The master
circuit breaker and the circuit breaker under test are
tripped before current I
1
reaches its natural zero.
These circuit breakers are fully opened by the time t
0
.
Figure 5.27 Synthetic testing of circuit breaker
The capacitor C
1
is a high voltage source to
provide recovery voltage. It is charged prior
to the test, to a voltage 2V
s
.

This voltage is equal to the peak power
frequency voltage which will appear across
the contacts at the moment the circuit
breaker under test interrupts the current.

L
2
and C
2
control transient recovery voltage and
RRRV.
The triggered spark gap is fired at t
1
, slightly before
the short-circuit current I
1
reaches its natural
zero.

It is done to properly simulate the pre-current zero
zone during the test.

There is a control circuit to fire the triggered spark
gap at the appropriate moment.

Figure 5.28 shows waveforms during synthetic
testing.
Figure 5.28 Waveform during synthetic testing
Thank You


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CIRCUIT BREAKER

Abdullah Asuhaimi Mohd.Zin

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