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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE,PLANNING AND SURVEYING CENTRE OF STUDIES FOR SURVEYING SCIENCE AND GEOMATICS SEMESTER

SEPT - JAN 2014 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM II (SUG 653) ASSIGNMENT


GROUP B PREPARED BY: ABDUL MUHAIMIN B. MUHAMAD AMIN (2011706807) SUBMITTION DATE : 12 DEC 2013
PREPARED FOR : ASSOC. PROF. SR ZAMANI ISMAIL

1. What is raster and vector data. Raster is a spatial data model that determines space as an array of equally sized cells arrange in rows and columns where is composed of single or multiple bands. Other than that, each cell contains an attribute value and location of coordinates. However unlike a vector structure which stores coordinates openly, raster coordinates are contained in the ordering of the matrix. Based on figure 1 groups of cell that share the same value represent the same type of geographic feature. By the way, in ArcGIS raster representation as a raster dataset where is raster may contain in memory as a subset of raster dataset, while it may have a different cell size than the raster dataset or it may exist using a different transformation than the raster dataset.

Figure 1: show the illustrative of raster data Vector is a coordinated based data model represents geographic features as points, lines, and polygons. Other than that, each point feature is represented as a single coordinate pair, while line and polygon features are represented as ordered lists of vertices. While attributes are associated with each vector feature, as opposed to a raster data model, which associates attributes with grid cells. Any quantity that has both magnitude and direction. ArcGIS stores vector data in feature classes and collections of topologically related feature classes. The attributes associated with the features are stored in data tables. ArcGIS uses three different implementations of the vector model to represent feature data: coverages, shapefiles, and geodatabases.

Figure 2: Show the vector data contain point, line and polygon with both magnitude and direction 2

2. What is hard and Soft in terrain dataset. Hard and soft qualifiers for line and polygon feature types are used to indicate whether a discrete break in slope occurs on the surface at their location. Also this information influences the behavior of the natural neighbors interpolator. Then It interprets the terrain surface as smooth except when crossing hard lines and hard polygon boundaries. However the natural neighbors interpolator is offered by the Terrain To Raster, TIN To Raster, Interpolate Shape, and Surface Spot geoprocessing tools. All the Surface Feature Type (SFTypes) other than mass points support the hard or soft qualification. Some examples of hard features are lake shorelines, streams, building pads, curb lines along roads, and road cuts. Some examples of soft features are study area boundaries, ridge and valley lines for smooth topography, void area boundaries, and contours (contours can also be added as mass points). In the graphic below are two raster surfaces. A raster made from a terrain using the natural neighbors interpolator is shown on the left. All line data in the terrain was added as softlines. The same terrain-to-raster conversion was performed to produce the version on the right, the only difference is a diagonal line in the northeast that was added as a hardline to the terrain before the rasterization.

Figure 3: Show the raster surfaces in left was added as softline and on the right as hardline

3. What is significant z-tolerances in terrain dataset. The significant of terrains use pyramids to represent multiple levels of resolution. However a terrain dataset is a multiresolution TIN. Also it has a series of TINs then each of which is used within a specific map scale range. Other than that a coarse-grained TIN is used at larger map extents (such as when we are zoomed out to the entire study area) as show in figure 3. More surface points and increasing levels of detail are used as we zoom in and focus on larger map scales and specific map extents.

Figure 3: Show the area as when we are zoomed out to the entire study area As part of the process of creating a terrain dataset, we will define the number of pyramid levels, a working range of map scales for each pyramid level, and the level of detail at which we want to work with the terrain at each pyramid level. The level of detail for each pyramid level is defined by the z resolution that we want to work with at that map scale. Pyramid Z Resolution level in Feet 1 1 Map Scale Range Less than 1:10,000 Level of Detail

2.5

1:10,000 to 1:15,000

1:15,000 to 1:30,000

10

1:30,000 to 1:50,000

20

50,000 to 100,000

25

1:100,000 to 1:300,000

50

Greater than 1:300,000

Table 1: An example terrain dataset containing seven pyramid levels

4. What is LIDAR Data. Lidar (light detection and ranging) is an optical remote-sensing technique that uses laser light to densely sample the surface of the earth, producing highly accurate x,y,z measurements. Lidar, primarily used in airborne laser mapping applications, is emerging as a cost-effective alternative to traditional surveying techniques such as photogrammetry. Lidar produces mass point cloud datasets that can be managed, visualized, analyzed, and shared using ArcGIS. The major hardware components of a lidar system include a collection vehicle (aircraft, helicopter, vehicle, and tripod), laser scanner system, GPS (Global Positioning System), and INS (inertial navigation system). An INS system measures roll, pitch, and heading of the lidar system. Lidar is an active optical sensor that transmits laser beams toward a target while moving through specific survey routes. The reflection of the laser from the target is detected and analyzed by receivers in the lidar sensor. These receivers record the precise time from when the laser pulse left the system to when it is returned to calculate the range distance between the sensor and the target. Combined with the positional information (GPS and INS), these distance measurements are transformed to measurements of actual three-dimensional points of the reflective target in object space. The point data is post-processed after the lidar data collection survey into highly accurate georeferenced x,y,z coordinates by analyzing the laser time range, laser scan angle, GPS position, and INS information. 4.1 LIDAR point attributes Additional information is stored along with every x, y, and z positional value. The following lidar point attributes are maintained for each laser pulse recorded: intensity, return number, number of returns, point classification values, points that are at the edge of the flight line, RGB (red, green, and blue) values, GPS time, scan angle, and scan direction. 4.2 LAS dataset A LAS dataset stores reference to one or more LAS files on disk, as well as to additional surface features. A LAS file is an industry-standard binary format for storing airborne lidar data. The LAS dataset allows you to examine LAS files, in

their native format, quickly and easily, providing detailed statistics and area coverage of the lidar data contained in the LAS files. A LAS dataset can also store reference to feature classes

containing surface constraints. Surface constraints are breaklines, water polygons, area boundaries, or any other type of surface feature that is to be enforced in the LAS dataset. A LAS file contains lidar point cloud data.

Figure 4: Show the LAS dataset model

The list below includes common examples of how to benefit from using LAS datasets to initially incorporate lidar data in GIS. With LAS datasets you can: Store reference to many LAS files and surface data at once for a specific project. Quickly display lidar data as point clouds or a triangulated surface in 2D and 3D. Visually compare the lidar points against existing GIS data for data validation, such as building data. Quickly conduct a statistical analysis on LAS files and lidar points. Conduct initial QA\QC, such as assessing data coverage and point sample density, for newly acquired lidar data. Edit the classification of the LAS points. Incorporate additional breaklines or surface features with lidar. Create additional surfaces such as DEMs and DSMs (LAS Dataset To Raster geoprocessing tool) or TINs (LAS Dataset To TIN geoprocessing tool). Create intensity images using the LAS Dataset To Raster geoprocessing tool. 7

Interactively digitize new features using the LAS dataset as points and ArcGIS editing tools. Update with newly acquired LAS or surface data. Share your LAS dataset data using the mosaic dataset. Examine spatial distribution of various lidar point metrics using the LAS Point Statistics As Raster geoprocessing tool.

5. Transformation Coordinate

Rectified Skew Orthomorphic (RSO) Map Projection


The rectified skew orthomorphic (RSO) map projection is an oblique Mercator projection developed by Hotine in 1947 (Snyder, 1984). This projection is orthomorphic (conformal) and cylindrical. All meridians and parallel are complex curves. Scale is approximately true along a chosen central line (exactly true along a great circle in its spherical form). It is thus a suitable projection for an area like Switzerland, Italy, New Zealand, Madagascar and Malaysia as well.

Cassini-Soldner Map Projection


There are nine state origins used in the coordinate projection in the cadastre system in Peninsular Malaysia. The Cassini-Soldner map projection has been used for over one hundred years and shall continue to be used for cadastral survey in the new geodetic frame. Malayan Revised Triangulation 1968 (Mrt68) The MRT68 network consists of 77 geodetic, 240 primary, 837 secondary and 51 tertiary stations. It is based on the conventional observations with many of the triangulation points are dated as far back as 1885. The MRT68 has been adopted as a result of the re-computations of the earlier network together with the Primary or Repsold Triangulation carried out between 1913 and 1916. The reference ellipsoid used for MRT68 is in Figure 5 below. The map projection used for mapping in Peninsular is Rectified Skew Orthomorphic (RSO) and Cassini Soldner for cadastral surveying. Table 2 tabulates the parameters for map projection used in Peninsular Malaysia.

Figure 5: Reference Ellipsoids for MRT68 and BT68

Borneo Triangulation 1968 (BT68) The BT68 network consists of the Borneo West Coast Triangulation of Brunei and Sabah (1930-1942), Borneo East Coast Triangulation of Sarawak and extension of the West Coast Triangulation in Sabah (1955-1960) and some new points surveyed between 1961 and 1968. The reference ellipsoid used is given in Figure 5. The map projection used for mapping and cadastral surveys is RSO and Figure 6 shows the various parameters used.

Figure 6: Map Projections for Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak Peninsular Malaysia Geodetic Scientific Network 1994 (PMGSN94) The World Geodetic System of 1984 or WGS84 is one such system maintained by the United States Department of Defense for GPS-based positioning. Another realization is the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) and it is reported to be compatible with WGS84 at the centimeter levelIn an effort to harness the full prowess of the space-based technology, JUPEM has established a GPS network of 238 stations in Peninsular Malaysia, called the Peninsular Malaysia Geodetic Scientific Network 1994 (PMGSN94). The network has been observed using four 9

Ashtech LX II dual frequency GPS receivers. The acquired data was processed and adjusted in 1994. The main objectives of setting up PMGSN94 are to establish a new GPS network, to analyse the existing geodetic network and to obtain transformation parameters between WGS84 coordinates of the network and the coordinates of MRT68. East Malaysia Geodetic Scientific Network 1997 (EMGSN97) Following the successful completion of PMGSN94 in Peninsular Malaysia, JUPEM began making plans to conduct a similar type of GPS campaign in Sabah and Sarawak. GPS observations were made using Trimble 4000SSE L1/L2 receivers to establish the East Malaysia Geodetic Scientific Network 1997 (EMGSN97) that comprises a total of 171 GPS stations.

GDM2000 The proposed GDM2000 has unified the geodetic datum in Malaysia in a geocentric reference frame defined in ITRF system with particular epoch (ITRF2000@0.00). The GDM2000 is forming the backbone for the national adjustment of the existing GPS stations to define all coordinates in ITRF system. The new GDM2000 would be maintained and managed through the MASS network which form the Zero Order Geodetic Network and thus a high accuracy, homogeneous and up-to-date datum would always be available for the nation. It is undeniable that the GDM2000 would provide an internationally compatible system for the geographic data. This in turn will generate a greater benefit in the application of satellite positioning particularly GPS in the country.

Figure 7: The Difference Between Local Geodetic Datum (MRT) and Geocentric Datum 10

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