WCA 2007 Conference, Brisbane, July 2007

SHIFTING FROM INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE TO MULTICULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE: A DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT AND THE APPLICATIONS Miwa Yamazaki University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, HI, U A Descri !i"# !"is is a review #a#er on co$$unication co$#etence focusin% on t"e conce#ts &escribe& in t"e 'eywor&s( Areas of co$$unication, "ealt" care, counselin%, consultation, an& e&ucation "ave focuse& on in&ivi&uals) cultural co$#etence &ifferently in #ast stu&ies( !"is #a#er e$#"asi*e& t"e i$#ortance of s"iftin% our focus to $ulticultural co$$unication co$#etence t"at can be a##lie& to &ifferent areas of stu&y( A$s!rac! Co$$unicatin% a##ro#riately an& effectively is often e$#"asi*e& as a 'ey to be a culturally co$#etent #erson( However, #ast researc" &i& not always refer to t"e necessary co$$unication t"at one nee&s to ac+uire( !"is stu&y reviewe& t"e &ifferent &efinitions of co$#etences to investi%ate t"e un&erlyin% e$#"asis, an& raise& t"e i$#ortance of focusin% on $ulticultural co$$unication co$#etence( ,nowin% t"at t"e in&ivi&uals) co$#etence can be an in"erent -trait. an&/or a learne& -state. ability, t"e aut"or e$#"asi*e& t"at t"e sc"olars nee& to consi&er bot" #ersonal -&e$o%ra#"ic. an& situational variables to e0#lain t"e s'ills t"at nee& to be ac+uire& to beco$e culturally co$#etent( %e&w"r's1 $ulticultural co$$unication co$#etence -MC2MC., intercultural co$$unication co$#etence -ICC., bicultural co$$unication co$#etence -BC2MC., $ulticultural counselin% co$$unication -MCC., cultural sensitivity, $ulticulturalis$, biculturalis$

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I#!r"'(c!i"# A %rowin% nu$ber of stu&ies "ave been #ublis"e& in t"e area of intercultural co$$unication co$#etence -ICC.( About ten years a%o, C"en an& tarosta -1778. #ro#ose& t"e i$#ortance of ac+uirin% t"e s'ills to be an interculturally co$#etent #erson( Afterwar&s, awareness towar& cultural &ifferences "as increase&5 "owever, w"at t"e criteria one can follow to ac+uire s'ills to be interculturally co$#etent #erson "as not yet fully investi%ate&( everal i$#ortant tren&s of t"e late twentiet" century, suc" as tec"nolo%y &evelo#$ent, %lobali*ation of t"e econo$y, wi&es#rea& #o#ulation $i%rations, an& t"e &evelo#$ent of $ulticulturalis$, "ave transfor$e& t"e worl& into a %lobal villa%e -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( Bein% interculturally co$#etent in co$$unication transfor$s a $onocultural #erson into a $ulticultural #erson -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( In&ivi&uals "ave been e0#ecte& not only to increase awareness towar& cultural &ifferences but also to %ain t"e s'ills to #erfor$ a##ro#riately in &ifferent co$$unication settin%s( c"olars "ave investi%ate& ICC in t"e areas are or%ani*ational co$$unication conte0t -M:n&e* ;arc<a 9 =:re* Ca>a&o, 200?5 C"en 9 tarosta, 1778., "ealt" care an& counselin% conte0t -@ia*ABa*aro 9 Co"en, 20015 Cuertes, Bartolo$eo, 9 Dic"ols, 20015 Manese, Wu, 9 De#o$uceno, 20015 evi% 9 3t*'orn, 20015 !o#ore', 2001., consultation -Jac'son 9 Hayes, 177E., nursin% -,os'inen 9 !ossavainen, 200F., nurse e&ucation -Culley, 1778., &ental "y%iene care &elivery -Citc", 200F., touris$ -Beclerc 9 Martin, 200F., an& e&ucation -;reen"olt*, 20005 Be 4ou0, 20025 ercu, 200F5 Wilson, 177E.( However, t"e conce#t of ICC "as not yet fully unifie& across &ifferent &isci#lines es#ecially focusin% on necessary co$$unication s'ills( In a&&ition, t"e #ast researc" even use& &ifferent ter$s to &iscuss co$$unication co$#etence( Cor instance, researc"ers fro$ "ealt"/counselin% conte0t "ave use& MCC t"at refers to G$ulticultural counselin% co$#etenceH -@ia*ABa*aro 9 Co"en, 20015 Manese et al(, 20015 evi% 9 3t*'orn, 20015 !o#ore', 2001. instea& of usin% t"e ter$ ICC( MCC in t"at s#ecific conte0t is i$#ortant in ter$s of un&erstan&in% cultural &iversity for #rovi&in% an a##ro#riate care -Meleis, 1777.( In a&&ition to ICC an& MCC, anot"er ter$ BCC t"at refers to Gbicultural co$$unication co$#etenceH "as been intro&uce& -,i$, 2002.( BCC e$#"asi*es in&ivi&uals) co$$unication co$#etence w"en t"ey 'ee# t"eir et"nic i&entities wit"out assi$ilatin% co$#letely into t"e &o$inant culture -,i$, 2002.( @ue to t"e co$#le0ity of t"e abbreviation of eac" conce#t, t"e #resent #a#er &istin%uis"es between ICC an& BCC, an& also refers BCC as BC2MC( !"e #resent #a#er also refers to $ulticultural co$$unication co$#etence as MC2MC to &istin%uis" it fro$ MCC since it refers to $ulticultural counselin% co$#etence in t"e #ast literatures(

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WCA 2007 Conference, Brisbane, July 2007

Interestin%ly, $any sc"olars "ave only e$#"asi*e& ICC instea& of MC2MC in t"e #ast( Accor&in% to t"e literature, bein% fle0ible, t"in'in% a##ro#riately, an& interactin% effectively are necessary to be culturally co$#etence #erson -Ha$$er, Bennet, 9 Wise$an, 200E5 Wise$an, 2002.( 6an &er Iee 9 Brin'$ann -200F. #ro#ose& so$e i$#ortant ele$ents suc" as cultural e$#at"y, o#enA$in&e&ness, social initiative, e$otional stability, an& fle0ibility t"at are re+uire& to be a $ulticulturally co$#etent #erson( As &iscusse&, #ast researc" "as e$#"asi*e& only t"e i$#ortance of effective an& a##ro#riate s'ills to be interculturally or $ulticulturally co$#etent in&ivi&uals5 yet, t"e s#ecific s'ills to be ac+uire& are not well e0#laine&( In fact, stu&yin% only ICC is li$ite& &ue to t"e lac's of $ulticultural conce#ts, for e0a$#le, observin% cultural &ifferences as a w"ole( tu&yin% only MCC is also li$ite& as it &oes not focus on t"e co$$unication s'ills necessary in "ealt" an& counselin%( Many stu&ies about MCC "ave usually focuse& on t"e conce#t of $ulticulturalis$5 "owever, t"ey &o not usually e0#an& t"e conce#t to MC2MC( !"e #ur#ose of t"is review is to #ro#ose t"e i$#ortance of s"iftin% our focus fro$ ICC to MC2MC( !"e review starts wit" t"e &efinition of ICC, followe& by t"e relate& constructs -e(%(, cultural sensitivity., t"e #ast researc" about MCC an& bicultural co$$unication co$#etence -BCC5 in t"is stu&y, BCC is referre& to as BC2MC.( Cinally, t"e #a#er e0#lains t"e stu&y of ICC an& MC2MC in a##lie& settin%s( Li!era!(re Re)iews I#!erc(*!(ra* C"mm(#ica!i"# C"m e!e#ce +ICC, De-i#i!i"#s. @efinin% t"e $eanin% of ICC "as been one of t"e $aJor c"allen%es a$on% sc"olars( 4uben -1778. i&entifie& seven &i$ension of ICC as -1. t"e ca#acity to be fle0ible, -2. t"e ca#acity to be nonJu&%$ental, -E. tolerance for a$bi%uity, -F. t"e ca#acity to co$$unicate res#ect, -?. t"e ca#acity to #ersonali*e one)s 'nowle&%e an& #erce#tions, -8. t"e ca#acity to &is#lay e$#at"y, an& -7. t"e ca#acity for turn ta'in%( More recently, $ost &efinitions "ave continue& to e$#"asi*e t"e ability to interact a##ro#riately an& effectively( o$e e0a$#les inclu&e Gt"e ability to t"in' an& act in interculturally a##ro#riate waysH -Ha$$er et al(, 200E, #( F22.5 Gt"e 'nowle&%e, $otivation, an& s'ills to interact effectively an& a##ro#riately wit" $e$bers of &ifferent culturesH -Wise$an, 2002, #( 20K.5 an& Gt"e ability to ne%otiate cultural $eanin%s an& to e0ecute a##ro#riately effective co$$unication be"aviors t"at reco%ni*e t"e interactants) $ulti#le i&entities in a s#ecific environ$entH -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778, ##( E?KAE?7.( In a&&ition, Collier -17K7. #ose& t"e i&ea t"at t"e "i%"er t"e $atc" between avowal an& ascri#tion, t"e "i%"er t"e intercultural co$#etence(

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WCA 2007 Conference, Brisbane, July 2007

Interculturally co$#etent #ersons $ust 'now "ow to ne%otiate an& res#ect $eanin%s of cultural sy$bols an& nor$s t"at are c"an%in% &urin% t"eir interactions -Collier 9 !"o$as, 17KK5 ,i$, 177F.( !"ey also nee& to 'now G"ow to fulfill t"eir own co$$unication %oals by res#ectin% an& affir$in% t"e $ultilevel cultural i&entities of t"ose wit" w"o$ t"ey interactH -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778, #( E?7.( ,i$ -1771. intro&uce& t"ree &i$ensions of ICC in ter$s of a&a#tability1 t"e co%nitive &i$ension -&iscernin% $eanin%., t"e affective &i$ension -e$otions involve& wit" willin%ness to acco$$o&ate &ifferent cultural ways., an& t"e o#erational &i$ension -be"avioral fle0ibility an& resourcefulness in an intercultural interaction.( Curt"er$ore, cultural co$#etence is Gan active &e$onstration of res#ect for &ifferences, ent"usiastic ea%erness to learn about ot"er cultures, an acce#tance of &ifferent view#oints on reality -,. an& a fle0ibility an& willin%ness to a&Just, c"an%e, an& reorientate w"ere re+uire&H -Bync" 9 Banson, 1777, as cite& by Be 4ou0, 2002, #( FE.( Curt"er$ore, ICC #rovi&es Gan o##ortunity for t"e in&ivi&ual to &evelo# an awareness of cultural &yna$ics an& to &iscern $ulti#le i&entities in or&er to $aintain a state of $ulticultural coe0istenceH -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778, #( E8F.( A r"ac/es. In ter$s of t"eories, #ast researc" use& an0iety/uncertainty $ana%e$ent -AUM. t"eory

-;u&y'unst, 177?., #ersonal networ' a##roac" -,i$, 17K8., syste$At"eoretic #ers#ective -,i$, 1771., social s'ills #ers#ective -Martin 9 Ha$$er, 17K7., an& i&entity ne%otiation -!in%A!oo$ey, 177E.( !"e a##roac"es for t"e ICC are often influence& by t"e researc"er)s &efinition of co$#etence -Arasaratna$ 9 @oerfel, 200?.( @in%es -17KE. intro&uce& si0 a##roac"es1 -1. overseas$ans"i#, -2. subJective culture, -E. $ulticultural #erson, -F. social be"avioris$, -?. to#olo%y, an& -8. intercultural co$$unicator, to i&entify ICC( Collier -17K7. i&entifie& four ty#es of a##roac"es1 -1. et"no%ra#"y of s#ea'in%, -2. crossAcultural attitu&es, -E. be"avioral s'ills, an& -F. cultural i&entity( !a'e i$$i%rant) co$#etence as an e0a$#le, Bee 9 C"en -2000. stu&ie& i$$i%rants) cultural co$$unication co$#etence an& #syc"olo%ical a&Just$ent( In t"e a&a#tation #rocess, i$$i%rants e0#erience four ele$ents1 enculturation, &eculturation, acculturation, an& assi$ilation( !"e assi$ilation $o&el Gfocuses on t"e ac+uisition of t"e $aJority %rou#)s culture by $e$bers of t"e $inority %rou# an& assu$es a "ierarc"ical relations"i# between t"e two culturesH -,i$, 2002, #( 1F8.( !orres 9 4olloc' -200F. stu&ie& t"e relations"i# between acculturative &istress an& intercultural co$#etence a$on% His#anic #o#ulations( Accor&in% to t"e$, #syc"olo%ical &istress Garises w"en an in&ivi&ual &eter$ines t"at "e or s"e lac's t"e ca#acity or t"e $eans to &eal wit" t"e stressors of interactin% an& succee&in% in t"e new environ$entH -!orres 9 4olloc', 200F, #( 1?7.( Besi&es t"e stress fro$ t"e new environ$ent, conte0tual variables -e(%( &e$o%ra#"ic c"aracteristics, t"e &e$an& of t"e "ost society, an& i$$i%ration an& acculturation e0#eriences. $ay also influence acculturative stress -!orres 9 4olloc', 200F.(
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WCA 2007 Conference, Brisbane, July 2007

Also, Wise$an, Ha$$er, 9 Dis"i&a -17K7. stu&ie& t"e 'nowle&%e of "ost culture, ot"er cultures, stereoty#es, et"nocentris$, an& social &istance across two cultures of Ja#an an& t"e U( ( De-i#i!i"#s "- c"mm(#ica!i"# c"m e!e#ce. C"en an& tarosta -1778. &iscusse& t"e nature of co$$unication co$#etence, in ter$s of t"e two conce#ts of effectiveness an& a##ro#riateness( 3ffectiveness refers to Gan in&ivi&ual)s ability to #ro&uce inten&e& effects t"rou%" interaction wit" t"e environ$entH -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778, #( E?8.( 3ffectiveness of t"e ability coul& be observe& by t"e #eo#le wit" w"o$ s"e or "e interacts, instea& of "er/"is feelin%s of co$#etence -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( A##ro#riateness of be"avior i$#lies t"ree abilities1 -1. t"e ability to reco%ni*e "ow conte0t constrains co$$unication, -2. t"e ability to avoi& ina##ro#riate res#onses, an& -E. t"e ability to fulfill a##ro#riately suc" co$$unication functions as controllin%, s"arin%, feelin%, infor$in%, rituali*in%, an& i$a%inin% -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( In a&&ition, t"e a##ro#riateness of an in&ivi&ual)s be"avior can be Ju&%e& wit" t"e four ele$ents of +uantity, +uality, relevance, an& $anner of $essa%e sen&in% -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( 2ne)s co$$unication co$#etence can be i&entifie& &ifferently( Accor&in% to Martin an& Ha$$er -17K7., t"ree s#ecific cate%ories of be"aviors coul& i&entify co$$unication co$#etence1 nonverbal be"aviors -e(%(, listenin% carefully, "avin% &irect eye contact., verbal -to#ic/content. be"aviors -e(%(, s"arin% infor$ation about oneself, see'in% to#ics of $utual interest., an& conversational $ana%e$ent be"aviors -e(%(, as'in% +uestions about ot"er #erson an& countries.( !"ose cate%ories a##ear to be stable across bot" self an& ot"er Ju&%$ents of co$#etence in bot" intracultural an& intercultural conte0ts( Beclerc 9 Martin -200F. also use& nonverbal, verbal, an& trait &i$ensions to assess tour %ui&es) co$$unication co$#etence across cultures( !"e nonverbal &i$ension inclu&e& a##roac"ability -e(%(, s$ile, #leasant facial e0#ressions, lau%"., #oise -e(%(, nice a##earance, a##ro#riate #osture an& &istance., attentiveness -e(%(, $aintainin% &irect eye contact, #ayin% close attention, usin% %estures, no&&in% "ea&, leanin% towar& t"e #erson., an& touc" -e(%(, s"a'in% "an&s, touc"in% t"e ot"er #erson, tal'in% lou&ly.( !"e verbal &i$ension inclu&e& lan%ua%e a&a#tability -e(%(, usin% a##ro#riate %ra$$ar, c"oosin% wor&s carefully, s#ea'in% an& #resentin% i&eas clearly, avoi&in% slan%., inter#ersonal inclusion -e(%(, invitin% ot"ers to &o so$et"in%, as'in% about t"e ot"er #erson, co$#le$entin% t"e ot"er #erson, s"arin% infor$ation about oneself., an& assertiveness -usin% i$#ressive wor&s, a%reein%, tal'in% a lot.( !rait &i$ension inclu&e& ite$s suc" as bein% o#enA$in&e&, ent"usiastic, interestin%, an& fran'( Beclerc 9 Martin -200F. foun& t"at bot" nonverbal an& verbal co$$unication s'ills were $ore i$#ortant for A$erican tourists t"an for Crenc" an& ;er$an tourists(

WCA1 Co$$unication in t"e 21st Century1 30#lorin% 4oots5 30#an&in% 6isions

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As e0#laine&, co$$unication co$#etence e$#"asi*es an in&ivi&ual)s nonverbal an& verbal co$$unication ability, s'ills, an& be"aviors( However, it "as not yet been use& to investi%ate t"e in&ivi&ual)s nonverbal an& verbal co$$unication co$#etences in &ifferent areas interA or crossAculturally( It is because intercultural co$$unication sc"olars e$#"asi*e conte0tual factors $ore t"an co$$unication s'ills t"e$selves w"en t"ey &iscuss ICC -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( Cri!i0(e "# i#!erc(*!(ra* c"mm(#ica!i"# c"m e!e#ce +ICC,. tu&yin% ICC "as been criti+ue& in ter$s of

several issues( Cirst, sc"olars "a& not been clear about w"et"er co$#etence is an in"erent ability -trait. or a learne& ability -state., -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( In a&&ition, w"et"er ICC refers to 'nowle&%e or actual #erfor$ance was also not clarifie& eit"er -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( W"at is clear is t"at we "ave to consi&er t"e #rocess of co$$unication &e$an&s not only situational 'nowle&%e but be"avioral s'ills as well( econ&, $any sc"olars "ave &iscusse& t"at t"e s'ills for co$$unicatin% effectively an& a##ro#riately are i$#ortant ele$ents to c"aracteri*in% in&ivi&uals as interculturally co$#etent #ersons5 "owever, t"ey &o not e0#lain "ow to be effective an& "ow to be a##ro#riate in eac" co$$unication encounter( In a&&ition, $any stu&ies "ave su%%este& &ifferent traits -e(%(, bein% nonJu&%$ental5 "avin% tolerance for a$bi%uity5 &e$onstratin% res#ect, e$#at"y, an& an ea%erness to learn about cultures5 acce#tin% &ifferent view#oints.5 "owever, unifie& traits across &ifferent &isci#lines are not well e0#laine& -Collier 9 !"o$as, 17KK5 Bync" 9 Banson, 1777, as cite& by Be 4ou0, 20015 4uben, 1778.( !o su$ u#, t"e essential #oint to &evelo#in% t"e area of ICC researc" is to stu&y t"e interArelations"i# between #ersonal -&e$o%ra#"ic. variables -a%e, %en&er, se0, et"nicity, nationality, etc(. an& situational variables -e(%(, s#ecific focus of a culture or co$#arison between two cultures, na$ely, crossAcultural relations"i#, or &ifferent co$$unication settin%s of "ealt" care, counselin%, or%ani*ation, e&ucation, etc(. an& to un&erstan& one)s co$#etence as a w"ole -@in%s 9 Bieber$an, 17K7.( I#!erc(*!(ra* se#si!i)i!&. Cultural sensitivity is t"e core ele$ent w"en we &iscuss ICC -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( !"e conce#t "as been &efine& in ter$s of an in&ivi&ual)s abilities to e0#erience an& to res#onse to cultural &ifferences -Ha$$er et al(, 200E5 traffon, 200E.( ;reater intercultural sensitivity is associate& wit" %reater #otential for e0ercisin% intercultural co$#etence( =ast researc" investi%ate& t"e &octors) necessary s'ills to be sensitive towar& a #atient)s cultural an& reli%ious bac'%roun&s -As"raf, 1777.( Intercultural sensitivity also refers to t"e affective ca#acity to reco%ni*e, ac'nowle&%e, an& res#ect cultural &ifferences -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( =eo#le)s willin%ness to en%a%e in &ifferent cultures is &ue to t"eir fle0ibility an& o#enA$in&e&ness -B"awu' 9 Brislin, 1772.( !"e &evelo#$ent of t"is ability &e$an&s new awareness an& attitu&es -Milton, 17K8.( 2ne of t"e ways of $easurin% intercultural sensitivity is to G&eter$ine #eo#le)s 'nowle&%e about an& willin%ness to c"an%e be"aviors relate& to t"e in&ivi&ualistic or
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collectivistic bac'%roun& of ot"ersH -B"awu' 9 Brislin, 1772, #( F1K.( 3&ucation an& trainin% are 'nown to #lay i$#ortant roles in t"e &evelo#$ent of an in&ivi&ual)s intercultural sensitivity -=ai%e, 177E5 =rue%%er 9 4o%ers, 177F.( As an e0a$#le, Intercultural &evelo#$ent Inventory -I@I. is a &evelo#$ental $o&el of intercultural sensitivity -@MI . wit" t"ree et"nocentric sta%es of &enial, &efense, an& $ini$i*ation an& wit" t"ree et"noArelative sta%es of acce#tance, a&a#tation, an& inte%ration -Ha$$er et al(, 200E.( Cultural sensitivity an& ICC see$ to s"are t"e sa$e ele$ents5 "owever, little stu&y &iscusse& t"ose two conce#ts to%et"er( In or&er to furt"er &evelo# t"e conce#t to $ulticultural co$$unication co$#etence base& on t"e $eanin%s of cultural co$#etence, it is necessary to &iscuss ot"er conce#ts inclu&in% biculturalis$, bicultural co$$unication co$#etence -BCC., $ulticulturalis$, an& MCC, an& also MC2MC in &ifferent areas of stu&y( T/e c"#ce ! "- $ic(*!(ra*ism a#' $ic(*!(ra* c"mm(#ica!i"# c"m e!e#ce +1COMC, Biculturalis$ e$#"asi*es a blen&in% of lifestyles, values, an& s'ills( Biculturalis$ is &efine& as Gan inte%ration of t"e co$#etencies an& sensitivities associate& wit" two cultures wit"in a sin%le #erson so t"at t"e #erson can i&entify wit" two or $ore cultures an& #artici#ate in t"e$ wit"out conflict or $ala&Just$entH -,i$, 2002, #( 1F7.( In biculturalis$, Gi&entity for$ation an& corres#on&in% co$$unication styles in t"e conte0t of contact between &ifferent %rou#s are always c"an%in% to fit t"e nee&s of &ual %rou# $e$bers"i#H -,i$, 2002, #( 1?1.( !"e i&ea of biculturalis$ e$#"asi*es t"at t"e %rou# c"aracteristics can be use& in a #ositive way rat"er t"an #lacin% %rou#s in a "ierarc"y of &o$inance an& se#aratin% $aJority an& $inority -,i$, 2002.( !"e conce#t of BC2MC #laces less e$#"asis on assi$ilation to t"e &o$inant culture -,i$, 2002.( !"e conce#t refers t"at in&ivi&uals can -1. 'ee# t"eir et"nic an& cultural $e$bers"i#, an& also -2. $a'e c"oices between t"e co$$unication #atterns of two or $ore cultures or %rou#s -,i$, 2002.( Multiculturalism and Multicultural Communication Competence (MCOMC) =ast researc" atte$#te& to view t"e issue of $ulticulturalis$ in &ifferent conte0ts1 e0a$#les inclu&e $ulticulturalis$ an& social wor' -;oul&, 177?., $ulticulturalis$ an& &iverse university situations -C"esler, 200F., $ulticulturalis$ an& $e&ia -Meyrowit* 9 Ma%uire, 177E., $ulticulturalis$ an& a volunteer %rou# -La$a*a'i, 2002., an& library an& infor$ation science e&ucation for $ulticulturalis$ an& &iversity -Dilsen, 200F.( !"e followin% section e0#lains t"e conce#t of $ulticulturalis$(

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T/e c"#ce ! "- m(*!ic(*!(ra*ism. Un&erstan&in% t"e conce#t of $ulticulturalis$ "as been i$#ortant &ue to #"eno$ena li'e %lobali*ation, international $i%ration, an& et"nic &iversification -!rebin%, 200F.( Multiculturalis$ e$#"asi*es t"e i$#ortance of ac'nowle&%in% t"e e0istence of et"nic &iversity, ensurin% t"e ri%"ts of in&ivi&uals to retain t"eir culture, an& coe0ist in a society -UD3 C2, 2007.( Multiculturalis$ not only #ro$ises benefits for un&erre#resente& an& #reviously e0clu&e& %rou#s but #rovi&es %ains for t"e $aJority as well -C"esler, 200F.( Many of t"e efforts to a&vance &iversity an& $ulticulturalis$ fail to &eal wit" real an& #ressin% #roble$s in institutional analysis an& action #lannin% -C"esler, 200F.( !a'in% t"e university conte0t as an e0a$#le, it is necessary for eac" university to "ave a vision of a $ulticultural aca&e$ic or%ani*ation, to "ave 'nowle&%e about reality an& #roble$s, an& to &esi%n syste$atic #lannin% t"at better suits t"e co$#le0 "i%"er e&ucation institutions -C"esler, 200F.( Many sc"olars ac'nowle&%e t"at $ulticulturalis$ will soon be t"e nor$ in $ost conte$#orary societies( However, t"e i&eas an& t"ou%"ts on "ow to &eal wit" suc" $ulticultural &iversity &iffere& wi&ely -Breini%, ;eb"ar&t, 9 Bosc", 200F as cite& by !rebin%, 200F.( In fact, t"e &efinition of one)s et"nic i&entity, race, an& t"e country w"ere s"e/"e was born "as beco$e blur, an& travelin% an& $i%ration across countries "as accelerate& $any countries) &evelo#$ent into $ulticultural an& $ultiet"nic societies -La$a*a'i, 2002.( In a&&ition, $ultiracial fa$ilies t"rou%" interracial $arria%es, crossAcultural a&o#tions, an& blen&e& fa$ilies t"rou%" &ivorce an& re$arria%e "ave been brou%"t to societies w"ere racial boun&aries an& cultural &ifferences are also blurre& -C"in, 200F.( Multiculturalis$ is also often &escribe& as G$eltin% #otH w"ere Gt"ere is a $i0in% of #eo#le of &ifferent races an& nationsH -Bon%$an, 1771, #( 771.( !"e M$eltin% #ot) never was in reality a t"ic' "eavy stew t"at blen&e& all A$ericans rat"er it was a clear brot" &erive& fro$ strainin% out $any Mi$#urities) -Meyrowit* 9 Ma%uire, 177E.( !"e U( ( is a $ultiet"nic society wit" t"e $aJority of t"e #o#ulation bein% W"ite An%loA a0on =rotestant -WA =.( @e$o%ra#"ic c"an%es in t"e #ast &eca&e #re&ict t"at racial/et"nic %rou#s will $a'e u# FKN of t"e total U( ( #o#ulation by t"e year 20?0( Multiculturalis$ still "ol&s a conce#t of w"o belon%s to t"e $aJority %rou#5 "owever, it $ay not be $eanin%ful to e$#"asi*e of t"e W"ite $aJority w"en t"e line between $aJority an& $inority is a$bi%uous in a $ulticultural conte0t -C"in, 200F.( It is not yet clear if e0#osure to $ulticultural to#ics actually increases co$#etence -=o#eA@avis et al(, 2001.5 "owever, un&erstan&in% $ulticulturalis$ is a basis to &iscuss w"ic" cultures we &eal wit" an& w"at are t"e necessary s'ills to culturally co$#etence in eac" co$$unication encounter(

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M(*!ic(*!(ra* C"m e!e#ce a#' I!s A

*ica!i"#s

M(*!ic(*!(ra* c"(#se*i#2 c"m e!e#ce +MCC, i# /ea*!/ care3c"(#se*i#2. Multicultural co$#etence "as been t"e focus of nu$erous researc"ers in "ealt" care, counselin%, an& #syc"ot"era#y( Many of t"e stu&ies focuse& #ri$arily on trainin% #ro%ra$s t"at en"ance $ulticultural counselin% co$#etencies -@ia*ABa*aro 9 Co"en, 20015 Manese, et al(, 20015 evi% 9 3t*'orn, 20015 !o#ore', 2001.( 2t"er stu&ies focuse& on MCC an& social &esirability -Constantine 9 Ba&any, 20005 o&ows'y, ,uoAJac'son, 4ic"ar&son, 9 Corey, 177K., or t"e i$#act of crossAcultural contact e0#erience on $ulticultural co$#etencies in t"e trainin% of counselors -@ia*ABa*aro 9 Co"en, 2001.( ince t"e $ulticultural co$#etency literature in "ealt" care an& counselin% "as ra#i&ly evolve&, t"e sc"olars "ave e$#"asi*e& a broa&er conce#tuali*ation of culture inclu&in% face, racial i&entity, et"nicity, %en&er, se0ual orientation, #"ysical &isability i&entity, an& socioecono$ic status -Cuertes et al(, 2001.( As we see, culture is one of t"e $aJor influences contributin% to interaction( 2ne stu&y, for e0a$#le, stu&ie& #atients) $otivations for co$$unication a##roac" an& avoi&ance in $e&ical interviews -,i$, ,lin%le, "ar'ey, =ar', $it", 9 Cai, 2000.( A culturally co$#etent #erson is able to Greco%ni*e &ifferences, i&entify si$ilar #atterns of res#onses, avoi& stereoty#in% by ac'nowle&%in% variations, an& balance "is or "er own carin% actions by reco%ni*in% &ifferences an& avoi&in% stereoty#in%H -Meleis, 1777, #( 12.( A&&itionally, in&ivi&uals w"o are culturally co$#etent "ave &iverse 'nowle&%e of co$$unication #atterns an& aware t"e #ower of lan%ua%e -#reference, level of co$fort, #roficiency. t"at woul& influence on "ow #eo#le ten& to #erceive, trust, un&erstan&, &evelo# $eanin%s, an& $a'e sense out of t"eir worl& -Meleis, 1777.( Usin% an a##ro#riate use of lan%ua%es is a necessary s'ill for #"ysicians to un&erstan& "ow to offer better "ealt" care to t"eir #atients Multicultural co$#etency in counselin% an& #syc"ot"era#y "as been &evelo#e& to ensure t"e counselor)s ability to atten& to t"e role of cultural factors in clients) lives an& in counselin%, focusin% on t"ree areas1 t"e counselor)s attitu&es, 'nowle&%e, an& s'ills -Cuertes et al(, 2001.( !"e first area, attitudes, inclu&es t"e counselor)s racial an& cultural selfAawareness an& also "er/"is un&erstan&in% of &ifferences in culture, race, beliefs, an& attitu&es about ot"ers( !"e secon& area, knowledge, focuses on t"e counselor)s un&erstan&in% of t"e client)s worl&view, inclu&in% t"e latter)s beliefs, cultural values, an& socio#olitical e0#eriences( !"e t"ir& area, skills, focuses on t"e counselor)s ability to use intervention strate%ies t"at are sensitive an& relevant to t"e cultural an& conte0tual factors of clients -Constantine, 20015 Cuertes et al(, 20015 =onterotto, 4ie%er, Barrett, 9 #ar's, 177F5 evi% 9 3t*'orn, 2001.(
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W"ile t"ere "ave been stu&ies on t"e counselor)s an& #"ysicians) #erce#tions of t"eir co$#etence, "ow $ulticultural co$#etence is e0#erience& by clients or #atients is not yet fully e0a$ine& -Cuertes et al(, 20015 ;ibson 9 I"on%, 200?5 =o#eA@avis, Biu, !o#ore', 9 BrittanA=owell, 2001.( It is also necessary to un&erstan& w"et"er clients #erceive an& inter#ret t"e cultural co$#etency of t"e counselors) in a sa$e way researc"ers &o -=o#eA@avis et al(, 2001.( Besi&es abilities, 'nowle&%e, an& s'ills, counselors) attributions suc" as race, %en&er, an& lan%ua%e, woul& establis" t"e client)s #erce#tual sc"e$a to #ositively bias t"e interaction as favorable -=o#eA@avis et al(, 2001.( Curt"er$ore, "ow clients un&erstan& $ulticulturalis$, "ow t"ey #erceive a $ulticulturally co$#etent counselor, an& w"at is $eanin%ful for clients in counselin% are also nee&e& to be e0a$ine&( Mc;ee 9 Ce%ala -177K. e$#"asi*e& t"e i$#ortance of focusin% on #atients) co$$unication s'ills an& &evelo#e& t"e trainin% #ro%ra$s t"at "el# i$#rove #atients) co$$unication s'ills in $e&ical consultation( In ter$s of trainin% counselors, t"ere see$s no researc" su##orte& consensus as to "ow to best train counselors for wor' in $ulticultural #ractice, an& an effective #ro%ra$ t"at woul& "el# &evelo# $ulticultural co$#etencies an& t"e s#ecific cultural s'ills necessary in trainin% "as not yet e$#irically &e$onstrate& -Manese, et al(, 2001.( In fact, few stu&ies "ave assesse& t"e i$#act of crossAcultural contact e0#erience in t"e trainin% of counselors, nor "ow t"e e0#erience affects $ulticultural co$$unication co$#etencies -@ia*A Ba*aro 9 Co"en, 2001.( Cole$an, Wa$#ol&, 9 Casali -177?. stu&ie& counselin% on ca$#us an& t"ey foun& t"at $inority stu&ents ten& to be stru%%lin% wit" cultural, racial, an& et"nic affiliation on a #re&o$inantly W"ite ca$#us( Also, $inority stu&ents ten& to #refer et"nically si$ilar counselors over 3uroAA$erican Counselors -Cole$an et al(, 177?.( As &iscusse&, inclu&in% client)s #ers#ectives is es#ecially i$#ortant to #rocess an& outco$e of t"era#y -Cuertes et al(, 2001.( 4esearc"ers $ust un&erstan& t"e issue of a##lication on "ow &o counselors inte%rate t"e $ulticultural co$#etencies into s#ecific treat$ent issues -Cuertes et al(, 2001.( !"erefore, investi%atin% t"e $et"o& of "ow to a##ly t"e 'nowle&%e of bein% culturally co$#etent #erson into t"e #ractice will beco$e $an&atory in stu&yin% $ulticultural counselin% co$#etence( In a&&ition, $ore stu&y is necessary to &evelo# t"e ele$ents to actually &eter$ine G$ulticultural co$#etenceH in &ealin% wit" co$$unication in "ealt" care conte0t( Fi#'i#2s a$"(! e!/#ic 'i--ere#ces i# c"(#se*i#2. =o#eA@avis 9 2ttavi -177F. foun& t"at Asian A$erican an& His#anic A$erican counselors re#orte& $ore $ulticultural counselin% 'nowle&%e t"an &i& Caucasian counselors( In fact, Caucasian counselors $i%"t "ave overesti$ate& t"eir $ulticultural s'ills( In a&&ition, Constantine -2001. foun& t"at African A$erican an& Batino A$erican counselor trainees were rate& as $ore
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$ulticulturally co$#etent t"an t"eir Caucasian A$erican #eers( !"ose fin&in%s were consistent in ter$s of "i%"er co$#etence a$on% $inority %rou#s -Constantine, 20015 =o#eA@avis 9 2ttavi, 177F.( !"e fin&in%s i$#ly t"at t"ose w"o are fro$ a $inority culture in t"e U( ( "ave "i%"er sensitivity t"at lea&s to t"eir "avin% %reater $ulticultural co$#etence t"an t"eir Caucasian counter#arts( M(*!ic(*!(ra* c"m e!e#ce i# c"#s(*!a!i"#. Co$#are& to t"e $aJor focuses of $ulticultural counselin% co$#etence -MCC., t"e area of consultation focuses $ore on co$$unication as#ects( Jac'son 9 Hayes -177E. say t"at t"e co$$unication an& relations"i#Abuil&in% s'ills of t"e consultant will lar%ely &eter$ine t"e success of t"e consultation( Consultants) an& consultees) styles of co$$unication are also i$#ortant to increase trust an& ra##ort an& to re&uce #erceive& resistance -In%ra"a$, 200E.( In%ra"a$ -200E. e0#laine& two styles of co$$unication1 in&irect an& &irect co$$unication( @e#en&in% on w"et"er t"e consultant use& in&irect co$$unication -e(%(, co$$unication e$#"asi*in% %entle, nonAt"reatenin%, $ore reserve&, an& #olite for$ of &iscourse. or &irect co$$unication -e(%(, %et to t"e #oint., a &ifferent outco$e e$er%e&( !o be an effective consultant, t"ey $ust ac+uire bot" ty#es of co$$unication an& use a##ro#riately &e#en&in% on t"eir clients) cultural bac'%roun&s -In%ra"a$, 200E.( M(*!ic(*!(ra* c"m e!e#ce i# #(rsi#2. It "as been a co$$on t"e$e for "ealt" #rofessionals to see' infor$ation on cultural as#ects of care -Culley, 1778.( Healt"care #rovi&ers &is#lay a lac' of awareness of culture, resultin% in cultural insensitivity as t"e essential #roble$ -Culley, 1778.( Healt" #rofessionals s"oul& reconce#tuali*e t"eir tra&itional an& unicultural #ers#ective towar& a $ulticultural view -Culley, 1778.( By increasin% nurses) awareness an& res#ect cultural &ifferences -e(%( &ress, &iet, "ealt" beliefs, reli%ious wors"i#, rites an& rituals, an& illness be"avior., t"ey beco$e to "ave a %oo& balance of co$$unication an& un&erstan&in% to &eliver a##ro#riate care -Culley, 1778.( In ter$s of e&ucatin% stu&ents in nursin%, ,os'inen 9 !ossavainen -200F. su%%este& a stu&y abroa& #ro%ra$, w"ic" woul& be beneficial to %ain intercultural e0#erience t"at woul& "el# wit" #ersonal $aturation, #rofessional &evelo#$ent, co%nitive %rowt", an& %lobal un&erstan&in%( M(*!ic(*!(ra* c"m e!e#ce i# "r2a#iza!i"#. Dot $any stu&ies e0ist re%ar&in% ICC an& $ulticultural co$#etence in t"e or%ani*ation stu&ies( C"en 9 tarosta -1778. say t"at t"e Gnew wor'force will co$#rise #ersons w"o are &iverse in race, culture, a%e, %en&er, an& lan%ua%eH an& t"at Gt"e increasin% &iversity of wor'force an& social life in t"e U( ( will &ra$atically affect or%ani*ational life in t"e twentyAfirst centuryH -#( E??.( In&ivi&uals w"o en%a%e in international business e0c"an%es woul& "ave reasons suc" as t"e creation of Joint ventures an& $er%ers, t"e e0c"an%e of 'nowA"ow, an& t"e a&vanta%e of t"e resultin% syner%y -3n%elbert, 200F.( In or&er to survive in a forei%n country, business #eo#le nee& not only ac+uire a feelin% of %reater
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autono$y an& increase& #ersonal stability, but also verbal e0#ression abilities an& co$#re"ensions in eit"er t"e national lan%ua%e or in a co$$on forei%n lan%ua%e -3n%elbert, 200F.( M(*!ic(*!(ra* c"m e!e#ce i# e'(ca!i"#. Be 4ou0 -2002. e$#"asi*e& t"at effective e&ucators are culturally co$#etent in crossAcultural encounters in a $ultiAcultural classroo$( In or&er to be effective e&ucators, t"ey are re+uire& to %ain 1. an awareness of one)s own cultural li$itations, 2. an o#enness, res#ect an& a##reciation for cultural &ifferences, E. re%ar& for intercultural &iversity as a source of learnin% o##ortunities, F. t"e ability to use cultural resources in interventions, an& ?. an ac'nowle&%e$ent of t"e inte%rity an& value of all cultures -Be 4ou0, 2002.( In or&er to e&ucate stu&ents to be aware of cultural &ifferences in university settin%s, usin% an onAca$#us crossAcultural conversation #artners #ro%ra$ increases t"e intercultural co$#etence -Wilson, 177E.( Disc(ssi"# a#' F(!(re S!('ies Base& on t"e researc", t"e #resent review foun& t"at $any sc"olars across &ifferent areas a##ly t"e conce#t of co$$unication co$#etence +uite &ifferently( tu&ies in "ealt" care an& counselin% focuse& on MCC an& rarely e$#"asi*e& t"e necessary co$$unication s'ills to be $ulticulturally co$#etent( As &iscusse& #reviously, ICC "as been criti+ue& in ter$s of several issues1 unclear &efinitions of co$#etence5 ICC as an in"erent ability -trait. versus a learne& ability -state.5 an& ICC referrin% to 'nowle&%e versus actual #erfor$ance -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( In a&&ition, $any sc"olars "ave &iscusse& t"at co$$unicatin% effectively an& a##ro#riately are i$#ortant5 "owever, no clear answers on "ow to be effective an& "ow to be a##ro#riate "ave yet #rovi&e&( !"e #resent stu&y su%%este& t"e necessity of focusin% on t"e interArelations"i# between #ersonal -&e$o%ra#"ic. variables, inclu&in% a%e, %en&er, se0, et"nicity, nationality an& situational variables to%et"er to furt"er stu&y effectiveness an& a##ro#riateness( ituational variables inclu&e t"e s#ecific focus on a culture, or a co$#arison between two cultures, na$ely, crossAcultural relations"i#, or &ifferent co$$unication settin%s of "ealt" care, counselin%, or%ani*ation, e&ucation an& so on( In stu&ies of $ulticultural co$#etence, "ealt" care an& counselin% s"oul& focus $ore on MC2MC instea& of Just focusin% on cultural &ifferences( Cor instance, Hansen, =e#itoneAArreolaA4oc'well, 9 ;reene -2000. e0#laine& 12 #racticeArelate& $ulticultural co$#etencies for t"e #rofessional #syc"olo%ist( Most ite$s focuse& on awareness an& 'nowle&%e about cultural values an& i&entity( 2ne of t"e ite$s e0#laine& t"e necessity to accurately evaluate e$ic -cultureAs#ecific. an& etic -universal. "y#ot"eses relate& to clients fro$ i&entifie& %rou#s( 2n t"e ot"er "an&, anot"er e$#"asi*e& t"e i$#ortance establis"in% ra##ort an& conveyin%
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e$#at"y in culturally sensitive ways, inclu&in% consi&erin% culturallyAboun& inter#retations of verbal an& nonverbal cues, #ersonal s#ace, an& eye contact( Unfortunately, t"ose e0#lanations are still abstract an& &o not e0#lain t"e actual co$$unication s'ills necessary for a #syc"olo%ist( Co$$unication co$#etence an& ICC "ave $aintaine& &ifferent e$#"ases -co$$unication s'ills versus cultural &ifferences.( As $entione& #reviously, co$$unication s'ills are rarely e$#"asi*e& in t"e stu&y of MCC( !"ose two conce#ts, MCC an& co$$unication, s"oul& not be se#arable( It is necessary t"at t"ey be stu&ie& to%et"er as $ulticultural counselin% co$$unication co$#etence -MCC2MC.( !oo $uc" focus on cultural as#ects in ICC an& MCC in t"e #ast woul& blin& t"e researc"ers an& not allow t"e$ to focus on t"e fun&a$ental co$$unication s'ills necessary in &ifferent cultural conte0ts( A stron% un&erstan&in% about cultural &iversity "as not yet been establis"e& because culture is a &iverse an& an intricate conce#t( In a&&ition, it is not yet clear if e0#osure to $ulticultural to#ics actually increases co$#etence, suc" t"at clients notice observable co$#etencyArelate& be"aviors, or if t"ese trainin% e0#eriences allow t"e counselors to &e$onstrate interest in a culture -=o#eA@avis et al(, 2001.( 4esearc"ers ten& to believe t"at focusin% on $ulticultural issues increases awareness an& "el#s to ac+uire t"e s'ills to be $ulticulturally co$#etent( However, a%ain, a lac' of clarification on t"e necessary co$$unication s'ills "as still e0iste&( In or&er to investi%ate t"e co$$unication s'ills nee& to be ac+uire&, researc"ers nee& to ta'e bot" cultureA%eneral an& cultureAs#ecific a##roac"es -C"en 9 tarosta, 1778.( As Beclerc 9 Martin -200F. sur$ise&, t"e i&ea of MC2MC $ay "ave U( ( centere& co$#etence fra$ewor'( @ue to t"e i$$i%rants fro$ outsi&e of t"e continent, #eo#le in t"e U( ( $ay #erceive $ulticulturalis$ fro$ t"e $aJority view#oints, e$#"asi*in% "ow $inority coul& assi$ilate or acculturate to t"e "ost society rat"er t"an "ow $aJority %rou#s un&erstan& cultural &ifferences of $inority %rou#s( !"is #ossible U( ( centere& #ers#ective in un&erstan&in% $ulticulturalis$ affects t"e stu&y of MC2MC( 4esearc"ers woul& be furt"er re+uire& to consi&er w"et"er it is a##ro#riate in stu&yin% MC2MC to a##ly a U( ()s co$#etence fra$ewor' to ot"er %rou#s, or not( In fact, t"ere are no clearAcut i&eas for "ow to i$#rove one)s ability to be $ulticulturally co$#etent( !"e reco%nition of t"e obscurity of co$$unication co$#etence "as beco$e $ore wi&es#rea&, w"ereas t"e a##lication of t"e s'ills of ICC an& MC2MC in &ifferent conte0ts "as not yet been &isclose&( We, as co$$unication sc"olars, "ave to continue investi%atin% MC2MC, focusin% "eavily on co$$unication in or&er to 'ee# u# wit" t"e &rastic c"an%es of #eo#le in or%ani*ation, co$$unity, an& society(

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Re-ere#ces Arasaratna$, B( A(, 9 @oerfel, M( B( -200?.( Intercultural co$$unication co$#etence1 I&entifyin% 'ey co$#onents fro$ $ulticultural #ers#ectives( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 1E7A18E( As"raf, H( -1777.( CrossAculture co$$unication nee&e&( !e "ancet, #$#, 710( B"awu', @( =( (, 9 Brislin, 4( -1772.( !"e $easure$ent of intercultural sensitivity usin% t"e conce#ts of in&ivi&ualis$ an& collectivis$( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, %&, F1EAFE8( C"en, ;( M(, 9 tarosta, W( J( -1778.( Intercultural co$$unication co$#etence1 A synt"esis( In Brant 4(B( 3&( Communication 'ear(ook %9( !"ousan& 2a's1 a%e =ublications( C"esler, M( -200F.( Confrontin% t"e $yt"s an& &ealin% wit" realities of &iversity an& $ulticulturalis$ on ca$#us( )roup Insig!ts, %2-E., ?A12( C"in, J( B( -200F.( Cultural co$#etence in a $ulticultural society1 A c"ec'list( Journal of *ualit+ and ,articipation, 2--F., 17( Cole$an, H( B( ,(, Wa$#ol&, B( 3(, 9 Casali, ( B( -177?.( 3t"nic $inorities) ratin% of et"nically si$ilar an& 3uro#ean A$erican counselors1 A $etaAanalysis( Journal of Counseling ,s+c!olog+, .2, ??A8F( Collier, M( J( -17K7.( Cultural an& intercultural co$$unication co$#etence1 Current a##roac"es an& &irections for future researc"( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, %#, 2K7AE02( Collier, M( J(, 9 !"o$as, M( -17KK.( Cultural i&entity1 An inter#retive #ers#ective( In L( L( ,i$ 9 W( B( ;u&y'unst -3&s(., !"eories in intercultural co$$unication -##( 77A120.( Dewbury =ar', CA1 a%e =ublications( Constantine, M( ;( -2001.( =re&ictors of observer ratin%s of $ulticultural counselin% co$#etence in Blac', Batino, an& W"ite A$erican !rainees( Journal of Counseling ,s+c!olog+, ./-F., F?8AF82( Constantine, M( ;(, 9 Ba&any, D( -2000.( elfAre#ort $ulticultural counselin% co$#etence scales1 !"eir relation to social &esirability attitu&es an& $ulticultural care conce#tuali*ation ability( Journal of Counseling ,s+c!olog+, .--2., 1??A18F( Culley, B( -1778.( A criti+ue of $ulticulturalis$ in "ealt" care1 t"e c"allen%es for nurse e&ucation( Journal of 0d1anced 2ursing, 2#, ?8FA?70( @ia*ABa*aro, C( M(, 9 Co"en, B( B( -2001.( CrossAcultural contact in counselin% trainin%(
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Journal of Multicultural Counseling 3 4e1elopment, 29-1., F1A?7( @in%es, D(;( -17KE.( Intercultural co$#etence( In @( Ban&is an& 4(W( Brislin -3&s(., 5and(ook of intercultural training6 7ol. % Issues in t!eor+ and design -##( 178A 202.( Dew Lor'1 =er%a$on =ress( @in%es, D( ;(, 9 Bieber$an, @( A( -17K7.( Intercultural co$$unication co$#etence1 Co#in% wit" stressful wor' situations( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, %#, E71AE?K( 3n%elbert, ( -200F.( MIntercultural trainin%) in e0c"an%e situations for e0#erts an& $ana%e$ent1 a critical reflection( Intercultural 8ducation, %$-2., 17?A20K( Citc", =( -200F.( Cultural co$#etence an& &ental "y%iene care &elivery1 Inte%ratin% cultural care into t"e &ental "y%iene #rocess of care( !e Journal of 4ental 5+giene, -/-1., 11A21( Cuertes, J( D(, Bartolo$eo, M(, Dic"ols, M( C( -2001.( Cuture researc" &irections in t"e stu&y of counselor $ulticultural co$#etency( Journal of Multicultural Counseling 3 4e1elopment, 29-1., EA1E( ;ibson, @(, 9 I"on%, M( -200?.( Intercultural co$$unication co$#etence in t"e "ealt"care conte0t( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 821A8EF( ;oul&, ,( H( -177?.( !"e $isconstruin% of $ulticulturalis$1 !"e tanfor& &ebate an& social wor'( 9ocial :ork, .;-2., 17KA20?( ;u&y'unst, W( B( -177?.( An0iety/uncertainty $ana%e$ent -AUM. t"eory( In 4( B( Wise$an -3&(., Intercultural communication t!eor+ -##( KAK?.( !"ousan& 2a's, CA1 a%e =ublications( ;reen"olt*, J( -2000.( Assessin% crossAcultural co$#etence in transnational e&ucation1 !"e intercultural &evelo#$ent inventory( 5ig!er 8ducation in 8urope, 2$-E.( F11AF18( Ha$$er, M( 4(, Bennet, M( J(, 9 Wise$an, 4( -200E.( Measurin% intercultural sensitivity1 !"e intercultural &evelo#$ent inventory( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2-, F21AFFE( Hansen, D( @(, =e#itoneAArreolaA4oc'well, C(, ;reene, A( C( -2000.( Multicultural co$#etence1 Criteria an& case e0a$#les( ,rofessional ,s+c!olog+6 Researc! and ,ractice, #%-8., 8?2A880( In%ra"a$, C( B( -200E.( Multicultural consulteeAcentere& consultation1 W"en novice consultants e0#lore cultural "y#ot"eses wit" e0#erience& teac"er consultees( Journal of 8ducation and ,s+c!ological Consultation, -.-E9F., E27AE82(
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Jac'son, @( D(, 9 Hayes, @( H( -177E.( Multicultural issues in consultation( Journal of Counseling 3 4e1elopment, -2, 1FFA1F7( ,i$, M( ( -177F.( CrossAcultural co$#arisons of t"e #erceive& i$#ortance of conversational constraints( 5uman Communication Researc! 2%-1., 12KA1?1( ,i$, M( ( -2002.( 2on<western perspecti1es on !uman communication6 Implications for t!eor+ and practice( !"ousan& 2a's1 a%e =ublications( ,i$, M( (, ,lin%le, 4( (, "ar'ey, W( C(, =ar', H( (, $it", @( H(, 9 Cai, @( -2000.( A test of cultural $o&el of #atients) $otivation for verbal co$$unication in #atientA&octor interactions( Communication Monograp!s, &--E., 282A2KE( ,i$, L( L( -17K8.( Un&erstan&in% t"e social structure of inter%rou# co$$unication( In W( B( ;u&y'unst -3&(., Intergroup communication -##( K8A7?.( Bon&on1 3&war& Arnol&( ,i$, L( L( -1771.( Intercultural co$$unication co$#etence1 A syste$sAt"eoretical view( In ( !in%A!oo$ey, 9 C( ,or*enny -3&s(., Cross<cultural interpersonal communication -##( 2?7A27?.( Dewbury =ar', CA1 a%e =ublications( ,os'inen, B(, 9 !ossavainen, ,( -200F.( tu&y abroa& as a #rocess of learnin% intercultural co$#etence in nursin%( International Journal of 2ursing ,ractice, %;, 111A120( Beclerc, @(, 9 Martin, J( D( -200F.( !our %ui&e co$$unication co$#etence1 Crenc", ;er$an, an& A$erican tourists) #erce#tions( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2/, 1K1A200( Be 4ou0, J( -2002.( 3ffective e&ucators are culturally co$#etent co$$unicators( Intercultural 8ducation, %#-1.( E7AFK( Bee, B( ,(, 9 C"en, B( -2000.( Cultural co$$unication co$#etence an& #syc"olo%ical a&Just$ent( Communication Researc!, 2--8., 78FA772( Bon%$an -1771.( 4ictionar+ of Contemporar+ 8nglis!( 781( Mc;ee, @( (, 9 Ce%ala, @( J( -177K.( =atient co$$unication s'ills trainin% for i$#rove& co$$unication co$#etence in t"e #ri$ary care $e&ical consultation( Journal of 0pplied Communication Researc!, 2&, F12AFE0( Manese, J( 3(, Wu, J( !(, 9 De#o$uceno, C( A( -2001.( !"e effect of trainin% on $ulticultural counselin% co$#etencies1 An e0#loratory stu&y over a tenAyear #erio&( Journal of Multicultural Counseling 3 4e1elopment, 29-1., E1AF0( Martin, J( D(, 9 Ha$$er, M( 4( -17K7.( Be"avioral cate%ories of intercultural co$$unication co$#etence1 3very&ay co$$unicators) #erce#tions(
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International Journal of Intercultural Relations, %#, E0EAEE2( Meleis, A( I( -1777.( Culturally co$#etent care( Journal of ranscultural 2ursing, %;-1., 12( M:n&e* ;arc<a, M( C(, 9 =:re* Ca>a&o, M( B( -200?.( Ban%ua%e an& #ower1 4aisin% awareness of t"e role of lan%ua%e in $ulticultural tea$s( "anguage and Intercultural Communication, $-1., K8A10F( Meyrowit*, J(, 9 Ma%uire, J( -177E.( Me&ia, #lace, an& $ulticulturalis$( 9ociet+, #;-?., F1AFK( Milton, J( B( -17K8.( A &evelo#$ental a##roac" to trainin% for intercultural sensitivity( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, %;, 177A178( Dilsen, ,( -200F.( BI e&ucation for $ulticulturalis$ an& &iversity( =eliciter, $;-1., 17A1K( =ai%e, 4( M( -177E.( 2n t"e nature of intercultural e0#eriences( In 4( M( =ai%e -3&(., 8ducation for t!e intercultural e>perience -##( 1A17.( Lar$out", M31 Intercultural =ress( =onterotto, J( ;(, 4ie%er, B( =(, Barrett, A(, 9 #ar's, 4( -177F.( Assessin% $ulticultural counselin% co$#etence1 A review of instru$entation( Journal of Counseling 3 4e1elopment, -2, E18AE22( =o#eA@avis, @( B(, Biu, W( M(, !o#ore', 4( B(, 9 BrittanA=owell, C( ( -2001.( W"at)s $issin% fro$ $ulticultural co$#etency researc"1 4eview, intros#ection, an& reco$$en&ations( Cultural 4i1ersit+ and 8t!nic Minorit+ ,s+c!olog+, --2., 121A 1EK( =o#eA@avis, @( B(, 9 2ttavi, !( M( -177F.( 30a$inin% t"e association between selfA re#orte& $ulticultural counselin% co$#etencies an& &e$o%ra#"ic variables a$on% counselors( Journal of Counseling 3 4e1elopment, -2, 8?1A8?F( =rue%%er, 6( J(, 9 4o%ers, !( B( -177F.( CrossAcultural sensitivity trainin%1 Met"o&s an& assess$ent( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, %/-E., E87AEK7( 4ubin, B( -1778.( Assessin% co$$unication co$#etency for intercultural a&a#tation( )roups and Organi?ation 9tudies, %, EEFAE?F( ercu, B( -200F.( Assessin% intercultural co$#etence1 A fra$ewor' for syste$atic test &evelo#$ent in forei%n lan%ua%e e&ucation an& beyon&( Intercultural 8ducation, %$-1.( 7EAK7( evi%, !(, 9 3t*'orn, J( -2001.( !ransfor$ative trainin%1 A yearAlon% $ulticultural counselin% se$inar for %ra&uate stu&ents( Journal of Multicultural Counseling 3
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4e1elopment, 29-1.( ?7A7E( traffon, @( A( -200E.( Assessin% t"e intercultural sensitivity of "i%" sc"ool stu&ents atten&in% an international sc"ool( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2-, FK7A?01( o&ows'y, ;( 4(, ,uoAJac'son, =( L(, 4ic"ar&son, M( C(, 9 Corey, A( !( -177K.( Correlates of selfAre#orte& $ulticultural co$#etencies1 Counselor $ulticultural social &esirability, race, social ina&e+uacy, locus of control racial i&eolo%y, an& $ulticultural trainin%( Journal of Counseling ,s+c!olog+, .$-E., 2?8A28F( !in%A!oo$ey, ( -177E.( Co$$unicative resourcefulness1 An i&entity ne%otiation t"eory( In 4( B( Wise$an, 9 J( ,oester -3&s(., Intercultural communication competence -##( 72A111.( Dewbury =ar', CA1 a%e =ublications( !o#ore', 4( B( -2001.( Conte0t as a critical &i$ension of $ulticultural counselin%1 articulatin% #ersonal, #rofessional, an& institutional co$#etence( Journal of Multicultural Counseling 3 4e1elopment, 29-1., 1EAE0( !orres, B(, 9 4olloc', @( -200F.( Acculturative &istress a$on% His#anics1 !"e role of acculturation, co#in%, an& intercultural co$#etence. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and 4e1elopment, #2-E., 1??A187( !rebin%, @( -200F.( Boo' 4eview, $ulticulturalis$ in conte$#orary societies1 =ers#ective on &ifference an& trans&ifference( Canadian 8t!nic 9tudies, #&-1.( 122A12E( UD3 C2 -2007.( Cultural #luralis$ an& $ulticulturalis$1 Mana%in% unity in &iversity( MO9 2ewsletter # -June 177?.( 4etrieve& January 7, 2007 fro$1 "tt#1//www(unesco(or%/$ost/newletEe("t$ 6an &er Iee, ,( I(, 9 Brin'$ann, U( -200F.( Construct vali&ity evi&ence for t"e intercultural rea&iness c"ec' a%ainst t"e $ulticultural #ersonality +uestionnaire( International Journal of 9election and 0ssessment, %2-E., 2K?A270( W"itfiel&, ( J( -1778.( !"e $ysti+ue of $ulticulturalis$( 7irginia *uarterl+ Re1iew, -2-E., F27AFF8( Wilson, A( H( -177E.( Conversation #artners1 Hel#in% stu&ents %ain a %lobal #ers#ective t"rou%" crossAcultural e0#eriences( !eor+ Into ,ractice, #2-1.( 21A28( Wise$an, 4( B( -2002.( Intercultural co$$unication co$#etence( In W(B( ;u&y'unst, 9 B( Mo&y -3&s(., 5and(ook of international and intercultural communication -2n& e&(. -##( 207A22F.( !"ousan& 2a's, CA1 a%e =ublications( Wise$an, 4( B(, Ha$$er, M( 4(, 9 Dis"i&a, H( -17K7.( =re&ictors of intercultural
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co$$unication co$#etence( International Journal of Intercultural Relations, %#, EF7AE87( La$a*a'i, M( -2002.( @iversity of acculturation to $ultiet"nic society an& "u$an relations"i# in Hawaii1 A case stu&y of Bu&&"is$Ainfluence& G=roJect @ana(H !e Japanese Journal of 5uman Relations, 9-1., 71A77(

WCA1 Co$$unication in t"e 21st Century1 30#lorin% 4oots5 30#an&in% 6isions