Wireless Communication

Wireless Communications
TNS Institute For Telecom
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CHAPTERS I. II. Modern Wireless Communication Systems T e Cellular Conce!t
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III. Small-Scale " Multi!at Fadin# I%. &'uali(ation) *i+ersity) " C annel Codin# %. S!eec Codin#
%I. Multi!le Access Tec ni'ues %II. Wireless 1et2or3in#

CHAPTER - I
Modern Wireless Communication Systems
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Modern Wireless Communication S stems
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5nli3e t e 6irst #eneration cellular systems t at relied e7clusi+ely on F*MA8F** and analo# FM) t e second #eneration cellular standards use di#ital modulation 6ormats and T*MA8F** and C*MA8F** multi!le access tec ni'ues. T e most !o!ular o6 t ese standards include9 4SM and cdma:ne. T ese re!resent t e 6irst set o6 2ireless air inter6ace standards to rely on di#ital modulation and so! isticated di#ital si#nal !rocessin# in t e andsets and t e ;ase stations.
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All 24 net2or3s) as ori#inally de+elo!ed) only su!!ort sin#le user data rates usin# a circuit s2itc ed a!!roac ) on t e order o6 10 <;!s) 2 ic is too slo2 6or ra!id email and Internet ;ro2sin# a!!lications. In an e66ort to retro6it t e 24 standards 6or com!ati;ility 2it increased t rou# !ut data rates t at are re'uired to su!!ort modern Internet a!!lications) ne2 datacentric standards a+e ;een de+elo!ed t at can ;e o+erlaid u!on t e e7istin# 24 tec nolo#ies. T ese ne2 standards re!resent 2..4 tec nolo#y and allo2 e7istin# 24 e'ui!ment to ;e modi6ied and su!!lemented 2it ne2 ;ase station add-ons and su;scri;er unit so6t2are u!#rades to su!!ort i# er data rate transmissions 6or 2e; ;ro2sin#) e-mail tra66ic) m-commerce) and location-;ased mo;ile ser+ices.
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4=>S and &*4& tec nolo#ies ;elon# to t is #eneration. Im!lementation o6 4=>S merely re'uires t e 4SM o!erator to install ne2 routers and Internet #ate2ays at t e ;ase station) alon# 2it ne2 so6t2are t at rede6ines t e ;ase station air inter6ace standard 6or 4=>S c annels and time slots / interestin#ly) no ne2 ;ase station >F ard2are is re'uired? W ile) &*4& is a more ad+anced u!#rade to t e 4SM standard) and re'uires t e addition o6 ne2 ard2are and so6t2are at e7istin# ;ase stations. 5nli3e 4SM) C*MA as a sin#le u!#rade !at 6or e+entual 34 o!eration. T e interim data solution 6or C*MA is IS-9.@.
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34 systems !romise un!aralleled 2ireless access in 2ays t at a+e ne+er ;een !ossi;le ;e6ore. T e e+entual 34 e+olution 6or 4SM leads to Wide;and C*MA AW-C*MAB) also called 5ni+ersal Mo;ile Telecommunications Ser+ice A5MTSB. T e 34 e+olution 6or C*MA leads to cdma2000. @ot t ese standards maintain ;ac32ard com!ati;ility 2it t eir res!ecti+e 24 standards.
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@ecause W-C*MA 2ill re'uire e7!ensi+e ne2 ;ase station e'ui!ment) t e installation o6 W-C*MA is li3ely to ;e slo2 and #radual. T us) t e e+olutionary !at to 34 2ill re'uire dual mode or tri-mode cell ! ones t at can automatically s2itc ;et2een t e current 24 T*MA tec nolo#y) &*4&) or W-C*MA ser+ice 2 ere its a+aila;le. W ile) C*MA o!erators may seamlessly and selecti+ely introduce 34 com!ati;ilities at eac cell) 2it out a+in# to re!lace t e entire ;ase stations or reallocate s!ectrum. T e cdma2000 17&%-*: tec nolo#y) dedicates t e radio c annel strictly to data users. cdma2000 17&%-*% su!!orts ;ot +oice and data users.
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CHAPTER - II
T e Cellular Conce!t
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T!e Cellular Conce"t
Introduction T e desi#n o;Cecti+e o6 early mo;ile radio systems 2as to ac ie+e a lar#e co+era#e area ;y usin# a sin#le) i# !o2ered transmitter 2it an antenna mounted on a tall to2er. W ile t is a!!roac ac ie+ed +ery #ood co+era#e) it 2as not 6easi;le to reuse t e same set o6 6re'uencies) since any attem!t 2ould result in inter6erence. T is system) t ere6ore could su!!ort only a limited num;er o6 users. Faced 2it t e 6act t at #o+ernment re#ulatory a#encies could not ma3e s!ectrum allocations in !ro!ortion to t e increasin# demand 6or mo;ile ser+ices) it ;ecame im!erati+e to restructure t e radio tele! one systems to ac ie+e i# ca!acity 2it limited radio s!ectrum 2 ile at t e same time co+erin# +ery lar#e areas.
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T e cellular conce!t 2as a maCor ;rea3t rou# in sol+in# t e !ro;lem o6 s!ectral con#estion and user ca!acity. T e Cellular Conce!t is a system-le+el idea 2 ic calls 6or re!lacin# a sin#le) i# !o2er transmitter 2it many lo2 !o2er transmitters) eac !ro+idin# co+era#e to only a small !ortion o6 t e ser+ice area. As t e demand 6or ser+ice increases) t e num;er o6 ;ase stations may ;e increased) t ere;y !ro+idin# additional radio ca!acity) 2it no additional increase in radio s!ectrum. Furt ermore) t e cellular conce!t allo2s e+ery !iece o6 su;scri;er e'ui!ment 2it in a standard to ;e manu6actured 2it t e same set o6 c annels) so t at any mo;ile may ;e used any2 ere 2it in t e re#ion.
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Fre'uency reuse
Cellular radio systems rely on an intelli#ent allocation and reuse o6 c annels t rou# out t e co+era#e re#ion. &ac cellular ;ase station is allocated a #rou! o6 radio c annels to ;e used 2it in a small #eo#ra! ical area called a cell. @ase stations in adCacent cells are assi#ned c annel #rou!s 2 ic contain com!letely di66erent c annels t an nei# ;orin# cells. T e ;ase station antennas are desi#ned to ac ie+e t e desired co+era#e 2it in t e !articular cell.
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@y limitin# t e co+era#e area to 2it in t e ;oundaries o6 a cell) t e #rou! o6 c annels may ;e used to co+er di66erent cells t at are se!arated 6rom one anot er ;y distances lar#e enou# to 3ee! inter6erence le+els 2it in tolera;le limits. T e desi#n !rocess o6 selectin# and allocatin# c annel #rou!s 6or all t e cellular ;ase stations 2it in a system is called 6re'uency reuse or 6re'uency !lannin#. T e e7a#onal cell s a!e is a conce!tual model o6 t e radio co+era#e 6or eac ;ase station) and as ;een uni+ersally ado!ted as it does not 6orm any o+erla!!in# re#ions and closely a!!ro7imates a circular radiation !attern.
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C annel Assi#nment Strate#ies
A 6re'uency reuse sc eme t at is consistent 2it t e o;Cecti+es o6 increasin# ca!acity and minimi(in# inter6erence is desired. C annel assi#nment strate#ies can ;e classi6ied as eit er 6i7ed or dynamic. In a 6i7ed c annel assi#nment strate#y) eac cell is allocated a !redetermined set o6 +oice c annels) 2 ile in dynamic) +oice c annels are not allocated to di66erent cells !ermanently. T e dynamic strate#y !ro+ides t e ad+anta#e o6 increased c annel utili(ation and decreased !ro;a;ility o6 a ;loc3ed call) ;ut it also leads to stora#e and com!utational load on t e system.
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Dando66 Strate#ies
W en a mo;ile mo+es into a di66erent cell 2 ile a con+ersation is in !rocess) t e MSC automatically trans6ers t e call to a ne2 c annel ;elon#in# to t e ne2 ;ase station. Many ando66 strate#ies !rioriti(e ando66 re'uests o+er call initiation re'uests 2 en allocatin# unused c annels in a cell site. Dando66s must ;e !er6ormed success6ully and as in6re'uently as !ossi;le) and ;e im!erce!ti;le to t e users. In order to meet t ese re'uirements) system desi#ners must s!eci6y an o!timum si#nal le+el at 2 ic to initiate a ando66) as any unnecessary ando66 ;urdens t e MSC 6urt er.
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Inter6erence and System Ca!acity
Inter6erence is t e maCor limitin# 6actor in t e !er6ormance o6 cellular radio systems. Sources o6 inter6erence include anot er mo;ile in t e same cell) ot er ;ase stations o!eratin# in t e same 6re'uency ;and) or any non cellular system 2 ic inad+ertently lea3s ener#y into t e cellular 6re'uency ;and. :n control c annels) inter6erence leads to missed or ;loc3ed calls due to errors in t e di#ital si#nalin#. T us) inter6erence is a ;ottlenec3 in increasin# t e ca!acity o6 a cellular system.
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C annel =lannin# 6or Wireless Systems
Eudiciously assi#nin# t e a!!ro!riate radio c annels to eac ;ase station is an im!ortant !rocess t at is muc more di66icult in !ractice t an in t eory. *eterminin# t e a!!ro!riate 6re'uency reuse ratio and se!aration ;et2een adCacent co-c annel cells) t e 2ireless en#ineer must deal 2it t e real-2orld di66iculties o6 radio !ro!a#ation and im!er6ect co+era#e re#ions o6 eac cell. C annels may ;e assi#ned ;y t e 2ireless carrier in any manner it !re6ers) since eac mar3et may a+e its o2n !articular !ro!a#ation conditions or ser+ices it 2is es to o66er and may 2is to ado!t its o2n 6re'uency reuse sc eme t at 6its its #eo#ra! ic conditions or air inter6ace tec nolo#y c oice.
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=o2er Control 6or >educin# Inter6erence In !ractical cellular radio and !ersonal communication systems) t e !o2er le+els transmitted ;y e+ery su;scri;er unit are under constant control ;y t e ser+in# ;ase stations. T is is done to ensure t at eac mo;ile transmits t e smallest !o2er necessary to maintain a #ood 'uality lin3 on t e u!lin3 c annel. =o2er control not only el!s !rolon# ;attery li6e 6or t e su;scri;er unit) ;ut also dramatically reduces t e re+erse c annel S8I in t e system.
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Trun3in# and 4rade o6 Ser+ice
T e conce!t o6 trun3in# allo2s a lar#e num;er o6 users to s are t e relati+ely small num;er o6 c annels in a cell ;y !ro+idin# access to eac user) on demand) 6rom a !ool o6 a+aila;le c annels. In a trun3ed radio system) eac user is allocated a c annel on a !er call ;asis) and u!on termination o6 t e call) t e !re+iously occu!ied c annel is returned to t e !ool o6 a+aila;le c annels. T e tele! one com!any uses trun3in# t eory to determine t e o!timum num;er o6 tele! one circuits 8 c annels t at need to ;e allocated in a s!eci6ied co+era#e area. T us) trun3in# e7!loits t e statistical ;e a+ior o6 users. T e #rade o6 ser+ice A4:SB is a !er6ormance !arameter 2 ic measures t e a;ility o6 a user to access a trun3ed system durin# t e ;usiest our.
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Im!ro+in# Co+era#e and Ca!acity in Cellular Systems
As t e demand 6or 2ireless ser+ices increases) t e num;er o6 c annels assi#ned to a cell e+entually ;ecomes insu66icient to su!!ort t e re'uired num;er o6 users. At t is !oint) cellular desi#n tec ni'ues are needed to !ro+ide more c annels !er unit co+era#e area. Tec ni'ues suc as cell s!littin#) sectorin#) and co+era#e (one a!!roac es are used in !ractice to e7!and t e ca!acity o6 cellular systems.
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Cell S!littin#
Cell s!littin# is t e !rocess o6 su;di+idin# a con#ested cell into smaller cells) eac 2it its o2n ;ase station and corres!ondin# reduction in antenna ei# t and transmitter !o2er. Cell s!littin# increases t e ca!acity o6 a cellular system) due to t e additional num;er o6 c annels !er unit area. Care is ta3en in order to maintain t e minimum co-c annel reuse ratio) so t at t e inter6erence can ;e con6ined 2it in acce!ta;le limits.
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Sectorin#
Anot er 2ay to increase ca!acity is to 3ee! t e cell radius unc an#ed and see3 met ods to decrease *8> ratio. In t is a!!roac ) t e SI> is im!ro+ed ;y re!lacin# a sin#le omni directional antenna at t e ;ase station ;y se+eral directional antennas) eac radiatin# 2it in a s!eci6ied sector. T e S8I im!ro+ement allo2s t e 2ireless en#ineer to t en decrease t e cluster si(e 1 in order to im!ro+e t e 6re'uency reuse) and in turn t e system ca!acity. Many o!erators s y a2ay 6rom t e sectorin# a!!roac ) since it in+ol+es i# er cost o6 im!lementation and immense com!lications.
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>e!eaters 6or >an#e &7tension :6ten a 2ireless o!erator needs to !ro+ide dedicated co+era#e 6or ard-toreac areas. :6ten) ;idirectional de+ices 3no2n as re!eaters are used to !ro+ide suc ran#e e7tension ca!a;ilities. 5n6ortunately) t e recei+ed noise and inter6erence is also reradiated) so care must ;e ta3en to !ro!erly !lace t e re!eaters) and to adCust t e +arious 6or2ard and re+erse lin3 am!li6ier le+els and antenna !atterns. Also) re!eaters must ;e !ro+isioned to matc t e a+aila;le ca!acity 6rom t e ser+in# ;ase station.
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Microcell Fone Conce!t T is a!!roac is su!erior to sectorin#) since t e num;er o6 ando66s is su;stantially reduced) 2 ic means less load on t e s2itc in# and control lin3 elements o6 t e mo;ile system. In t is sc eme) eac o6 t e t ree (one sites are connected to a sin#le ;ase station and s are t e same radio e'ui!ment. T e (ones are connected ;y coa7ial ca;le) 6i;er o!tic or micro2a+e lin3 to t e ;ase station. As a mo;ile tra+els 2it in t e cell) it is ser+ed ;y t e (one 2it t e stron#est si#nal and it retains t e same c annel. T us) a ando66 is not initiated at t e MSC.
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CHAPTER - III
Small Scale " Multi!at Fadin#
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Small Scale # Multi"at! $adin%
Introduction to >adio Wa+e =ro!a#ation T e mec anism ;e ind electroma#netic 2a+e !ro!a#ation can #enerally ;e attri;uted to re6lection) di66raction) and scatterin#. Most cellular radio systems o!erate in ur;an areas 2 ere t ere is no direct line-o6-si# t !at ;et2een t e transmitter and t e recei+er) and t e !resence o6 i# -rise ;uildin#s cause se+ere di66raction loss. *ue to multi!le re6lections 6rom +arious o;Cects) t e electroma#netic 2a+es tra+el alon# di66erent !at s o6 +aryin# len#t s. T e interaction ;et2een t ese 2a+es causes multi!at 6adin# at a s!eci6ic location) and t e stren#t s o6 t e 2a+e decreases as t e distance ;et2een t e transmitter and recei+er increases.
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=ro!a#ation models a+e traditionally 6ocused on !redictin# t e a+era#e recei+ed si#nal stren#t at a #i+en distance 6rom t e transmitter) as 2ell t e +aria;ility o6 t e si#nal stren#t in close s!atial !ro7imity to a !articular location. =ro!a#ation models t at !redict t e mean si#nal stren#t 6or an ar;itrary transmitter-recei+er AT->B se!aration distance are use6ul in estimatin# t e radio co+era#e area o6 a transmitter and are called lar#e-scale !ro!a#ation models) since t ey c aracteri(e si#nal stren#t o+er lar#e T-> se!aration distances. :n t e ot er and) !ro!a#ation models t at c aracteri(ed t e ra!id 6luctuations o6 t e recei+ed si#nal stren#t s o+er +ery s ort tra+el distances or s ort time durations are called small-scale or 6adin# models.
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Factors In6luencin# Small Scale Fadin# Multi!at !ro!a#ation9 T e !resence o6 re6lectin# o;Cects and scatterers in t e c annel creates a constantly c an#in# en+ironment t at dissi!ates t e si#nal ener#y in am!litude) ! ase) and time) t ere;y inducin# small-scale 6adin#) si#nal distortion) or ;ot . S!eed o6 mo;ile9 T e relati+e motion ;et2een t e ;ase station and t e mo;ile results in random 6re'uency modulation due to *o!!ler s i6ts. S!eed o6 surroundin# o;Cects9 I6 o;Cects in t e radio c annel are in motion) t ey induce a time +aryin# *o!!ler s i6t on multi!at com!onents. T e transmission ;and2idt o6 t e si#nal9 I6 t e transmitted radio si#nal ;and2idt is eit er #reater or less t an t e ;and2idt o6 t e multi!at c annel) t e recei+ed si#nal 2ill ;e distorted.
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>aylei# Fadin#
Flat 6adin#9 T is ty!e o6 6adin# is istorically t e most common ty!e. In 6lat 6adin#) t e multi!at structure o6 t e si#nal is suc t at t e s!ectral c aracteristics o6 t e transmitted si#nal are !reser+ed at t e recei+er. Do2e+er) t e stren#t o6 t e recei+ed si#nal c an#es 2it time) due to 6luctuations in t e #ain o6 t e c annel caused ;y multi!at . >aylei# distri;ution9 In mo;ile radio c annels) t e >aylei# distri;ution is commonly used to descri;e t e statistical time +aryin# nature o6 t e recei+ed en+elo!e o6 a 6lat 6adin# si#nal) or t e en+elo!e o6 an indi+idual multi!at com!onent.
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CHAPTER - I&
&'uali(ation) *i+ersity) " C annel Codin#
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E'uali(ation) Di*ersit ) # C!annel Codin%
Introduction &'uali(ation) di+ersity) and c annel codin# are t e t ree tec ni'ues 2 ic can ;e used inde!endently or in tandem to im!ro+e recei+ed si#nal 'uality and lin3 !er6ormance o+er small-scale times and distances. &'uali(ation com!ensates 6or intersym;ol inter6erence AISIB created ;y multi!at 2it in time dis!ersi+e c annels. *i+ersity is anot er tec ni'ue used to com!ensate 6or 6adin# c annels im!airments) and it is usually im!lemented ;y usin# t2o or more recei+in# antennas. C annel codin# im!ro+es t e small-scale lin3 !er6ormance ;y addin# redundant data ;its in t e transmitted messa#e so t at i6 an instantaneous 6ade occurs in t e c annel) t e data may still ;e reco+ered at t e recei+er.
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&'uali(ation
An e'uali(er 2it in a recei+er com!ensates 6or t e a+era#e ran#e o6 e7!ected c annel am!litude and delay c aracteristics. &'uali(ers must ;e ada!ti+e since t e c annel is #enerally un3no2n and time +aryin#. T e #eneral o!eratin# modes o6 an ada!ti+e e'uali(er include Gtrainin#H and Gtrac3in#H. First) t e recei+erIs e'uali(er is made to GtrainH to ada!t to a !ro!er settin# 6or minimum ;it error rate A@&>B detection. Follo2in# t at) as t e user data are recei+ed) t e ada!ti+e al#orit m o6 t e e'uali(er Gtrac3sH t e c an#in# c annel. &'uali(ers do re'uire !eriodic retrainin#.
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*i+ersity Tec ni'ues 5nli3e e'uali(ation) di+ersity re'uires no trainin# o+er ead. Furt ermore) t ere are a 2ide ran#e o6 di+ersity im!lementations) many o6 2 ic are +ery !ractical and !ro+ide si#ni6icant lin3 im!ro+ement 2it little added cost. T e !rocess is +ery sim!le. I6 one radio !at under#oes a dee! 6ade) anot er inde!endent !at may a+e a stron# si#nal. @y a+in# more t an one !at to select 6rom) ;ot t e instantaneous and a+era#e S1>s at t e recei+er may ;e im!ro+ed) o6ten as muc as 20 to 30 d@. *i+ersity tec ni'ue e7!loits t e random nature o6 radio !ro!a#ation ;y 6indin# inde!endent si#nal !at s 6or communication. In nearly all a!!lications) di+ersity decisions are made ;y t e recei+er) and are un3no2n to t e transmitter.
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S!ace di+ersity9 Also 3no2n as antenna di+ersity) is one o6 t e most !o!ular 6orms o6 di+ersity used in 2ireless systems. At eac cell site) multi!le ;ase station recei+in# antennas are used to !ro+ide di+ersity rece!tion. Do2e+er) since t e im!ortant scatterers are #enerally on t e #round in t e +icinity o6 t e mo;ile) t e ;ase station antennas must ;e s!aced considera;ly 6ar a!art to ac ie+e decorrelation. Se!arations on t e order o6 se+eral tens o6 2a+elen#t s are re'uired at t e ;ase station. T e antenna si#nals are sam!led) and t e ;est one is selected. T e recei+er ;ranc 2it t e i# est instantaneous ASJ1B81 is connected to t e demodulator.
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S+itc!in% Lo%ic.
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=olari(ation di+ersity9 T e com!arati+ely i# cost o6 em!loyin# s!ace di+ersity at t e ;ase station !rom!ts t e consideration o6 usin# ort o#onal !olari(ation to e7!loit !olari(ation di+ersity. Measured ori(ontal and +ertical !olari(ation !at s ;et2een a mo;ile and a ;ase station are re!orted to ;e uncorrelated) 2 ic results in di66erent am!litudes and ! ases 6or eac ) or at least some) o6 t e re6lections. T e si#nal is recei+ed at t e ;ase station ;y a !olari(ation di+ersity antenna 2it t2o ;ranc es A+ert. " o(.B) and t en com;ined to #i+e i# er ASJ1B81. T ou# ) t is tec ni'ue as !rimarily ;een used 6or 6i7ed radio lin3s 2 ic +ary slo2ly in time) it is a +ia;le di+ersity rece!tion tec ni'ue 6or 2ireless communication as 2ell.
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Fre'uency di+ersity9 Fre'uency di+ersity is im!lemented ;y transmittin# in6ormation on more t an one carrier 6re'uency) 2 erein one 6re'uency is nominally idle) ;ut is a+aila;le on a stand-;y ;asis to !ro+ide 6re'uency di+ersity s2itc in#. T is tec ni'ue is Custi6ied only 6or critical tra66ic) as it re'uires s!are ;and2idt and more t an one recei+er at t e ;ase station. Time di+ersity9 T e transmitter is re'uired to re!eatedly transmit in6ormation at time s!acin#s) so t at multi!le re!etitions o6 t e si#nal 2ill ;e recei+ed 2it inde!endent 6adin# conditions) t ere;y !ro+idin# 6or di+ersity. A modern im!lementation in+ol+es t e use o6 >A<& recei+ers 6or C*MA. @y demodulatin# se+eral re!licas o6 t e transmitted si#nal) 2 ere eac re!lica e7!eriences a !articular multi!at delay) t e recei+er is a;le to ali#n t e re!licas in time so t at a ;etter estimate o6 t e ori#inal si#nal is constructed.
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Interlea+in#
Interlea+in# is used to o;tain time di+ersity in a di#ital communication system 2it out addin# any o+er ead. S!eec coders attem!t to re!resent a 2ide ran#e o6 +oices in a uni6orm and e66icient di#ital 6ormat. T e encoded data ;its carry a #reat deal o6 in6ormation. Some source ;its are more im!ortant t an ot ers and must ;e !rotected 6rom errors. It is ty!ical 6or many s!eec coders to !roduce se+eral Gim!ortantH ;its in succession) and it is t e 6unction o6 t e interlea+er to s!read t ese ;its out in time so t at i6 t ere is a dee! 6ade or noise ;urst) t e im!ortant ;its 6rom a ;loc3 o6 source data are not corru!ted at t e same time. @y s!readin# t e source ;its o+er time) it ;ecomes !ossi;le to ma3e use o6 c annel codin#) to !rotect t e source data 6rom corru!tion o+er t e c annel. At t e recei+er) t e de-interlea+er restores t e data.
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Fundamentals o6 C annel Codin#
C annel codin# !rotects t e di#ital data 6rom errors ;y selecti+ely introducin# redundancies in t e transmitted data to im!ro+e 2ireless lin3 !er6ormance. C annel codes t at are used to detect errors are called error detection codes) 2 ile codes t at can detect and correct errors are called error correction codes. T ou# ) t e introduction o6 redundant ;its increases t e ;and2idt re'uirement) it !ro+ides e7cellent @&> !er6ormance at lo2 S1> +alues. Scientist S annon demonstrated t at ;y !ro!er encodin# o6 t e in6ormation) errors induced ;y a noisy c annel can ;e reduced to any desired le+el 2it out sacri6icin# t e rate o6 in6ormation trans6er. S annonIs result indicates t at e7tremely 2ide;and si#nals could ;e used to ac ie+e error 6ree communications) as lon# as su66icient S1> e7ists. And) t is is !artly 2 y Wide;and C*MA AW-C*MAB is ;ein# ado!ted 6or 34 4SM.
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CHAPTER - &
S!eec Codin#
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S"eec! Codin%
Introduction
T e #oal o6 all s!eec codin# systems is to transmit s!eec 2it t e i# est !ossi;le 'uality usin# t e least !ossi;le c annel ca!acity. To ma3e s!eec codin# !ractical) im!lementation must consume little !o2er and !ro+ide tolera;le) i6 not e7cellent) s!eec 'uality. S!eec coders di66er 2idely in t eir a!!roac es to ac ie+in# si#nal com!ression. S!eec coders are ;roadly classi6ied into t2o cate#ories9 Wa+e6orm coders and %ocoders. Wa+e6orm coders are desi#ned to ;e source inde!endent and can ence code e'ually 2ell a +ariety o6 si#nals. T ese are more ro;ust to noise) a+e minimum com!le7ity) and ac ie+e only moderate economy in transmission ;it rates. %ocoders are more com!le7) ;ut ac ie+e +ery i# economy in transmission ;it rate. T ey are in #eneral) si#nal s!eci6ic.
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S"eec! Codin%
Fre'uency *omain Codin# o6 S!eec
In t is class o6 coders) t e s!eec si#nal is di+ided into a set o6 6re'uency com!onents 2 ic are 'uanti(ed and encoded se!arately. T us) di66erent 6re'uency ;ands can ;e !re6erentially encoded accordin# to some !erce!tual criteria 6or eac ;and) and ence t e 'uanti(ation noise can ;e contained 2it in ;ands and !re+ented 6rom creatin# armonic distortions outside t e ;and. T ese sc emes a+e t e ad+anta#e t at t e num;er o6 ;its used to encode eac 6re'uency com!onent can ;e dynamically +aried and s ared amon# t e di66erent ;ands.
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S"eec! Codin%
%ocoders
%ocoders are a class o6 s!eec codin# systems t at analy(e t e +oice si#nal at t e transmitter) transmit !arameters deri+ed 6rom t e analysis) and t en synt esi(e t e +oice at t e recei+er usin# t ose !arameters. T e !arameters include t e #ain 6actor) !itc in6ormation) and t e +oiced8un+oiced decision in6ormation) 2 ic allo2 a!!ro7imation o6 t e correct error si#nal. At t e recei+er) t e recei+ed in6ormation a;out t e error si#nal is used to determine t e a!!ro!riate e7citation 6or t e synt esis 6ilter. T e most !o!ular amon# t e +ocodin# systems is t e Kinear =redicti+e Coder AK=CB.
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S"eec! Codin%
C oosin# S!eec Codecs 6or Mo;ile Communications
@ecause o6 t e limited ;and2idt t at is a+aila;le) it is re'uired to com!ress s!eec to ma7imi(e t e num;er o6 users on t e systems. A ;alance must ;e struc3 ;et2een t e !ercei+ed 'uality o6 t e s!eec resultin# 6rom t is com!ression and t e o+erall system cost and ca!acity. :t er criterion t at must ;e considered include t e end-to-end encodin# delay) t e al#orit m com!le7ity o6 t e coder) t e dc !o2er re'uirements) com!ati;ility 2it e7istin# standards) and t e ro;ustness o6 t e encoded s!eec to transmission errors. T us) c oosin# t e ri# t codec is an im!ortant ste! in t e desi#n o6 a di#ital mo;ile communication system.
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S"eec! Codin%
T e 4SM Codec
T e ori#inal s!eec coder used in t e !an-&uro!ean di#ital cellular standard 4SM #oes ;y a rat er 6lam;oyant name o6 >e#ular =ulse &7ited Kon#-term =rediction A>=&-KT=B. It com;ines t e ad+anta#e o6 t e +arious recommendations !ro!osed ;y t e 4ermans and t e Frenc . Su;se'uently) t e net ;it rate 2as reduced 6rom 1-.$$ <;!s to 13.0 <;!s) 2it out loss o6 'uality. T e 4SM codec is relati+ely com!le7 and !o2er un#ry.
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S"eec! Codin%
=er6ormance &+aluation o6 S!eec Coders
T ere are t2o a!!roac es to e+aluatin# t e !er6ormance o6 a s!eec coder in terms o6 its a;ility to !reser+e t e si#nal 'uality. :;Cecti+e measures a+e t e #eneral nature o6 a S1> and !ro+ide a 'uantitati+e +alue o6 o2 2ell t e reconstructi+e s!eec a!!ro7imates t e ori#inal s!eec . W ile o;Cecti+e measures are use6ul in initial desi#n and simulation o6 codin# systems) t ey do not necessarily #i+e an indication o6 s!eec 'uality as !ercei+ed ;y t e uman ear. Since t e listener is t e ultimate Cud#e o6 t e s!eec 'uality) t e ot er a!!roac o6 e+aluation is t e su;Cecti+e listenin# tests. T e su;Cecti+e tests are carried out in di66erent en+ironments to simulate real li6e conditions. T ese tests !ro+ide results in terms o6 o+erall 'uality) listenin# e66ort) intelli#i;ility) and naturalness.
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CHAPTER - &I
Multi!le Access Tec ni'ues
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Multi"le Access Tec!ni'ues
Introduction
In 2ireless communication systems) it is o6ten desira;le to allo2 t e su;scri;er to simultaneously send in6ormation to t e ;ase station 2 ile recei+in# in6ormation 6rom t e ;ase station. T is e66ect is called du!le7in#. *u!le7in# may ;e done usin# 6re'uency or time domain tec ni'ues. Fre'uency di+ision du!le7in# AF**B !ro+ides t2o distinct ;ands o6 6re'uency 6or e+ery user. In F**) any du!le7 c annel actually consists o6 t2o sim!le7 c annels Aa 6or2ard " re+erseB) and a de+ice called a du!le7er is used inside eac su;scri;er unit and ;ase station to allo2 simultaneous ;idirectional radio transmission and rece!tion 6or ;ot t e su;scri;er unit and t e ;ase station on t e du!le7 c annel !air.
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T e 6re'uency se!aration ;et2een eac 6or2ard and re+erse c annel is constant t rou# out t e system) re#ardless o6 t e c annel ;ein# used. Time di+ision du!le7in# AT**B uses time instead o6 6re'uency to !ro+ide ;ot a 6or2ard and re+erse lin3. In T**) multi!le users s are a sin#le radio c annel ;y ta3in# turns in t e time domain. Indi+idual users are allo2ed access to t e c annel in assi#ned time slots) and eac du!le7 c annel as ;ot a 6or2ard and a re+erse time slot to 6acilitate ;idirectional communication. W ile F** re'uires e7!ensi+e >F and oscillator tec nolo#y) t ere is a time latency in erent to T**. T us) t ese tradeo66s s ould ;e considered 2 ilst o!tin# 6or eit er o6 t e t2o a+aila;le tec ni'ues.
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Fre'uency *i+ision Multi!le Access
F*MA assi#ns indi+idual c annels to indi+idual users. T ese c annels are assi#ned on demand to users 2 o re'uest ser+ice. T is system is ;ased on analo# FM. T e 6irst #eneration o6 2ireless communications 2as ;ased on F*MA8F**. T e users 2ere assi#ned a c annel as a !air o6 6re'uencies) 2 ic is actually t2o sim!le7 c annels) 6or t e 6or2ard and re+erse c annels res!ecti+ely. T e ;and2idt s o6 F*MA c annels are relati+ely narro2) as eac c annel su!!orts only one circuit !er carrier. T e intersym;ol inter6erence is lo2 and) t us) little or no e'uali(ation is re'uired. T e com!le7ity o6 F*MA mo;ile systems is also lo2er t an all t e e7istin# systems. T e maCor disad+anta#e o6 F*MA systems is t at t e resources are not o!timally utili(ed and t ere is a 2aste in ;and2idt .
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Time *i+ision Multi!le Access
T*MA systems di+ide t e radio s!ectrum into time slots) and in eac slot only one user is allo2ed to eit er transmit or recei+e. T*MA systems transmit data in a ;u66er-and-;urst met od) t us t e transmission 6or any user is noncontinuous. 5nli3e F*MA) di#ital data and di#ital modulation must ;e used 2it T*MA. T e transmission 6rom +arious users is interlaced into a re!eated 6rame structure. T e 6rame consists o6 a num;er o6 slots. In T*MA8T**) al6 o6 t e time slots in t e 6rame in6ormation messa#e 2ould ;e used 6or t e 6or2ard lin3 c annels and al6 6or re+erse lin3 c annels. In t e T*MA8F** systems) an identical 6rame structure 2ould ;e used 6or 6or2ard and re+erse lin3 transmissions) ;ut t e carrier 6re'uencies 2ould ;e di66erent.
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An intentional delay is induced ;et2een t e 6or2ard and re+erse time slots) so t at du!le7ers are not re'uired in t e su;scri;er unit. Since T*MA s ares a sin#le carrier 6re'uency 2it se+eral users) 2 ere eac user ma3es use o6 nono+erla!!in# time slots) t is system ma3e more e66icient use o6 t e a+aila;le ;and2idt . @ut t en a#ain) t e com!le7ity is i# er and ada!ti+e e'uali(ation needs to ;e em!loyed. @ecause o6 discontinuous transmissions in T*MA) t e ando66 !rocess is muc sim!ler 6or a su;scri;er unit. Also) it leads to !o2er sa+in#s at t e ;ase station and t e su;scri;er unit. Di# sync roni(ation o+er ead is re'uired in T*MA systems ;ecause o6 ;urst transmissions. In addition) #uard slots are necessary to se!arate users) and t is results in t e T*MA systems a+in# lar#er o+er eads as com!ared to F*MA.
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S!read S!ectrum Multi!le Access
SSMA uses si#nals 2 ic a+e a transmission ;and2idt t at is se+eral orders o6 ma#nitude #reater t an t e minimum re'uired >F ;and2idt . A !seudo-noise A=1B se'uence con+erts a narro2;and si#nal to a 2ide;and noise-li3e si#nal ;e6ore transmission. SSMA !ro+ides t e ;est immunity to multi!at inter6erence and ro;ust multi!le access ca!a;ility. SSMA systems are t e most e66icient 2.r.t ;and2idt in a multi!le user en+ironment. @ut) t ese systems a+e #reat com!le7ity and !o2er re'uirements.
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CHAPTER - &II
Wireless 1et2or3in#
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Wireless Net+or,in%
Introduction
T e cellular tele! one system is res!onsi;le 6or !ro+idin# co+era#e t rou# out a !articular territory) called a co+era#e re#ion or mar3et. T e interconnection o6 many suc systems de6ines a 2ireless net2or3 ca!a;le o6 !ro+idin# ser+ice to mo;ile users across a country 8 continent. An inte#rated net2or3 o6 ;ase stations must ;e de!loyed to !ro+ide su66icient radio co+era#e. T e ;ase stations) in turn) are under t e su!er+ision o6 a central u;) called t e Mo;ile S2itc in# Centre. T is u; !ro+ides connecti+ity ;et2een di66erent 2ireless systems and con+entional =u;lic S2itc ed Tele! one 1et2or3. To connect mo;ile su;scri;ers to t e ;ase stations) radio lin3s are esta;lis ed usin# a care6ully de6ined communication !rotocol called Common Air Inter6ace. T e CAI as suc s!eci6ies s!eec and c annel codin#.
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Wireless Net+or,in%
Wireless +s. Fi7ed Tele! one 1et2or3s
Trans6er o6 in6ormation in t e =ST1 ta3es !lace o+er landline trun3ed lines com!rised o6 6i;er o!tic ca;les) co!!er ca;les) micro2a+e lin3s and satellite lin3s. T e net2or3 con6i#urations are +irtually static. Wireless net2or3s) on t e ot er and are i# ly dynamic) 2it t e net2or3 con6i#uration ;ein# rearran#ed e+ery time a su;scri;er mo+es into a di66erent co+era#e re#ion. T us) 2ireless net2or3s are desi#ned to 6acilitate roamin# and im!erce!ti;le ando66s ;et2een calls. T e a+aila;le c annel ;and2idt 6or 6i7ed net2or3s can ;e increased easily ;y installin# i# ca!acity ca;les) 2 ereas 2ireless net2or3s are constrained ;y t e mea#er >F cellular ;and2idt allotted to eac o!erator. @esides) t e 6i7ed net2or3s a+e a 2ell esta;lis ed in6rastructure to !ro+ide +oice and data ser+ices. &nt usiasts) t ere6ore !re6er 6i7ed net2or3s to 2ireless 6or its un!aralleled +oice clarity and relia;le communication.
Wireless Net+or,in%
Kimitations in Wireless 1et2or3in#
Wireless communications are e7tremely com!le7. T e co+era#e as to ;e !ro+ided under a 2ide ran#e o6 !ro!a#ation conditions and 6or any !ossi;le user location. Distorically) t e demand 6or 2ireless communications as consistently e7ceeded t e ca!acity o6 a+aila;le tec nolo#y. A !ro;lem uni'ue to 2ireless net2or3s is t e e7tremely ostile and random nature o6 t e radio c annel. As 2ireless systems #ro2) t e ine+ita;le addition o6 ;ase stations increases t e s2itc in# load on t e MSC.
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Wireless Net+or,in%
Tra66ic >outin# in Wireless 1et2or3s
A +oice tra66ic re'uires dedicated net2or3 access to !ro+ide real-time communications) 2 ereas control and si#nalin# tra66ic may ;e ;ursty in nature and a;le to s are net2or3 resources 2it ot er users. T e ty!e o6 tra66ic carried ;y a net2or3 determines t e routin# ser+ices) !rotocols) and call andlin# tec ni'ues 2 ic must ;e em!loyed. T2o #eneral routin# ser+ices are !ro+ided ;y net2or3s) connection oriented ser+ices A+irtual circuitB and connectionless ser+ices Adata#ram ser+icesB. In connection oriented routin#) t e communication !at is 6i7ed and dedicated. T e tra66ic is recei+ed in t e e7act order. T is ser+ice relies ea+ily on error control codin# to !ro+ide data !rotection. Connectionless routin#) on t e ot er and) do not esta;lis a 6irm connection) and instead rely on !ac3et;ased transmissions. Successi+e !ac3ets may ta3e di66erent routes) t us t e ordered deli+ery is not #uaranteed.
Wireless Net+or,in%
Circuit S2itc in#

Ty!ical o6 6irst #eneration cellular systems. As calls are initiated and com!leted) di66erent radio circuits and dedicated =ST1 +oice circuits are s2itc ed in and out to andle t e tra66ic. Circuit s2itc in# esta;lis es a dedicated connection 6or t e entire duration o6 a call. Wireless data net2or3s are not 2ell su!!orted ;y circuit s2itc in#) due to t eir s ort) ;ursty transmissions 2 ic are o6ten 6ollo2ed ;y !eriods o6 inacti+ity. :6ten) t e time re'uired to esta;lis a circuit e7ceeds t e duration o6 t e data transmission. Circuit s2itc in# is t ere6ore ;est suited 6or dedicated +oice-only tra66ic.
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Wireless Net+or,in%
=ac3et S2itc in#
Connectionless ser+ices e7!loit t e 6act t at dedicated resources are not re'uired 6or messa#e transmission. =ac3et s2itc in# A+irtual s2itc in#B is t e most common tec ni'ue used to im!lement connectionless ser+ices and allo2 a lar#e num;er o6 data users to remain +irtually connected to t e same ! ysical c annel in t e net2or3. Since all t e users may access t e net2or3 randomly and at 2ill) call set-u! !rocedures are not needed. =ac3et s2itc in# ;rea3s eac messa#e into smaller units) called !ac3ets 6or transmission and reco+ery. W en a messa#e is ;ro3en into !ac3ets) a certain amount o6 control in6ormation is added to eac !ac3et to !ro+ide source and destination identi6ication) as 2ell as error reco+ery !ro+isions.
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Wireless Net+or,in%
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Wireless Communication

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TNS Institute For Telecom

CHAPTERS I. II. Modern Wireless Communication Systems T e Cellular Conce!t

%I. Multi!le Access Tec ni'ues %II. Wireless 1et2or3in#

Modern Wireless Communication Systems

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Modern Wireless Communication S stems

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Modern Wireless Communication S stems

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Modern Wireless Communication S stems

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Modern Wireless Communication S stems

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Modern Wireless Communication S stems

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Modern Wireless Communication S stems

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

C annel Assi#nment Strate#ies

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

Inter6erence and System Ca!acity

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

C annel =lannin# 6or Wireless Systems

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

Trun3in# and 4rade o6 Ser+ice

T!e Cellular Conce"t

Im!ro+in# Co+era#e and Ca!acity in Cellular Systems

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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T!e Cellular Conce"t

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Small Scale " Multi!at Fadin#