WildDivinitiesandWildLandscapes Myinterestandquestfortheindigenouswilddivinitiesofexplicitnatureconservation beganinAugust1999nexttotheUpperYangtze,inBengdaCounty,SichuanProvince. Itwastriggeredbythefollowingstatement.

IfwetakecareofthelocalforestandanimalsJoBowillbehappyandblessourcommunity.If nothewillbeangryandourcropswillfail,ourlivestockwilldieandwewillsuffer AKhambafarmerinBengdaCounty

AlthoughIwassurprisedthefarmer(Fig1)spokeofadivinitybeinghappyandblessingthe communityIrealisedimmediatelythathewasdescribingananimisticphenomenon.This viewwascontrastedwiththesymbolicapproachadoptedbyhisneighbourandexpressedin thefollowingstatement.

IfwetakecareofthelocalforestandanimalsitwillprovideanideallocaletopayourrespectstoLord Buddha. AKhambaWomaninBengdaCounty

ThefarmerwentontodescribetheroleofJoBo,theresourcesandvillageshepresided overandthegeospatialextentofhisnuminousdomain.

Figure1TheFarmer(inyellow)andhisfamily

MyDilemma Hisstatement,however,leftmeinadilemmajusthowcouldJoBomeaningLordand whoappearedtobealocalanimisticdivinitybeexplainedundertherubricofBuddhism.I thoughtthelocalgodshadbeentamedanddeterritorializedandthelandscapesubjected tomandalization! AlthoughIrealisedIwasdealingwithananimisticphenomenonIlackedaconceptual frameworktoexplainitorthenomenclaturetodescribeit.Thelocalliteraturedidnothelp

much,becauseanimismisregardedassuperstitiousbythestateorasadespisedtamed traditionbytheclergy. AlthoughmichosisusedintheTibetanliteraturetodescribethedharmaofhuman beingsitisaliterarytermnotunderstoodbyvillagersandnatureworship(rangbyungyid rton)didnotexplainthephenomenonIhadencountered.Eventuallyasaresultofwestern scholarshipIrealisedthatthephenomenawasdescribedasaterritorialcultandwas presidedoverbylocalgods.Farfrombeingtamed,however,thisancientindigenous traditionisbeingrevitalizedasanexpressionofTibetanessandterritorialplacemaking andattachment.

Figure2AcairnorlabtsededicatedtoaterritorialdivinityInGanziPrefecture

AlthoughIwasabletogathercognitiveevidenceofterritorialcultsfrom86sitesallover EasternKhamandthelandscapewaspunctuatedbycairns(Fig2)tohonourthemmy researchledmeinotherdirectionsforseveralyears. StaggeringDiscovery In2009,however,Iwasaskedtowritechaptersintwobooks,oneonsacrednaturalsitesin KhamandoneonplaceattachmentinTibetandinbothcasesterritorialcultswerepivotal. InthecontextofwritingthechaptersIdiscoveredthattheterritorialcultswhicherepre Buddhist: encompass52,000km2oflandinSWChinaandadditionallyexistamongtheTibetan Diaspora(Nepal,Sikkim,Bhutan,Switzerland,India)andtheirneighbours(Mongolia andN.Pakistan) arepresidedoverbyanumina(orgeniusloci)knowncommonlyinTibetanasayul lhaorgzhibdagandwhosenuminousdomain(oftentheupperpartofamountain) ischaracterizedbyexplicitnatureconservation.

Iwasstaggeredtodiscoverthatalthoughthereappearedtobe52,000km2ofsacredsitesin SWChinatheywerenotrecognizednationallyorinternationallyeventhoughtheyare

exemplarsofexplicitnatureconservation.Iamunsureifthelackofrecognitionisdueto monoculturalmyopiaoranoversightbutoneofmyaimshasbeentoaddressthisshort sightedness.FirstlyhoweverIhadtoestablishthefactsandensurethatthetraditionsand practicesthatunderpinterritorialcultswereongoing. AbioculturalAudit Duringthesummerof2013CERSprovidedmewithanopportunitytoconductabiocultural auditoftheYubenvalley(SeeFig3)intheKawakarpoMountainsandexaminethe geospatialdistributionofterritorialcultsinelevenvillagesinZhongdianCounty.

Figure3TheYubenValley

Iwasabletoestablishthat60%oftheYubenValleyisrituallyprotected.Theupperslopesof sixsnowmountainsarededicatedtoandinhabitedbyterritorialdivinities(gzhibdag)and arelargelyundisturbed.Threeforestedmountainsaredoublyprotectedbecausetheir upperslopesareinhabitedbyagzhibdagandtheyaresealed(rirgya)byaLama, althoughgrazinginthealpinemeadowsispermitted


Figure4Inthebackgroundismountmintsomotheabodeofagzhibdag andintheforegroundpartofbenderitheabodeofagzhibdagandasealedmountain

ThedomainsofthegzhibdaginYubenValleyappeartobeexemplarsofbiodiversity(alpine andtemperate)withrecognizedgeospatialextents. ThereisevidenceofvolunteerpatrolsinYubenandtheKawakarporangewhoseekto protecttheenvironment.

Figure5Hunterturnedecospiritualconservationist

Itwouldappearthatecospiritualwisdomandtheprotectionofritualterritoryisbeing passedfromgenerationtogeneration.Iamconcerned,though,thatthetransferof indigenouswisdomandcultureisbeingunderminedbytourism,hanification,remoteformal education,theclosureofamonasteryandtheintroductionofapossibleroad.Until recentlyYubenhadaviableschool(Fig6)andtheschoolmasterstilllivesinYuben.Suchis theculturalerosionittookmeaweektodiscoverthenameoftheGlacierLakeinspoken

andwrittenTibetanandseveralHanChinesetouristsinYubencommentedthattheTibetan tourguidesinShangrilawereignorantoftheirownculture.

Figure6Yuben'sdefunctSchool(CCTV)

InYubentopocosmicharmony(withthegzhibdag)appearstobemaintainedbyself regulationandritualswithoutreligiousspecialists.Therituals,burningincense(Fig7)and recitingscripture,includetwocommunitydaysayearof(15thJune&15thJuly)andtwodays amonth(11thand15th)forindividuals.

Figure7AbsangthabinUpperYubenwhereincenseisofferedtoplacateandthankthegzhibdag

AnumberofpeopleinZhongdianCountymentionedtheroleofaCangbaasan intermediarybetweenvillagersandtheirgzhibdag.IamunsureiftheCangbaisadeity mediumandifthegzhibdagdescends(babs)onhim. Mountainsealing(rirgya)appearstobeassociatedwithTibetanBuddhismandareasclose toholymountains(gnasri).AlthoughthepracticeisfoundthroughouttheTibetanworldit

isnotoftenassociatedwithterritorialcults.Iamnotsurehowlongthethreemountainsin theYubenValleywillremainsealedasthelowerslopesarebecomingcontestedaspotential sitesfortimberforhotelconstruction. TerritorialcultsappeartobewidespreadthroughouttheTibetanworldonthebasisofthe literature.OfelevenvillagesIvisitedinZhongdianCounty,mosthadthreemountains dedicatedtoterritorialdivinities,(SeeFig8)withsomeupto60kminextent.

Figure8HonouringthePushanggzhibdagatabsangthab(right)nearhisabode(left) (PhotoAnon)

Thedomainsofthegzhibdagaregenerallyrecognizedasbiodiversityhotspotsbuta numberofsites(inZhongdianCounty)arestillrecoveringfromtreefellingduringthe CulturalRevolutionandduringthe80/90s.Asaresulttherearenotalwaysnoticeable differencesinbiodiversitybetweenthedomainsofthegzhibdagandadjacentland.Several intervieweesinZhongdianCountymentionedthepresenceofnabiortufteddeerinthe domainofagzhibdag.Nabiareakeyindicatorforbiodiversitybecausetheyareoften hunted. AsafootnoteIshouldpointoutthatsacrednaturalsitesarenotalwaysprotected.Sacred canequallyapplytositesthatareunmanaged,overexploitedwithlittlebiodiversity. ItisironicthatwhenIstartedmyquestinBengdaIhadgonetheretoexploreecotourismin thecontextofanIUCNprotectedarea.Inrealityitwasjustapaperparkcreatedexsitu withoutreferencetothelocalpeople,whohadnoidea.ConverselyIUCNignoredthe presenceofrituallyprotectedterritorythatwasanexemplarofbiodiversity. Waysmustbesoughttoenableexogenousintereststobuildonendogenousexemplarsof explicitnatureconservation,ratherthanignoringthem.Territorialcultsneedtobe

recognizedandprovisionmadefortheinternationalprotectionofrituallyprotected territoriesthatareexemplarsofexplicitnatureconservation TerritorialcultsarepartoftheculturalheritageoftheTibetanpeopleaddressing Tibetaness,Identity,communitycohesion,placeattachmentaswellasbeingbiodiversity hotspotsmoremustbedonetopreserveandprotectthem