SPC Presentaion in Word

AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
CONTINUING PROCESS CONTROL

&
PROCESS CAPABILITY IMPROVEMENT
A Guide to use of Control Chrts for !ulit" I#$ro%e#ent
(Intended for use by Internal Manufacturing Facilities of Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd.
and its Suppliers)
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Printed copies of this document are not controlled
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
CONTINUING PROCESS CONTROL & PROCESS CAPABILITY IMPROVEMENT
Table of contents
Section Subject Page Number
I Introduction
1. Preface
2. Detection verses Prevention
3. Introduction to SPC
4. nderstanding variation
!. Data " #ariable and $ttribute
%. Selecting Sam&le Si'e
(. Probabilit) Distribution " t)&es
*. Normal Distribution
+. Control c,arts " tools for SPC
II Control c,arts
1. -uidelines for selection of a&&ro&riate c,art
2. #ariable Control c,arts . /
3. #ariable Control c,arts . s
4. #ariable Control c,arts . 0/
!. 0edian c,arts
%. C,arts for individuals 1
(. Control c,arts for $ttributes P c,arts
*. Control c,arts for $ttributes n& c,arts
+. Control c,arts for $ttributes u c,arts
12. Control c,arts for $ttributes c c,arts
11. Control c,art inter&retations
III Process Ca&abilit)
1 $ccurac) and Precision
2 Process Ca&abilit)
3 Preliminar) Process Ca&abilit)
4 0ac,ine Ca&abilit)
! Process Ca&abilit) for S3e4 Distribution
I# $dvanced Statistical Tools
1 Correlation and /egression
2 5t6 Test
3 C,i S7uare Test 8
2
9
4 5:6 Test
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# $&&endi1
$ Ten 3e) ingredients to ma3e SPC successful
in organi'ations.
; <or3ed e1am&le =istogram
C Coefficients for variables . /
D Coefficients for variables . s
> Coefficients for variables 0edian
: Coefficients for variables Individuals
- Critical values of t
= Critical values of
2
I Critical values of :
? #arious &robabilit) Distributions
@ -lossar) of statistical terms
A :ormulae of statistical terms
0 5B6 $rea under normal curve
N C,art format
C $ttribute c,art format

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AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
SECTION I . INTRO/UCTION
I0( PRE1ACE
Never ending im&rovement in Dualit) . Productivit) ,as become vital for survival in
toda)6s business environment. In order to sustain ourselves in suc, economic
climate it is re7uired for us E 0a,indra . 0a,indra Atd. and our Su&&liers to
dedicate ourselves to t,e tas3 of constantl) see3ing more efficient 4a)s to &roduce
&roducts and services t,at consistentl) meet customersF needs. To accom&lis, t,isG
ever)one in our organi'ations must bot, be committed to im&rovement and use
effective met,ods. T,is manual on 5CCNTININ- P/CC>SS CCNT/CA .
P/CC>SS C$P$;IAITH I0P/C#>0>NT6 addresses some of t,e needs in t,is
areaG b) describing basic statistical met,ods for im&roving our effectiveness.
Different levels of understanding are needed to &erform different tas3sI t,is boo3let
is aimed at &ractitioners and managers beginning t,e a&&lication of statistical
met,ods.
T,e basic statistical met,ods addressed in t,is boo3 include t,ose associated 4it,
statistical &rocess control and ca&abilit) anal)sis. T,e manual gives some
bac3ground of &rocess controlG e1&lains several im&ortant conce&ts suc, as
s&ecial and common causes of variationG and introduces t,e control c,artG a ver)
effective tool for &rocess control. T,e manual also describes t,e construction and
use of control c,arts for variables data 87uantitative dataG or measurements9 J KJ
bar . / c,artsG K . 0/ c,artsG median c,arts. T,e manual includes several
control c,arts for attribute data 87ualitative dataG or counts9 J t,e & c,artG n& c,artG c
c,art and u c,art.
T,e a&&endi1 includes table of constantsG glossar) of termsG s)mbolsG formulae
and re&roducible co&ies of blan3 control c,art forms.
Statistical or an) ot,er met,ods for Control . Im&rovement are not a &anaceaI
t,ese onl) &oint to o&&ortunities for Control . Im&rovement. T,ree &oints s,ould be
made before t,e main discussion beginsL
T,e basic conce&t of using statistical signals to im&rove &erformance can be
a&&lied to an) area 4,ere 4or3 is doneG t,e out&ut e1,ibits variationG and
t,ere is a desire for im&rovement. >1am&les range from com&onent
dimensions to boo33ee&ing error ratesG &erformance c,aracteristics of a
com&uter information s)stemG or transit times for incoming materials.
$lt,oug, eac, &oint in t,e te1t is illustrated 4it, a 4or3edJout e1am&leG real
understanding of t,e subject involves dee&er contact 4it, &rocess control
situations. T,e studies of actual cases from t,e reader6s o4n job location or
from similar activities 4ould be an im&ortant su&&lement to t,e te1t. T,ere isG
,o4everG no substitute for ,andsJon e1&erience 4it, current &rocess
information.
T,is boo3let includes several references intended onl) to ,el& clarif) t,e intent of
t,e met,ods being discussed. It s,ould also be remembered t,at an)
&articular re7uirements are intended as current minimum e1&ectations of
&erformanceG to assure consistenc) among com&onents in our &roducts.
T,e) do not &reJem&t t,e overriding goal of neverJending im&rovement.
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I0- /E1ECT /ETECTION VERSUS /E1ECT PREVENTION
D>:>CT D>T>CTICN 8 after t,e event9J tolerates t,e 4aste
D>:>CT P/>#>NTICN 8before t,e event9J avoids t,e 4aste
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Sttisti4l Methods Sttisti4l Methods
PEOPLE
MATERIALS
MET5O/S
MAC5INES
ENVIRONMENT
TRANS1ORMATION
PRO/UCTS OR
SERVICES
Voi4e of Custo#er
O6
7ithin S$e4s0or
Internl Stds0
Ti#el"
:eedbac3
CUSTOMER
Not O6
Ins$e4tion8 Audits
Che49s & Bln4es
PEOPLE
MATERIALS
MET5O/S
MAC5INES
ENVIRONMENT
TRANS1ORMATION PRO/UCTS OR
SERVICES
O6
1eed:49 ;/el"ed<
SCRAP
or
RE7OR6
CUSTOMER
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
/efe4t /ete4tion
It is a &ast oriented a&&roac, t,at attem&ts to identif) and se&arate unacce&table
out&ut from acce&table out&ut.
/efe4t /ete4tion.
Is reactionar)
Tolerates 4aste
/elies on ins&ectionG auditsG or c,ec3s of large sam&les of out&ut
/eacts to all defects indiscriminatel)
:ocuses on conformance to s&ecifications
Involves action onl) on out&ut
/elies on dela)ed feedbac3 for defect detection
Is not cost effective
/efe4t Pre%ention.
It is a future oriented a&&roac, t,at im&roves 7ualit) and &roductivit) b) &recluding
defect generation
/efe4t Pre%ention.
Is &roJactive
$voids 4aste
ses small sam&les of &roduct and &rocess information
Is anal)ticall) based
Discriminates bet4een &otential defects based on causes
Involves action on t,e &rocess or &rocess &arameters
Provides timel) feedbac3
It is cost effective
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I0) INTRO/UCTION TO STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
$ traditional a&&roac, to manufacturing is to de&end on &roduction to ma3e t,e
&roductG and on 7ualit) control to ins&ect t,e final &roduct and screen out items not
meeting s&ecifications. In administrative situationsG 4or3 is often c,ec3ed and
rec,ec3ed in efforts to catc, errors. ;ot, cases involve a strateg) of detection. It is
4astefulG because it allo4s time and materials to be invested in &roducts or services
t,at are not al4a)s usable. It is a &astJoriented a&&roac, t,at attem&ts to identif)
and se&arate unacce&table out&ut from t,e acce&table out&ut. $fterJt,eJfact
ins&ection is uneconomicalI it is e1&ensive and unreliable as it involves tolerance to
4aste in &roducing defects J t,en finding t,e defectives E re&airing or scra&&ing t,e
defectives.
<,ic, meansG t,e traditional met,ods of 7ualit) control in a manufacturing &rocess
,ave been t,ose of 122 M ins&ection and sam&ling ins&ection. ;ot, met,ods
concentrate on t,e final out&ut of t,e &roduct.
=o4ever 122 M ins&ection is not 122M reliable and on some occasions full
ins&ection 4as to be carried out more t,an t4ice. :or large consignments sam&ling
ins&ection 4as &referred. =o4ever t,ere is al4a)s a ris3 of
a9 ;atc, ma) be rejected alt,oug, it is not as bad as it a&&ears from t,e sam&le.
b9 T,ere is a c,ance t,at a batc, is acce&ted alt,oug, it is 4orse t,an originall)
t,oug,t on t,e basis of t,e sam&le.
T,is contradicts to t,e &rinci&le of total 7ualit) and t,ere ,as to be alternative to
t,ese met,ods of 7ualit) control.
It is muc, more effective to avoid 4aste b) not &roducing unusable out&ut in t,e first
&lace J a strateg) of &revention. Prevention is a futureJoriented a&&roac, t,at
im&roves Dualit) . Productivit) b) &recluding defect generation.
$ valuable alternative is &rovided b) t,e tec,ni7ue of Nstatistical &rocess controlO
8SPC9G 4,ose aim is to &revent defective 4or3 being &roduced b) focusing on t,e
&roducing &rocess rat,er t,an on t,e final &roduct. T,is is definitel) su&erior met,od
as com&ared t,e earlier ones. T,oug, &revention sounds an obvious and sensible
strateg)G it re7uires an understanding of Statistical Process Control S)stem to
realise it.
=o4ever t,e sam&ling &lans . SPC ,ave a common c,aracteristics. $s in case of
sam&les SPC attem&ts to utili'e t,e connection bet4een t,e &ro&erties of a sam&le
and &ro&erties of &arent &o&ulation. T,e difference lies in t,e fact t,at
SPC &rovides t,e o&erator 4it, an o&&ortunit) of correcting or a&&ro1imatel)
tuning t,e &roduction &rocess in time to avoid t,e 4,ole batc,es rejected
later.
SPC also encourages continual &rocess im&rovementG 4it, t,is im&rovement
being reflected in t,e &roduct as 4ell as in &roduction e7ui&ment.
$n) &rocess t)&icall) ,as t,ree elementsL
T,e &rocess in&ut
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Peo&le
0aterials
0et,ods
0ac,ines 8e7ui&ment9
>nvironment
T,e transformation
T,e value added ste&
C,anges t,at are re7uired to convert in&ut into out&ut
;lending of resources
T,e &rocess out&ut
Products
Services
Customer Satisfaction
$ll &rocesses generate data or information t,at can be used to im&rove t,e
&erformance of t,e &rocess itself. It is 4asteful to use t,is information onl) to
,ig,lig,t t,e need for rectification on t,e nonJconforming &roducts. Information
about t,e s)stem is essential to identif) im&rovement o&&ortunities so as to
control t,e stabilit) of t,e &rocess and t,us t,e &roduct consistenc).
$ &rocess control s)stem can be described as a feedbac3 s)stem. :our elements
of t,at s)stem are im&ortant to t,e discussions t,at 4ill follo4L
The Pro4ess E Process means t,e 4,ole combination of &eo&leG e7ui&mentG
in&ut materialsG met,odsG and environment t,at 4or3 toget,er to &roduce out&ut.
T,e total &erformance of t,e &rocess J t,e 7ualit) of its out&ut and its &roductive
efficienc) J de&ends on t,e 4a) t,e &rocess ,as been designed and builtG and
on t,e 4a) it is o&erated. T,e rest of t,e &rocess control s)stem is useful onl) if
it contributes to im&roved &erformance of t,e &rocess.
Infor#tion :out Perfor#n4e E 0uc, information about t,e actual
&erformance of t,e &rocess can be learned b) stud)ing t,e &rocess out&ut. In a
broad senseG &rocess out&ut includes not onl) t,e &roducts t,at are &roducedG
but also an) intermediate Pout&utsP t,at describe t,e o&erating state of t,e
&rocessG suc, as tem&eraturesG c)cle timesG etc. If t,is information is gat,ered
and inter&reted correctl)G it can s,o4 4,et,er action is necessar) to correct t,e
&rocess or t,e justJ&roduced out&ut. If timel) and a&&ro&riateJ actions are not
ta3enG ,o4everG an) informationJgat,ering effort is 4asted.
A4tion on the Pro4ess E $ction on t,e &rocess is futureJorientedG as it is ta3en
4,en necessar) to &revent t,e &roduction of outJofJs&ecification &roducts. T,is
action mig,t consist of c,anges in t,e o&erations 8e.g.G o&erator trainingG
c,anges to t,e incoming materialsG etc.9 or t,e more basic elements of t,e
&rocess itself 8e.g.G t,e e7ui&ment J 4,ic, ma) need re,abilitationG or t,e design
of t,e &rocess as a 4,ole J 4,ic, ma) be vulnerable to c,anges in s,o&
tem&erature or ,umidit)9. T,e effect of actions s,ould be monitoredG and furt,er
anal)sis and action s,ould be ta3en if necessar).
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A4tion on the Out$ut J $ction on t,e out&ut is &astJorientedG because it
involves detecting outJofJs&ecification out&ut alread) &roduced. nfortunatel)G if
current out&ut does not consistentl) meet customer re7uirementsG it ma) be
necessar) to sort all &roducts and to scra& or re4or3 an) nonJconforming items.
T,is must continue until t,e necessar) corrective action on t,e &rocess ,as
been ta3en and verifiedG or until t,e &roduct6s s&ecifications ,ave been c,anged.
Process Control is also based on t,e PlanJDoJC,ec3J$ct C)cle E a model for
Continuous Im&rovement. During Process ControlG t,e PJDJCJ$ c)cle is used to
assess and manage #ariation.
Po$ultion nd S#$le
Po$ultionL
$ &art of t,e universeG 4,ic, is under stud) for gat,ering informationG is called
&o&ulation. T,e conce&t 4ould be clearer from t,e follo4ing e1am&lesL
1. T,e number of &ersons out of t,e total em&lo)ees of a com&an)G 4,o are
engineers.
2. T,e total number of ,ouse,olds in a cit) 4,o ,ave com&uters in ,ouse.
3. T,e cro& &roduction of a &articular variet) in a district in t,e current )ear.
4. T,e number of devotees visiting a s,rine in a )ear.
0an) events and activities are occurring in t,e 4orld 8universe9. ;) ma3ing t,e
definition of 5&o&ulation6 4e clearl) mar3 t,e sco&e of t,e stud)Q information
gat,ering &rocess.
It is generall) neit,er &ractical nor necessar) to observe t,e entire &o&ulation.
/at,erG 4e observe onl) a small subset of it at a timeG often doing so &eriodicall).
<,en 4e do it t,is 4a)G 4e are said to be sampling t,e &o&ulation.
S#$le.
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AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
To find out ,o4 t,e &o&ulation is be,avingG 4e 4ill observe onl) a &art of t,e
&o&ulation and gat,er data. <e 4ill t,en use t,is data to infer somet,ing about t,e
&o&ulation. Sam&le is a subJset of t,e &o&ulation.
:or e1am&le
1. T,e number of engineers 4it,in a de&artmentG in a com&an).
2. T,e number of ,ouse,old in a bloc3 of a cit)G 4,o ,ave com&uters.
3. T,e cro& &roduction of a &articular variet) in a small village of t,e district.
4. T,e number of devotees visiting a s,rine &er mont,.
Po$ultion nd S#$le s $$lied to Sttisti4l Pro4ess Control0
Po&ulation is a conce&t t,at means to im&l) and include all &ossible reali'ations of a
&rocess 4it,in a certain frame. $ &o&ulation is reall) defined b) a constant s)stem of
variation causes c,aracteri'ed b) a succinct set of &arameters t,at in an average or
collective sense describe t,e salient features of t,e variation s)stem.
;) sam&ling 4e observe and collect data of onl) a &art of t,e &rocess. =o4 muc,
4e sam&le eac, timeG ,o4 often andQor 4,en 4e sam&leG and ,o4 4e s&ecificall)
ta3e t,e sam&le are critical issues t,at must be addressed.
#arious functions of t,e data ma) be used to calculate measuresG eac, of 4,ic, is a
reflection of some s&ecial feature of &o&ulationQ&rocess. T,ese sam&le measures
are called statisticsG eac, of 4,ic, ma) be used as an estimate of t,e corres&onding
&o&ulation &arameter. Toget,erG a set of &arameter estimates is used to
c,aracteri'e t,e &rocess &erformance.
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I02 UN/ERSTAN/ING VARIATION
No t?o thin+s re totll" li9e or identi4l0 =ence variation is a natural
&,enomenon and is universal.
<e ,ave ,eard sa)ing to su&&ort t,is JN fi%e fin+ers on our hnd re ll different
fro# one notherO. <e also sa) E @no t?o $ersons thin9 li9eA.
#ariation is t,e inevitable difference among individual out&uts of a &rocess. In order
to effectivel) use &rocess control measurement dataG it is im&ortant to understand
t,e conce&t of variation.
No t4o &roducts or c,aracteristics are e1actl) ali3eG because an) &rocess contains
man) sources of variabilit). T,e differences among &roducts ma) be largeG or t,e)
ma) be almost e1tremel) smallG but t,e) are al4a)s &resent.
T,e diameter of a mac,ined s,aftG for instanceG 4ould be affected b)G
M4hine 8clearancesG bearing 4ear9
Tool 8strengt,G rate of 4ear9
Mteril 8c,emical com&ositionG ,ardness9
O$ertor 8&art feedG accurac) of centering9
Mintenn4e 8lubricationG re&lacement of 4orn &arts9
En%iron#ent 8tem&eratureG constanc) of &o4er su&&l)9
:or anot,er e1am&leG t,e time re7uired to &rocess an invoice could var) according
to t,e &eo&le &erforming various ste&sG t,e reliabilit) of an) e7ui&ment t,e) 4ere
usingG t,e accurac) and legibilit) of t,e invoice itselfG t,e &rocedures follo4edG and
t,e volume of ot,er 4or3 in t,e office.
Some sources of variation in t,e &rocess cause ver) s,ortJrun &ieceJtoJ&iece
differences J e.g.G bac3las,G clearances 4it,in a mac,ine and its fi1turesG or t,e
accurac) of a boo33ee&erFs 4or3. Ct,er sources of variation tend to cause c,anges
in t,e out&ut onl) over a longer &eriod of timeG eit,er graduall) as 4it, tool or
mac,ine 4earG ste&J4ise as 4it, &rocedural c,angesG or irregularl)G as 4it,
environmental c,anges suc, as &o4er surges. T,ereforeG t,e time &eriod and
conditions over 4,ic, measurements are made 4ill affect t,e amount of t,e total
variation t,at 4ill be &resent.
:rom t,e stand&oint of minimum re7uirementsG t,e issue of variation is often
sim&lified J &arts 4it,in s&ecification tolerances are acce&tableG &arts be)ond
s&ecification tolerances are not acce&tableI re&orts on time are acce&tableG late
re&orts are not acce&table. =o4everG to manage an) &rocess and reduce variationG
t,e variation must be traced bac3 to its sources. T,e first ste& is to ma3e t,e
distinction bet4een causes of variation.
Cuses of Vrition.
T,ere are t4o causes of variations
Co##on Cuses 8also called as C,ance Causes or NonJcontrollable Causes9 and
S$e4il Cuses 8also called as $ssignable Causes or Controllable Causes9
Common Causes arise from causes t,at are in,erent in t,e &rocess and to some
degree affect all t,e out&ut of t,e &rocess. T,e) e1ist even as t,e &rocess is
statisticall) stable and be,ave li3e a constant s)stem. <,ile individual measured
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values are different as a grou& t,e) tend to form a distribution &attern t,at can be
described as &redictable in terms of Aocation 8t)&ical value9G S&read 8amount b)
4,ic, t,e smaller values differ from t,e larger ones9 and S,a&e 8t,e &attern of
variation J 4,et,er it is s)mmetricalG &ea3edG etc.9.
>1am&les of Co##on Cuses of variation includeG
#ariable ra4 materialsG
/igid 4or3ing met,odsG
>7ui&ment limitationsG
$tmos&,eric conditionsG
Personnel ca&abilitiesG etc.
T,e e1tent of Common Causes of variation can be indicated b) sim&le statistical
tec,ni7uesG but t,e causes t,emselves need more detailed anal)sis to isolate.
T,ese common causes of variation are usuall) t,e res&onsibilit) of management to
correctG alt,oug, ot,er &eo&le directl) connected 4it, t,e o&eration sometimes are
in a better &osition to identif) t,ese causes and &ass t,em on to management for
correction. CverallG t,oug,G t,e resolution of common causes of variation usuall)
re7uires actions on t,e s)stem.
Common Causes of #ariation
=ave fre7uenc) distributions t,at are stable over time
/esult in &redictable outcomes
$re &ermanent unless action is ta3en on t,e s)stem
Can onl) be eliminated b) c,anging t,e Process or S)stem
Special Causes arise from causes t,at affect onl) some out&ut of t,e &rocess and
are not in,erent in t,e &rocess. S&ecial Causes refer to an) factors causing variation
t,at cannot be ade7uatel) e1&lained b) an) single distribution of t,e &rocess out&utG
as 4ould be t,e case if t,e &rocess 4ere in statistical control. nless all t,e s&ecial
causes of variation are identified and correctedG t,e) 4ill continue to affect t,e
&rocess out&ut in un&redictable 4a)s.
>1am&les of S$e4il Cuses of #ariation include
Peo$le
:atigueG illnessG state of ,ealt,.
Aac3 of trainingQnovices.
Aac3 of disci&line.
Aac3 of 3no4ledge of t,e re7uirements.
Aac3 of motivationG attitudes.
ncontrolled e1&erimentation
Plnt&M4hines
/otation of mac,ines
Differences in test or measuring devices
<orn out mac,iner) or tools
Aac3 of sc,eduled maintenance
;adl) designed e7ui&ment
Pro4ess&#ethods
nsuited tec,ni7ues of &roduction
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ntried Qne4 &roduction &rocesses
C,anges in ins&ection met,ods
Mterils
0i1ing of &artsG batc,es
$ccumulation of 4aste &roducts or im&urities
Aac3 of ,omogeneit)
C,anges of sources of su&&l)
En%iron#ent
-radual deterioration in conditions.
SeasonalG dail)G 4ee3l) c,anges.
#ariations in tem&erature . ,umidit) 4,ic, affects t,e &rocess
#ariation of noise . dust 4,ic, affect t,e o&erator
S&ecial causes of variation can be detected b) sim&le statistical tec,ni7ues. T,ese
causes of variation are not common to all t,e o&erations involved and are not a &art
of t,e s)stem as designed. S&ecial causes of variation result in out&ut be,avior t,at
is usuall) erratic and un&redictable. T,e discover) of a s&ecial cause of variationG
and its removalG are usuall) t,e res&onsibilit) of someone 4,o is directl) connected
4it, t,e o&erationG alt,oug, management sometimes is in a better &osition to
correct. T,e resolution of a s&ecial cause of variationG t,enG usuall) re7uires local
action. C,arting ,ig,lig,ts occurrence of s&ecial causes.
S&ecial Causes of #ariation
=ave fre7uenc) distributions t,at are unstable over time
/esult in un&redictable outcomes
/ea&&ear local unless action is ta3en
Can onl) be eliminated b) actions 5on t,e s,o& floor6
Cnl) a relativel) small &ro&ortion of all &rocess troubles 8industrial e1&erience
suggests about 1!M9 is correctable locall) b) &eo&le directl) connected 4it, t,e
o&erationI t,e majorit) J t,e ot,er *!M J is correctable onl) b) management action
on t,e s)stem. Confusion about t,e t)&e of action to ta3e is ver) costl) to t,e
organi'ationG in terms of 4asted effortG dela)ed resolution of troubleG and aggravated
&roblems. It 4ould be 4rongI for e1am&leG to ta3e local action 8e.g.G adjusting a
mac,ine9 4,en management action on t,e s)stem 4as re7uired 8e.g.G selecting
su&&liers t,at &rovide consistent in&ut materials9.
$CTICNS ta3en to combat t,e above t)&es of variation includeG
Aocal $ctions are t,ose t,at can be ta3en b) &eo&le close to t,e &rocess and are
usuall) re7uired for eliminating s&ecial causes of variation. T,ese actions can onl)
correct about 1!M of t,e &rocess &roblems
$ctions on t,e S)stem are t,ose t,at almost al4a)s re7uire management action
for correction and are usuall) re7uired for eliminating common causes of variation.
T,ese actions can correct about *!M of t,e &rocess &roblems.
@ee&ing t,is inevitabilit) of t,e e1istence of variation and &rocess constraintsG
customer e1&ectations 8engineering s&ecifications9 are e1&ressed in terms of a
tolerance band so as to de&ict t,e acce&table levels of variations. Tolerance is t,e
difference bet4een t,e &&er S&ecification Aimit 8SA9 and t,e Ao4er
S&ecification Aimit 8ASA9.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e () of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
T,e follo4ing c,arts include &ictorial re&resentations of a fe4 of t,e situations t,at
can occur and ,o4 t,e Process Performance can be inter&reted.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (2 of (*,
T
I
M
E
T
A
R
G
E
T
VARIATION in #en
VARIATION in s$red
Pro4ess is OUTBO1B
CONTROL
Pro4ess is NOT
STABLE
COMMON as 4ell as
SPECIAL causes of
VARIATION &resent
C
T
I
M
E
T
A
R
G
E
T
VARIATION in #en
NC VARIATION in s$red
NC VARIATION in sh$e
Pro4ess is NOT STABLE
SPECIAL causes of
VARIATION $resent
Pro4ess is being i#$ro%ed
D
T
I
M
E
T
A
R
G
E
T
NO variation in t,e #en
NO variation in t,e
s$red
NO variation in t,e sh$e
T,e &rocess is STABLE
Cnl) COMMON causes
of VARIATION
$
T
I
M
E
T
A
R
G
E
T
O11BTARGET
NO variation in t,e s$red
T,e &rocess is STABLE
Cnl) COMMON causes of
VARIATION
;
>
T
I
M
E
T
A
R
G
E
T
Variation in t,e s$red
T,e &rocess is not
STABLE
S$e4il causes of
VARIATION $resent
Pro4ess is :ein+
i#$ro%ed
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
I03 /ATA
VARIABLE & ATTRIBUTE
In SPCG data serves as one of t,e im&ortant basis for corrective action. $s suc,G it is
necessar) during conducting SPC t,atG
t,e sam&led data are re&resentative of t,e total &rocess out&ut 8sam&ling
met,ods9G and
T,e data reflects facts so t,at 4,en collectedG anal)'ed and com&aredG it
reveals facts 8statistical &rocessing9.
Statistical tec,ni7ues deal 4it, observation . anal)sis of sam&les and estimating t,e
condition of t,e &o&ulation in 4,ic, t,e sam&le is included. Sam&ling met,ods are
em&lo)ed and are im&ortant to obtain t,e re7uired information from t,e sam&lesG so
t,at it re&resents t,e &o&ulation. 0ost of t,e manufacturing &rocesses deal 4it,
,eterogeneous dataG as suc, careful stratification is re7uired 4it, res&ect to timeG
o&eratorG mac,iner)Qe7ui&mentG materialQlotsG 4or3ing conditions suc, as
s&eedsQfeedG etc.
>ver) &rocess generates data t,at can be categorised in 5#ariables data6 .
5$ttributes data6.
Vri:le dt
#ariables data relates to 4,at can be measured and e1&ressed 7uantitativel) in
s&ecific units of measurements as dimensionsG volumeG tem&eratureG &ressureG timeG
strengt,G etc. T,e e1am&les include
diameter of a bearing
volume of t,e c)linder
tem&erature of an oven
4eld strengt, of a location
Ca&sule filling time
,ardness of a gear
Attri:utes dt
$ttributes data are 7ualitative data 4,ere t,e results are recorded in terms good or
badG defective or defect freeG &ass or failG )es or noG acce&table or not acce&tableG
conforming or nonJconformingG &resence or absence of a desired c,aracteristic.
>1am&les include
stic3er &rinting acce&table or not acce&table
an item meets t,e gauge or not
Dents on bod) &ass or fail
;ra'ing joint good or bad
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (3 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
T,e conformance criteria must be clearl) defined and t,e &rocedureQs for deciding if
t,ese criteria are met must &roduce consistent results over time. T,e follo4ing table
of e1am&les could be ,el&ful in t,ro4ing some lig,t on t,is as&ectL
A44e$tn4e Criterion ;S$e4ifi4tion< Co##ent
Surface s,ould be free from fla4s <,at is a fla4R
Do t,e ins&ectors understandR
Do t,e ins&ectors agreeR
=o4 can it be measuredR
Surface s,ould conform to 0aster
Standard in colour te1tureG brig,tness
and im&erfections
Conform to 4,at degreeR
=o4 can it be measuredR
$n) material a&&lied to mirror bac3 to
&revent scattering s,all not cause
visible staining of t,e mirror bac3ing
#isible to 4,om Q b) 4,atR
#isible under 4,at conditionsR
Do t,e ins&ectors understandR
Do t,e ins&ectors agreeR
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
I0* SELECTING SAMPLE SICE
5o? to sele4t s#$le siDeE
Cne of t,e first basic 7uestions 4,ic, comes in our mind before carr)ing out a
surve) or statistical stud) is N=o4 man) sam&les s,ould I selectRO
-enerall) 4e select t,e sam&les as &er our convenience or 4it,out an) &articular
logic e1ce&t cost . time.
Since sam&ling is time consuming and costl)G our objective in selecting a sam&le is
to obtain a s&ecified amount of information about a &o&ulation at a minimum cost.
<e can accom&lis, t,is objective first deciding on a bound of error of estimation and
t,en a&&l)ing an a&&ro&riate sam&le si'e estimation formula.
If t,e &o&ulation is uniformG t,e small sam&le &rovides t,e same amount of
information as a large sam&le. :or e1am&le a &,)sician can base a diagnosis on
one or fe4 dro&s of &atient6s blood. Selecting a large sam&le in suc, case 4ould be
4aste of mone) . time. Cn t,e ot,er ,andG if t,e &o&ulation consists of man) ,ig,l)
diverse elementsG a small sam&le ma) &rovide a &oor reflection of t,e &o&ulation.
:or e1am&leJ to stud) t,e estimate of t,e average ,eig,t of male students in a
college.
Sam&le si'e decisions are made according to t,e in,erent variabilit) in t,e
&o&ulation of measurements and ,o4 accurate t,e e1&erimenter 4is,es t,e
estimate to be. T,ese t4o criteria are of course inversel) related. To obtain greater
accurac)G and ,ence more information about a &o&ulationG 4e must select a larger
sam&le si'e.I t,e greater t,e in,erent variabilit) in t,e &o&ulationG t,e larger sam&le
is re7uired to maintain a fi1ed degree of accurac) in estimation.
T,e follo4ing are t,e designs for selection of sam&le si'e.
(0 Si#$le rndo# s#$lin+
( ) 2
B
/ ?here
/ ( B N
N
n
-
-
-
and
2
is t,e &o&ulation variance G N is t,e number of elements in t,e &o&ulation
and ; is t,e bound on t,e error of estimation.
<,ere N is ver) largeG t,e sam&le si'e formula reduces to t,e more familiar formula
-
-
B
2
n

0an) a times t,ere could be dilemma in guidelines &rovided for finding n.

To find nG 4e must 3no4 t,e &o&ulation varianceG but to estimate
2
G 4e must also
,ave a set of sam&le measurements from &o&ulation. T,e variance can be
estimated b)
2
obtained from 3no4ledge of range of measurements giving estimate
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
( )
2 2
Rn+e
(*
(
1
]
1

-0 Strtified Rndo# S#$lin+
<it, a stratified random sam&ling 4e select a se&arate sim&le random sam&le 4it,in
eac, of t,e strata. T,erefore 4e cannot determine n until 4e 3no4 t,e relations,i&
bet4een n and t,e sam&le allocation to t,e strata n1G n2 ..nA . <,en using stratified
random sam&lingG 4e must also consider t,e fact t,at t,e variances of t,e strataG
0a) not be e7ual. <e 4ill need a&&ro1imations for eac, of
t,ese variancesG 4,ic, 4e can obtain from &revious sam&les.
( )
2 2
1
Rn+e
(*
(

1
]
1

Provides a roug, estimate of t,e variance of t,e measurements in stratum i based
on t,e range of measurements 4it,in stratum i.
=ence
strtu#0 th i
the of siDe the nd %rin4e the 8 l" res$e4ti%e re N nd 7here
2
B
/ nd
N
N
(
N/
N
n
i
-
i
-
L
( i
i
L
i i
2
1
2
i
i
0ost of t,e sam&le si'e calculations &resented assume a normal distribution. To
assess distribution s,a&eG a bare minimum of 32 sam&les s,ould be usedG but 122
or more is recommended. T)&icall)G 4e assume t,at a distribution is normal unless
normalit) can be rejected. T,e smaller t,e sam&le si'eG t,e ,arder it is to reject
normalit).
S#$les & su:+rou$s for 4ontrol 4hrts
Con4e$t of rndo# s#$lin+
/ational subgrou&s or sam&les are collection of individual measurementsG 4,ose
variation is attributable onl) to a constant s)stem of common causes. In t,e
develo&ment . continuing use of control c,artsG subgrou&s or sam&les s,ould be
c,osen in a 4a) t,at &rovides t,e ma1imum o&&ortunit) for measurements 4it,in
eac, subgrou& to be ali3e 8subject onl) to forces of common cause variation9 and
ma1imum c,ance for subgrou& to differ from one anot,er if s&ecial cause arise
bet4een subgrou&s. <it,in sam&le or subgrou& onl) common cause variation
s,ould be &resent.
S#$le siDe 4onsidertions
T,e si'e of a rational sam&le is governed b) t,e follo4ing considerations.
Subgrou&s s,ould be subject to common cause variation.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (> of (*,
-
L
000000000 8
2
2
2
1
,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Subgrou& s,ould ensure t,e &resence of normal distribution for t,e sam&le
means
Subgrou&s s,ould ensure good sensitivit) to t,e detection of s&ecial causes.
Subgrou&s s,ould be small enoug, to be economicall) a&&ealing from a
collection . measurement stand&oint.
Generally 4 to 6 sample / subgroup is commonly used
considering the above factors.
Note L
S,e4,art suggests 2 as t,e ideal subgrou& si'e
In industrial use of control c,art ! is most common
>ssential idea of control c,art is to select sub grou&s in suc, a4a) t,at it gives
minimum o&&ortunit) for variation 4it,in sub grou&G it is desirable to be as small
as &ossible 8for economic &ur&ose9.
$ si'e of 2 is better t,an 2 or 3 on statistical groundsI t,e distribution of is
nearl) normal for sub grou&s of four or more even t,oug, t,e sam&les are ta3en
from non normal universe.
Sub grou&s of 2 or 3 are used CNAH 4,en cost of measurement is ,ig,
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (, of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
I0= PROBABILITY /ISTRIBUTION
Data generated 8attributes . variables9 4,en arranged gra&,icall) or in a tabular
manner for a &articular c,aracteristicG de&ending u&on t,e t)&e 4ould follo4 a
&articular &atternG called as fre7uenc) distribution. Distribution can also be
categorised asL
Continuous Distribution J generall) evident 4it, variableFs data and
Discrete Distribution J associated 4it, t,e attributeFs data.
T,ere are various t)&es of Probabilit) Distributions. T,e) are as given belo4
1. Normal 8-aussian9 Distribution
2. Aog Normal Distribution
3. <eibull Distribution 8T4o Parameter9
4. <eibull Distribution 8T,ree Parameter9
!. >1&onential Distribution
%. ;inomial Distribution
(. =)&ergeometric Distribution
*. Poisson Distribution
(0 Nor#l ;Gussin< /istri:ution
:ield of $&&licationL #arious P,)sicalG 0ec,anicalG >lectricalG C,emicalG etc.
c,aracteristics Q &ro&erties.
Test Cases L Ca&acit) variation of electrical condensersG tensile strengt, of
aluminum s,eetG mont,l) tem&erature variationG &enetration de&t, of steel
s&ecimensG s,aft diametersG electrical &o4er consum&tion in a given areaG rod
lengt,sG gas molecules velocitiesG noiseG resistanceG generator out&ut voltageG 4ind
velocit)G ,ardnessG c,amber &ressure
-0 Lo+ Nor#l /istri:ution
:ield of $&&licationL Aife &,enomenaI as)mmetric situations 4,ere occurrences
are concentrated at t,e tail end rangeG 4,ere differences observations are of a
large order of magnitude.
Test Cases L $utomotive mileage accumulation b) different customersG amount of
electricit) used b) different customersG do4ntime of a number of similar mac,ines
or a &articular s)stemG luminous intensities of bulbsG concentration of c,emical
&rocess residues
)0 7ei:ull /istri:ution ;T?o Pr#eter<
:ield of $&&licationL Same as lognormal cases. <eibull is also a&&lied in
situations 4,ere t,e &ercent occurrences 8e.g. failure rates9 ma) decreaseG
increase in t,e c,aracteristic measuredG for &arts at debugG 4earJout and c,ance
failure stages of &roduct6s life.
Test CasesL Aife of automotive ,ornsG life of antiJfriction bearingsG life of
transmission gearsG life of T# &icture tubesG corrosion life of com&onents Q s)stemsG
4earJout life.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e -' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
20 7ei:ull /istri:ution ;Three Pr#eter<
:ield of $&&licationL Same as t4oJ&arameter <eibull andG in additionG various
&,)sicalG mec,anicalG electricalG c,emicalG etc.G &ro&ertiesG e1ce&t less common
t,an in t,e case of Normal distribution.
Test CasesL Same cases as <eibull 8t4o &arameter9. In additionG electrical
resistanceG ca&acitanceG fatigue strengt,G etc.
30 EF$onentil /istri:ution
:ield of $&&licationL T,e life of s)stemsG assembliesG etc. :or com&onentsG
situations 4,ere failures occur b) c,ance alone and do not de&end on timeJinJ
serviceI fre7uentl) a&&lied 4,en t,e design is com&letel) debugged for &roduction
errors.
Test CasesL Aife to failure of automotive transmissionsG e1&ected cost to detect
bad e7ui&ment during reliabilit) testingG e1&ected life of indicator tubes in radar
e7ui&mentG e1&ected life of electrical lig,ting tubes in a factor)G etc.
*0 Bino#il /istri:ution
:ield of $&&licationL Number of defectives in n sam&le si'e dra4n from a lot
,aving & fraction defectivesI &robabilit) of 1 occurrences in a grou& of )
occurrencesG i.e.G situations involving 5goJno go6G 5C@Jdefective6G 5goodJbad6 t)&es of
observations. Pro&ortions of lot does not c,ange a&&reciabl) as a result of sam&le
dra4n.
Test Cases L Ins&ection of defectives in a s,i&ment of steel &artsG ins&ection of
defective com&onents in a &roduction lotG determination of defective 4eld jointsG
&robabilit) of obtaining electrical &o4er of a certain 4attage from a sourceG
&robabilit) t,at a &roduction mac,ine 4ill &erform its functionG etc.
=0 5"$er+eo#etri4 /istri:ution
:ield of $&&licationL Ins&ection of mec,anicalG electricalG etc.G &arts from a small
lot ,aving 3no4n &ercent defectives. Same as in binomial casesG e1ce&t t,e
&ro&ortion of lot ma) c,ange as a result of sam&le dra4n.
Test Cases L Probabilit) of obtaining 12 conforming com&onents from a lot of 122
numbers ,aving 2M defectives
>0 Poisson /istri:ution
:ield of $&&licationL Situations 4,ere t,e number of times an event can be
observed but not t,e number of times t,e event does not occur. $&&lies to events
randoml) distributed in time.
Test Cases L Number of mac,ine brea3do4ns in a &lantG &ersonnel injur)
accidents in industrial &lantG dimensional errors in an engineering dra4ingG
automotive accidents in a given location &er unit timeG a defect along a long 4ireG
number of defective rivets in an aero&lane 4ingG t)re &uncturesG incidences of
stone ,itting t,e 4inds,ieldG number of engine detonationsG etc.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e -( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
I0> NORMAL /ISTRIBUTION
<,ile t,e details of t,e distributions e1ce&t Normal Distribution are not in t,e sco&e
of t,is manualG onl) Normal Distribution s,all be discussed.
T,is is also 3no4n as -aussian DistributionG because of contribution of @arl -aussG
eig,teent, centur) -erman mat,ematician.
0an) c,aracteristics of manufacturing &rocesses ,ave a Normal Distribution.
Chr4teristi4s of Nor#l /istri:ution.
It is s)mmetric distribution and is bell s,a&ed.
T,e mean defines 4,ere t,e &ea3 of t,e curve occurs. In ot,er 4ordsG t,e
ordinate at t,e mean is t,e ,ig,est ordinate. T,e ,eig,t of t,e ordinate at a
distance of one standard deviation from mean is %2.%!3 M of t,e ,eig,t of
mean ordinate and similarl) t,e ,eig,t of ot,er ordinates at various standard
deviations from mean ,a&&ens to be a fi1ed relations,i& 4it, t,e ,eig,t of
mean ordinate.
T,e curve is as)m&otic to t,e base lineG 4,ic, means t,at it continues to
a&&roac, but never touc,es t,e ,ori'ontal line.
T,e variance defines t,e s&read of t,e curve.
T,e area enclosed bet4een t4o ordinates at one sigma 8SD9 from t,e mean
on eit,er side 4ould be al4a)s %*.2*%M of total area.
T,e normal distribution ,as onl) one mode since t,e curve ,as onl) one
&ea3. In ot,er 4ords it is unimodal distribution.
T,e ma1imum ordinate divides t,e gra&, of normal curve into t4o e7ual
&arts.

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e -- of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
S5APE O1 NORMAL /ISTRIBUTION
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e -) of (*,
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
LOCATION
(CENTRALITY) (
)
SPREAD (6
)
STANDARD
DEVIATION (
)
X
X
X
~
A Normal Distribution has differentspreads :
A Normal Distribution has differentlocations :
Positi%e S9e?8 @C sA is $ositi%e MultiB#odl
distri:ution
Ne+ti%e S9e?8 @C sA is ne+ti%e
X
X
X
~
A Normal Distribution has differentshapes :
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
It is rat,er difficult to dra4 an) conclusions from t,e ra4 data b) visual e1aminations
onl). Some means of summari'ing t,e information is re7uired. =ence a first ste& to
convert Qreduce mass ra4 data to a more com&re,ensive form is to define a number
of distinct and e1,austive categories into 4,ic, observations ma) be divided. If 4e
re&lace ra4 data b) listings of t,e grou&sG and number of &oints l)ing in eac,G called
fre7uenc). Suc, listing is called a fre7uenc) distribution. T,e im&ortant features of a
set of data can be seen even more clearl) in a gra&,ic re&resentation of fre7uenc)
distributionG called as =istogram.
$ Normal Curve is related to a fre7uenc) distribution and its =istogram. $ ,istogram
summari'es data from a &rocess and gra&,icall) &resents its fre7uenc) distribution
in a bar form.
GRAP5ICAL REPRESENTATION B 5ISTOGRAM
=istogram is t,e &rimar) assessment of &rocess centeringG s&read and s,a&e of t,e
data.
Duic3 ste&s in ma3ing a ,istogramL
-at,er data 8realJtime observations9
Tabulate t,e data
Count t,e number of data &oints 5n6
Determine t,e range 5/6
/ S Kma1. 8ma1imum reading9 E Kmin. 8minimum reading9
Determine t,e number of Class Intervals 536
3S /Qn or
arbitraril)G 536 can be determined from t,e follo4ing tableG
<,en 5n6 is
bet4een
#alue of
536
nder !2 ! J (
!2 to 122 % J 12
122 to 2!2 ( J 12
2!2 and above 12 J 22
Determine t,e Class <idt, 5=6
= S / Q 3G and round off t,e number to t,e nearest value 4it, same number
of decimals
Determine t,e Class ;oundaries
se t,e smallest data &oint 5Kmin.6 and correct to t,e nearest lo4er value
$dd t,e Class <idt, 5=6
=ave mutuall) e1clusive Class Intervals
Determine t,e fre7uenc)G i.e. number of readings in eac, class boundar)
Dra4 a ,istogram 4it,G
Class 4idt, 5=6 8or t,e reading in certain cases9 on t,e KJa1isG andG
Corres&onding fre7uenc) on t,e HJa1is
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e -2 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Uses of histo+r#8
It &rovides information about distribution 8s,a&e9 of t,e data
It &rovides information about s&read 8variation9 of t,e distribution
It &rovides information about location 8centralit)9 of t,e distribution
NCT>L It is im&ortant to 3no4 t,at a =istogram is not a ;ar C,artI bar c,art
7uantities are re&resented onl) b) t,e ,eig,t of t,e bar and its 4idt, signifies
not,ingG 4,ereas in a ,istogramG t,e area of t,e bar re&resents t,e 7uantit). In
additionG as a t,umb ruleG a ,istogram s,ould ,ave not less t,an % and not more
t,an 1! bars.
Mesures of 4entrl tenden4" & dis$ersion
T,ere are various measures of central tendenc) . dis&ersionG t,e most commonl)
used are as follo4s
ModeL It is t,e most oftenl) occurring observation. It ma) be noted t,at more t,an
one mode ma) e1ist in a &o&ulation.
Mid Rn+eL It is t,e mid&oint bet4een t,e ,ig,est . lo4est observation.
Medin. It is t,e middle observation 4,en all observations are arranged in t,e order
of magnitude.
MenL It is arit,metic average of observations.
!ampleL Consider a sam&le of 12 observations as follo4s L 2.1G 2.!G 2.3G 2.2G 2.4G
2.4G 2.3G 2.3G 2.3G 2.1
T,en t,e various calculations are as underG
T,e data in t,e ascending order is 2.1G 2.1G 2.2G 2.3G 2.3G 2.3G 2.3G 2.4G 2.4G 2.!
Sam&le si'e S 12
0ean L 2.2+
0ode S 2.3
0id /ange S 80a1 T 0in 9Q2 .. S 82.! T2.19Q2 S 2.3
0edian S 2.3 UNo4 t,at t,e number of readings is evenG t,e median 4ill be
com&uted as t,e average of t,e middle t4o values 8in t,is case t,e fift, and t,e
si1t, values9V.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e -3 of (*,
:
r
e
7
u
e
n
c
)
/eadings
1reGuen4" 5isto+r#
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e -* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
I0, CONTROL C5ARTS . TOOL 1OR SPC
Dr. <alter S,e4,art of t,e ;ell AaboratoriesG in t,e 1+22FsG first made t,e distinction
bet4een controlled 8Common Causes9 and uncontrolled variation 8S&ecial Causes9G
and develo&ed a sim&le but &o4erful tool to d)namicall) se&arate t,e t4o J t,e
control c,art. Control c,arts is one of t,e seven DC Tools and are a sim&le and
effective tool to ac,ieve statistical controlI it &rovides a common language for
communications about t,e &erformance of a &rocess. Control c,arts effectivel)
direct attention to4ard s&ecial causes of variation 4,en t,e) a&&ear and reflect t,e
e1tent of common cause variation t,at must be reduced b) management action.
Several t)&es of control c,arts ,ave been develo&edG to anal)'e bot, variables and
attributes. =o4everG all control c,arts ,ave t,e same t4o basic usesG t,e) areL
$ judgmentG to give evidence 4,et,er a &rocess ,as been o&erating in a state
of statistical controlG and to signal t,e &resence of s&ecial causes of variation
so t,at corrective action can be ta3en.
$n o&erationG to maintain t,e state of statistical controlG b) e1tending t,e
control limits as a basis for realJtime decisions.
Process im&rovement using control c,arts is an iterative &rocedureG re&eating t,e
fundamental &,ases of collectionG control and ca&abilit). :irstG data are gat,ered
according to a careful &lanI t,enG t,ese data are used to calculate control limitsG
4,ic, are t,e basis of inter&reting t,e data for statistical controlI 4,en t,e &rocess is
in statistical controlG it can be inter&reted for &rocess ca&abilit). To monitor
im&rovements in control and ca&abilit)G t,e c)cle begins againG as more data are
gat,eredG inter&retedG and used as t,e basis for action.
/t Colle4tion. T,e &rocess is runG and data for t,e c,aracteristic being
studied are gat,ered and converted to a form t,at can be &lotted on a gra&,.
T,ese data mig,t be t,e measured values of a dimension of a mac,ined
&ieceG t,e number of fla4s in a bolt of vin)lG railJcar transit timesG number of
boo33ee&ing errorsG etc.
Sttisti4l Control. Trial control limits are calculated based on data from t,e
out&ut of t,e &rocessI t,e) reflect t,e amount of variation t,at could be
e1&ected if onl) variation from common causes 4as &resent. T,e) are dra4n
on t,e c,art as a guide to anal)sis. Control limits are not s&ecification limits
or objectivesG but are reflections of t,e natural variabilit) of t,e &rocess.
T,e data are t,en com&ared 4it, t,e control limits to see 4,et,er t,e
variation is stable and a&&ears to come onl) from common causes. If s&ecial
causes of variation are evidentG o&eration of t,e &rocess is studied to
determine 4,at is affecting t,e &rocess. $fter actions 8usuall) local9 ,ave
been ta3enG furt,er data are collectedG control limits are recalculated if
necessar)G and an) additional s&ecial causes are studied and corrected.
Pro4ess C$:ilit" I#$ro%e#ent. $fter all s&ecial causes ,ave been
corrected and t,e &rocess is running in statistical controlG t,e &rocess
ca&abilit) can be assessed. If t,e variation from common causes is
e1cessiveG t,e &rocess cannot &roduce out&ut t,at consistentl) meets
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e -= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
customer needs. T,e &rocess itself must be investigatedG and management
action must be ta3en to im&rove t,e s)stem.
:or continuing &rocess im&rovementG re&eat t,ese t,ree &,ases. -at,er more data
as a&&ro&riateI 4or3 to reduce &rocess variation b) o&erating t,e &rocess in
statistical control and continuall) im&roving its ca&abilit).
Benefits of Control Chrts .
Pro&erl) usedG control c,arts canG
Control c,arts are sim&le and effective tools to ac,ieve statistical control. T,e)
can be maintained b) an o&erator. T,e) &rovide t,e reliable information to t,e
&eo&le 4,o are closest to t,e &rocess.
=el& t,e &rocess &erform consistentl)G &redictabl)G for 7ualit) and costL
&erformance to s&ecification of a statisticall) controlled &rocess is &redictableG
t,us allo4ing a consistentG stable and reliable 7ualit) levels.
$fter a &rocess is in statistical controlG its &erformance can be furt,er im&roved to
reduce variation. T,e e1&ected effects of &ro&osed im&rovements can be
antici&ated. Suc, &rocess im&rovementsG
increase &ercentage of out&ut t,at meets t,e customer
e1&ectations8 im&rove 7ualit)9
reduce t,e re4or3Qscra& 8cost &er unit9
increase t,e total )ield of acce&table out&ut t,roug, t,e
&rocess8im&rove effective ca&acit)9
Control c,arts &rovide a common language for communications about
&erformance of a &rocess.
T,e common language is ver) critical because &rocess is in 2 to 3 s,iftsG
bet4een o&erator . su&ervisorG bet4een service de&artments li3eG maintenanceG
material controlG engineering etc.
Control c,arts distinguis, s&ecial from common causes of variationG as a guide to
local or management action L a good indication of 4,et,er an) &roblems are li3el)
to be correctable locall) or 4ill re7uire management action. T,is minimi'es t,e
confusionG frustrationG and e1cessive cost of misdirected &roblemJsolving efforts.
CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR VARIABLES
Control c,arts for variables are &o4erful tools t,at can be used 4,en measurements
from a &rocess are available. >1am&les 4ould be t,e diameter of a ,oleG t,e closing
effort of a doorG lengt, of t,e rodG etc.
Control C,arts for variables are &articularl) useful for several reasonsL
1. <ide a&&licationL 0ost &rocesses and t,eir out&uts ,ave c,aracteristics t,at are
measurable.
2. 0ore InformationL $ measurement value contains more information t,an a sim&le
)esJno statement.
3. Com&lete Information 4it, Aess TimeL Cnl) fe4er &ieces need to be c,ec3ed for
ma3ing reliable decisionsG t,e time ga& bet4een &roduction of &arts . corrective
action is s,ortened. $lsoG alt,oug, obtaining one &iece of measured data is
generall) more costl) t,an obtaining one &iece of goQnoJgo dataG fe4er &ieces
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e -> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
need be c,ec3ed to get total information about t,e &rocessG so in some cases
total ins&ection costs can be lo4er.
4. Continuous Dualit) Im&rovementL <it, variables dataG &erformance of a &rocess
is anal)'ed even if all individual values are 4it,in t,e s&ecification limitsI t,is is
im&ortant in see3ing neverJending im&rovement.
#ariable c,arts can e1&lain &rocess data in terms of bot, its s&read 8&ieceJtoJ&iece
variabilit)9 and its location 8&rocess average9. ;ecause of t,isG control c,arts for
variables are usuall) &re&ared and anal)'ed in &airs J one c,art for location and
anot,er for s&read.
T,e most commonl) used &air are t,e
K
. / C,arts J
K
is t,e average of t,e
values in small subgrou&s J a measure of locationI / is t,e range of values 4it,in
eac, subJgrou& 8,ig,est minus lo4est9 J a measure of s&read.
Pre&aration for se of #ariables Control C,artsL
>stablis, an environment suitable for action L T,e 0anagement must be
&re&ared and s,ould create a res&onsive environmentG b) &roviding training to
&eo&leG resources for Dualit) Im&rovementG etc.G before introducing an) Statistical
Dualit) Im&rovement met,od
Define t,e &rocessL nderstand t,e &rocess in terms of its relations,i& to ot,er
o&erationsQusers bot, u&stream and do4nstreamG and in terms of elements 8manG
mac,ineG materialG met,odG environment9 t,at affect it at eac, stage. T,is is best
done b) &eo&le 4,o ,ave enoug, &rocess 3no4ledgeable E use of tec,ni7ues
suc, as causeJandJeffect diagram ,el& ma3e t,ese relations,i&s visible.
Determine c,aracteristics to be managedL Concentrate on vital fe4
c,aracteristics 8t,ose t,at are most &romising for &rocess im&rovement9 E use of
tec,ni7ues suc, as Pareto &rinci&le ma3es &rioriti'ation eas)9. During &rioriti'ation
t,e follo4ing s,ould be consideredG
CustomerFs needsL T,is includes bot,G internal 8subse7uent &rocesses9 .
e1ternal 8endJuser9. Communication of t,e customer needs for im&rovement occurs
4it, team4or3 and stud).
Current and &otential &roblem areasL >1isting evidence of 4aste or &oor
&erformance 8e.g.G scra&G re4or3G e1cessive overtimeG missed targets9 and areas of
ris3 8e.g.G u&coming c,anges to t,e design of t,e &roduct Q &rocess Q serviceG are
o&&ortunities for im&rovement.
Correlation bet4een c,aracteristicsL $ stud) of relations,i&s among
c,aracteristics is advantageous. e.g.G if t,e c,aracteristic of concern is difficult to
measure 8e.g.G volume9G trac3 a correlated c,aracteristic t,at is easier to measure
8e.g.G 4eig,t9. In additionG if several individual c,aracteristics on an item tend to
var) toget,erG it ma) be sufficient to c,art onl) one of t,em.
Define t,e measurement s)stemL T,e measurement e7ui&mentG t,roug, 4,ic,
t,e &rocess data 4ill be generatedG must be &redictable for bot, accurac) and
&recision J &eriodic calibration is not enoug,G 0easurement S)stem $nal)sis needs
to be establis,ed along 4it, definition of 4,at information is to be gat,eredG 4,ereG
,o4G under 4,at conditions.
0inimise unnecessar) variationL $void obvious &roblems t,at could and s,ould
be corrected even 4it,out use of control c,artsG it could mean conducting a
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e -, of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
controlled stud) 4it, 3no4n in&ut materialsG constant control settingsG etc. 0aintain
a &rocess log 4it, all relevant events suc, as tool c,angesG ne4 ra4 material lotsG
etc.G so t,at subse7uent &roblem anal)sis becomes eas).
Define /eaction PlansL S&ecif) reactions to situations involving abnormal or
&eculiar &atterns of &rocess be,avior during t,e stud). Provisions s,ould also be
made for documenting.
CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR ATTRIBUTES
$lt,oug, control c,arts are most often t,oug,t of in terms of variablesG versions
,ave also been develo&ed for attributes. $ttributeJt)&e data ,ave onl) t4o values
8e.g.G conforming Q nonJconformingG &ass Q failG go Q noJgoG &resent Q absentG etc.9 but
t,e) can be counted for recording and anal)sis &ur&ose. >1am&les include t,e
continuit) of an electrical circuitG or number of incidences of runs Q scratc,es in a
&ainted surface. >1am&les also include c,aracteristics t,at are measurableG but
4,ere t,e results are recorded in a sim&le )es Q no fas,ionG suc, as t,e
conformance of a s,aft diameter 4,en measured on a go Q noJgo gageG t,e
acce&tabilit) of door margins to a visual or gage c,ec3G or onJtime deliver)
&erformance. Control c,arts for attributes are im&ortant for t,e follo4ing reasonsL
1. $ttributeJt)&e situations e1ist in an) tec,nical or administrative &rocessG so
attribute anal)sis tec,ni7ues are useful in man) a&&lications. T,e most
significant difficult) is to develo& &recise o&erational definitions of 4,at is nonJ
conforming.
2. $ttributeJt)&e data are alread) available in man) situations J 4,erever t,ere are
e1isting ins&ectionsG 4riteJu&s for re&airG sorts of rejected materialG etc. In t,ese
casesG no additional data collection e1&ense is involvedG just t,e effort of
converting t,e data to control c,art form.
3. <,ere ne4 data must be collectedG attribute information is generall) 7uic3 and
ine1&ensive to obtainG and 4it, sim&le gauging 8e.g.G a goQnoJgo gauge9G it often
does not re7uire s&eciali'ed collection s3ills.
4. 0uc, data gat,ered for managementJt)&e summar) re&orting is in attribute form
and can benefit from control c,art anal)sis. >1am&les include de&artment firstJ
run C@ &erformanceG scra& ratesG 7ualit) audits and material rejections.
;ecause of t,e abilit) to distinguis, variation from s&ecial and common causesG
control c,art anal)sis can be valuable in inter&reting t,ese management re&orts.
!. <,en introducing control c,arts into an organi'ationG it is im&ortant to &rioriti'e
&roblem areas and use c,arts 4,ere t,e) are most needed. Problem signals
can come from t,e cost control s)stemG user com&laintsG internal bottlenec3sG
etc. T,e use of attribute control c,arts on 3e) overall 7ualit) measures can
often &oint t,e 4a) to t,e s&ecific &rocess areas t,at 4ould need more detailed
e1amination J including t,e &ossible use of control c,arts for variables.
$ll t,e re7uirements for &re&aration for t,e se of $ttribute Control C,arts are same
as t,ose mentioned for t,e #ariables Control C,art.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e )' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
T,e follo4ing table illustrates various situations and t,e t)&e of attribute c,art
em&lo)edG
Sitution & Out4o#e Control 4hrt
Transmission E lea3s Q does not lea3 P c,art for Pro&ortion of units nonJ
conforming
N& c,art for number of units nonJ
conforming
=eadlam& E glo4s Q does not glo4
=ole diameter E undersi'e Q oversi'e
Part deliver) E inJtime Q not inJtime
Part deliver) E com&lete Q not
com&lete
Number of bubbles in a 4inds,ield
frame
C c,art for number of nonJconformities
&er ins&ection unit 8units of e7ual si'e9
c,art for number of nonJconformities
&er ins&ection units 8units not of e7ual
si'e9
Number of &aint rundo4ns on door
Number of &atc,) coats on bonnet
Number of errors in an invoice
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e )( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
The t:le :elo? :riefs so#e of the Chrt T"$es
/t Chrt Menin+ S#$le SiDe & 1etures
V
r
i
:
l
e
s

/
H Indi%idul
Mesure#ent
S#$le SiDe @nA I(
Ad%nt+es . ReGuires less dt
/isd%nt+es . Relti%el" insensiti%e nd
$ro%ides $oor esti#te of %rition
H S#$le
A%er+e
S#$le SiDe @nA I 2 B 3
Ad%nt+es . Sensiti%e to s$e4il 4uses
/isd%nt+es . Sensiti%e to @nor#lA outliers
in the dt
R S#$le Rn+e S#$le SiDe @nA I 2 B 3
Ad%nt+es . Sensiti%e to s$e4il 4uses
/isd%nt+es . Loses res$onsi%eness ?ith
lr+e s#$le siDes8 hi+hl" :ised #esure of
$ro4ess %rition
s S#$le
Stndrd
/e%ition
S#$le SiDe @nA I relti%el" s#ll8 u$to >
Ad%nt+es . Sensiti%e to s$e4il 4uses &
lr+er s#$les8 $ro%ides un:ised #esure of
$ro4ess %rition8 esil" 4o#$uterised
/isd%nt+es . Need to 4l4ulte @sA nd is
less sensiti%e ?ith s#$le siDes of @nA )
MR Mo%in+ Rn+e S#$le SiDe @nA I (
Ad%nt+es . ReGuires %er" little dt
/isd%nt+es . Esti#tes of %rition re
4orrelted8 relti%el" less sensiti%e
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e )- of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
The t:le :elo? :riefs so#e of the Chrt T"$es ;4ontdJ0<
/t Chrt Menin+ S#$le SiDe & 1etures
A
t
t
r
i
:
u
t
e
s

/
$ Pro&ortions not
conforming
Sam&le Si'e 5n6 ma) var)G usuall) large
$dvantages L Cnl) re7uires counts data 8no
measurements9
Disadvantages L /e7uires large sam&lesG needs
clear definition of s&ecifications 8acce&table . not
acce&table9G needs rigid enforcement of
acce&tance standards to be effectiveG
inter&retation difficult 4,en different t)&es of
defects define a nonJconformanceG some
calculations ma) be re7uired
n$ Number not
conforming
Sam&le Si'e 5n6 is constantG
measurements9
Disadvantages L Needs clear definition of
s&ecificationsG some calculations ma) be re7uired
4 Number of nonJ
conformities
Sam&le Si'e 5n6 is constantG
measurements9
u Pro&ortion of
nonJ
conformities
Sam&le Si'e 5n6 ma) var)G usuall) small
measurements9
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e )) of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
SECTION II . CONTROL C5ARTS
II0( GUI/ELINES 1OR SELECTION O1 APPROPRIATE C5ART
Vrious t"$es of Control Chrts re e#$lo"ed :sed on the t"$e of dt
+enerted0 The 4hrt :elo? $ro%ides infor#tion :out sele4tion
4riteri of 4ontrol 4hrts used in %rious situtions0
!amples
H & R8 H & s . $ series of sam&lesG usuall) four to si1 items are measured to get
values of selected &arameter.
Eample! T,e best e1am&le can be journal diameter of cran3s,aft J CD grinding
o&eration.
H & MR . 0an) times it is not convenient to ,ave man) sam&lesG ,ence one sam&le
is selected.
Eample! Percentage of )ield in a foundr).
n$ ; 4onstnt s#$le siDe K ite# defe4ti%e< . sed for large . constant sam&le
si'e. -enerall) sam&le si'e is 2!.
Eample! Paint acce&table or defective on a ve,icle.
$ ; %ried s#$le siDe K ite# defe4ti%e < . $s sam&le si'e is not constant. T,e
number of defects ,as to be converted into fraction defective or &ercent defective.
Eample! C,atter mar3s on a turned com&onent. Ins&ect t,e sam&le com&onents
and find out number of &ieces defective and convert it into fraction. $n) &lug or sna&
-oQNo -o gauge.
u ; %ried s#$le siDe K defe4ts in ite#< . sed for number of defects in a
&roduct.
Eample! number of defective s&ot 4elds on a fender Q bod) frame etc.
4 ; 4onstnt s#$le siDe K defe4ts in ite#< . sed for controlling number of
defects in a s&ecific &ortion of t,e &o&ulation.
Eample! Number of 4eaving defects &er s7uare meter of a fabric
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e )2 of (*,
H & M R
n I (
H & R o r H & s
n L (
" s n # $ o r n % $
V r i : l e
u
U n i t
4
P o r t i o n
& n i t o r ' o r t i o n
n I (
n $
C o n s t n t
$
V r " i n +
( o n s t a n t o r ) a r y i n g
n L (
" s n # $ o r n % $
A t t r i : u t e
T " $ e o f / t
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Chrt for sele4tion of Control Chrt
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e )3 of (*,
Is there
:ilit" to
4on%enientl"
4o#$ute s for
e4h su:B
+rou$
Is the
su:B+rou$
siDe , or
#oreE
Cn su:B+rou$
%er+es :e
4on%enientl"
4o#$utedE
n$ or $
Chrt
4 or u
Chrt
/eter#ine the Chr4teristi4 to :e 4hrted
Is the
interest in
nonB
4onfor#in+
units K i0e08
M :d
$rtsE
Are the
dt
Vri:leE
Is the
Interest in
nonB4onfor#ities
units K i0e08
dis4re$n4ies
$er $rtsE
$
Chrt
u
Chrt
Is the
S#$le
siDe
4onstnt
Is the
S#$le
siDe
4onstnt
Is it
ho#o+eB
neous in nture
or not 4ondu4i%e
to su:B+rou$
s#$lin+ K e0+08
4he#i4l :th8
$int
:t4h8
et40E
Medin
Chrt
HBR
Chrt
HBS
Chrt
HBR
Chrt
Chrts for
Indi%iduls . HBMR
H>S
NC NC
H>S H>S
NC NC
H>S
NC NC
H>S H>S
NC
H>S
NC
H>S
H>S
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
II0- CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR VARIABLES B
H
;AVERAGE< & R ;RANGE<

(0 Gther /t
$ dataJgat,ering &lan must be develo&ed and used as t,e basis for collectingG
recording and &lotting t,e data on a c,art. T,e data 8measurements of a
&articular c,aracteristic of t,e &rocess out&ut9 are re&orted in small subgrou&s of
constant si'eG usuall) including from 2 to ! consecutive &iecesG 4it, subgrou&s
ta3en &eriodicall)G 8e.g.G once ever) 1! minutesG t4ice &er s,iftG etc.9
$. Si'eG :re7uenc) and Number of Subgrou&s
i. Subgrou& Si'e L :or effectiveness and efficienc) of t,e control c,artsG
determination of Prational subgrou&sP is t,e 3e) ste&.
C&&ortunities for variation among t,e units 4it,in a subgrou& are
minimal. <it, &ieceJtoJ&iece variabilit) 4it,in a subgrou&G an) unusual
variation bet4een subgrou&s 4ould reflect c,anges in t,e &rocess t,at
s,ould be investigated for a&&ro&riate action.
:or an initial stud) of a &rocess 4 to ! consecutivel) &roduced &ieces
from a single &rocess streamG under ver) similar &roduction conditions
over a ver) s,ort time interval 4it, no ot,er s)stematic relations,i& to
eac, ot,er 8onl) a single toolG ,eadG die cavit)G etc.9 s,ould be c,osen.
T,us variation 4it,in eac, subgrou& 4ould &rimaril) reflect common
causes. <,en t,ese conditions are not metG t,e resulting control c,art
ma) not effectivel) discriminate s&ecial causes of variationG or ma)
e1,ibit nonJrandom &atterns.
ii. Subgrou& :re7uenc)L :or detecting c,anges in t,e &rocess over timeG
subgrou&s s,ould be collected often enoug,G and at a&&ro&riate timesG
t,at t,e) can reflect t,e &otential o&&ortunities for c,ange 4it, res&ect
to s,ift &atternsG relief o&eratorsG 4armJu& trendG material lotsG etc.9
During an initial &rocess stud)G t,e subgrou&s are often ta3en
consecutivel) or at s,ort intervalsG to detect 4,et,er t,e &rocess can
s,ift or s,o4 ot,er instabilit) over brief time &eriods. $s t,e &rocess
demonstrates stabilit) 8or as &rocess im&rovements are made9G t,e timeJ
&eriod bet4een subgrou&s can be increased.
iii. Number of Subgrou&sL >noug, subgrou&s s,ould be gat,ered to
assure t,at t,e major sources of variation ,ave ,ad an o&&ortunit) to
a&&ear. Statisticall)G 2! or more subgrou&s containing about 122 or
more individual readings give a good test for stabilit) andG if stableG
good estimates of t,e &rocess location and s&read.
In some casesG e1isting data ma) be available 4,ic, could accelerate
t,is first &,ase of t,e stud). =o4everG t,e) s,ould be used onl) if t,e)
are recent and if t,e basis for establis,ing subgrou&s is clearl)
understood.
;. Set & Control C,arts and /ecord /a4 Data L :ollo4 t,e follo4ingG
i. Com&lete t,e =eader Information of t,e Control C,art.
ii. Include corres&onding data 8individual readings J K1G K2G " Kn9G sum of
t,e subgrou& readingsG average 8 H9G range 8/9 and dateQtime 8or
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e )* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
ot,er identification of t,e subgrou&9 in t,e bottom bloc3 4it, a s&ace
for eac, one.
iii. Dra4 t,e H c,art above t,e / c,art
iv. #alues of H and / 4ill be t,e vertical scales
v. T,e se7uence of subgrou&s t,roug, time 4ill be t,e ,ori'ontal scale
vi. #erticall) align t,e corres&onding data values and t,e &lot &oints for
H . /
C. Calculate t,e $verage 8 H9 and /ange 8/9 of eac, Subgrou&
T,e c,aracteristics to be &lotted are t,e sam&le average 8 H9 and t,e
sam&le range 8/9 for eac, subgrou&I t,ese reflect t,e overall &rocess
average and its variabilit)G res&ectivel).
&
<,ere 5K16G 5K26G ". 5Kn6 are t,e individual values 4it,in t,e subgrou& and 5n6 is
t,e subgrou& sam&le si'e.
D. Select Scales for t,e Control C,arts
:or a better fitG t,e general guidelines for determining scales are as underG
i. :or t,e
K
c,art do t,e follo4ing L
Calculate 8 H,ig,est E Hlo4est9 S 5$6
Calculate 8 Hlo4est E $9 S 5;6
Calculate 8 H,ig,est T $9 S 5C6
Calculate 8C E ;9 S 5D6
:ind t,e number of increments on t,e c,art 5n6
Divide 5D6 b) 5n6 8D Q n9 S 5>6
T,e lo4est value on t,e c,art 4ill be 5;6
T,e follo4ing increment values 4ill be 8; T >9G 8; T 2>9G ".. and so
on
ii. :or t,e / c,art L
Consider /largest
Double it 82 1 /largest9 S 5K6
Divide 5K6 b) 5n6 8K Q n9 S 5H6
T,e lo4est value on t,e c,art 4ill be 2 8'ero9
T,e follo4ing increment values 4ill be 8H9G 82H9G ".. and so on
"#$E ! For a better %isual analysis& it is helpful that scale spacing for the '(
Chart is double the scale spacing for the H Chart.
>. Plot t,e res&ective $verages and /anges on t,e Control C,arts
Plot and connect t,e &oints for averages and ranges on t,eir res&ective
c,arts. Scan t,e &lot &oints to see if t,e) loo3 reasonable and no &oint is
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e )= of (*,
n
H 0000 H H
H
n - (
+ + +
;lo?est< ;hi+hest<
H B H R
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
substantiall) ,ig,er or lo4er t,an t,e ot,ers to confirm t,at t,e calculations
and &lots are correct.
-0 Cl4ulte Control Li#its
Control limits for t,e range 8/9 c,art are develo&ed firstG t,en t,ose for t,e c,art
for averages 8
K
9. T,e ste&s involved includeG
$. Calculate t,e $verage /ange 8
R
9 and t,e Process $verage 8
H
9 as
belo4 L
( )
9
R 000 R R R
R
9 ) - (
+ + + +
( )
9
H 000 H H H
H
9 ) - ( + + + +
4,ereG 536 is t,e number of subgrou&sG

(
R
G
-
R
G
)
R
G
9
R
.
( H
G
- H
G
) H
G
9 H
are t,e corres&onding ranges . averages of t,e 1stG 2ndG 3rdG 3t,
subgrou&sG res&ectivel).
;. Calculate t,e Control Aimits L Control limits are calculated to s,o4 t,e e1tent
b) 4,ic, t,e subgrou& averages and ranges 4ould var) if onl) common
causes of variation 4ere &resent. T,e Control Aimits are calculated using t,e
la4s of &robabilit) t,at N,ig,l) im&robable causes of variations are &resumed
to be not due to random causesO. <,en t,e variation e1ceeds t,e statistical
control limitsG it is a signal t,at a s&ecial cause ,as entered t,e &rocess.
T,e) are based on t,e subgrou& sam&le si'e and t,e amount of 4it,inJ
subgrou& variabilit) reflected in t,e ranges.
Calculate t,e control limits as belo4 L
R / UCL ;R< Li#it Control U$$er
2 R

R / LCL ;R< Li#it Control Lo?er
) R

( ) R A H UCL < H ; Li#it Control U$$er
-
H
+
( ) R A B H LCL < H ; Li#it Control Lo?er
-
H

<,ereG D4G D3 and $2 are constants var)ing b) sam&le si'e 8$&&endi1 E KHB9
i. Dra4 Aines for t,e $verages and t,e Control Aimits on t,e c,arts at
res&ective &laces L
a. Dra4 t,e
R
and
H
as solid lines
b. Dra4
R
UCL
G
R
LCL
G
UCL
H
G
H
LCL
as dotted lines
)0 Inter$ret for Pro4ess Control
Control c,art anal)sis &rovides information about t,e &ieceJtoJ&iece variabilit)
and gives evidence about
o&erating level 84,et,er constant or not9 of t,e &rocess variabilit) 8/9 and
&rocess average 8 H9G i.e.G state of statistical control of one or bot,
ta3e a&&ro&riate actionG based on t,e anal)sis findings
In case of Statisticall) Controlled &rocesses t,ere 4ould be no obvious trends
or &atterns in t,e dataG i.e.G t,e individual subgrou& ranges 8/9 and averages 8
H9 4ould var) b) c,ance aloneG and 4ould seldom go be)ond t,e control
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e )> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
limits 8less t,an 1M of t,e time for rangesG and onl) 2.2(M of t,e time for
averagesG for t,e limits calculated above9.
T,e H and / c,art are anal)'ed se&aratel)G t,e / c,art is anal)'ed first
follo4ed b) t,e H c,artG but com&arison of &atterns bet4een t,e t4o c,arts
ma) sometimes give added insig,t into s&ecial causes affecting t,e &rocess.
T,e ste&s involved in Control C,art $nal)sis are as belo4 L
$. $nal)se t,e data &lots on t,e C,art
T,e data &oints are com&ared 4it, t,e res&ective control limitsG for &oints out
of control or for unusual &atterns or trends. :or more details see Inter&retation
of Control C,arts.
Points be)ond t,e Control AimitsL It is &rimar) evidence of nonJcontrol at t,at
&ointG and 4it, variation onl) due to common causes suc, &oints 4ould be
ver) rare. $n) &oints be)ond a control limit is t,e signal for immediate
anal)sis of t,e o&eration for t,e s&ecial causeG and mar3 suc, &oints for
furt,er investigation and corrective action. /efer to t,e follo4ing table for
&ossible causes 8for more details refer to $&&endi1 KHB9 L
Condition H R
Points
above
CA
0iscalculation
Incorrect Plotting
C,ange in 0easurement S)stem E different
ins&ectorG different gaugeG incorrect readingG etc.
Points
belo4
ACA
0iscalculation
Incorrect Plotting
C,ange in 0easurement S)stem E different
ins&ectorG different gaugeG incorrect readingG etc.
"ote ! )lots belo* the LCL in ' chart& is a fa%ourable sign. Study
the change and apply *idely
i. $larming &atterns or trends 4it,in t,e Control Aimits E /andom . NonJ
randomL T,e &resence of unusual &atterns or trendsG even 4,en all
ranges and averages are 4it,in t,e control limitsG can be evidence of
nonJcontrol or c,ange in &rocess s&read . location. Suc, runs give t,e
first 4arning of unfavorable conditions t,at s,ould be corrected even
before &oints are seen be)ond t,e control limits. $lsoG certain &atterns
or trends could be favorable and s,ould be studied for &ossible
&ermanent im&rovement of t,e &rocess.
ii. :ind and Correct S&ecial Causes
a. :or eac, indication of a s&ecial causeG conduct an anal)sis of
t,e o&eration of t,e &rocess to determine t,e causeI correct t,at
conditionG and &revent it from recurring. T,e control c,art itself
s,ould be a useful guide in &roblem anal)sisG suggesting 4,en t,e
condition began and ,o4 long it continued. $ &ro&erl) maintained log
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ), of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
is of great ,el& in terms of ,aving fres, evidence for diagnosis of t,e
cause of concern and minimi'ing t,e &roduction of nonJconforming
out&ut. >ven t,e a&&earance of a single &oint be)ond t,e control
limits is reason to begin an immediate anal)sis of t,e &rocess.
ProblemJsolving is often t,e most difficultG but Statistical in&ut from
t,e control c,art can be an a&&ro&riate starting &oint along 4it, ot,er
sim&le tools suc, as Pareto c,artsG cause and effect diagrams 8see
$&&endi1 1)' for more details9. Process im&rovement is largel)
associated 4it, t,e &rocess design . t,e &eo&le 4,o are involved
4it, it.
b. /ecalculate Control Aimits
<,en conducting an initial &rocess stud) 8or a reassessment of
&rocess ca&abilit)9G e1clude all subgrou&s affected b) t,e s&ecial
causes 8e1clude t,e effects of outJofJcontrol &eriods9 t,at ,ave been
corrected. T,e e1clusion of subgrou&s re&resenting unstable
conditions is not just Pt,ro4ing a4a) bad data.P /at,erG b) e1cluding
t,e &oints affected b) 3no4n s&ecial causesG one ,as a better
estimate of t,e bac3ground level of variation due to common causes.
Confirm t,at all &lots s,o4 control 4,en com&ared to t,e ne4 limitsG
re&eating t,e identification Q correction Q recalculation se7uence if
necessar).
If an) subgrou&s 4ere dro&&ed from t,e / c,art because of identified
s&ecial causesG t,e) s,ould also be e1cluded from t,e
K
c,art and
viceJversa. T,e revised
R
.
H
s,ould be used to recalculate t,e
trial control limits for averages as belo4G
re%ised 2 R;re%ised< re%ised
re%ised
) R;re%ised< re%ised
( )
re%ised -
re%ised
;re%ised< H
re%ised
R A H UCL < H ; Li#it Control U$$er +
( )
re%ised -
re%ised
H
re%ised
R A B H LCL < H ; Li#it Control Lo?er
) (revised
4,ereG /28 /) nd A- are constants var)ing b) sam&le si'e
8$&&endi1 E KHB9
"ote ! E%en *ith processes that are in statistical control& as more
data are re%ie*ed& the constant chances of getting a false signal of a
special cause on any indi%idual subgroup translate to increasing
li+elihood of finding false signals some*here on the chart(s). ,hile it
is *ise to in%estigate all signaled e%ents as a possible e%idence of
special causes& it should be recognised that they may ha%e been
caused by the system and that there may be no underlying local
process problem. If no clear e%idence of a process problem is found&
any -correcti%e- action *ill probably ser%e to increase& rather than
decrease& the total %ariability in the process output.
c. >1tend Control Aimits for Cngoing Control L Cnce t,e initial 8or
,istorical9 data are consistentl) contained 4it,in t,e trial control
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 2' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
limitsG e1tend t,e limits for ongoing control of t,e &rocess 8t,e
o&erator and local su&ervision res&onding to signs of outJofJcontrol
conditions on eit,er t,e H or / c,art 4it, &rom&t action9.
"ote ! . change in the subgroup sample si/e *ould affect the
epected a%erage range and the control limits for both ranges and
a%erages. Such a situation could occur if it *as decided to ta+e
smaller samples more fre0uently& so as to detect large process shifts
more 0uic+ly *ithout increasing the total number of pieces sampled
per day.
To adjust central lines and control limits for a ne4 subgrou& sam&le
si'eG t,e follo4ing ste&s s,ould be ta3enL
>stimate t,e &rocess standard deviation 8t,e estimate is s,o4n as

8&ronounced as sigma ,at9 ,atP9. sing t,e e1isting sam&le si'e
calculate L
-
d
R
N
4,ere
R
is t,e average of t,e subJgrou& ranges 8for &eriods 4it, t,e
ranges in control9 and
-
d
is a constant var)ing b) sam&le si'e
8$&&endi1 E KHB9
sing t,e tabled factors for d2G D3G D4G and $2 based on t,eG ne4
sam&le si'eG calculate t,e ne4 range and control limitsG
-
ne? d N R
ne?
2 ;on+oin+< R on+oin+
ne?
) R;on+oin+< on+oin+
( ) R A H UCL < H ; Li#it Control U$$er ne?
- re%ised
;on+oin+< H
on+oin+
+
( ) ne?
- re%ised
;on+oin+< H
on+oin+
R A B H LCL < H ; Li#it Control Lo?er
Plot t,ese ne4 control limits on t,e c,art as t,e basis for ongoing
&rocess control.
Aimits for ongoing control s,ould onl) be e1tended to cover about 22J
2! future subgrou&s. $s long as t,e &rocess remains in control at
constant levels for bot, averages and rangesG t,e ongoing limits can
be e1tended for additional &eriods. IfG ,o4everG t,ere is evidence
t,at t,e &rocess average or range ,ave c,anged 8in eit,er direction9G
control limits s,ould be recalculated based on current &erformance.
;. Inter&ret for Process Ca&abilit) L :or more details see section on Process
Ca&abilit) . Im&rovement
Detailed inter&retation 4it, gra&,ical re&resentation is given in a se&arate
c,a&terG ,o4ever follo4ing are some of t,e basic &oints.
:or statisticall) controlled &rocesses t,ere 4ould be no obvious trends or
&atterns in t,e dataG i.e.G t,e individual subgrou& ranges 8/9 and averages 8
H9 4ould var) b) c,ance aloneG and 4ould seldom go be)ond t,e control
limits 8less t,an 1M of t,e time for rangesG and onl) 2.2(M of t,e time for
averagesG for t,e limits calculated above9.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 2( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Since t,e abilit) to inter&ret eit,er t,e subgrou& ranges or subgrou& averages
de&ends on t,e estimate of &iece to &iece variabilit)G t,e / c,art is anal)'ed
first. T,e data &oints are com&ared 4it, t,e control limitsG for &oints out of
control or unusual &atterns or trends0
C. T,e inter&retation s,ould be done b) considering t,ree im&ortant as&ects
/uns
Trend
Periodicit)
i. $nal)sis of data &lots on t,e /ange c,art
a. Points be)ond t,e Control Aimits L
T,e &resence of one or more &oints be)ond eit,er control limit is
&rimar) evidence of nonJ control at t,at &oint. Since &oints be)ond
control limits 4ould be rare if onl) variation from common causes
4ere &resentG 4e can &redict t,at a s&ecial cause ,as accounted for
t,e e1treme value. $n) &oints be)ond a control limit is t,e signal for
immediate anal)sis of t,e o&eration for t,e s&ecial causeG and mar3
suc, &oints for furt,er investigation and corrective action.
b. Patterns and trends 4it,in t,e control limits
T,e &resence of unusual &atterns or trends even 4,en all ranges are
4it,in t,e control limitsG can be evidence of nonJcontrol or c,anges in
&rocess s&read during t,e &eriod of &attern or trend.
c. /uns
T,e follo4ing are t,e signs of a &rocess s,ift or needs correction
( consecutive &oints or 12 out of 22 or 12 out of 14 consecutive
readings fall on t,e same side of t,e central line.
( consecutive &oints s,o4ing increasing or decreasing trends.
/eadings s,o4ing a c)clic &attern.
/eadings remaining too close to t,e center line
/eadings suddenl) going from one e1treme to ot,er
d. Cbvious Non random &atterns
Some of t,e &atterns ma) a&&ear in suc, a 4a) t,at give clue to
s&ecial causes. Test for overall s&read of subgrou& data &oints is as
follo4sG
Distance from / bar to be 2Q3 of data &oints s,ould lie 4it,in t,e
middle t,ird of t,e region bet4een t,e control limits and 1Q3 of t,e
&oints s,ould be in t,e outer t4o t,irds of t,e region. If more &oints lie
outside 2Q3 region c,ec3 t,e follo4ing
T,e control &oints ,ave been miscalculated or misJ&lotted
T,e data ,ave been edited
e. S&ecial cause
:or eac, indication of a s&ecial causeG conduct an anal)sis of t,e
o&eration of t,e &rocess to determine t,e causeI correct t,at
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 2- of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
cause of concern and minimi'ing t,e &roduction of nonJconforming
ProblemJsolving is often t,e most difficultG but statistical in&ut from
sim&le tools suc, as Pareto c,artsG cause and effect diagrams.
Process im&rovement is largel) associated 4it, t,e &rocess design .
t,e &eo&le 4,o are involved 4it, it.
ii. /ecalculate Control Aimits
necessar).
If an) subgrou&s 4ere dro&&ed from t,e / c,art because of identified
s&ecial causesG t,e) s,ould also be e1cluded from t,e H c,art and
viceJversa.
iii. $nal)'e t,e data &lots on average c,art
<,en t,e ranges are in statistical controlG t,e &rocess s&read E t,e
4it,in sub grou& variation is considered to be stable. T,e averages
can be anal)'ed to see if t,e &rocess location is c,anging over time.
If t,e averages are in statistical controlG t,e) reflect onl) t,e amount
of variation seen in t,e ranges E t,e common causes of variation of
t,e s)stem.
If t,e averages are not in controlG some s&ecial causes of variation
are &robabl) ma3ing t,e &rocess location unstable.
a. Points be)ond control
T,e &resence of one or more &oints be)ond eit,er control limit is
&rimar) evidence of t,e &resence of s&ecial causes at t,at &oint. It is
t,e signal for immediate anal)sis of t,e o&eration. 0ar3 suc, a data
&oints on t,e c,art.
$ &oint be)ond eit,er control limit is generall) a sign t,at
Control limit or &lot &oint are in error or
T,e &rocess ,as s,ifted eit,er at one &oint in time.
0easurement s)stem ,as c,anged.
b. Patterns or trends 4it,in control
T,e &resence of unusual &atterns can be evidence of nonJcontrol or
c,ange in ca&abilit) during t,e &eriod of t,e &attern or trend.
c. /uns
Similar met,od as described for / c,art ,as to be follo4ed.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 2) of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
d. Cbvious Non random &attern
Similar met,od as described for / c,art ,as to be follo4ed.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 22 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
II0) CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR VARIABLES B
H
;AVERAGE< & s ;STAN/AR/
/EVIATION<
Ai3e t,e H . / c,artsG H . s c,arts are develo&ed from variable &rocess out&ut
dataG and are al4a)s used as a &air. /ange 8/9 c,arts are &articularl) effective due
to ease of calculations involvedG ,o4everG /Jc,arts are relativel) efficient onl) for
smaller subgrou& si'es 8es&eciall) belo4 *9. T,e Sam&le Standard Deviation 8s9 is
some4,at more efficient indicator of Process #ariabilit)G ,o4everG it is more com&le1
to calculate and is less sensitive in detecting S&ecial Causes of #ariation t,at cause
a single value in a subgrou& t,at is unusual. T)&icall) sJc,arts are used instead of
/Jc,arts 4,enG
Aarger sam&le si'es are re7uired and a&&ro&riate for more efficient measure
of #ariation.
Com&utation of Sam&le Standard Deviation 5s6 is facilitated 4it,
calculatorsQcom&uters.
T,e ste&s involved are 8similar to t,ose mentioned in
H
. R9 C,arts as follo4sG
(0 Gther /t
&articular c,aracteristic of t,e &rocess out&ut9 are re&orted in subgrou&s of
constant si'eG usuall) including from * to 12 consecutive &iecesG 4it, subgrou&s
ta3en &eriodicall)G 8e.g.G once ever) 1! minutesG t4ice &er s,iftG etc.9
$. Si'eG :re7uenc) and Number of Subgrou&s
i. Subgrou& Si'e L :or effectiveness and efficienc) of t,e control c,artsG
determination of Prational subgrou&sP is t,e 3e) ste&.
C&&ortunities for variation among t,e units 4it,in a subgrou& are
minimal. <it, &ieceJtoJ&iece variabilit) 4it,in a subgrou&G an) unusual
variation bet4een subgrou&s 4ould reflect c,anges in t,e &rocess t,at
s,ould be investigated for a&&ro&riate action.
:or an initial stud) of a &rocess * to 12 consecutivel) &roduced &ieces
from a single &rocess streamG under ver) similar &roduction conditions
over a ver) s,ort time interval 4it, no ot,er s)stematic relations,i& to
eac, ot,er 8onl) a single toolG ,eadG die cavit)G etc.9 s,ould be c,osen.
T,us variation 4it,in eac, subgrou& 4ould &rimaril) reflect common
causes. <,en t,ese conditions are not metG t,e resulting control c,art
ma) not effectivel) discriminate s&ecial causes of variationG or ma)
ii. Subgrou& :re7uenc)L :or detecting c,anges in t,e &rocess over
timeG subgrou&s s,ould be collected often enoug,G and at a&&ro&riate
timesG t,at t,e) can reflect t,e &otential o&&ortunities for c,ange 4it,
res&ect to s,ift &atternsG relief o&eratorsG 4armJu& trendG material lotsG
etc.9
During an initial &rocess stud)G t,e subgrou&s are often ta3en
consecutivel) or at s,ort intervalsG to detect 4,et,er t,e &rocess can
s,ift or s,o4 ot,er instabilit) over brief time &eriods. $s t,e &rocess
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 23 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
demonstrates stabilit) 8or as &rocess im&rovements are made9G t,e timeJ
&eriod bet4een subgrou&s can be increased.
iii. Number of Subgrou&sL >noug, subgrou&s s,ould be gat,ered to
assure t,at t,e major sources of variation ,ave ,ad an o&&ortunit) to
a&&ear. Statisticall)G 2! or more subgrou&s containing about 222 or more
individual readings give a good test for stabilit) andG if stableG good
estimates of t,e &rocess location and variation.
In some casesG e1isting data ma) be available 4,ic, could accelerate
t,is first &,ase of t,e stud). =o4everG t,e) s,ould be used onl) if t,e)
are recent and if t,e basis for establis,ing subgrou&s is clearl)
understood.
iv. If t,e ra4 data is voluminousG record data on a se&arate data s,eetG
4it, onl) eac, subgrou&6s
H
and s a&&earing on t,e data s,eet.
;. Set & Control C,arts and /ecord /a4 Data L
:ollo4 t,e follo4ingG
i. In case of voluminous dataG collect data 8readings9 using t,e 5Data
Collection S,eet6
ii. Com&lete t,e =eader Information of t,e Data Collection S,eet
iii. /ecord data on t,e Data Collection S,eet
iv. Com&lete t,e =eader Information of t,e Control C,art.
v. Include average 8
H
9G sam&le standard deviation 8s9 and dateQtime
8or ot,er identification of t,e subgrou&9G from t,e data s,eetG in t,e
bottom bloc3.
vi. Dra4 t,e
H
c,art above t,e s c,art
vii. #alues of
H
and s 4ill be t,e vertical scales
viii. T,e se7uence of subgrou&s t,roug, time 4ill be t,e ,ori'ontal scale
i1. #erticall) align t,e corres&onding data values and t,e &lot &oints for
H
. s
C. Calculate t,e $verage 8
H
9 and Sam&le Standard Deviation 8s9 of eac,
Subgrou&
T,e c,aracteristics to be &lotted are t,e sam&le average 8
H
9 and t,e
sam&le standard deviation 8s9 for eac, subgrou&I t,ese reflect t,e overall
&rocess average and its variabilit)G res&ectivel).
n
H 000 0000000000 H H
H
n - (
+ +
nd
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 2* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
( )
2
( B n
H H
s
i

or
( ) ( B n
H n H
s
-
i

2
or
( ) ( B n
H n 00000000H 0000000000 H H H
s
-
-
n
-
)
-
-
-
(
+ + + +
<,ere 5K1 G 5K26G ". 5Kn6 are t,e individual values 4it,in t,e subgrou& and 5n6 is
t,e subgrou& sam&le si'e.
D. Select Scales for t,e Control C,arts
:or a better fitG t,e general guidelines for determining scales are as underG
i. :or t,e
H
c,art do t,e follo4ing L
Calculate 8
H
,ig,est E
H
lo4est9 S 5$6
Calculate 8
H
lo4est E $9 S 5;6
Calculate 8
H
,ig,est T $9 S 5C6
Calculate 8C E ;9 S 5D6
Divide 5D6 b) 5n6 8D Q n9 S 5>6
T,e lo4est value on t,e c,art 4ill be 5;6
T,e follo4ing increment values 4ill be 8; T >9G 8; T 2>9G "..
and so on
ii. :or t,e s c,art L
Consider s largest
Double it 82 1 s largest9 S 5K6
Divide 5K6 b) 5n6 8K Q n9 S 5H6
T,e lo4est value on t,e c,art 4ill be 2 8'ero9
T,e follo4ing increment values 4ill be 8H9G 82H9G ".. and so on
>. Plot t,e res&ective $verages 8
H
9 and Sam&le Standard Deviations 8s9 on
t,e Control C,arts
Plot and connect t,e &oints for averages and sam&le standard deviations on
t,eir res&ective c,arts. Scan t,e &lot &oints to see if t,e) loo3 reasonable and
no &oint is substantiall) ,ig,er or lo4er t,an t,e ot,ers to confirm t,at t,e
calculations and &lots are correct.
-0 Cl4ulte Control Li#its
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 2= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Control limits for t,e sam&le standard deviation 8s9 c,art are develo&ed firstG t,en
t,ose for t,e c,art for averages 8
H
9. T,e ste&s involved includeG
$. Calculate t,e $verage Sam&le Standard Deviation 8
s
9 and t,e Process
$verage 8
H
9 as belo4 L
( )
9
s 000 s s s
s
9 ) - (
+ + + +
( )
9
H 000 H H H
H
9 ) - ( + + + +
4,ereG 536 is t,e number of subgrou&sG

(
s
G
-
s
G
)
s
G
9
s
.
( H
G
- H
G
) H
G
9 H
are t,e corres&onding sam&le standard deviations . averages of t,e 1stG
2ndG 3rdG 3
t,
subgrou&sG res&ectivel).
;. Calculate t,e Control AimitsL Control limits are calculated to s,o4 t,e e1tent
b) 4,ic, t,e subgrou& averages and sam&le standard deviations 4ould var)
if onl) common causes of variation 4ere &resent. T,e Control Aimits are
calculated using t,e la4s of &robabilit) t,at N,ig,l) im&robable causes of
variations are &resumed to be not due to random causesO. <,en t,e
variation e1ceeds t,e statistical control limitsG it is a signal t,at a s&ecial
cause ,as entered t,e &rocess. T,e) are based on t,e subgrou& sam&le
si'e and t,e amount of 4it,inJsubgrou& variabilit) reflected in t,e sam&le
standard deviations.
Calculate t,e control limits as belo4 L
s B UCL ;s< Li#it Control U$$er
2 s

s B LCL ;s< Li#it Control Lo?er
) s

( ) s A H UCL < H ; Li#it Control U$$er
)
H
+
( ) s A B H LCL < H ; Li#it Control Lo?er
)
H

4,ereG ;4G ;3 and $3 are constants var)ing b) sam&le si'e 8$&&endi1 E
KHB9
i. Dra4 Aines for t,e $verages and t,e Control Aimits on t,e c,arts at
res&ective &laces L
Dra4 t,e
s
and
H
as solid lines
Dra4
s
UCL
G
s
LCL
G
UCL
H
G
H
LCL
as dotted lines
)0 Inter$ret for Pro4ess Control
Control c,art anal)sis &rovides information about t,e &ieceJtoJ&iece variabilit)
and gives evidence about
o&erating level 84,et,er constant or not9 of t,e &rocess variabilit) 8s9
and &rocess average 8
H
9G i.e.G state of statistical control of one or
bot,
ta3e a&&ro&riate actionG based on t,e anal)sis findings
In case of Statisticall) Controlled &rocesses t,ere 4ould be no obvious trends
or &atterns in t,e dataG i.e.G t,e individual subgrou& sam&le standard
deviations 8s9 and averages 8
H
9 4ould var) b) c,ance aloneG and 4ould
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 2> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
seldom go be)ond t,e control limits 8less t,an 1M of t,e time for sam&le
standard deviationsG and onl) 2.2(M of t,e time for averagesG for t,e limits
calculated above9.
T,e
H
and s c,art are anal)sed se&aratel)G t,e s c,art is anal)sed first
follo4ed b) t,e
H
c,artG but com&arison of &atterns bet4een t,e t4o c,arts
ma) sometimes give added insig,t into s&ecial causes affecting t,e &rocess.
T,e ste&s involved in Control C,art $nal)sis are as belo4 L
$. $nal)se t,e data &lots on t,e C,art
T,e data &oints are com&ared 4it, t,e res&ective control limitsG for &oints out
of control or for unusual &atterns or trends. :or more details see Inter&retation
of Control C,arts.
Points be)ond t,e Control AimitsL It is &rimar) evidence of nonJcontrol at t,at
&ointG and 4it, variation onl) due to common causes suc, &oints 4ould be
ver) rare. $n) &oints be)ond a control limit is t,e signal for immediate
anal)sis of t,e o&eration for t,e s&ecial causeG and mar3 suc, &oints for
furt,er investigation and corrective action. /efer to t,e follo4ing table for
&ossible causes 8for more details refer to $&&endi1 KHB9L
Condition H s
Points
:o%e
UCL
Mis4l4ultion
In4orre4t Plottin+
Chn+e in Mesure#ent S"ste# K different
ins$e4tor8 different +u+e8 in4orre4t redin+8 et40
Points
:elo?
LCL
Mis4l4ultion
In4orre4t Plottin+
Chn+e in Mesure#ent S"ste# K different
ins$e4tor8 different +u+e8 in4orre4t redin+8 et40
Note : 'lots belo* the +(+ in s chart, is a favourable sign.
-tudy the change and apply *idely
i. $larming &atterns or trends 4it,in t,e Control Aimits E /andom . NonJ
randomL T,e &resence of unusual &atterns or trendsG even 4,en all
sam&le standard deviations and averages are 4it,in t,e control limitsG
can be evidence of nonJcontrol or c,ange in &rocess s&read . location.
Suc, runs give t,e first 4arning of unfavorable conditions t,at s,ould be
corrected even before &oints are seen be)ond t,e control limits. $lsoG
certain &atterns or trends could be favorable and s,ould be studied for
&ossible &ermanent im&rovement of t,e &rocess.
a. :or eac, indication of a s&ecial causeG conduct an anal)sis of
t,e o&eration of t,e &rocess to determine t,e causeI correct t,at
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 2, of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
cause of concern and minimising t,e &roduction of nonconforming
ProblemJsolving is often t,e most difficultG but Statistical in&ut from
sim&le tools suc, as Pareto c,artsG Cause and >ffect diagrams 8see
$&&endi1 1)' for more details9. Process im&rovement is largel)
associated 4it, t,e &rocess design . t,e &eo&le 4,o are involved
4it, it.
b. /ecalculate Control Aimits
necessar).
If an) subgrou&s 4ere dro&&ed from t,e s c,art because of identified
s&ecial causesG t,e) s,ould also be e1cluded from t,e
K
c,art and
viceJversa. T,e revised s .
H
s,ould be used to recalculate t,e
trial control limits for averages as belo4G
re%ised 2 s;re%ised< re%ised
re%ised
) s;re%ised< re%ised
( )
re%ised )
re%ised
;re%ised< H
re%ised
s A H UCL < H ; Li#it Control U$$er +
( )
re%ised )
re%ised
H
re%ised
s A B H LCL < H ; Li#it Control Lo?er
) (revised
4,ereG ;4G ;3 and $3 are constants var)ing b) sam&le si'e 8$&&endi1
E KHB9
"ote! E%en *ith processes that are in statistical control& as more data
are re%ie*ed& the constant chances of getting a false signal of a
special cause on any indi%idual subgroup translate to increasing
li+elihood of finding false signals some*here on the chart(s). ,hile it
is *ise to in%estigate all signaled e%ents as a possible e%idence of
special causes& it should be recogni/ed that they may ha%e been
caused by the system and that there may be no underlying local
process problem. If no clear e%idence of a process problem is found&
any -correcti%e- action *ill probably ser%e to increase& rather than
decrease& the total %ariability in the process output.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 3' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
c. >1tend Control Aimits for Cngoing ControlL Cnce t,e initial 8or
,istorical9 data are consistentl) contained 4it,in t,e trial control
limitsG e1tend t,e limits for ongoing control of t,e &rocess 8t,e
o&erator and local su&ervision res&onding to signs of outJofJcontrol
conditions on eit,er t,e
H
or s c,art 4it, &rom&t action9.
"ote! . change in the subgroup sample si/e *ould affect the
epected a%erage sample standard de%iation and the control limits
for both sample standard de%iation and a%erages. Such a situation
could occur if it *as decided to ta+e smaller samples more
fre0uently& so as to detect large process shifts more 0uic+ly *ithout
increasing the total number of pieces sampled per day.
To adjust central lines and control limits for a ne4 subgrou& sam&le
si'eG t,e follo4ing ste&s s,ould be ta3enL
>stimate t,e &rocess standard deviation 8t,e estimate is
s,o4n as
8&ronounced as sigma ,at9. sing t,e e1isting

sam&le si'e calculate L
2
4
s

4,ere s is t,e average of t,e subJgrou& sam&le standard

deviations 8for &eriods 4it, t,e standard deviations under
control9 and
2
4 is a constant var)ing b) sam&le si'eG from 2 to
12. 8$&&endi1 E KHB9
sing t,e tabled factors for c4G ;4G ;3G and $3 based on t,eG
ne4 sam&le si'eG calculate t,e ne4 standard deviation and
control limitsG
ne?
2 ;on+oin+< s on+oin+
ne?
) s;on+oin+< on+oin+
( ) s A H UCL < H ; Li#it Control U$$er ne?
) re%ised
;on+oin+< H
on+oin+
+
( ) s A H LCL < H ; Li#it Control Lo?er ne?
) re%ised
;on+oin+< H
on+oin+

4,ereG
2
ne? 4 s
Plot t,ese ne4 control limits on t,e c,art as t,e basis for ongoing
&rocess control.
Aimits for ongoing control s,ould onl) be e1tended to cover about 22J
2! future subgrou&s. $s long as t,e &rocess remains in control at
constant levels for bot, averages and standard deviationsG t,e
ongoing limits can be e1tended for additional &eriods. IfG ,o4everG
t,ere is evidence t,at t,e &rocess average or standard deviation
,ave c,anged 8in eit,er direction9G control limits s,ould be
recalculated based on current &erformance.
B0 Inter&ret for Process Ca&abilit)L :or inter&retation t,e guidelines mentioned in
H
. R C,art s,ould be referred to and for more details see section on
Process Ca&abilit) . Im&rovement.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 3( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
II02 CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR VARIABLES B H ;IN/IVI/UAL< & MR ;MOVING
RANGE<
T,ere are fe4 situations in 4,ic, it is not convenient to get multi&le items in a
sam&le. >1am&les could be )ield of batc, in a c,emical &rocess or )ield of a
foundr) or a test too e1&ensive to be re&licated. $lso t,ere are situations 4it,
observations can be ta3en onl) after destructive met,odsQtests.
In suc, situations multi&le sam&les is uneconomical. In suc, cases 4e cannot get a
range and ,ence K . 0/ c,art is used.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 3- of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
In all suc, cases 4,ere grou& si'e is oneG 0/ 80oving /ange E difference bet4een
t,e value and t,e one immediatel) &receding it9 is calculated instead of range used
for sam&les 4it, grou& si'e of t4o or more.
T,e follo4ing are t,e ste&s for ma3ing t,e c,artG
Ste$ (
Gther dt
T,e first ste& is to note t,e observations of all t,e sam&les. -enerall) minimum
sam&le si'e is 2!. >ac, grou& 4ill ,ave onl) one observation. Cne s,ould be
careful in giving t,e serial numbersG because t,e moving range needs to be
calculated from consecutive observations.
Ste$ -
T,e first ste& is to calculate t,e 0oving /ange 8MR9. It must be noted t,at 4e get
values of MR one number less t,an t,e total observationsG as t,ere is no MR
corres&onding to t,e first value.
If H( 8 H- 8 H) 8 JJ Hn re the o:ser%tions8 then the Mo%in+ Rn+e ;MR< is
4l4ulted s follo?s8
< Redin+ B Redin+ ; Rn+e Mo%in+
< ( B n ; n n

T,usG
Mo%in+ Rn+e( ;MR(< I Nil8 as t,ere is no 2
t,
reading
Mo%in+ Rn+e- ;MR-< I H- B H(
Mo%in+ Rn+e) ;MR)< I H) B H-
0
0
0
Mo%in+ Rn+en ;MRn< I Hn B HnB(
It ma) be noted t,at t,e number of ranges s,all be ;nB(<G i.e.G one less than the
total number of samples.
Ste$ )
T,e ne1t ste& is to calculate t,e values of
H
and MR as follo4sG
1
]
1
+ + + +
n
H 000000000 H H H
H
n ) - (
4,ere H( 8 H- 8 H) 8 JJ Hn are t,e observations and n is t,e total number of
observations.
1
]
1
+ + +
(< B ;n
MR 00000000 MR MR MR
MR
n ) - (
Ste$ 2
Calculate Control Aimits
Calculate t,e control limits of H c,art.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 3) of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
1
]
1
1
]
1
<
(0()
MR
; F ) B H LCL ; H Li#it 4ontrol Lo?er
<
(0()
MR
; F ) H UCL ; H Li#it 4ontrol U$$er
H line Center
F
F
)
)
Calculate t,e control limits of MR c,art.
' F MR LCL ; MR for Li#it 4ontrol Lo?er
)0-= F MR UCL ; MR for Li#it 4ontrol U$$er
MR line Center
MR
MR
)
)
Ste$ 3
Plot bot, t,e c,artsL It s,ould be noted t,at t,e &rocedure to set u& an H . MR c,art
is almost same as t,at for H . R c,artG t,e onl) difference is t,at 4e use H and MR
instead of H and R.
Ste$ *
Inter&ret t,e c,artL T,e basic rules of inter&retation remain same as t,ose
mentioned in H . R c,art.

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 32 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
II03 CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR VARIABLES K ME/IAN C5ARTS H
~
0edian c,arts are alternatives to K and / c,arts for control of &rocesses 4it,
measured dataI t,e) )ield similar conclusions but ,ave several s&ecific advantagesL
0edian c,arts are eas) to useG and do not re7uire da)JtoJda) calculations. T,is
can increase s,o&Jfloor acce&tance of t,e control c,art a&&roac,.
Since individual values 8as 4ell as medians9 are &lottedG t,e median c,art s,o4s
t,e s&read of &rocess out&ut and gives an ongoing &icture of t,e &rocess variation.
Since a single c,art s,o4s bot, t,e median and s&readG it can be used to
com&are t,e out&ut of several &rocessesG or of t,e same &rocess at successive
stages.
Ste$ ( . Gther /t
recording and &lotting t,e data on a c,art.
SiDe8 1reGuen4" nd Nu#:er of Su:+rou$s
Su:+rou$ SiDeL :or effectiveness and efficienc) of t,e control c,artsG determination
of Prational subgrou&sP is t,e 3e) ste&.
C&&ortunities for variation among t,e units 4it,in a subgrou& are minimal. <it,
&ieceJtoJ&iece variabilit) 4it,in a subgrou&G an) unusual variation bet4een
subgrou&s 4ould reflect c,anges in t,e &rocess t,at s,ould be investigated for
a&&ro&riate action.
T)&icall)G median c,arts are used 4it, subgrou& sam&le si'e of 12 or lessI odd
sam&le si'es are most convenient.
:or an initial stud) of a &rocess 4 to ! consecutivel) &roduced &ieces from a single
&rocess streamG under ver) similar &roduction conditions over a ver) s,ort time
interval 4it, no ot,er s)stematic relations,i& to eac, ot,er 8onl) a single toolG ,eadG
die cavit)G etc.9 s,ould be c,osen. T,us variation 4it,in eac, subgrou& 4ould
&rimaril) reflect common causes. <,en t,ese conditions are not metG t,e resulting
control c,art ma) not effectivel) discriminate s&ecial causes of variationG or ma)
Subgrou& :re7uenc)L :or detecting c,anges in t,e &rocess over timeG subgrou&s
s,ould be collected often enoug,G and at a&&ro&riate timesG t,at t,e) can reflect t,e
&otential o&&ortunities for c,ange 4it, res&ect to s,ift &atternsG relief o&eratorsG
4armJu& trendG material lotsG etc.9
During an initial &rocess stud)G t,e subgrou&s are often ta3en consecutivel) or at
s,ort intervalsG to detect 4,et,er t,e &rocess can s,ift or s,o4 ot,er instabilit) over
brief time &eriods. $s t,e &rocess demonstrates stabilit) 8or as &rocess
im&rovements are made9G t,e timeJ&eriod bet4een subgrou&s can be increased.
Number of Subgrou&sL >noug, subgrou&s s,ould be gat,ered to assure t,at t,e
major sources of variation ,ave ,ad an o&&ortunit) to a&&ear. Statisticall)G 2! or
more subgrou&s containing about 122 or more individual readings give a good test
for stabilit) andG if stableG good estimates of t,e &rocess location and s&read.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 33 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
In some casesG e1isting data ma) be available 4,ic, could accelerate t,is first
&,ase of t,e stud). =o4everG t,e) s,ould be used onl) if t,e) are recent and if t,e
basis for establis,ing subgrou&s is clearl) understood.
Ste$ -. Plot the dt
W Cnl) single line gra&, is &lottedG set t,e scale to include t,e larger of a9 t,e
&roduct s&ecification tolerance &lus an allo4ance for out of s&ecification readings or
b9 1J1Q2 to 2 times t,e difference bet4een t,e ,ig,est and lo4est individual
measurements. T,e gauge being used s,ould divide t,e &roduct tolerance into
atleast 22 increments and t,e gra&, scale s,ould agree 4it, t,e gauge.
W Plot individual measurements of eac, sub grou& in a vertical line. Circle t,e
median of eac, subgrou& 8t,e middle valueG if sam&le si'e is even numberG t,e
median 4ill be mid4a) bet4een t,e inner &oints9 To aid in inter&reting trendsG
connect t,e subgrou& medians b) a line.
W >nter eac, sub grou& 5s median and range in t,e data table.
Ste$ )0 Cl4ulte Control Li#its
:ind t,e average of t,e subgrou& medians and dra4 t,is as t,e central line
on t,e c,artI record t,is as
K
.
:ind t,e average of t,e rangesI record t,is as / .
Calculate t,e u&&er and lo4er control limits for ranges and medians
;UCLR8 LCLR8 UCL
K
~
8 LCL
K
~
<.
UCLR I /2R
LCLR I /)R
UCL
H
~
I
R A H - +
LCL
H
~
I
R A H -
<,ere D4G D3G and
2 $
are constants var)ing b) sam&le si'eG 4it, values for
sam&le si'es 2 to 12 s,o4n in t,e follo4ing tableL
n - ) 2 3 * = > , ('
/2 )0-= -03= -0-> -0(( -0'' (0,- (0>* (0>- (0=>
/) B B B B B '0'> '0(2 '0(> '0--
- A
(0>> (0(, '0>' '0*, '033 '03( '02) '02( '0)*
T,ere is no lo4er control limit for ranges for sam&le si'es belo4 (.
Plot t,e control limits for medians on t,e c,art.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 3* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Ste$ 20 Inter$ret for Pro4ess Control
Com&are t,e CA/ and ACA/ 4it, eac, calculated range. $lternativel)G mar3
t,e edge of an inde1 card 4it, t,e &oints corres&onding to t,e control limits
for rangesG and com&are t,ese mar3s 4it, t,e distance bet4een t,e ,ig,est
and lo4est value in eac, subgrou&. Dra4 a narro4 vertical bo1 to enclose
an) subgrou& 4it, e1cessive range.
0ar3 an) subgrou& median t,at is be)ond t,e median control limitsG and
note t,e s&read of medians 4it,in t,e control limits 82Q3 of &oints 4it,in
middle t,ird of limits9 or t,e e1istence of &atterns or trends.
Ta3e a&&ro&riate &rocess action for s&ecial causes affecting t,e ranges or
medians.
Ste$ 30 Inter$ret for Pro4ess C$:ilit"
>stimate t,e &rocess standard deviationsL
2
d
/

4,ere / is t,e average of t,e sam&le ranges 8for &eriods 4it, t,e range
under control9 and d2 is a constant var)ing b) sam&le si'eG 4it, values for
sam&le si'es from 2 to 12 s,o4n in t,e follo4ing tableL
n - ) 2 3 * = > , ('
d- (0() (0*, -0'* -0)) -03) -0=' -0>3 -0,= )0'>
If t,e &rocess ,as a normal distributionG t,is estimate of can be used
directl) in assessing &rocess ca&abilit)G as long as t,e medians and ranges
are in statistical control.
NoteL :or ongoing &rocess control 4,ere control limits are based on &rior dataG t,e
c,arting &rocess can be sim&lified as follo4sL
$ single c,art is usedG 4it, scales set at t,e same increments as t,e gage
being used 8at least 22 increments bet4een &roduct s&ecifications9G and 4it,
t,e central line and control limits for medians alread) entered.
$ card 8&ossibl) &lastic9 is &rovidedG mar3ed 4it, t,e control limits for
ranges.
T,e o&erator mar3s t,e c,art 4it, eac, individual readingG but t,e numerical
value do not need to be recorded.
:or eac, subgrou&G t,e o&erator com&ares t,e range card to t,e subgrou&Fs
,ig,est and lo4est mar3sI an) subgrou& ,aving a range be)ond t,e limits
on t,e card is enclosed in a narro4 vertical bo1.
T,e o&erator counts to t,e median of eac, subgrou& and circles itI an)
median be)ond eit,er control limit is mar3ed.
:or ranges or medians be)ond control limitsG t,e o&erator ta3es a&&ro&riate
actions to adjust or correct t,e &rocessG or to notif) su&ervisor) or su&&ort
&eo&le.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 3= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
/isd%nt+es of Medin 4hrts
Periodicall) t,e median is more a variable estimate of t,e &rocess average t,an t,e
mean. <ilder control limits are t,erefore necessar) 4,ic, ma) give rise to under
control of t,e &rocess.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 3> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
SECTION II * . CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR VARIABLES K IN/IVI/UALS ;H<
In some casesG it is necessar) for &rocess control to be based on individual
readingsG rat,er t,an subgrou&s. T,is 4ould t)&icall) occur 4,en t,e measurements
are e1&ensive 8e.g.G a destructive test9G or 4,en t,e out&ut at an) &oint in time is
relativel) ,omogenous 8e.g.G t,e &= of a c,emical solution9. In t,ese casesG control
c,arts for individuals can be constructed as described belo4. :our cautions s,ould
be notedG ,o4everL
C,arts for individuals are not as sensitive to &rocess c,anges as H and /
c,arts.
Care must be ta3en in inter&retation of c,arts for individuals if t,e &rocess
distribution is not s)mmetrical.
C,arts for individuals do not isolate t,e &ieceJtoJ&iece re&eatabilit) of t,e
&rocess. In man) a&&licationsG t,ereforeG it ma) be better to use a conventional X
and / c,art 4it, small subgrou& sam&le si'es 82 to 49 even if t,is re7uires a longer
&eriod bet4een subgrou&s.
Since t,ere is onl) one individual item &er subgrou&G values of X and
can
,ave substantial variabilit) 8even if t,e &rocess is stable9 until t,e number of
subgrou&s is 122 or more.
T,e details of instructions for c,arts for individuals are some4,at similar to t,ose for
H and / c,artsI e1ce&tions are noted belo4 L
Ste$ (. Gther /t
Individual readings 8K9 are recorded from left to rig,t on t,e data c,art.
Calculate t,e moving range 8 /9 bet4een individuals. It is generall) best to
record t,e difference bet4een eac, successive &air of readings 8e.g.G
difference bet4een t,e first and second readingG t,e second and t,irdG etc.9.
T,ere 4ill be one less suc, range t,an t,ere are individual readings 82!
readings give 24 ranges9. In rare casesG t,e range can be based on a larger
moving grou& +e.g.G t,ree or fours9G or on a fi1ed subgrou& 8e.g.G all t,e
readings ta3en on a single s,ift9. Note t,at even t,oug, t,e measurements
are sam&led individuall)G it is t,e number of readings grou&ed to form t,e
moving range 8e.g.G 2G 3 or 49 4,ic, determines t,e nominal sam&le si'e n.
Select scales for t,e c,art for individuals 8K9 e7ual to t,e larger of
t,e &roduct s&ecification tolerance &lus an allo4ance for outJofJs&ecification
readingsG or
1J1Q2 to 2 times t,e difference bet4een t,e ,ig,est and lo4est
individual readings. T,e scale s&acing for t,e c,art for ranges 8/ 9
s,ould be t,e same as t,at of t,e K c,art.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e 3, of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Ste$ -0 Cl4ulte Control Li#its
Calculate and &lot t,e &rocess average 8 t,e sum of individual readingsG divided b)
t,e number of readingsI b) conventionG labeled X 9G and calculate t,e average
range 8 R 9I note t,at t,ere is one less range value 8/ 9 t,an t,e number of individual
readings 8K9.
Calculate t,e control limitsL
R E H LCL
R E H UCL
R F / LCL
R F / UCL
- F
- F
) R
2 R

+
<,ere R is t,e average moving rangeG H is t,e &rocess averageG and D4G D3 and
>2 are constants t,at var) according to t,e sam&le si'e used in grou&ing t,e moving
rangesG as s,o4n in t,e follo4ing &artial tableL
n 2 3 4 ! % ( * + 12
D4 3.2( 2.!( 2.2* 2.11 2.22 1.+2 1.*% 1.*2 1.(*
D3 W W W W W 2.2* 2.14 2.1* .22
>2 2.%% 1.(( 1.4% 1.2+ 1.1* 1.11 1.2! 1.21 2.+*
W t,ere is no lo4er control limit for ranges for sam&le si'es belo4 (.
Ste$ )0 Inter$ret for Pro4ess Control
/evie4 t,e range c,art for &oints be)ond t,e control limits as signs of t,e e1istence
of s&ecial causes. Note t,at successive ranges are correlatedG since t,e) ,ave a
&oint in commonI care must be ta3en 4,en inter&reting trends because of t,is.
T,e c,art for individuals can be anal)'ed for &oints be)ond t,e control
limitsG s&read of &oints 4it,in t,e control limitsG and trends or &atterns.
Note ,ereG t,oug,G t,at if t,e &rocess distribution is not s)mmetricalG t,e
rules s,o4n &reviousl) for H c,arts ma) give signals of s&ecial causes
4,en nonJe1ists.
$s 4it, H and / c,artsG t,e &rocess standard deviation can be estimated
b)L
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e *' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
2
d
R

4,ere R is t,e average of t,e moving ranges and d2 is a constant
var)ing b) sam&le si'eG as s,o4n in t,e &artial table belo4L
5n 2 3 4 ! % ( * + 12
5d2 1.13 1.%+ 2.2% 2.33 2.!3 2.(2 2.*! 2.+( 3.2*
If t,e &rocess ,as a normal distributionG t,is estimate of can be used
directl) in assessing &rocess ca&abilit)G as long as t,e &rocess is in
statistical control.
SECTION II * . CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR ATTRIBUTES
(0 Pro4ess Control. $ Chrts K Pro$ortion NonB4onfor#in+
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e *( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
T,e & c,arts are similar to n& c,arts. $s t,e sam&le si'e in not constantG t,e data on
number of defects ,ave to be converted to fraction defective or &ercent defective.
T,e &Jc,art measures t,e &ro&ortion of nonJconforming 8discre&ant or soJcalled
defective9 items in a grou& of items being ins&ected. T,is could refer to a sam&le of
(! &iecesG ta3en t4ice a da)G 122M of &roduction grou&ed on an ,ourl) or dail)
basisG etc. T,is ma) be based on evaluating one c,aracteristic 84as a &articular &art
installedR9 or man) c,aracteristics 84as an)t,ing found 4rong at t,e electrical
s)stem c,ec3 stationR9. It is im&ortant t,atL
>ac, com&onent or ve,icle being c,ec3ed is recorded as eit,er conforming or
nonJconforming 8even if an item ,as several s&ecific nonJconformitiesG it is onl)
tallied once as a nonJconforming item9.
T,e results of t,ese ins&ections are grou&ed on a meaningful basisG and t,e nonJ
conforming items are e1&ressed as a decimal fraction of t,e subgrou& si'e.
Ste$ (0 Gther /t
&articular c,aracteristic of t,e &rocess out&ut9 are re&orted in subgrou&s of
constant si'eG 4it, subgrou&s ta3en &eriodicall)G 8e.g.G once ever) 1!
minutesG t4ice &er s,iftG etc.9
$. SubJgrou& Si'eG :re7uenc) and Number of Subgrou&s
i. Subgrou& Si'e E C,arts for attributes generall) re7uire 7uite large
subgrou& si'es 8e.g.G !2 to 222 or more9 to be able to detect moderate
s,ifts in &erformance. :or t,e c,art to s,o4 &attern t,at can facilitate
anal)sisG t,e subgrou& si'e s,ould be large enoug, to ,ave several
nonJconforming items &er subgrou& 8e.g.G n
$
< !9.
NoteL Aarge subgrou& si'es can be a disadvantage if eac, subgrou&
re&resents a long &eriod of &rocess o&eration. It is most convenient if
subgrou& si'es are constant or if t,e) var) b) no more t,an t 2!MG but
t,is need not be t,e rule.
ii. Subgrou& :re7uenc) E T,e subJgrou&ing fre7uenc) s,ould ma3e
sense in terms of &roduction &eriodsG to aid in anal)sis and correction
of &roblems found. S,ort time intervals allo4 faster feedbac3G but ma)
conflict 4it, re7uirements for larger subgrou& si'es.
iii. Number of Subgrou&s E T,e data collection &eriod s,ould be long
enoug, to ca&ture all t,e li3el) sources of variation affecting t,e
&rocess. It s,ould also include 2! or more subgrou&s to give a good
test for stabilit) andG if stableG a reliable estimate of &rocess
&erformance.
;. Calculate >ac, Subgrou&Fs Pro&ortion NonJconforming 8&9
i. Collect t,e follo4ing for eac, subgrou& L
T,e number of items ins&ected E n
T,e number of nonJconforming items found J n&
ii. :rom bot, t,e aboveG calculate t,e &ro&ortion nonJconforming asG
n
n$
$
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e *- of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
iii. T,ese data s,ould be recorded on a data form as t,e basis of initial
anal)sis. In case if t,e most recent . aut,entic ,istorical data are
availableG it ma) be used to accelerate t,is initial &,ase of t,e stud).
C. Set & Control C,arts and /ecord /a4 Data
i. Com&lete t,e =eader Information of t,e Control C,art.
ii. Include corres&onding data vi'. Sam&le or number of items ins&ected
8n9G Number of nonJconforming items found 8n&9G Pro&ortion nonJ
conforming 8&9 and DateQTime 8or ot,er identification of t,e subgrou&9
in t,e bottom bloc3.
iii. Subgrou& identification t,roug, time 8,ourG da)G etc.9 4ill be t,e
,ori'ontal scale
iv. #erticall) align t,e corres&onding &ro&ortion 8or &ercent9 nonJ
conforming values 8&9
v. >1tend t,e vertical scale from 'ero 82.229 to about 1.! to 2 times t,e
,ig,est &ro&ortion nonJconforming noted in t,e initial data readings.
vi. Plot and connect t,e values of & for eac, subgrou&. It is usuall)
,el&ful to connect t,e &oints 4it, lines to ,el& visuali'e &atterns and
trends. Scan t,e &lot &oints to see if t,e) loo3 reasonable and no &oint
is substantiall) ,ig,er or lo4er t,an t,e ot,ers to confirm t,at t,e
calculations and &lots are correct
i. Calculate t,e Process $verage Pro&ortion NonJconforming 8
$
9
:or t,e stud) &eriod of 3 subgrou&sG calculate t,e average &ro&ortion nonJ
conforming L
n 0000 n n n
n$ 0000 n$ n$ n$
$
9 ( ( (
9 ) - (
+ + + +
+ + + +
4,ere n&1G n&2 ... n&3 and n1G n2 ... n3 are res&ectivel) t,e number of nonJ
conforming items and number of items ins&ected in eac, subgrou&.
ii. Calculate t,e &&er Control Aimit 8CA9 and Ao4er Control Aimit 8ACA9
T,e Control Aimits are t,e Process $verage Pro&ortion NonJconforming 8
$
9
&lus or minus an allo4ance for t,e variation t,at could be e1&ected if t,e
&rocess 4ere in statistical controlG given t,e t)&ical subgrou& sam&le si'e.
:or t,e stud) &eriod of 3 subgrou&sG calculate t,e u&&er and lo4er control
limitsL
( )
n
$ B ( $ )
$ UCL ;$< Li#it Control U$$er
$
+
( )
n
$ B ( $ )
$ LCL ;$< Li#it Control Lo?er
$

4,ereG n is t,e average sam&le si'e.
NCT>L
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e *) of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
<,en
$
is lo4 andQor n is smallG t,e ACA can sometimes be calculated as
a negative number. In t,ese cases t,ere is no Ao4er Control AimitG since
even a value of & S 2 for a &articular &eriod is 4it,in t,e limits of random
variation.
T,e Control Aimit calculations given above are a&&ro&riate 4,en t,e
subgrou& si'es are all e7ual 8as t,e) 4ould be in a controlled sam&ling
situation9. =o4everG 4,enever t,e sam&le si'e c,anges 8even for a single
subgrou&9G t,e Control Aimits c,angeG and t,e uni7ue limits 4ould be
calculated for eac, subgrou& ,aving a uni7ue sam&le si'e. :or all &ractical
&ur&osesG Control Aimits calculated 4it, an average sam&le si'e 8 n9 are
acce&table 4,en t,e individual subgrou& si'es var) from t,e average b) no
more t,an t 2!M 8t)&ical of actual &roduction volumes under relativel)
stable conditions9.
<,en subgrou& si'es var) b) more t,an t 2!MG se&arate Control Aimits are
re7uired for t,e &eriods 4it, &articularl) small or large sam&les. In all suc,
casesG
determine t,e range of sam&le si'es t,at 4ould var) from t,e
average b) t 2!M
identif) all subgrou&s 4it, sam&le si'es t,at lie outside t,is
range.
reJcalculate t,e &recise limits for t,ose &oints using t,e formulaG
( )
n
$ B ( $ )
$ UCL ;$< Li#it Control U$$er
$
+
( )
n
$ B ( $ )
$

4,ereG n is t,e sam&le si'e of t,e &articular subJgrou&. T,is value
of n 4ill c,ange from &ointJtoJ&oint.
Plot t,e ne4 CA . ACA on t,e c,art for t,e affected subJgrou&s
and use as t,e basis for identif)ing s&ecial causes. as given
above.
It is 4ort,4,ile mentioning ,ere t,at any procedure for handling %ariable
Control Limits is cumbersome and may lead to potential confusion *hile
attempting to interpret the charts. It is much better& *here%er possible& to
structure the data collection plan so that constant sample si/es can be used.
iii. Dra4 and label lines
Dra4 lines for t,e Process $verage Pro&ortion NonJconforming 8
$
9 and t,e
&&er . Ao4er Control Aimits on t,e c,arts at res&ective &laces L
Dra4 t,e
$
as solid ,ori'ontal line
Dra4 $
UCL
and
LCL
$ as dotted ,ori'ontal lines
During t,e initial stud) &,aseG t,ese are considered trial control
limits.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e *2 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Ste$ ). Inter$ret for Pro4ess Control
Identif) an) evidence t,at t,e &rocess is no longer o&erating at t,e same level J
t,at it is out of control J and to ta3e a&&ro&riate action. In case of Statisticall)
Controlled &rocesses t,ere 4ould be no obvious trends or &atterns in t,e data.
i. $nal)'e t,e data &lots on t,e C,art 8see also Control C,art Inter&retations9
T,e data &oints are com&ared 4it, t,e res&ective control limitsG for &oints out of
control or for unusual &atterns or trends. :or more details see Inter&retation of
Control C,arts.
Points ;e)ond t,e Control Aimits J T,e &resence of one or more &oints
be)ond eit,er control limit is evidence of instabilit) at t,at &oint. Since
&oints be)ond t,e control limits 4ould be ver) rare if t,e &rocess 4ere stable
and onl) commonJcause variation 4ere &resentG 4e &resume t,at a s&ecial
cause ,as accounted for t,e e1treme value. T,e s&ecial cause ma) be
eit,er unfavorable or favourable E eit,er bears immediate investigation.
T,is is t,e &rimar) decision rule for action on an) control c,art. $n) &oint
be)ond t,e control limits s,ould be mar3ed.
$ &oint above t,e u&&er control limit 8,ig,er &ro&ortion nonJconforming9 is
generall) a sign t,at L
T,e control limit or &lot &oint are in errorG or
T,e &rocess &erformance ,as 4orsenedG eit,er at t,at &oint in
time or as &art of a trendG or
T,e measurement s)stem ,as c,anged 8e.g.G ins&ectorG gage9.
$ &oint belo4 t,e lo4er control limit 8lo4er &ro&ortion nonJconforming9 is
generall) a sign t,atL
T,e control limit or &lot &oint are in errorG or
T,e &rocess &erformance ,as im&roved 8t,is s,ould be studied
for im&rovements t,at mig,t be incor&orated on a &ermanent
basis9G or
T,e measurement s)stem ,as c,anged.
Patterns or Trends <it,in t,e Control AimitsL T,e &resence of
unusual &atterns or trendsG even 4,en all &oints are 4it,in t,e
control limitsG can be evidence of nonJcontrol or c,ange in level of
&erformance during t,e &eriod of t,e &attern or trend. T,is can
give advance 4arning of conditionsG 4,ic,G if left uncorrectedG
could cause averages be)ond t,e control limits.
NCT> L <,en t,e average number of nonJconforming items &er
subgrou& 8n
$
9 is moderatel) large 8+ or more9G t,e distribution of
t,e subgrou& &6s is nearl) normal and trend anal)sis similar to t,at
used for H c,arts can be used. <,en n
$
becomes small 8! or
fe4er9G t,e follo4ing rules are not directl) a&&licable.
/unsL In a &rocess under controlG 4it, n
$
moderatel) largeG a&&ro1imatel)
e7ual numbers of &oints s,ould fall on eit,er side of t,e average. >it,er of
t,e follo4ing could be a sign t,at a &rocess s,ift or trend ,as begun L
( &oints in a ro4 on one side of t,e averageG or
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e *3 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
( intervals in a ro4 t,at are consistentl) increasing 8e7ual or
greater t,an t,e &receding &oints9 or consistentl) decreasing.
In t,ese casesG t,e &oint t,at &rom&ts t,e decision s,ould be
mar3ed 8e.g.G t,e eig,t, &oint above t,e average9I it ma) be ,el&ful
to e1tend a reference line bac3 to t,e beginning of t,e run. T,e
anal)sis s,ould consider t,e a&&ro1imate time at 4,ic, it a&&ears
t,at t,e trend or s,ift first began.
/uns above t,e &rocess averageG or runs u&G generall) signif) t,at L
T,e &rocess &erformance ,as 4orsened J and ma) still be
4orseningG or
/uns belo4 t,e &rocess averageG or runs do4nG generall) signif) t,at L
T,e &rocess &erformance ,as im&roved 8t,e causes s,ould be
studied for &ermanent incor&oration9G or
NCT>L <,en n
$
is small 8belo4 !9G t,e li3eli,ood of runs belo4
$
increasesG so a run lengt, of * or more could be necessar) to
signal a decrease in t,e &ro&ortion nonJconforming.
Cbvious Nonrandom PatternsL Ct,er distinct &atterns ma) indicate t,e
&resence of s&ecial causes of variationG alt,oug, care must be ta3en not to
overJinter&ret t,e data. $mong t,ese &atterns are trendsG c)clesG unusual
s&read of &oints 4it,in t,e control limitsG and relations,i&s among values
4it,in subgrou&s 8e.g.G if all nonJconforming items occur 4it,in t,e first fe4
readings ta3en for t,e subgrou&9. Cne test for unusual s&read is given
belo4 L
Distance of &oints from t,e &rocess average L In a &rocess under statistical
controlG 4it, onl) commonJcause variation &resent and n
$
moderatel)
largeG about 2Q3 of t,e data &oints 4ill be 4it,in t,e middle t,ird of t,e region
bet4een t,e control limitsI about 1Q3 of t,e &oints 4ill be in t,e outer t4oJ
t,irds of t,e regionI about 1Q22 4ill lie relativel) close to t,e control limits 8in
t,e outer t,ird of t,e region9.
If substantiall) more t,an 2Q3 of t,e &oints lie close to t,e &rocess
average 8for 2! subgrou&s if over +2M are 4it,in t,e middle t,ird
of t,e control limit region9G t,is could mean L
T,e control limits or &lot &oints ,ave been miscalculated or
mis&lottedG or
T,e &rocess or t,e sam&ling met,od are stratifiedI eac,
subgrou& s)stematicall) contains measurements from t4o or
more &rocess streams t,at ,ave ver) different average
&erformance 8e.g.G t,e mi1ed out&ut of t4o &arallel &roduction
lines9G or
T,e data ,ave been edited 8values t,at 4ould ,ave deviated
muc, from t,e average ,ave been altered or removed9.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ** of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
If substantiall) fe4er t,an 2Q3 of t,e &oints lie close to t,e
&rocess average 8for 2! subgrou&s if 42M or fe4er are in t,e
middle t,ird9G t,is could mean L
Calculation or &lotting errors ,ave been madeG or
T,e &rocess or t,e sam&ling met,od cause successive
subgrou&s to contain measurements from t4o or more &rocess
streams t,at ,ave ver) different average &erformance 8e.g.G
&erformance differences bet4een s,ifts9.
If several &rocess streams are &resentG t,e) s,ould be
identified and trac3ed se&aratel).
:or eac, indication of a s&ecial causeG conduct an anal)sis of t,e o&eration
of t,e &rocess to determine t,e causeI correct t,at conditionG and &revent it
from recurring. T,e control c,art itself s,ould be a useful guide in &roblem
anal)sisG suggesting 4,en t,e condition began and ,o4 long it continued. $
&ro&erl) maintained log is of great ,el& in terms of ,aving fres, evidence for
diagnosis of t,e cause of concern and minimising t,e &roduction of nonJ
conforming out&ut. >ven t,e a&&earance of a single &oint be)ond t,e control
:or ongoing studies being made 4it, realJtime dataG anal)sis of outJofJ
control conditions involves t,e timel) investigation of t,e o&eration of t,e
&rocessG 4it, em&,asis on finding 4,atG if an)G c,anges occurred t,at mig,t
e1&lain t,e abnormal &erformance. <,en t,is anal)sis ,as resulted in
corrective actionG t,e effectiveness of t,e action s,ould be a&&arent in t,e
control c,art.
:or &reliminar) studies 4it, ,istorical dataG t,e &assage of time ma) ma3e
anal)sis of &rocess o&erating c,anges more difficultG es&eciall) for
s)m&toms t,at come and go. T,e anal)sis must be made as 4ell as
&ossible under t,e circumstancesG to identif) t,e condition and to &revent its
recurrence.
ProblemJsolving is often t,e most difficultG but Statistical in&ut from t,e control
c,art can be an a&&ro&riate starting &oint along 4it, ot,er sim&le tools suc, as
Pareto c,artsG cause and effect diagrams 8see $&&endi1 1)' for more details9.
Process im&rovement is largel) associated 4it, t,e &rocess design . t,e &eo&le
4,o are involved 4it, it.
iii. /ecalculate Control Aimits
<,en conducting an initial &rocess stud) 8or a reassessment of &rocess
ca&abilit)9G e1clude all subgrou&s affected b) t,e s&ecial causes 8e1clude t,e
effects of outJofJcontrol &eriods9 t,at ,ave been corrected. T,e e1clusion of
subgrou&s re&resenting unstable conditions is not just Pt,ro4ing a4a) bad data.P
/at,erG b) e1cluding t,e &oints affected b) 3no4n s&ecial causesG one ,as a
better estimate of t,e bac3ground level of variation due to common causes.
Confirm t,at all &lots s,o4 control 4,en com&ared to t,e ne4 limitsG re&eating
t,e identification Q correction Q recalculation se7uence if necessar).
T,e revised
$
s,ould be used to recalculate t,e trial control limits as belo4G
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e *= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
( )
re%ised
re%ised re%ised
re%ised $;re%ised< re%ised
n
$ B ( $ )
$ UCL ;$< Li#it Control U$$er +
( )
re%ised
re%ised re%ised
re%ised $;re%ised< re%ised
n
$ B ( $ )
4,ereG
revised
$
.
revised n are t,e revised values of t,e Process $verage
Pro&ortion NonJconforming and t,e $verage Sam&le Si'e res&ectivel).
iv. >1tend Control Aimits L Cnce t,e initial 8or ,istorical9 data are consistentl)
contained 4it,in t,e trial control limitsG e1tend t,e limits to cover future
&eriodsG i.e.G t,e Control Aimits become t,e C&erating Control Aimits. T,e
future data 4ill be com&ared and evaluated against t,ese C&erating Control
Aimits.
T,e Control Aimits for t,e ongoing &eriods ma) be altered from t,ose develo&ed
during t,e anal)sis &eriod b) c,anging t,e sam&le si'e.
Ste$ 2 . Inter$ret for Pro4ess C$:ilit" .
<,en all t,e Control issues ,ave been resolved 8s&ecial causes identifiedG anal)sed
. corrected and recurrence &revented9G t,e Control C,art reflects t,e Process
Ca&abilit) as discussed belo4 L
i. Calculate Process Ca&abilit)
:or a & c,artG t,e Process Ca&abilit) 8in t,e same sense as t,e Ca&abilit)
develo&ed from #ariables Data9 is reflected b) t,e &rocess average nonJ
conformingG
$
G calculated 4,en all &oints are in control. T,is can be
e1&ressed as t,e &ro&ortion conforming to s&ecification 81 J
$
9.
:or a &reliminar) estimate of &rocess ca&abilit)G use ,istorical dataG but
e1clude data &oints associated 4it, s&ecial causes.
:or a formal &rocess ca&abilit) stud)G ne4 data s,ould be runG &referabl) for
2! or more &eriodsG 4it, t,e &oints all reflecting statistical control. T,e 1!
for t,ese consecutive inJcontrol &eriods is a better estimate of t,e &rocessF
current ca&abilit).
ii. >valuate Process Ca&abilit)
T,e &rocess ca&abilit) as just calculated reflects t,e ongoing level of
&erformance t,at t,e &rocess is generating and can be e1&ected to
generateG as long as t,e &rocess remains in control and does not
e1&erience an) basic c,ange in &erformance. Cn a &eriodJtoJ&eriod basisG
t,e measured &ro&ortion nonJconforming 4ill var) bet4een t,e control limitsG
but barring an) c,anges in t,e &rocessG or &eriods allo4ed to go out of
controlG t,e average &ro&ortion nonJconforming 4ill tend to be stable.
T,is average ca&abilit)G not t,e fluctuating individual valuesG must be
evaluated against /e7uirements Q >1&ectations for t,e &articular
c,aracteristic. T,enG if t,is average level is unacce&tableG furt,er anal)sis
and action must be directed to4ard t,e &rocess itself.
iii. Im&rove Process Ca&abilit)
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e *> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Cnce t,e &rocess is demonstrating statistical controlG t,e remaining average
level of nonJconformities 4ill reflect t,e s)stemic causes of variation in t,e
&rocess J t,e Process Ca&abilit). T,e t)&es of anal)sis &erformed in
diagnosing t,e S&ecial Cause 8Control9 issuesG 4,ic, focused on
o&erationsG 4ill no longer be a&&ro&riate in diagnosing Common Causes
affecting t,e s)stem. nless action is directed to4ards t,e s)stem itselfG no
im&rovement in t,e &rocess ca&abilit) can be e1&ected. AongJterm solutions
are necessar) to correct t,e sources of c,ronic nonJconformities.
ProblemJsolving and Statisical Tec,ni7ues 8ParetoG Do>G Cause . >ffectsG
etc. J see $&&endi1 1)' for more details9 can be ,el&ful. =o4everG
understanding of t,e &roblems can be difficult 4,en onl) attributes data are
used. In generalG &roblemJsolving is aided b) going u&stream in t,e
&rocess as far as &ossible to4ard t,e source of sus&ected causes of
variationG and b) using variables data for anal)sis 8e.g.G in H and / c,arts9.
iv. C,art . $nal)se t,e /evised Process
<,en s)stematic &rocess actions ,ave been ta3enG t,eir effects s,ould be
a&&arent in t,e control c,artI t,e c,art becomes a 4a) of verif)ing t,e
effectiveness of t,e action.
$s t,e &rocess c,ange is im&lementedG t,e control c,art s,ould be
monitored carefull). T,is c,ange &eriod can be disru&tive to o&erationsG
&otentiall) causing ne4 control &roblems t,at could obscure t,e true effect
of t,e s)stem c,ange.
$fter an) s&ecial causes of variation t,at a&&ear during t,e c,ange &eriod
,ave been identified and correctedG t,e &rocess 4ill be in statistical control
at a ne4 &rocess average. T,is ne4 average reflecting inJcontrol
&erformance can be used as t,e basis of ongoing &rocess control and
investigation . im&rovement of t,e s)stem continued.
Confirm t,e effectiveness of s)stem c,anges b) continued monitoring of t,e
Control C,art.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e *, of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
II0 >0 CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR ATTRIBUTES
The n$ Chrt for Nu#:er NonB4onfor#in+
T,e n& c,art measures t,e number of nonJconforming 8discre&ant or soJcalled
defective9 items in an ins&ection lot. It is identical to t,e & c,art e1ce&t t,at t,e
actual number of nonJconforming itemsG rat,er t,an t,eir &ro&ortion of t,e sam&leG is
recorded. ;ot, & and n& c,arts are a&&ro&riate for t,e same basic situationsG 4it,
t,e c,oice going to n& c,art if 8a9 t,e actual number of nonJconformities is more
meaningful or sim&ler to re&ort t,an t,e &ro&ortionG and 8b9 t,e sam&le si'e remains
constant from &eriod to &eriod. T,e details of instructions for t,e n& c,art are
virtuall) identical to t,ose for t,e &Jc,artI e1ce&tions are noted belo4.
Ste$ (0 Gther /t
T,e guidelines for gat,ering data are similar to t,ose for & c,artsG e1ce&t for
t,e follo4ing &ointsL
T,e ins&ection sam&le si'es must be e7ual. T,e &eriod of subJgrou&ing
s,ould ma3e sense in terms of &roduction intervals and feedbac3 s)stemsG
and sam&les s,ould be large enoug, to allo4 several nonJconforming items
to a&&ear in eac, subgrou&. /ecord t,e sam&le si'e on t,e form.
/ecord and &lot t,e number nonJconforming in eac, subgrou& 8n&9.
T,e guidelines are similar to t,ose for & c,artsG 4it, t,e follo4ing c,angesL
Calculate t,e Process $verage Number NonJconforming 8n&9.
3
n&3 n& n&
& n
+ + +
...... 2 1
4,ere n&1G n&2 " are t,e number nonJconforming in eac, of t,e 3
subgrou&s.
Calculate t,e &&er and Ao4er Control Aimits 8CAG ACA9.
) 1 ( 3
n
& n
& n & n CA
n&
+
) 1 ( 3
n
& n
& n & n ACA
n&

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e =' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
4,ere n S t,e subgrou& sam&le si'e.
T,e guidelines are similar to t,ose for & c,art
T,e guidelines are similar to t,ose for & c,artG 4it, t,e follo4ing
e1ce&tionL
T,e &rocess ca&abilit) is n&G t,e average number nonJconforming in a
fi1ed sam&le si'e n. T,is could also be e1&ressed as t,e average
number conformingG n81J&9 S nJn&.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e =( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
SECTION II0 , CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR ATTRIBUTES
The 4 Chrt ; for Nu#:er of NonB4onfor#ities<
T,e cJc,art measures t,e number of nonJconformities Qdefects in an ins&ection lot
8as o&&osed to t,e number of units found nonJconformingG as &lotted on an n&
c,art9. T,e c c,art re7uires a constant sam&le si'e or amount of material ins&ected.
In s,ort c c,arts are used for controlling t,e variations in t,e number of defects in a
s&ecific &ortion of t,e &o&ulation.
It is a&&lied in t4o major t)&es of ins&ection situationsL
<,ere t,e nonJconformities are scattered t,roug, a moreJorJless
continuous flo4 of &roduct 8e.g.G fla4s in a bolt of vin)lG bubbles in glassG or
s&ots of t,in insulation on 4ire9G and 4,ere t,e average rate of nonJ
conformities can be e1&ressed 8e.g.G fla4s &er 122 s7uare meters of vin)l9.
<,ere t,e nonJconformities from man) different &otential sources ma) be
found in a single ins&ection unit 8e.g.G t,e 4riteJu&s at a de&artmental re&air
stationG 4,ere eac, individual ve,icle or com&onent could ,ave one or more
of a 4ide variet) of &otential nonJconformities9.
T,e follo4ing are t,e ste&s in construction and a&&lication of a c c,artG 4,ic, are
similar to t,e basic a&&roac, described &reviousl) for & c,arts
Ste$ (0 Gther /t
Subgrou& Si'eL
T,e ins&ection sam&le si'es 8number of unitsG area of fabricG lengt, of 4ireG etc.9
need to be e7ual so t,at t,e &lotted values of c 4ill reflect c,anges in 7ualit)
&erformances 8li3eli,ood of a nonJconformit) occurringI c9 rat,er t,an c,anges in
e1&osure 8t,e sam&le si'eI n9. /ecord t,e sam&le si'e on t,e form. T,e sam&le
si'e s,ould be selected in suc, a mannerG t,at it reflects t,e s&read of t,e
attributes being recorded. T,e sam&le si'e s,ould be big enoug, to aid t,e
recording of data.
:re7uenc)L
T,e fre7uenc) of ta3ing t,e readings s,ould be selected in suc, a 4a) t,at an)
c,ange in t,e &rocess &arameter 8bot, c,ance and assignable causes9 gets
&ro&erl) reflected in t,e reading. 8e.g. after ever) one ,our of rolling to c,ec3
t,e normal 4ear of t,e rolls and after ever) roll c,ange or ,eat c,ange9
/ecord and &lot t,e number of nonJconformities in eac, subgrou& 8c9.
Calculate t,e Process $verage Number of NonJconformities 8c9L
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e =- of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
3
c3 c c
c
+ + +
.... 2 1
4,ere c1G c2 " are t,e number of nonJconformities in eac, of t,e 3
subgrou&s.
Calculate t,e Control Aimits 8CAc and ACAc9
c c CA
c
3 +
c c ACA
c
3
T,e inter&retation is similar to t,at for & c,art.
T,e &rocess ca&abilit) is c G t,e average number of nonJconformities in a sam&le of
fi1ed si'e n. It is similar to t,at mentioned for & c,art 4it, t,e above e1ce&tion0
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e =) of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
SECTION II0(' . CONTROL C5ARTS 1OR ATTRIBUTES
The u Chrt for NonB4onfor#ities $er unit
T,e u c,art measures t,e number of nonJconformities 8discre&ancies or soJcalled
defects9 &er ins&ection re&orting unit in subgrou&sG 4,ic, can ,ave var)ing sam&le
si'es 8 or amounts of material ins&ected9. It is similar to t,e c c,art e1ce&t t,at t,e
number of nonJconformities is e1&ressed on a &er unit basis. ;ot, u and c c,arts are
a&&ro&riate for t,e same basic data situationsI ,o4everG t,e u c,art ma) be used if
t,e sam&le includes more t,an one PunitP 8to ma3e t,e re&orting more meaningful9G
and it must be used if t,e sam&le si'e can var) from &eriod to &eriod.
e.g. T,e number of customers visiting a teller counter ma) var) ,our to ,our and
t,e) ma) ,ave different t)&es of com&laints regarding t,e service 7ualit) of t,e
ban3.
e.g. $ job s,o& t)&e foundr) ma) &roduce different si'es of castings and t,e number
and t)&e of defects on eac, casting ma) var) from job to job.
T,e above t4o e1am&les &resent t,emselves as cases for a&&l)ing t,e u c,art.
T,e details of instructions for t,e u c,art are similar to t,ose for t,e & c,artI
e1ce&tions are noted belo4L
Ste$ (0 Gther /t
Sam&les do not need to be constant from subgrou& to subgrou&G alt,oug,
maintaining t,em 4it,in 2!M above or belo4 t,e average sim&lifies t,e calculation
of control limits.
/ecord and &lot t,e nonJconformities &er unit in eac, subgrou& 8u9L
n
c
u
4,ere c is t,e number of nonJconformities foundG and n is t,e sam&le si'e
8number of ins&ection re&orting units9 of t,e subgrou&sI c and n s,ould also
be recorded on t,e form.
0emoL T,e sam&le si'e for eac, subgrou&G nG is e1&ressed in terms of
ins&ection re&orting units. Sometimes t,e re&orting unit is a single &roduction
unitG e.g.G an engine. CftenG ,o4everG t,e ins&ectionJre&orting unit is ot,er
t,an one &roduction unit. :or instanceG in re&orts s,o4ing nonJconformities
&er 122 unitsG t,e re&orting unit is 122 &roduction unitsG and n s,o4s ,o4
man) ,undreds 4ere ins&ected.
Calculate t,e Process $verage NonJconformities &er unit 8 u 9
n3 n n
c3 c c
u
+ + +
+ + +
... 2 1
.... 2 1
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e =2 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
4,ere c1Gc2" and n1G n2 .. are t,e number of nonJconformities and sam&le
si'e of eac, of t,e 3 subgrou&s.
Calculate t,e control limits 8CA and ACA9
n
u
u CA
u
3 +
n
u
u ACA
u
3
4,ere n is t,e average sam&le si'e.
0emoL If an) individual subgrou& sam&le si'e is more t,an 2!M above or belo4 t,e
average sam&le si'eG recalculate t,e &recise control limits as follo4sL
n
u
u ACA CA
u u
3 , t
4,ere u is t,e &rocess average and n is t,e sam&le si'e 8number of ins&ection
re&orting units9 of t,e &articular subgrou&. C,ange t,e limits on t,e c,art and use as
t,e basis for identif)ing s&ecial causes.
Note t,at an) use of variable control limits is cumbersome and &otentiall) confusing.
It is muc, better 4,erever &ossible to avoid t,is situation b) using constant
subgrou& sam&le si'es.
T,e &rocess ca&abilit) is u t,e average number of nonJconformities &er re&orting
unit.
SECTION II0(( CONTROL C5ART INTERPRETATIONS
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e =3 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
C,art inter&retations amount to recognition of unusual &atterns 4it, &rocess
3no4ledgeG e1&erience and a&&reciation of &robabilit). T,e illustrated &atterns are
b) no means all t,at can occur. $n)t,ing t,at loo3s unusual s,ould be investigated
4it, reference to t,e logG even if onl) to confirm an occurrence ,as no &articular
causeG or t,at a mista3e ,as been made in measurementG calculation or &lotting. T,e
&atterns s,o4n belo4 can also occur b) c,ance causesG 4it,out t,ere being a
s&ecial disturbance.
Care ,as to be ta3en to avoid over inter&retation of t,e data &atternsG as even
random &atterns 8i.e.G due to common causes9 can sometimes give an illusion of
nonJrandomness 8i.e.G &resence of s&ecial causes9.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e =* of (*,
2 out of 3 su44essi%e $lots in the
to$ or :otto# -&)
rd
Done ;BO & AO or
BB & AB<
. A $ersistent s$e4il distur:n4e
due to #ist9e in #esure#ent
s"ste#8 4l4ultion or $lottin+
On4e in
:out ),'
$lots
Sitution
$&&earance C,ance of
:alse
$larm
Point8s9 e1ceeding eit,er of t,e Control
Aimits
L :la4ed materialG bro3en toolG
o&erator errorG &o4er failure
On4e in
:out =2'
$lots
- out of ) su44essi%e $lots in the AO
or AB Done ;here or is eF4lusi%e K
i0e08 ( $lot in AO nd the neFt in AB is
not filure8 the $oints #ust :e in
the s#e se4tion of the 4hrt8 either
:o%e or :elo?<
. Untrined o$ertor8 strtBu$
effe4t
On4e in
:out =3'
$lots
A%e
LCL
UCL
CO
AO
BO
CB
BB
AB
Z
O
N
E
S
Z
O
N
E
S
A%e
LCL
UCL
CO
AO
BO
CB
BB
AB
Z
O
N
E
S
Z
O
N
E
S
A%e
LCL
UCL
CO
AO
BO
CB
BB
AB
Z
O
N
E
S
Z
O
N
E
S
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e == of (*,
(3 4onse4uti%e $lots inside the
4entre (&)
rd
;to$ nd & or :otto#<
L Cften indicates un4itting or
deliberate use of false data. Suc,
&attern also indicates a better &rocess
4,en &airs of c,arts for variables 8. RG
. sG etc.9 bot, s,o4 t,e same &attern.
On4e in
:out )('
$lots
3 4onse4uti%e $lots outside the
4entrl (&)
rd
;to$ nd & or :otto#<
L suall) t,e result of mi1ed sam&les
from different &eo&le or different
mac,inesG and caused b) met,ods for
measurementG re&ortingG mac,ine
settingG etc.
On4e in
:out )-'
$lots
+ successive &lots 8* intervals9 in a ro4
above or belo4 t,e average line
8centre line9
L Process c,ange caused b) resetting
=0> $er
thousnd
Sitution
:alse
$larm
* successive &lots 8( intervals9
consistentl) rising or falling
L >7ui&ment Q tool 4ear
On4e in
:out =-'
$lots
A%e
LCL
UCL
CO
AO
BO
CB
BB
AB
Z
O
N
E
S
Z
O
N
E
S
A%e
LCL
UCL
CO
AO
BO
CB
BB
AB
Z
O
N
E
S
Z
O
N
E
S
A%e
LCL
UCL
CO
AO
BO
CB
BB
AB
Z
O
N
E
S
Z
O
N
E
S
A%e
LCL
UCL
CO
AO
BO
CB
BB
AB
Z
O
N
E
S
Z
O
N
E
S
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e => of (*,
A%e
LCL
UCL
CO
AO
BO
CB
BB
AB
Z
O
N
E
S
Z
O
N
E
S
$lternating ,ig, Q lo4 &lots
L suall) denotes an e1treme
e1am&le of mi1ed sam&les from
different &eo&le or different mac,inesG
etc. and are caused b) unsuitable
c,artsG &rocedures and Q or standards.
B
Sitution
:alse
$larm
T,e &atterns belo4 are e1am&les of situations t,at are not necessaril) outJofJcontrol and could be
entirel) &redictable. T,ese &atterns onl) illustrate situations 4,ere more com&le1 &rocess control
is necessar).
T,is &attern is .oving .eans
L /eflects action to control in,erentl)
unstable &rocesses.
B
A%e
LCL
UCL
CO
AO
BO
CB
BB
AB
Z
O
N
E
S
Z
O
N
E
S
T,is is a (yclic 'attern
L T,e t4o &atterns usuall) reflect
longJterm c,anges caused b) t,e
environment and 4ould suggest a need
for com&ensator) action.
B
A%e
LCL
UCL
CO
AO
BO
CB
BB
AB
Z
O
N
E
S
Z
O
N
E
S
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e =, of (*,
T,e control limits are too loose and
need reJcalculation. T,is situation is
too good to be true.
StratificaJ
tion
LCL
A%e
UCL
/es4ri$tion Pttern A$$ern4e
T,e table belo4 s,o4s &atterns of c,aracteristics of s&ecial events
T,is &attern ma) come from t4o
different mac,ines or material lots.
Note t,e run can be se&arated as t4o
data 4it, different means.
$l4a)s ,ave se&arate c,arts for eac,
4or3station.
0i1ture
LCL
A%e
UCL
T,is &attern indicates t,at t,ere is a
deterioration over time 8e.g.G tool 4earG
c,emical saturation going lo4G etc.9
Trend
LCL
A%e
UCL
T,is &attern is often observed in batc,
&rocesses 8nested sources9. T,e
control limits do not account for all t,e
variation sources. T,e data source is
from one &rocessG but t,e control limits
are too tig,t.
0ulti&le
variation
sources
LCL
A%e
UCL
This si#ultion is result of
$ro4ess tr+et to :e t the #en0
This #" h$$en in 4ses ?here the
o$ertor or the uto#ti4 4ontrols
4ontinuousl" 9ee$ 4orre4tin+ the
settin+s8 s result the $irs of
$lots re on the o$$osite sides of
the Centre Line0
Cver
adjustment
LCL
A%e
UCL
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
>1am&les of nonJrandom &atterns could be obvious trendsG t,e overall
s&read of t,e data &oints 4it,in control limitsG or relations,i& among values
4it,in subgrou&s. Cne test for t,e overall s&read of t,e subgrou& data &lots
can be as s,o4n belo4. :or a statisticall) inJcontrol &rocessG t,e &lot
&ro&ortions s,ould satisf) t,e follo4ing L
If substantiall) more t,an 2Q3 of t,e data &oints lie close to 8for 2! subgrou&s
if over +2M are in t,e middle t,ird of t,e control limit region9G c,ec3 to see
4,et,erL
T,e control limits or &lot &oints ,ave been miscalculated or mis&lottedG or
T,e &rocess or t,e sam&ling met,od are stratifiedI eac, subgrou& s)stematicall)
contains measurements from t4o or more &rocess streatJns t,at ,ave ver) different
&rocess averages 8e.g.G one &iece from eac, of several s&indles9G or
T,e data ,ave been edited 8subgrou&s 4it, ranges t,at deviated muc, from t,e
average ,ave been altered or removed9.
If substantiall) fe4er t,an 2Q3 of t,e data &oints lie close to 8for 2!
subgrou&s if 42M or fe4er are in t,e middle t,ird9G c,ec3 to see 4,et,erG
T,e control limits or &lot &oints ,ave been miscalculated or mis&lottedG or
T,e &rocess or t,e sam&ling met,od cause successive subgrou&s to contain
measurements from t4o or more &rocess streams t,at ,ave dramaticall) different
variabilit) 8e.g.G mi1ed lots of in&ut materials9
If several &rocess streams are &resentG t,e) s,ould be identified and trac3ed
se&aratel).
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e >' of (*,
ACA
$ve
CA
CT
$T
;T
CJ
;J
$J
2 of 3
&lots
1+ of
22
&lots
3 in 1222 outside t,e lines
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
SECTION III0( PROCESS CAPABILITY BB ACCURACY AN/ PRECISION
<e ,ave seen t,e conce&t of variation and also t,e distribution. T,at 4as in
isolation. It is ver) im&ortant to stud) t,eir relation.
Normall) a com&an) la)s do4n s&ecifications for its &roducts to ensure com&liance
to customer re7uirements. =o4ever t,at alone is not enoug,.
T,e interest of t,e com&an) also ,as to be ta3en into consideration.
In normal &arlance accurac) and &recision mean t,e same t,ing. =o4ever in SPC
t,e t4o ,ave different meanings 7uite distinct from eac, ot,er.
T,e &rocess is said to be accurate if t,e value of its mean Qcentral tendenc) of its
out&ut is close to t,e targeted value.
T,e &rocess is said to be &recise if s&read of t,e out&ut is small. T,us lo4er t,e
s&read valueG more &recise is t,e &rocess. In ot,er 4ords &recision is related to t,e
standard deviation.
T,e conce&t can be e1&lained &ictoriall) b) using a board used as a target for
s,ooting &ractice.
>1am&le s,o4ing t,e difference bet4een P/>CISICN . $CC/$CH
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e >( of (*,
Precise . $ccurate Im&recise but $ccurate
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Pro4ess C$:ilit"
In &lanning t,e 7ualit) as&ects of manufactureG most im&ortant is advance
assurance t,at t,e &rocesses 4ill be able to ,old t,e tolerances. Process ca&abilit)
conce&t &rovides a 7uantified &rediction of &rocess ade7uac).
Process is a uni7ue combination of mac,ineG toolsG met,odsG material and t,e
&eo&le engaged in &roductionG 4,ic, converts in&ut into out&ut.
Process ca&abilit) is a measure of ca&abilit) of a &rocess ac,ieved b) assessing t,e
statistical state control of t,e &rocess and com&aring t,e amount of random variation
&resent 4it, t,e tolerance allo4ed b) t,e s&ecification.
T,e goal of a &rocess control s)stem is to ma3e economicall) sound decisions about
actions affecting t,e &rocess. T,is means balancing t,e ris3s of ta3ing action 4,en
action is not necessar) verses failing to ta3e action 4,en it is necessar). T,ese ris3s
must be ,andledG ,o4ever in t,e conte1t of t,e t4o sources of variation Js&ecial
cause and common cause.
$ &rocess is said to be o&erating in statistical control 4,en t,e onl) source of
variation is common causes. =o4ever t,e state of statistical control is not a natural
state for a manufacturing &rocess. It is in fact an ac,ievement arrived at b)
elimination of s&ecial causes b) determined effort.
T,e initial function of a &rocess control s)stem is to &rovide a statistical signal 4,en
s&ecial causes of variation are &resent and to avoid giving false signals 4,en t,e)
are not &resent. T,is 4ill enable a&&ro&riate action t,at can eliminate t,ose s&ecial
causes and &revent t,eir rea&&earance.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e >- of (*,
Precise but Inaccurate Im&recise . Inaccurate
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Process ca&abilit) is determined b) t,e total variation t,at comes from common
causes E t,e minimum variation t,at can be ac,ieved after all s&ecial causes ,ave
been eliminated.
T,us ca&abilit) re&resents t,e &erformance of t,e &rocess itselfG as demonstrated
4,en t,e &rocess is o&erated in a state of statistical control.
Ca&abilit) is often t,oug,t of in terms of &ro&ortion of out&ut t,at 4ill be 4it,in
&roduct s&ecification tolerance. Since a &rocess in statistical control can be
described b) a &redictable distributionG t,e &ro&ortion out of s&ecification can be
estimated from t,is distribution.
$s long as t,e &rocess is in statistical controlG it 4ill continue to &roduce t,e same
&ro&ortion of out of s&ecification limits.
In s,ortL t,e &rocess must first be broug,t into statistical control b) detecting and
eliminating s&ecial causes of variation. T,en its &erformance is &redictableG and its
ca&abilit) to meet customer e1&ectations can be assessed. T,is is a basis for
continuing im&rovement.
Inter$rettion of Pro4ess C$:ilit"
=aving determined t,at t,e &rocess is in statistical controlG t,e 7uestion still remains
4,et,er t,e &rocess is ca&ableR Does its out&ut meet customer needsR Ca&abilit)
reflects variation from common causes and management action on t,e s)stem is
almost al4a)s re7uired for ca&abilit) im&rovement.
$ssessment of &rocess ca&abilit) begins after s&ecial causes ,ave been eliminated
and outgoing control c,arts reflectG a &rocess t,at is in statistical control. In general
t,e distribution of &rocess is out&ut is com&ared 4it, s&ecificationsG so as to ensure
t,at t,ese are met.
E%lution of $ro4ess 4$:ilit"
T,ere are t4o indices for calculating &rocess ca&abilit). T,ese are as follo4s
C& and C&3.
T,e C& inde1 determines t,e s&read or t,e distribution of t,e &rocess. It is given
b)
/e%ition Stndrd *
li#it s$e40 Lo?er B li#it s$e40 U$$er
C
$

Cr
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e >) of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
*
LSL B USL
C
$

T,e C&3 inde1 determines t,e central tendenc) of t,e &rocess. Not onl) t,e &rocess
,as to be ca&able G but it ,as to meet t,e s&ecifications. It is given b) t,e follo4ing
formula
)
LSL B Men
nd
)
Men B USL
of Mini#u# 9 C
$

C/
)
Men B s$e40li#it Nerer
9 C
$
T,e &rocess ca&abilit) information serves t,e follo4ing &ur&oses

1. Predicting t,e e1tent of variabilit) t,at &rocess 4ill e1,ibit. Suc, information ,el&s
designers to set realistic s&ecification limits.
1. Selecting t,e most a&&ro&riate &rocessG from t,e e1isting ones.
2. Planning t,e interrelations,i& of se7uential &rocesses.
3. Providing a 7uantified basis for establis,ing a sc,edule for &eriodic &rocess
control c,ec3s and readjustments.
4. $ssigning mac,ines to t,e classes of 4or3 for 4,ic, t,e) are best suited.
!. Serving as a basis for s&ecif)ing t,e 7ualit) &erformance re7uirements for
&urc,ased mac,ines.
Si+nifi4n4e of C$9
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e >2 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
:our e1am&les of &rocess variabilit)
C& Total amount outside
limits
T)&ical actions to be ta3en
X1.2 !.2 M =eav) &rocess controlG sorting
re4or3
1.2 2.3 M =eav) &rocess control G Ins&ection
1.33 %4 PP0 /educed ins&ection G selected use
of control c,art
1.%3 1PP0 S&ot c,ec3ing Gselected use of
control c,arts

SECTION III0- PROCESS CONTROL & PROCESS CAPABILITY
Control nd C$:ilit".
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e >3 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
T,e goal of a &rocess control s)stem is to ma3e economicall) sound decisions about
actions affecting t,e &rocess. T,is means balancing t,e ris3s of ta3ing action 4,en
action is not necessar) 8overcontrol or t,e T)&e I error9 versus failing to ta3e action
4,en action is necessar) 8undercontrol or t,e T)&e II error9. T,ese ris3s must be
,andledG ,o4everG in t,e conte1t of t,e t4o sources of variation &reviousl)
mentioned J s&ecial causes and common causes.
$ &rocess is said to be o&erating in a state of statistical control 4,en t,e onl) source
of variation is common causes. P;ut a state of statistical control is not a natural state
for a manufacturing &rocess. It is instead an ac,ievementG arrived at b) eliminationG
one b) oneG b) determined effortG of s&ecial causes of e1cessive variation.P
T,e initial function of a &rocess control s)stemG t,enG is to &rovide a statistical signal
4,en s&ecial causes of variation are &resentG and to avoid giving false signals 4,en
t,e) are not &resent. T,is 4ill enable a&&ro&riate action t,at can eliminate t,ose
s&ecial causes and &revent t,eir rea&&earance.
Process ca&abilit) is determined b) t,e total variation t,at comes from common
causesG i.e.G t,e minimum variation t,at can be ac,ieved after all s&ecial causes
,ave been eliminated. T,us ca&abilit) re&resents t,e &erformance of t,e &rocess
itselfG as demonstrated 4,en t,e &rocess is being o&erated in a state of statistical
control. Ca&abilit) is often t,oug,t of in terms of t,e &ro&ortion of out&ut t,at 4ill be
4it,in &roduct s&ecification tolerances. Since a &rocess in statistical control can be
described b) a &redictable distributionG t,e &ro&ortion of outJofJs&ecification &arts
can be estimated from t,is distribution. $s long as t,e &rocess remains in statistical
controlG it 4ill continue to &roduce t,e same &ro&ortion of outJofJs&ecification &arts.
0anagement actions to reduce t,e variation from common causes are re7uired to
im&rove t,e &rocessF abilit) to meet s&ecifications consistentl).
In s,ortG t,e &rocess must first be broug,t into statistical control b) detecting and
eliminating s&ecial causes of variation. T,en its &erformance is &redictableG and its
ca&abilit) to meet customer e1&ectations can be assessed. T,is is t,e basis for
continuing im&rovement.
T,e follo4ing &icture illustrates t,e factors on 4,ic, Process Ca&abilit) de&endsG
T4o im&ortant Indices associated 4it, Process Ca&abilit) $nal)sis are C$ 8Process
Potential Inde1 . C$9 8Process Ca&abilit) Inde19. C$ assesses t,e abilit) of a
&rocess to meet >ngineering S&ecifications and C$9 assesses t,e actual
conformance of a &roduct or a &rocess to t,e >ngineering S&ecifications.
Pro4ess Potentil IndeF C$ L C$ is a measure of t,e abilit) of a Process to
consistentl) generate a given c,aracteristic 4it,in t,e S&ecification Aimits. Process
PotentialG
0easures 4,at best t,e &rocess can do
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e >* of (*,
LSL USL LSL USL LSL USL LSL USL
S$e4ifi4tion
Li#its
Pro4ess Lo4tion Pro4ess 7idth or
S$red
Pro4ess 7idth or
S$red
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Does not al4a)s measure 4,at t,e &rocess is doing
De&ends u&on Process 4idt, 8s&read9
De&ends u&on t,e >ngineering Tolerances
Is a com&arison of t,e Process #ariation 4it, res&ect to t,e >ngineering
Tolerance
T,e ste&s involved in calculating C$ are as follo4sG
1. ;ilateral Tolerances
Calculate t,e >ngineering Tolerance
or S&ecification <idt,
En++0 Tolern4e I ;USL K LSL<
Calculate Standard Deviation 89 of
C,aracteristic
Use
-
d
R
N
or
2
4
s
N

T,e total Process <idt, in case of
a Normal Distribution is *N
Calculate C$ as t,e ratio of
t,e >ngineering Tolerance i.e.G
8USL K LSL9 to Process <idt,G i.e.G
*N
N *
LSL B USL
C
$

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e >= of (*,
USL LSL
En+ineerin+ Tolern4e
USL LSL
Pro4ess 7idth
En+ineerin+
Tolern4e
Pro4ess
7idth
C
$
I
C
$
I
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
=o4everG from t,e above e1&lanation of C$G it is obvious t,at C$ can onl) &rovide
information about 54,at t,e Process can do6 and not,ing about 54,at t,e &rocess is
doing6. See t,e follo4ing illustrationsG
In all cases 8$9G 8;9G . 8C9 t,e t,ere is no c,ange in t,e values of 5>ngineering
Tolerance6 and t,e 5Process <idt,6. /hus, the (p value *ill be constant and same
for 0A1, 021 as *ell as 0(1. =o4everG it is obvious t,atG
Case 8$9 L T,e &rocess ,as 4andered to4ards t,e Ao4er S&ecification Aimit
8ASA9G as suc, a &ro&ortion of t,e out&ut 4ill be belo4 t,e ASAG 4,ic, 4ill
not satisf) t,e >ngineering S&ecifications.
Case 8;9 L T,e &rocess is centered and t,e Process <idt, is e7ual to t,e
>ngineering S&ecificationsG as suc, almost t,e entire &o&ulation 8++.(3M9 of
t,e out&ut 4ill satisf) t,e >ngineering S&ecifications.
Case 8C9 L T,e &rocess ,as 4andered to4ards t,e &&er S&ecification Aimit
8SA9G as suc, a &ro&ortion of t,e out&ut 4ill be above t,e SAG 4,ic, 4ill
not satisf) t,e >ngineering S&ecifications.
2. nilateral TolerancesL :or unilateral tolerancesG onl) one S&ecification Aimit
e1ists 8e.g. e7ual to or more t,an !2 ft.Jlb.G less t,an 2! NJmG etc.9. T,ese
S&ecifications could be categorised as 5larger t,e better6 or 5smaller t,e better6.
:or 5smaller t,e better6 c,aracteristicsG it is desirable to ,ave value less t,an or
e7ual to t,e ma!imum stated value and for 5larger t,e better6 c,aracteristicsG it is
desirable to ,ave value greater t,an or e7ual to t,e minimum stated value.
:ollo4ing formulae are involved in t,e calculations of C$ values
-maller the 2etter L =ere SA is
t,e ma1imum value t,at t,e &rocess
&arameter is e1&ected to assume.
In suc, casesG
7idth Pro4ess
-
(
P B USL
C
$U

)
B USL
C
$U
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(

P+e >> of (*,
LSL USL LSL USL LSL USL
Pro4ess 7idth
Pro4ess 7idth
Pro4ess 7idth
;A< ;B< ;C<
USL
Q USL B Q
)
C
$U

AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
+arger the 2etter L =ere onl) ASA is
t,e least value t,at t,e &rocess
&arameter is e1&ected to assume.
In suc, casesG
7idth Pro4ess
-
(
LSL
C
$L
-
)
LSL
C
$L
-
Pro4ess Potentil IndeF C$9 L C$9 is a measure of ,o4 4ell an inJcontrol Process
is generating a given c,aracteristicG com&ared to t,e S&ecification Aimits. Process
Ca&abilit) Inde1G
Is a com&arison of t,e actual distribution of t,e Production Cut&ut to t,e
s,ortest distance of t,e centre 8mean9 of t,e distribution from t,e
S&ecification Aimits.
Includes in t,e assessment t,e Aocation of t,e Process 0ean 4it, res&ect to
t,e >ngineering Target or t,e mid&oint of t,e >ngineering Tolerance.
0easures 4,at an inJcontrol Process is doing
De&ends on t,e Process Aocation as 4ell as t,e Process S&read
T,e ste&s involved in calculating C$9 are as follo4sG
1. ;ilateral Tolerances
>stimate t,e Process 0ean
Calculate t,e distance of t,e bot,
t,e S&ecification Aimits 8SA . ASA9
from
Determine 4,ic, is t,e Closest
S&ecification Aimit 8CSA9.
Determine t,e distance from
to t,e CSA
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e >, of (*,
LSL
Q B LSL Q
)
$L
C
K or
K or
CSA J or CSA J Y X
K or
LSL USL
H or P
CSA J Y
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Calculate Standard Deviation 89 of
C,aracteristic
Use
-
d
R
N
or
2
4
s
N

T,e total Process <idt, in case of
a Normal Distribution is *NG ,ence
,alf t,e &rocess 4idt, 4ill be )N
Calculate C$9 as t,e ratio of
t,e distance or
to ,alf t,e Process
4idt, i.e.G
2. nilateral Tolerances L $s described aboveG for unilateral tolerancesG onl) one
S&ecification Aimit e1istsG 4,ic, could be categorised as 5larger t,e better6
8minimum stated value9 or 5smaller t,e better6 8ma!imum stated value9. T,e
follo4ing formulae are involved in t,e calculations of C$9 valuesG
-maller the 2etter L =ere SA is
t,e ma1imum value t,at t,e &rocess
&aramater is e1&ected to assume.
In suc, casesG
N )
USL B P
9 C
$

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ,' of (*,
CSA J
CSA J X
Z 3
( )
N )
CSL B H
or
N )
CSL B P
9 C
$
,
_
/ist0 of 4losest S0L0 fro# the Men

(&- Pro4ess ?idth
LSL USL
H or P
Z 3
USL
Q USL B Q
)
C
$U

AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
+arger the 2etter L =ere onl) ASA is
t,e least value t,at t,e &rocess
&aramater is e1&ected to assume.
In suc, casesG

N )
LSL B P
9 C
$

Aet6s loo3 at t,e Process Potential Inde1G C$9 from t,e ot,er &ers&ective E ,o4 can it
be vie4ed as an indicator for estimating t,e &ro&ortion of t,e &rocess out&ut be)ond
a &articular value of interest 8e.g.G S&ecification Aimit9. Aogicall)G ca&able &rocesses
are t,ose t,at ,ave virtuall) all t,e out&ut 4it,in t,e s&ecified >ngineering Aimits.
Consider t,e follo4ing illustrationG
It is evident t,at &rocesses 8C9 . 8D9 ,ave almost all t,e out&ut 4it,in t,e
S&ecification Aimits and &rocesses 8$9 . 8;9 ,ave a &ortion of t,e out&ut be)ond one
of t,e S&ecification Aimits 8in some cases it ma) be be)ond bot, t,e S&ecification
Aimits9. :or economic estimatesG it is of interest to t,e &roducer to also estimate t,at
&ro&ortion of t,e &roduction out&ut 4,ic, 4ould be nonJconforming to Customer
/e7uirementsG in ot,er 4ords 5re3ects6. T,usG it 4ill re7uired to 3no4 t,e area under
t,e curve t,at falls be)ond t,e S&ecification Aimit8s9G for 4,ic,G t,e distance of t,e
limit8s9 from t,e Process 0ean in Standard Deviation units s,ould be 3no4n E
e1&ressed as 5B6.
B can be derived t,usG
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ,( of (*,
LSL
Q B LSL Q
)
$L
C
LSL USL LSL USL LSL USL LSL USL
;/< ;C< ;B< ;A<
LSL USL LSL USL
P
D
H or P H or P
C C
P
D
Z
3
Z
3
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
N
interest of %lue the & Men Pro4ess :et?een distn4e
C
T,usG t,e distance of bot, t,e S&ecification Aimits 8SA . ASA9 from t,e Process
0ean 8 9 4ill res&ectivel) beG
N
H B USL
C
USL

N
LSL B H
C
LSL

T,is leads us to loo3 at t,e Process Potential Inde1G C$9 differentl). Com&aring t,e
BSA . BASA to identif) t,e minimum of t,e t4oG i.e.G Bmin leads us to ,aveG

)
C
9 C
#in
$

B values can be used 4it, a Table of t,e Standard Normal Distribution 8$&&endi1
1)'9 to estimate t,e &ro&ortion of out&ut 8an a&&ro1imate valueG based on t,e
assum&tions t,at t,e &rocess is in statistical control and is normall) distributed9 4ill
be be)ond an) S&ecification Aimit or a value of interest. :ollo4ing is t,e met,od
em&lo)edG
:or nilateral Tolerances L Aocate t,e value of B on t,e column on t,e left edge
of t,e table 8t,e units . tent,s digits9. T,e ,undredt,s digits are in t,e
corres&onding columns on t,e rig,t. T,e number a&&earing at t,e intersection of
t,e ro4 8t,at ,as t,e units . tent,s digits9 and t,e column 8t,at ,as t,e
,undredt,s digit9 is PBG t,e &ro&ortion outJofJs&ecification 8or &ro&ortion be)ond
t,e value of interest9. T,usG
122 1 P interest of value 3no4n a be)ond 8or s&ec. J of J out out&ut M
'
>1am&le L If t,e B valueG for instanceG is 1.*2G t,e intersection of t,e ro4
containing 1.* 4it, t,e column containing 1.12 4ill give PBG i.e. 2.2344. T,us
about 3.44M of t,e out&ut 4ill be be)ond t,e S&ecification Aimit 8or a 3no4n
value of interest9.

:or ;ilateral Tolerances L Calculate t,e &ro&ortions be)ond t,e individual
S&ecification Aimits se&aratel)G and t,e sum total of t,e t4o 4ill be t,e total outJ
ofJs&ecification &ro&ortion. T,us
( ) 122 1 P P
interest9 of values 3no4n be)ond 8or ion s&ecificat J of J out out&ut M
ASA J ' SA J '
+
>1am&le L If t,e BSA is 2.13 . BASA is 1.42G t,en

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ,- of (*,
K or
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
:or PBJSA loo3 for intersection of t,e ro4 containing 2.1 4it, t,e column
containing 1.13G 4,ic, 4ill give PBJSA as 2.21%%
:or PBJASA loo3 for intersection of t,e ro4 containing 1.4 4it, t,e column
containing 1.12G 4,ic, 4ill give PBJASA as 2.2((*
T,usG t,e total out&ut outJofJs&ecification 4ill be 8PBJSA T PBJASA9 1 122G i.e.
+.44M
C s the Uni%ersl Metri4 for Continuous !ulit" I#$ro%e#ent .
Z %
ASA J SA
C
&

S (
( ) ( )
or
3
ASA J K
.
3
K J SA
of min. 3 C
&
,
_
,
_
3
B
.
3
B
of min.
ASA SA
S (
T,usG 4,en 4 # 5G (p6 # $
1ere the process has been centered& ho*e%er the spread is to the etent that
the nearest Specification Limit (in this case both) is 2 a*ay from the )rocess
Mean& i.e. the )rocess output is occupying 3445 of the $olerance 6and.
Z %
ASA J SA
C
&

S (
( ) ( )
or
3
ASA J K
.
3
K J SA
of min. 3 C
&
,
_
,
_
3
B
.
3
B
of min.
ASA SA
S '0*=
T,usG 4,en 4min # 7G (p6 # 8.69
1ere the process is incapable and needs
to be centered. 1o*e%er& e%en *ith shifting
the location& the maimum %alue of )rocess
Capability Inde *ould be 3.44 and the
)rocess output *ill continue to occupy 3445 of the $olerance 6and.
Z %
ASA J SA
C
&

S (0))
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ,) of (*,
LSL
H or P
C
Z
3
USL
C
3
LSL
H or P
C
#in
Z
USL
C
LSL
2
LSL
H or P
Z
USL
C
#in
2
LSL
H or P
C
#in
Z
USL
C
LSL
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
( ) ( )
or
3
ASA J K
.
3
K J SA
of min. 3 C
&
,
_
,
_
3
B
.
3
B
of min.
ASA SA
S (0))
T,usG 4,en 4min # 5G (p6 # $.55
1ere the process has been centered and the %ariability has been impro%ed so
that the nearest Specification Limit (in this case both) is 7 a*ay from the
)rocess Mean& i.e. the )rocess output is occupying only 895 of the $olerance
6and.
T,usG it is eas) to understand t,e significance of relations,i& of Process
Ca&abilit) Inde1 8C&39 value in terms of B.
If t,e Process 0ean is centered 8or controlled at desired location9G AongJterm
Process Im&rovement involves reduction in t,e variabilit) 8s&read9. T,e focus
no4 could be s,ifted to anot,er Ca&abilit) Criterion of
K
t3 8Bmin 3IC&3 S
1.229G or
K
t4 8C&3 S 1.339 """"G instead of a target value of Process
Ca&abilit) Inde1. In ot,er 4ordsG s,ifting t,e focus from 5Monitoring6 to
5Controlling6G from 5Effects6 to 5Causes6G from 5#utputs6 to 5Inputs6G from
5Symptoms6 to 5)roblems6G i.e. to focus . im&rove B and C&3 4ill automaticall) get
monitored UY I f;H<V
T,usG for an im&rovement in C&3 valueG if t,e Ca&abilit) Criterion in terms of B is
3no4n 8sa) 546 in t,is case9G use t,e follo4ing formula to identif) t,e ne4 Process
Standard Deviation 8ne49G
( ) ( )
.e. i
B
ASA J K
or
B
K J SA

min min
ne4

( ) ( )

4
ASA J K
or
4
K J SA

ne4

4,ere
K
is t,e e1isting &rocess average . SA Q ASA are t,e res&ective
S&ecification Aimits.
Including t,e ne4 Process Standard Deviation 8ne49G in t,e Ca&abilit) Criterion 8
4 K
ne4
t 9G one can also get an actual range 4it, res&ect to t,e Process
$verageG i.e. location 8t,e &rocess is centered or at t,e desired location9. T,usG
im&roving t,e &rocess to consistentl) &roduce t4o values of t,e dimensions.
$lsoG t,e 8M9 im&rovement re7uired in t,e overall variabilit) 8s&read9 could be
com&uted asG
122 1
J
old
ne4 old
,
_

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ,2 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
!ample :
:.$. !
3. $he tolerances are bilateral and process target is desired at the centre of the
Specification Limits
;. $he current )rocess .%erage < 4.82=
2. $he >pper Specification Limit (>SL) < 4.?44
7. $he Lo*er Specification Limit (LSL) < 4.944
9. $he current )rocess Standard :e%iation 4.48;9
@. $he Capability Criterion <
A
t7
.".LBSIS !
3. From the abo%e it is ob%ious that the process performance is not satisfactory
and
( ) ( )
;.;2
4.82= ( 4.?44

A ( >SL
C
>SL

!"2# . !
i.e.& the >SL is ;.;2 a*ay from
the current process a%erage. $hus& about 3.;?5 of the output is beyond the
>SL.
( ) ( )
2.;=
4.944 ( 4.82=

LSL ( A
C
LSL

!"2# . !
i.e.& the LSL is 2.;=
a*ay from the current process a%erage. $hus& about 4.49;5 of the output is
beyond the LSL.
$otal output beyond Specification Limits& (and may probably need sorting if
no capability impro%ement is done) *ill be 3.27;5 (327;4 ))M)
;. "o*& e%en if the process is shifted to the centre (
A
< 4.844)
( ) ( )
;.8@
4.844 ( 4.?44

A ( >SL
C
>SL

!"2# . !
i.e.& the >SL is ;.8@ a*ay from
the current process a%erage. $hus& about 4.;?5 of the output *ill be
beyond the >SL.
( ) ( )
;.8@
4.944 ( 4.844

LSL ( A
C
LSL

!"2# . !
i.e.& the LSL is ;.8@
a*ay from the current process a%erage. $hus& about 4.;?5 of the output is
beyond the LSL.
$otal output beyond Specification Limits& (and may probably need sorting if
no capability impro%ement is done) *ill be 4.9=5 (9=44 ))M)
2. $hus& *hat is re0uired is a $arget #riented approach& in this case
A
t7
7. $his means& the process has to be centered (
ne*
A < 4.844) and the spread
(standard de%iation& ne*
) has to be reduced. $he etent to *hich the ne*

Standard :e%iation should be reduced is calculated as follo*s&
Minimum of
( )
re0uired ( min
ne*
ne*
C
A ( >SL
or
( )
re0uired ( min
ne*
ne*
C
LSL ( A

i.e.& minimum of
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ,3 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
( )
7
4.844 ( 4.?44

4.4944
&
( )
7
4.944 ( 4.844

4.4944
$hus&
4.4944
ne*

9. $his means that actions must be ta+en to reduce the )rocess Standard
:e%iation from the current %alue of 4.48;9 to 4.4944
235 344
4.48;9
4.4944 ( 4.48;9
344
(
old
ne* old

,
_
,
_

"ote ! In some cases a short(term alternati%e could also be thought in terms of
re(loo+ing into the tolerances for an increase. $he t*o possibilities could be
If the process is not to be changed the ne* specifications *ould be&
( ) 2.2+2 2.(3* 2.2(2! 4 K t t
$he re%ised >SL < 3.4;= & re%ised LSL < 4.77=
If the process has been changed (and confirmed by the control charts) so
that
ne*
A < 4.844
( ) ( ) 2.2+2 2.(22 2.2(2! 4 2.(22 2.2(2! 4 K t t t
$he re%ised >SL < 4.??4 & re%ised LSL < 4.734
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ,* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
T)&ical $reas under t,e Normal Curve
It ,as been observed t,atG over timeG an) inJcontrol &rocess is li3el) to s,ift b)
1.!. :rom t,e follo4ing illustrationG it is obvious t,at at 3 Dualit) level 84it,out
c,ange 4ould give us about 2(22 &er million defectives. =o4everG if a t)&ical
c,ange in average is allo4edG t,e defectives jum& to %%*23 &&m. Consider a
Process at % Dualit) levelG i.e.G case 8;9G even after factoring for t,e t)&ical
sources of variationG t,e defectives 4ould be onl) at 3.4 &&m 8from 2.222 &&m9.
8$9 Dualit) Aevel S 3 8;9 Dualit) Aevel S %
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ,= of (*,
H or P
Z
3
USL LSL
Z
3
1.#
After shift .Totl
OutBofBs$e40 I **>') $$#
Before shift .Totl
OutBofBs$e40 I -='' $$#
$
USL LSL H or P
1.#
After shift .Totl
OutBofBs$e40 I )02 $$#
Before shift .Totl
OutBofBs$e40 I '0''- $$#
*>0-*M
,302*M
,,0=)M
,,0,,)=M
,,0,,,,2)M
,,0,,,,,,>M
+( +- +) +2 +3 +* * 3 2 ) - ( '
+
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Reltionshi$ of C$9 to the eF$e4ted Yield & No0 of /efe4ti%es
0Applicable to Normal Distribution only1
Assumption : 'rocess Distribution .ean is centered on the Nominal -pecification
C$9 Si+# ;<
!ulit"
Le%el
Totl
Tolern4e
Bnd ;<
M Yield No0 of defe4ti%es
;$$#<
'0)) 1 2 %*.2%*+4*2*( 31(312
'0*= 2 4 +!.44++*(!+( 4!!22
(0'' 3 % ++.(3222%!!% 2%++
(0)) 4 * ++.++3%%2(+3 %3
(0*= ! 12 ++.++++42!(+ 2.!(4
-0'' % 12 ++.++++++*22 2.222
-0)) ( 14 ++.+++++++++T 2.222223
-0*= * 1% ++.+++++++++T 2.2222222221
)0'' + 1* ++.+++++++++T 2.22222222222
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ,> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
SECTION III0) PROCESS CONTROL & PROCESS CAPABILITY
Preli#inr" Pro4ess C$:ilit"
T,e ultimate criterion of &rocess management is continuing im&rovement in t,e
abilit) of &roducts to e1ceed customer e1&ectations using efficient &rocesses. T4o
internal criteria must su&&ort t,isL &rocess stabilit) and &rocess ca&abilit). Stabilit) is
a &rere7uisite and must be attained first. T,e &rocess must be broug,t into a
statistical control 8 all s&ecial causes removed9. Process ca&abilit) can t,en be
assessed to determine t,e e1tent of common cause of variation.
T,ere are t4o as&ects of &rocess ca&abilit)L
Preliminar) ca&abilit)
Cngoing ca&abilit)
Preli#inr" Pro4ess C$:ilit"
>ffective 7ualit) &lanning . e1ecution s,ould )ield &rocesses 4,ic, are bot, stable
. ca&able. T,e e1tent to 4,ic, t,ese goals ,ave been ac,ieved is establis,ed for
bot, &rocess stabilit) and ca&abilit) b) a ca&abilit) stud) carried out before full
&roduction begins. T,is stud) called as &reliminar) &rocess ca&abilit) stud)G
&rovides a &reliminar) indication of t,e abilit) of a &rocess to &roduce &arts 4,ic,
are constantl) 4it,in s&ecifications.
Cf necessit)G it 4ill be of limited duration and 4ill not full) re&resent ongoing
&roduction conditions. =o4ever it does offer timel) information on &rocess
&erformance and 4,ere o&&ortunities for im&rovement lie. T,is stud) can usefull)
ta3e &lace at man) stages. :or e1am&le
Prior to ta3ing deliver) of &rocess e7ui&mentI for earl) resolution of concerns
$fter deliver) and installation to serve as a basis for a&&roval of s&ecific items of
&rocess e7ui&ment and t,e &rocess as an integrated 4,ole.
$ &reliminar) &rocess ca&abilit) stud) consists of four discrete stagesG 4,ic, can be
ma&&ed against t,e Deming c)cle PlanJ DoJStud)J$ct. T,e main as&ects are.
Pln 8organi'e t,e stud)9
T,is includes t,e identification of c,aracteristics and understanding of dominant
&rocess factors influencing t,is c,aracteristic.
/o 8 conduct t,e stud)9
>stablis, t,e ca&abilit) of measurement s)stem. 0onitor t,e significant eventsG on
variable of data control c,art. /etain t,e &arts for &ossible diagnostic &ur&oses.
Stud" 8 inter&ret t,e results9
$nal)'e t,e SPC c,art for stabilit) of bot, variation and location. :ind remed) for out
of control situations. Cnce stabilit) ,as been establis,edG identif) t)&e of distribution.
se &robabilit) &a&er for t,is. Calculate ca&abilit) indices according to distribution
t)&e and inter&ret t,e results in terms of re7uired &rocess &erformance.
A4t 8 res&ond to t,e findings9
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ,, of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
If t,ese indicate t,at t,e &rocess is ca&ableG a&&rove t,e &rocess and see3 furt,er
o&&ortunities for im&rovement. If t,e &rocess is not ca&able underta3e efforts to
im&rove t,e &rocess so t,at ca&abilit) is ac,ieved.
Condu4tin+ $reli#inr" $ro4ess 4$:ilit" stud"
Cbjectives
To obtain earl) information on ne4 or revised &rocess
To develo& &reliminar) control c,arts
To evaluate &rocess stabilit)
To assess acce&tabilit) for ongoing &roduction
Sco&e
$&&licable to eac, critical . significant c,aracteristics 4,ere C&3 value is
un3no4n
0a) be conducted at several &oints in evolution of ne4 &rocess
-at,er data
$t least 22 rational subgrou&s of 3 to ! measurements in eac,
If data is more limited start control c,art an),o4
>stablis, stabilit)
Plot on control c,art
>nsure stabilit) &rior to ca&abilit) anal)sis
Determine &erformance
>1amine distribution &attern of individual values
se tall) c,art or ,istogram
If t,e distribution of individual values a&&ears to be normalG calculate indices
If nonJnormal use ot,er statistical met,ods
/ecord P&3 8 Preliminar) &rocess &otential9 inde1
/e7uirement
Stable &rocess indicated b) control c,art
If P& X 1.%( t,e &rocess is usuall) unacce&table for &roduction
If P&[1.%( but P&3 X 1.%( G centre t,e &rocess
Cn an e1ce&tional basis P&3 bet4een 1.33 . 1.%( ma) be a&&roved
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ('' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Cl4ulte Indi4es
Process &otential and ca&abilit) indices are used to &rovide a standardi'ed measure
for e1&ressing t,e &erformance of a &rocess in relation to s&ecified re7uirement.
:our sets of indices involved areL
Indices
Potential Ca&abilit)
8measures &recision measures &recision
onl)9 and setting
Stud)
Preliminar) P& P&3
Cngoing C& C&3

Im&ortant noteL T,ese indices ma) be calculated onl) 4,en a control c,art indicates
t,at stabilit) ,as been ac,ieved i.e. &rocess is in statistical control0
C& S Process &otential inde10 C& is an inde1G 4,ic, is ratio of t,e s&ecified tolerance
range to t,e si1 standard deviation &rocess s&read 8or e7uivalent nonJnormal
distribution 4it,out regard to t,e location of data.9
C&3 S &rocess ca&abilit) inde1. C&3 is an inde1G 4,ic, considers bot, &rocess
s&read and t,e location 8setting9 of data in relation to t,e s&ecification limits0

P& S &reliminar) &otential inde1. P& is an inde1 similar to C& but is based on data
from earl)G s,ortJterm studies of ne4 or revised &rocesses. Data from at least 22
subgrou&s are re7uired for &reliminar) assessments.
P&3 S &reliminar) &rocess ca&abilit) inde1. P&3 is an inde1 similar to C&3 but is
based on data from earl)G s,ortJterm studies of ne4 or revised &rocesses.
:ormulae for indices

*
LSL B USL
C P
$ $
,
)
H B USL
P C
)
LSL H
P C
$9u $9u $9l 8 $9l

, ,
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ('( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Protot"$e $rts
PISTL It is an abbreviation for &er cent of Ins&ection Points 4,ic, Satisf) Tolerance.
It is an inde1G 4,ic, describes t,e e1tent to 4,ic, t,e first run of &arts 8&rior to
necessar) re4or39 meet t,e &rint re7uirements. T,e se7uence of events for t,e
PIST inde1 calculations follo4sL
1. Si1 &rotot)&e &arts are subjected to com&lete la)out c,ec3. $ll dimensions and
notes on t,e dra4ing are c,ec3ed.
2. PIST inde1 is calculated. PIST inde1 is calculated as t,e ratio of number of
conforming ins&ection &oints to total number of ins&ection &oints into 122.
('' F
#de ts #esure#en of nu#:er
o9 re tht ts #esure#en of Nu#:er
PIST

=ence PIST is re&orted as &ercentage.
PIPCL It is an abbreviation for Percent of IndicesG 4,ic, are &rocess ca&able.
PIPC is t,e &ercentage of critical or significant c,aracteristics 4it, C& . C&3 indices
greater t,an or e7ual to 1.33 in t,e &rotot)&e and &roduction &,ases.
8alternativel)G P& and P&3 indices 1.%(.
PIST is &art s&ecific and relates to all dimensions. PIPC is &rocess oriented and
relates to critical and significant c,aracteristics. T,e follo4ing figure gives a clear
idea of bot,.
PIST&PIPC /eri%tion
PIPC values are calculated in a similar manner to t,at ado&ted for PIST.
('' F
SCs nd CC of nu#:er
(0)) C nd C ?ith SCs ns CC of nu#:er
PIPC
$9 $

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(

P+e ('- of (*,
PIST
All di#0
Protot"$e
dt
/r?in+
/i#ensions
Criti4l &
Significant
c,aracterist
ic
PIPC
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
:ollo4ing bar c,art illustrates t,e PIST Dualit) ;enc,mar3s
1J>PJ >valuation &rotot)&e
2J#PJ #erification &rotot)&e
3J:;J :unctional ;uild
4J /egular su&&l)
PIST >1am&le
PIST e7uals t,e number of conforming ins&ection &oints divided total number of
ins&ection &oints multi&lied b) 122. :or t,is e1am&leG data from si1 &arts is s,o4n.
$ll data 4,ic, does not conform to blue&rint s&ecifications must be circled.
Dim. S&ecs. Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part ! Part %
$ 3.22 t 2.1 3.22 3.2* 3.24 3.24 3.22 3.2*
; 2.22 t 2.! 2.22 2.12 2.2* 2.2! 2.2! 2.23
C 1.22 t 2.1 1.23 1.2( 1.24 1.2! 1.2% 1.2%
D %.! t 2.1 %.!! %.%2 %.!! %.!4 %.%3 %.!!
> 2.22 t 2.1 2.2* 1.+( 2.22 2.1 2.22 2.12
: 2.! t 2.2! 2.!1 2.!2 2.!3 2.!1 2.!2 2.!2
- 3.22 t 2.1 2.+3 2.+* 2.+4 2.+3 2.+! 2.+(
= 3.! t 2.! 3.22 2.+2 3.22 3.12 3.22 3.22
I 4.2 t 2.! 4.23 4.22 4.2! 4.24 4.23 4.2!
Not 4it,in tolerance
T,e number of conforming ins&ection &ointsG ta3en from t,e bo1 above e7uals to 4*.
T,e total number of ins&ection &oints e7uals to number of &arts % multi&lied b)
number of c,aracteristics + 4,ic, e7uals to !4.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (') of (*,
PIST !UALITY BENC5MAR6S
(2
*!
122 122
2
22
42
%2
*2
122
122
1 2 3 4
P
e
r
4
e
n
t
+
e
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
PIST S 4* Q!4 1 122 S *+ M
PIST Dra4ing Q Data s,eet
In an effort to ,el& t,e &ilot &lant build ve,icles using onl) &arts 4it, traceable
dimensional accurac)G t,e si1 &ieces used for PIST la)out 4ill be mar3ed 4it, a
number 8\1J\%9 and t,e data 4ill be dis&la)ed on t,e format similar to t,e one
belo4.
:or t,is s,eet onl) t,e criticalQsignificant information needs to be used. $ll of t,e
criticalQsignificant c,aracteristics must be 4it,in t,e blue&rint s&ecifications.
)0
20
-0

(0 30
*0
=0
1. Identif) all critical Qsignificant ins&ection &oints 8in t,is 1J(9 on t,e dra4ing.
2. Dis&la) t,e data from t,e ( ins&ection &oints 8 &art \ 1 E &art \ %9
Part \ 1 2 3 4 !
1 2.1!1 3.1!2
2 2.1!* 3.14(
3 2.1!3 3.1!2
4 2.1!! 3.14*
! 2.1!4 3.1!2
% 2.1!1 3.1!2
3. Dis&la) t,e range8 ,ig, . lo4 9 of t,e above data 4it, res&ect to t,e
s&ecifications.
2.1%2 JJ SA 3.1%! E SA
2.1!* 3.1%1
2. 1!1 3.14(
2.14! J ASA 3.14! JJ ASA
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ('2 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
>P . #P are &rotot)&e &,ases and :;G P . / are &roduction &,ases.
T,e c,art s,o4n above illustrates t,e PIPC goals. T,e ,eig,t of bars re&resents t,e
&ercent conformance relative to goal. T,e PIPC c,art s,o4s a goal of 1.2 for C& .
C&3 values during &rotot)&e &,ase and a goal of 1.33 during &roduction &,ases.
T,e distinction is made because of &ractical use of C& . C&3 . C& is trac3ed
because manufactures must evaluate t,e &rocess variation in relation to allo4able
tolerances. If t,at relations,i& C& is satisfactor)G t,e ne1t ste& is to evaluate t,e
abilit) to center t,e &rocess on t,e nominal C&3.
It must be stressed t,at t,e PIPC values for a &art are e1tremel) im&ortant to
establis, t,e need for &rocess im&rovement actions. T,e goals are not critical to
&rotot)&e build. In ot,er 4ordsG if &rocess ca&abilit) can not be demonstrated but t,e
individual &arts meet t,e s&ecifications t,e &rotot)&e ve,icle build 4ill be successful.
T,e PIPC inde1 is needed to trac3 4,et,er continuous im&rovement is ac,ieved.
Process &otential and 7ualit) Indices summar) data s,eet. 8>1am&le9
1. Part ]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]!. Su&&lier contact ]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
2.Su&&lier ]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]%. Contact &,one ]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
3.Code ]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]](. Part Descri&tion ]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ('3 of (*,
PIPC !UALITY BENC5MAR6S
2
2.2
2.4
2.%
2.*
1
1.2
1.4
>P #P :; P /
Protot"$es
P
r
o
4
e
s
s

C
:
i
l
i
t
"
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
4.$ddress ]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]] ]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
#e,icle ;uild8Circle one9L >P #P :; Ct,er 8Define9
C,aracteristics T)&e
C.C. E 0 . 0 critical S.C. 0 . 0 Significant
c,aracteristics c,aracteristics
Number of critical andQor significant c,aracteristicsL
1 T)&e C& C&3
2 T)&e C& C&3
3 T)&e C& C&3
4 T)&e C& C&3
! T)&e C& C&3
% T)&e C& C&3
( T)&e C& C&3
* T)&e C& C&3
+ T)&e C& C&3
12 T)&e C& C&3
PIST S (*Q+2 1 122 S *%.( M

PIPCc& S 23Q2( 1 122 S *!.2M PIPCc&3 S 22Q2( 1 122 S (4M
Comments
]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
Pre&ared b) Date
SECTION III02 . MAC5INE CAPABILITY
A0 Reltionshi$ to S$e4ifi4tion
0.0 ,ave a &,iloso&,) of never ending im&rovement in 7ualit). =o4everG t,ere is a
minimum re7uirement t,at t,e mac,ine or &rocess s&read s,ould be contained
4it,in t,e s&ecification.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ('* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
-enerall)G t,ere is a difference bet4een mac,ines and &rocesses for statistical
anal)sis. 0ac,ines are regarded as discrete o&erationsG for e1am&le a drill or a
lat,e. Processes are considered to contain a combination of &eo&leG e7ui&mentG
materialsG met,ods and environment.
Ca&abilit) is measured relating t,e actual &erformance of a mac,ine or &rocess to
its s&ecified &erformance.
:or variables 8measured data9 t,e ca&abilit) of a mac,ine is a measure of t,e s,ortJ
term influences on &roduct variabilit) emanating mainl) from t,e mac,ine. T,e
minimum re7uirement is t,at t 4 standard deviations are contained 4it,in t,e
s&ecification limits. T,is means t,at ++.++4M are 4it,in tolerance. T,is more
stringent re7uirement is necessar) to indicate t,at t,e goal of ++.(3M 8 t 3
standard deviations9 &rocess ca&abilit) could be ac,ieved over t,e long term. T,is is
still no guarantee of continued conformance to s&ecification. To ma1imise
conformance to s&ecificationG continuous im&rovement of ca&abilit) must be
&ursued.
In generalG &rocess ca&abilit) im&rovement can be ac,ieved b)L
>nsuring t,at all s&ecial causes of variation ,ave been eliminated.
>nsuring t,at t,e &rocess means is targeted to4ard t,e s&ecified nominal
value.
/eduction of common cause variation.
:or attribute dataG ca&abilit) is a measure of t,e conformit) rate of t,e mac,ine
&rocess.
B0 C$:ilit" Indi4es ;Vri:les ?ith Nor#l distri:utions<
Ca&abilit) indices are a means used to indicate t,e variabilit) of a &rocess or
mac,ine relative to its com&onent tolerance. T,e follo4ing met,ods are used for
normal distributions.
Process Ca&abilit) Indices 8C& and C&39
<,en a &rocess is under statistical control 8i.e.G onl) common causes
remaining9 a &rocess ca&abilit) inde1 can be calculated directl) from t,e
variables control c,art. $n estimate of standard deviation 8Z9 is calculated
using t,e formulaL
d-
R

<,ere is t,e average range and d2 is a constant de&endent u&on sam&le
si'e 8n9G or
42
s

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ('= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
<,ere s is t,e average of t,e sam&le standard deviations and c4 is a
constant de&endent u&on t,e sam&le si'e 8n9
N - ) 2 3 * = > , ('
d2 1.13 1.%+ 2.2% 2.33 2.!3 2.(2 2.*! 2.+( 3.2*
c4 2.(+* 2.**% 2.+21 2.+42 2.+!2 2.+!+ 2.+%! 2.+%+ 2.+(3
*
tolern4e s$e4ified totl
C indeF 4$:ilit" $ro4ess The
$

<,ic, indicates t,e s&read of t,e &rocess. T,e &rocess ca&abilit) inde1 C&3 S
minimum ofL

)
li#it soe4ified lo?er H
or
)
H B li#it d s$e4ifi4ie u$$er

<,ic, indicates bot, t,e &rocess setting and its s&read.
0ac,ine Ca&abilit) Indices 8Cm and Cm39
Process &otential can be described using a mac,ine ca&abilit) inde1. $n
estimate of t,e standard deviation 8 or s9 can be obtained from a mac,ine
ca&abilit) stud).
>
4$:ilit" esti#ted

)
tolern4e s$e4ified totl
C indeF 4$:ilit" #4hine The
#

4,ic, indicates onl) t,e s&read.
T,e mac,ine ca&abilit) inde1 Cm3 S minimum ofL
)
li#it s$e4ified lo?er H
or
)
H B li#it s$e4ified u$$er
4,ic, indicates bot, setting . s&read.
0ac,ine Ca&abilit) studies does not identif) s&ecial causes.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ('> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
NoteL <,ere a unilateral tolerance is s&ecifiedG C&3 or Cm3 s,ould be
calculated using t,e a&&ro&riate &art of t,e above formulae 8de&ending on
4,et,er t,e u&&er or lo4er limit is s&ecified9.
C0 Inter$retin+ Pro4ess C$:ilit" fro# Control Chrts
$ssessment of &rocess ca&abilit) begins after s&ecial causes ,ave been identified
and corrected and t,e control c,arts demonstrate t,at t,e &rocess is in statistical
controlG &referabl) for 22 or more subgrou&s.
#ariable C,arts
Ca&abilit) inde1 is calculated using t,e / or s values develo&ed over t,is
&eriodG as described on t,e earlier sectionG in order to assess its relations,i&
to s&ecification. T,is t,en forms t,e basis of &rocess im&rovement actions
and is a means of 7uantif)ing t,e effectiveness of t,ese actions.
It is necessar) conform ca&abilit) 4,en control limits are recalculated. If
eit,er control limit falls outside t,e &reviousl) establis,ed control limit 8i.e.G
CA becomes ,ig,er or ACA becomes lo4er9 ca&abilit) must be reJ
assessed.
It s,ould be noted t,atG on &rocesses 4it, a moving meanG t,e above
calculation does not full) reflect t,e ca&abilit) of t,e &rocessG t,ereforeG
ca&abilit) s,ould be assessed as follo4sL
*
#en the of #o%e#ent %er+e B toern4e s$e4ified tot
C
$

C&3 is t,e minimum ofL

)
-
#en the of #o%e#ent %er+e
H B li#it s$e4ified u$$er
$nd
)
-
#en the of #o%e#ent %er+e
B li#it s$e4ified lo?er B H
:or t,is t)&e of &rocess and inde1 of less t,an 1.2 indicates t,at an
e1cessive movement of t,e mean is being allo4ed.
Attri:utes Chrts
Ca&abilit) for & and n& c,arts is e1&ressed as t,e &ro&ortion conforming to
s&ecification. T,is is calculatedG using t,e average &erformance levels during t,e
22 or more subgrou& stud) &eriodG as follo4sL
P and n& c,arts
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (', of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR

$ B ( 4$:ilit"
:or c and u c,arts ca&abilit) cannot be e1&ressed in t,e same manner. C and u are
usedG res&ectivel)G as measures of &rocess &erformance.
Note. $n) ca&abilit) anal)sis tec,ni7ueG no matter ,o4 &recise it a&&earsG can give
onl) a&&ro1imate results. T,is ,a&&ens because 819 t,ere is al4a)s some sam&ling
variationG 829 no &rocess is ever full) in statistical controlG and 839 no out&ut e1actl)
follo4s t,e Normal distribution 8or an) ot,er standard distribution9. :inal results
s,ould al4a)s be used 4it, caution and inter&reted conservativel).
/0 Introdu4tion to C$:ilit" Studies
0ac,ine ca&abilit) studies are means of assessing &rocess &otential over a s,ort
&eriod of time from a relativel) small amount of sam&le data. $ s,ortJterm stud) of
t,is t)&e 4ill give an estimate of t,e variation due onl) to t,e mac,ine itself. It 4ill not
reflect ot,er &rocess influencesG 4,ic, var) over time. :or t,is reason t,e
re7uirement is for ^ 4 standard deviations to lie 4it,in s&ecification. T,e) are
t)&icall) used as &art of a large investigation of t,e &rocess or as a means of
assessing t,e &erformance of a ne4 mac,ine or &rocess.
Cne met,od of assessing mac,ine ca&abilit) is a gra&,ical Nstraig,t lineO met,od
using t,e &ro&erties of &robabilit) &a&er. T,e Normal cumulative M &robabilit) scale
s,o4n in :igure readil) transforms t,e bell s,a&ed Normal distribution into a straig,t
line. It &ermits t,e visuali'ation of a Normal distribution in terms of a straig,tJline
reference standard.
It is desirable to 4or3 in terms of a straig,tJline reference standard for a number of
reasonsL
It &ermits a visual test of fit against t,e normal distribution
It ma3es for ease of inter&olation and e1tra&olation
It facilitates t,e correction of individual measurements and ot,er errors
<,ilst t,e basic conce&ts of straig,t line &robabilit) standards ,ave been illustrated
in terms of one &articular distribution 8Normal9G in essenceG a similar a&&roac, is
ado&ted 4it, ot,er distributions.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ((' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
E0 M4hine C$:ilit" Stud" EF#$le
Ste$ (0 PreBstud" ReGuire#ents
Determine t,e number of &arts re7uired for t,e stud)G usuall) !2. If t,e &attern of
variation is e1&ected to be nonJNormalG a sam&le si'e of at least !2 is mandator)G
and even greater is desirable.
>nsure t,at all materials ,ave been c,ec3ed and a&&roved for conformance to
s&ecifications.
>nsure t,at t,e measuringQtesting e7ui&ment ,as measuring &recision of at least
1Q12 of t,e s&ecified tolerance.
Ta3e ste&s to ensure an uninterru&ted runG under normal &roduction conditionsG
4it, t,e mac,ine set at nominal.
In a multi&le fi1ture setJu&G treat eac, station as a se&arate mac,ine for mac,ine
ca&abilit) &ur&oses.
Ste$ -0 Colle4t nd Stru4ture /t
0easure t,e sam&le out&ut of t,e mac,ine and recordG in se7uenceG on
&robabilit) 4or3s,eet.
0ar3 off t,e measurement scale to embrace t,e full range of readings. $
guide to t,e number of class intervals in t,e scale can be derived from t,e
s7uare root of t,e number of readings in t,e sam&le 8 9. >.g. for a sam&le
of !2G ( class intervals 4ould be a good starting &ointG 4,ilst 12 class
intervals could be more a&&ro&riate for a sam&le of 122. Normall)G t,e
scale 4ill be ta3en at t,e level of &recision at 4,ic, t,e measurements are
ta3en. 0ar3 t,e s&ecification limits b) bold ,ori'ontal lines across t,e
form.
Transform t,e data into a tall) c,art.
$t t,is &oint it is im&ortant to stud) t,e &attern formed b) t,e tall) mar3s
8t,e ,istogram9 to determine 4,et,er t,e &attern generall) corres&onds to
a Normal distribution. If it does notG use anot,er a&&ro&riate met,od.
S)stems using com&uter etc ma) not ,ave t,e abilit) to assess for
normalit) andG ,enceG can &roduce inaccurate results.
In se7uenceG count and record t,e number of occurrences for eac, valueG
in t,e fre7uenc) column 8,eaded 5f69I t,en cumulate t,ese fre7uencies in
t,e ne1t column 8f9G 4or3ing from t,e bottom u&4ards. :inall) convert
t,ese into &ercentages of t,e overall sam&le si'e 8column fM9.
It is necessar) to recognise t,at t,ese cumulative &ercentages corres&ond
4it, t,e u&&er class limit rat,er t,an t,e mid class ones. Ta3e t,e reading
+!. In reading to t,e nearest !Nm t,is value re&resents a range of values
e1tending from +2.! 8lo4er class limit9 u& toG but not including +(.! 8u&&er
class limit9. <,ilst 1( readings lie bet4een +2.! and +(.!G on a cumulative
basis *%M lie belo4 +(.! 8t,e u&&er class interval9. =enceG to &lot t,e data
on t,e 0.0 ca&abilit) 4or3s,eet eac, cumulative M value must be
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ((( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
located on t,e gra&, along t,e ste&&ed line. 8NoteL 4,en reading bac3 to
t,e scaleG ignore t,e ste& u&9.
Colle4tin+ & stru4turin+ dt
C,aracteristic Dimension C&eration SD
Part Number Name
#alue #alue #alue #alue #alue #alue #alue #alue #alue #alue
,3 >3
>3 ,'
,3 ,' et40
('3 ,3
,' (''
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ((- of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Ste$ )0 Constru4t Pro::ilit" Plot
:ollo4ing t,e arro4s across from t,e leftJ,and side to t,e rig,t ,and side of
t,e formG &lot a &oint on t,e interce&t of t,e u&&er class interval and t,e
&oint on t,e lo4er scale coinciding 4it, t,e cumulative fre7uenc)
&ercentage.
/e&eat t,is &rocedure for all t,e &oints in t,e cumulative fre7uenc)
&ercentage columnG e1ce&t for t,e 122M value 8for 4,ic, t,ere is no &oint
on t,e &robabilit) scale9. NoteL Aoss of data can be avoided at t,is &oint b)
&lotting t,e average of t,e last t4o &ercentages at t,e final interval mid
&oint.
If t,e &lotted &oints lie in a reasonabl) straig,t lineG dra4 a 5best fit6 straig,t
line t,roug, t,em. >1tend t,is line until it meets t,e vertical lines at t,e
e1tremes of t,e &ercentage scales 8^ 4s lines9.
If a close fit is not &ossible t,is indicates t,at t,e data does not conform to
t,e Normal distribution 4,ic, ,as been assumed. :ollo4ing &ages 4ill
discuss t,e 4a)s of ,andling t,ese situations.
Ste$ 20 Inter$ret for Confor#n4e to S$e4ifi4tion
If t,e e1tension of t,e best fit line to t,e vertical lines at t,e e1tremes of t,e
&ercentage scale does not cross eit,er of t,e s&ecification limit linesG t,e mac,ine
can be deemed to be conforming 8i.e.G ++.++4M of t,e &roduct 4ill fall 4it,in
s&ecification9.
If t,e bestJfit line ,as crossed eit,er s&ecification limit lineG t,e mac,ine is not
meeting s&ecification. T,is can be caused b) one or bot, of t,e follo4ing
conditionsL
Its central location or mean could be too ,ig, or too lo4. In t,is caseG if t,e
distribution mean could be s,ifted 8b) adjusting t,e mac,ineG for instance9
t,e ^ 4s limits could be broug,t 4it,in s&ecification and t,e mac,ine 4ould
be considered ca&able. Cn t,e 0.0 ca&abilit) 4or3s,eetG t,is corres&onds
to s,ifting t,e slo&&ed line u& or do4nG but 3ee&ing it &arallel to t,e original
line.
Its s&read or standard deviation could be too great. In t,is caseG t,e cause
mig,t be as sim&le as erraticall) c,uc3ed &artsG or as com&le1 as e1cessive
internal mac,ining tolerancesG bearing 4earG etc. if t,e s&read can be
reduced b) correcting t,e mac,ineG t,e line on t,e gra&, 4ould become
s,allo4er in slo&eG bringing t,e ^ 4s limits 4it,in s&ecification.
/ead off t,e mean value 8t,e setting9 from t,e !2M vertical interce&t 4it,
t,e &lot.
T,e estimate of 8*s9 ca&abilit) as used for calculating mac,ine ca&abilit)
indices is derived from t,e vertical distance bet4een t,e &oints 4,ere t,e
best fit line interce&ts 4it, t,e vertical lines at t,e e1tremes of t,e
&ercentage scales.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (() of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
10 NonBNor#l /t
1. /easons for NonJNormalit)
T,e &receding discussions 4ere based on a Normal distribution. <,ile t,is is t)&ical
for man) o&erationsG t,ere are situations in 4,ic, t,e data are not Normall)
distributed. T,ese include t,e follo4ingL
T,e underl)ing distribution fits a standard statistical model ot,er t,an Normal.
:or e1am&leL
:latnessG outJofJroundness or ot,er c,aracteristicsG 4,ic, are bounded b) 'ero
oftenG ,as a s3e4 &attern.
T,e basic underl)ing distribution is com&le1 and does not fit an) standard model.
:or e1am&leL
Constraints 4it,in t,e mac,ineG suc, as internal sto&s or selfJadjusting 4ill
almost al4a)s e1,ibit a nonJNormal &attern.
Cut&ut 4,ic, is t,e result of several &rocess ste&s or 4,ic, is t,e combined
out&ut from several similar mac,inesG ma) not be Normall) distributedG even if
out&ut of t,e individual mac,ine is normall) distributed.
0ovement of meanG resultingG for instanceG from tool 4ear ma) cause nonJ
Normalit).
>ven t,oug, t,e basic distribution of t,e mac,ine6s out&ut is NormalG
s&ecial causes of variation ma) be &resent in t,e &rocess causing
nonJNormal &atterns. :or e1am&leL
$ damaged tool or s4arf in t,e locating device.
2. Inter&retation sing Probabilit) Pa&erL
T,e standard Normal &robabilit) &a&er used in t,e a&&roved mac,ine ca&abilit)
4or3s,eet ma) also serve as a diagnostic tool to detect divergencies from Normalit)
and ,el& decide future actions.
If t,ere is a fair scatter of t,e &oints &lotted and no distinct &attern emergesG
a tec,nical anal)sis of t,e mac,ine s,ould be conducted.
If t,e &oints ta3e u& a &articular &atternG various inter&retations of t,e
be,aviour of t,e c,aracteristics ma) be made. >1am&les are s,o4n
,ere4it, in 8$9G 8;9. 8C9 s,o4s a case 4,ere t4o distinct Normal distribution
&atterns ,ave been mi1ed. T4o se&arate anal)ses s,ould be &erformed b)
segregating t,e t4o distributions.
If t,e &oints ta3e u& a smoot, curve G as in 8D9G t,is indicates t,at t,e
c,aracteristic conforms to a regular distribution ot,er t,an t,e Normal.
Inter&retation of t,e s,a&e determines t,e ne1t ste&G 4,ic, is t,e c,oice of an
alternative &robabilit) &a&er.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ((2 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
3. Inter&retations sing Ct,er T)&es of Probabilit) Pa&er.
In t,e same 4a) t,at Normal values can be &lotted on Normal &robabilit) &a&erG
t,ere are t)&es of &robabilit) &a&er for ot,er t)&es of distributionG suc, as log Normal
and <eibull. se of t,ese s&ecialised &a&ers is more difficult because t,e vertical
a1es are not linear as 4it, t,e Normal distribution. Cne s3e4 &robabilit) &a&erG
4,ic, does ,ave a linear vertical a1isG is e1treme value &robabilit) &a&erG but t,is
&a&er ,as been found to be suitable onl) for a limited number of mac,ines or
&rocesses. Points s,ould be &lotted on t,e &a&ers against t,e a&&ro&riate
measurement and cumulative &ercentage fre7uenc) values in t,e same manner as
for Normal data. T,e &a&er giving t,e straig,tJline fit s,ould t,en be selected. <,en
a satisfactor) distribution fit ,as been ac,ievedG ca&abilit) indices ma) be estimated
b) reading off t,e values at t,e &oints 4,ere t,e best fit line interce&ts t,e 2.13! and
++.*%! &ercentile linesG t,ese values are t,en used in t,e follo4ing formulaeL
$er4entile '0()3 B $er4entile ,,0>*3
Tolern4e S$e4ified Totl
C C
$ #

$er4entile '0()3 H
Li#it ion S$e4ifi4t Lo?er H

H B $er4entile ,,0>*3
H B li#it s$e4ified U$$er

. of #ini#u# 9 C 9 C
$ #

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ((3 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Se4tion III0 3 E%lution of $ro4ess 4$:ilit" for Chr4teristi4s tht follo?
S9e? /istri:ution
C& and C&3 formulae ,old good onl) 4,en t,e distribution of t,e c,aracteristic
follo4s normal distribution. T,is is because % measures &rocess ca&abilit) under
assum&tion t,at t,e distribution of c,aracteristic follo4s normal distribution. If t,e
c,aracteristic is normall) distributedG &ercentage of items outside t,e s&ecifications
is al4a)s 2.2( MG 4,en C&3 Jis 1.
T,ere are some c,aracteristicsG 4,ic, do not follo4 t,e normal distribution. T,e
e1am&les are some of t,e geometrical tolerances li3e ovalit)G eccentricit) etc.
-enerall) t,e) follo4 s3e4ed distribution. :or a s3e4ed distribution t,e &ercent
outside limits is more t,an 2.2(M even if t,e C&3 value is 1. =ence for a s3e4ed
distribution t,e follo4ing formula is used for calculation of &rocess ca&abilit)
k
$ $
C H C

<,ere C&3 ,as conventional meaning and is a correction factor 4,ic, is given b)
t,e follo4ing e7uationL
( )
) $
) $9
-
)
6 F C
, 6 F C (> ; 6

3
3 ) + +
6) '
n
H
H

( B n
n
H
B H

-
-

( )
( )
3
2
H B H
H B H n
6
)
EF#$le
Aet us ta3e one e1am&le for better understanding
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ((* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
:or a data let us assume t,at ma1imum limit for out of roundness S 2.2!
S 2.21( G S 2.21( and @3 S 1.32
T,en C&3 S 82.2! E2.21(9Q 3 W 2.21(
S 1.12
;) substituting t,e values of C&3 and @3 in t,e formula
S 2.(2!
C& S 1 C&3 S 1.1 1 2.(2!
S 2.(*
=ence actual &rocess ca&abilit) is 2.(* and not 1.1 calculated b) t,e normal
formula.

It is im&ortant to note ,ere t,at C&3 overestimates t,e value if t,e &rocess does not
follo4 t,e normal distribution.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ((= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Se4tion IV0 Ad%n4ed Sttisti4l Tools
(0 Correltion & Re+ression
Correlation concerns t,e relations,i& bet4een t4o variables. /egression is t,e use
of relations,i& to &redict t,e outcome of a &rocess. T,ere are t4o 4a)s of describing
t,e relations,i& bet4een t4o variables E gra&,ical and mat,ematical. -ra&,ical
descri&tion of correlation is scatter diagram.
(0 Correltion
0at,ematical relations,i& bet4een t4o variables is described b) correlation.
In &rocess control one aims to control t,e c,aracteristics of t,e out&ut of t,e &rocess
b) controlling a &rocess &arameter. Cne succeeds in t,is if t,e &arameters are
correctl) c,osen.
T,e c,oice is usuall) based on judgment and 3no4ledge of t,e concerned
tec,nolog). Cne assumes correlation bet4een a variable &roduct c,aracteristic and
a variable &rocess &arameter. T,ere is a need to test if t,e assum&tion is correct
&articularl) 4,en one gets nonJconforming out&ut in s&ite of t,e &rocess a&&earing
to be in control.
T,is is 4,) one needs to stud) t,e correlation bet4een t,e t4o variables.
Correlation Coefficient
T,e 7uantitative measure of correlation bet4een t4o variablesG t,e correlation
coefficientG is re&resented b) t,e s)mbol r.
To calculate t,e value of rG one needs several &aired observations.
T,e formula is as given belo4
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

2
2
Y B Y H B H
Y B Y H B H
r
Cr alternative formula is as under
1
]
1
,
_
1
1
]
1

n
Y
H
n
H
H
n
Y F H
B HY
r
-
-
-
-
(
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ((> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
T,e total range of t,e value of r is E1 to T1. $ score of E1 indicates a ver) strong
negative relation meaning t,at if 1 goes u& ) goes do4n. $ score of T1 indicates a
strong &ositive relations,i& 4,ere 1 and ) go u& or do4n toget,er. $ score of 2
indicates absence of relations,i&. #alues closer to 2 indicate mild relations,i& and
t,ose closer to 1 indicate strong relations,i&.
T,e follo4ing figures indicate gra&,icall) t,e inter&retation of t,e values.

r I B( r I B'03 r I '
r I '03 r I (
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ((, of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Re+ression
<,ile calculating t,e coefficient of correlationG also called regression coefficient8r9G
t,e data 4as fitted into a best fitting straig,t line. T,e formula t,at describes t,is
straig,t line ,as some constants. T,ese constants ,el& one &redict t,e value of a
&roduct c,aracteristic for a given value of t,e &rocess &arameter. T,ese are t4o
major uses of regression.
Aet us consider t,e e7uation of a straig,t line.
H S mK T c
In t,is K . H are variables and m . c are constants.
:or t,e sa3e of convenience let us c,ange t,e nomenclature of constants to
H S aK T b
T,e formula for calculating a is
( )( )
( )
2
H B H
" B " H B H

C/
( )
n
H
H
n
Y F H
B HY

-
2
and
F B " :
=ere t,e result of a &roduct c,aracteristic can be &redicted b) 3no4ing t,e &rocess
&arameter.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (-' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Process C&timi'ation
Process C&timi'ation is reverse of &rediction. Aet us consider t,e e7uation
H S aK T b
HJb S aK
Cr K S 8HJb9 Q a
:or a desired value of &roduct c,aracteristicG 4e can select t,e &rocess &arameter.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (-( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
IV0 - 0 Ad%n4ed Sttisti4l Tools @ t @ Test
T,is is a&&lied 4,en one 4ants to c,ec3 if t,e difference bet4een t4o &rocess
averages is significant or not. T,e t4o averages to be com&ared ma) eit,er be
eit,er be &rocess average of a modified &rocess and t,e average of traditional
&rocess or averages of t4o alternative &rocesses.
5 t 5 test is a&&licable for variable data as 4ell as attribute data.
T,is gives rise to four &ossible combinations
a. Traditional #s. 0odified &rocess J #ariable data
b. Com&arison of t4o &rocesses J #ariable data
c. Traditional #s. 0odified &rocess J $ttribute data
d. Com&arison of t4o &rocesses J $ttribute data
$s t,e a&&lication formula in eac, case is differentG eac, needs to be dealt
se&aratel).
0 Trditionl Vs0 Modified $ro4ess
T,e &rocess for a&&l)ing 5 t A test to c,ec3 if t,e &rocess average in case of a
modified &rocess ,as s,ifted significantl) from t,e traditional &rocess consists of t,e
follo4ing ste&sL
1. Collect data about t,e out&ut of t,e modified &rocess for t,e variable &arameter
to be com&ared.
2. Calculate t,e average of t,e ne4 &rocess b) using t,e follo4ing formula
n
H
H

<,ere
%lues indi%idul of su# the is H
$nd
n is t,e number of sam&les
3. Calculate t,e standard deviation 8s9 b) using t ,e formula
( )
2
( B n
H B H
s

<,ere n E1 is t,e degrees of freedom or one less t,an t,e number of sam&les.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (-- of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
20 Calculate t,e value of 5 t 5 for t,e test using t,e formula
n
(
s
H
t

<,ere is t,e &o&ulation mean or traditional &rocess average in t,is case.

30 Select an a&&ro&riate confidence interval level and decide 4,et,er deviation on
bot, sides are relevant or onl) t,ose on one side. C,ec3 t,e critical value of 5 t6
for nJ1 degrees of freedom and t,e selected confidence level from table
*0 C,ec3 if t,e value of 5 t 5 calculated in ste& 4 is smaller or greater 8ignore t,e
negative sign9 t,an t,e critical value e1tracted from t,e table.
=0 If t,e calculated value of 5 t 5 is greater t,an t,e value ta3en from t,e tableG t,e
,)&ot,esis t,at t,e t4o averages are t,e same can be rejected. In ot,er 4ordsG
4e can conclude t,at t,ere is enoug, evidence to believe t,at t,e average of
&rocess is s,ifted.
Cn t,e ot,er ,andG if t,e value of 5 t 5 is smaller t,an t,at ta3en from t,e table
<e can conclude t,at t,ere is not enoug, evidence to believe t,at t,e &rocess
average ,as s,ifted.
:0 Co#$rison of t?o $ro4esses K %ri:le dt
In t,is 4e can c,ec3 ,o4 @ t 5 test is a&&lied to c,ec3 if t,e difference bet4een
T,e &rocess averages of t4o alternative &rocesses is significant. In t,e earlier
sectionG t,ere 4as traditional &rocess against 4,ic, 4e 4ere com&aring a ne4 or
modified &rocess. In t,is case t,ere is no traditional &rocess 4it, a different status.
;ot, are on e7ual footing and t,erefore si'e of bot, sets of sam&les enter into t,e
calculations 5 t 6. T,e ste&s in t,e &rocedure areL
1. Collect t,e data for t,e &arameter of interest for t,e &rocesses to be com&ared.
Aet us call t,e &rocesses $ . ;.
2. Calculate t,e mean for t,e t4o &rocesses using t,e formula

n
H
H nd
n
H
H
:
:
:

<,ere K
a
are individual values from &rocess $
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (-) of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
K
b
are individual values from &rocess ;
n
a are number of sam&les from &rocess $ and
n
b are number of sam&les from &rocess ;

3. Calculate t,e combined standard deviation of t,e t4o &rocesses b) t,e formula
( ) ( )
- n n
H B H H H
s
:
:
:
:
+
+

2
a
4,ere Sab is t,e combined standard deviation of t4o &rocesses.
20 Calculate t,e value of 5 t 5 b) using t,e formula
:
:
:
n n
s
H B H
t
1 1
+
!. Select t,e desired confidence level and find from t,e table t,e critical value for t
for 8 na Tnb J 29 degrees of freedom
*0 If calculated value of 5 t6 8ignoring t,e negative sign9 is larger t,an t,e critical
values in t,e tableG t,e ,)&ot,esis t,at t,e mean for t,e t4o &rocesses is t,e
same is rejected. If calculated value is smallerG t,e ,)&ot,esis is acce&ted.
40Trditionl Vs0 Modified $ro4essB Attri:ute dt
In case of attribute data t,e statistic of interest is &G t,e fraction defective mean. 5 t 5
test is used to c,ec3 if t,e &rocess c,anges ,ave resulted in a s,ift in t,e fraction
defective mean from t,at of traditional &rocess. T,e &rocess is ver) similar to t,e
corres&onding test for variable data. T,e ste&s areL
1. Collect fraction defective data for t,e revised &rocess.
2. Calculate t,e value of & t,e mean fraction defective of sam&les using t,e
formula
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (-2 of (*,
tested ss#$les of no0 Totl
defe4ti%es of no0 Totl
p
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
3. Calculate t,e value of 5 t 6 using t,e formula
<,ere &t is t,e value of t,e fraction defective mean for t,e traditional &rocess.
4. Com&are t,e calculated value of 6 t 5 for t,e selected confidence limit from t,e
table and dra4 conclusions as earlier.
d0 Co#$rison of t?o $ro4essesB Attri:ute dt
T,e &rocedure for a&&l)ing t,e 5 t6 test for fraction defectives for t4o alternative
&rocesses is similar to t,e corres&onding &rocess for variable data. T,e ste&s of t,e
&rocedure areL
1. Collect fraction defectives data for t,e t4o &rocesses.
2. Calculate values for mean fraction defective for t,e t4o &rocesses.
3. Calculate6 t6 using t,e formula
4. Com&are t,e calculated value of 5 t 5 4it, t,e critical value for t,e confidence level
and dra4 conclusions as earlier.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (-3 of (*,
n
p p
t
) 1 (
t
$ B $

:
: :
:
n
$ $
n
$ $
$ $
t
) 1 ( ) 1 (
+
a
B $ro4ess of s#$les of nu#:er the is n
A $ro4ess of s#$les of nu#:er the is n
B $ro4ess for defe4ti%e fr4tion %er+e is $
A $ro4ess for defe4ti%e fr4tion %er+e is $ ?here
:
:

AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
IV0 ) Ad%n4ed Sttisti4l Tools Chi SGure Test
:or testing if t,e standard deviation of a &ro&osed ne4 &rocess is significantl) ,ig,er
t,an t,at of a traditional &rocessG K_ 8C,i S7uare9 test is a&&lied. It can also be
a&&lied to test if t,e &ro&osed ne4 &rocess 4ill be able to &erform as e1&ected b)
t,e tolerance limits of t,e &arameter. T,e ste&s in t,e &rocedure for t,e a&&lication
of t,e test are as follo4sL
1. Collect data using t,e &ro&osed ne4 &rocess.
2. Calculate standard deviation from t,e data using t,e formula
3. Calculate t,e value of K_ using t,e formula
$re t,e standard deviations of t,e traditional and &ro&osed
&rocesses res&ectivel).
4. Com&are t,e value of K_ calculated in ste& 3 4it, t,at in t,e table for t,e
a&&ro&riate confidence level and degrees of freedom.
!. If t,e calculated value of K_ is larger t,an t,e value in t,e table Gt,e
=)&ot,esis t,at t,e standard deviation of t,e t4o &rocesses is t,e same is
rejected im&l)ing t,at t,e standard deviation of t,e &ro&osed ne4 &rocess is
significantl) ,ig,er t,an t,e traditional &rocess. If on t,e ot,er ,and t,eG
Calculated value is lo4erG it can be concluded t,at t,ere is insufficient evidence
to reject t,e ,)&ot,esis.

IV0 2 Ad%n4ed Sttisti4l Tools @ 1 A Test
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (-* of (*,
( )
1
2

n
p
F B F

( )
t
( B n

2
2 p
X
p
nd
$ t
where
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
:or com&aring t,e &recision of t4o alternate &rocessesG : test can be used.
T,e sam&le si'e or t,e degrees of freedom for bot, t,e &rocesses enter into
consideration and ,enceG as 4e ,ad seen for t,e testG t,e formula for : test differs
from t,at of C,iJS7uare test. =ere even t,e table is different as bot, degrees of
freedom ,ave to be considered for arriving at t,e critical value of :. T,e ste&s for
a&&l)ing t,e : test are as follo4sL
1. Collect data for t,e &arameter of interest for t,e out&ut of bot, t,e &rocesses and
calculate t,e standard deviation for bot, t,e &rocesses.
2. Calculate t,e value of : using t,e formula
T,is ensures t,at t,e value of : 4ill never be less t,an 1.
3. Com&are t,e value of : calculated in ste& 2 4it, t,e critical value of : from table
for +! M confidence level at a&&licable degrees of freedom for t4o &rocesses.
4. If calculated value of : is ,ig,er t,an t,e value of 5:6 in t,e table for
a&&ro&riate degrees of freedomG t,ere is sufficient evidence to reject t,e
,)&ot,esis t,at t,e variance of t,e t4o &rocesses is t,e same.
A$$endiF A
Ten 9e" in+redients to #9e SPC su44essful in or+niDtions
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (-= of (*,
one0 lo?er the is
nd %lues de%ition stndrd t?o the of hi+her the is

t
h
where
F
t
h
2
2
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A:str4t

Statistical &rocess control 8SPC9 is a &o4erful tec,ni7ue for im&roving &rocess
7ualit) b) s)stematicall) eliminating s&ecial or assignable causes of variation. SPC
is not a sim&le and automatic tas3. T,e successful a&&lication of SPC re7uires
man) s3ills suc, as engineeringG managementG statisticalG team4or3 and &lanning.
$lt,oug, t,e use of control c,arts is a ver) im&ortant as&ect of SPCG it is b) no
means t,e onl) one for t,e im&lementation of SPC in organi'ations. 0an)
engineers toda) are e1&osed to onl) control c,arts 8i.e. different t)&es9 and not t,e
ot,er im&ortant ingredients for t,e successful im&lementation of SPC. T,is article
4ill briefl) discuss t,e ten 3e) ingredients t,at are needed for t,e effective
a&&lication of SPC in an) Crgani'ation.
Introdu4tion
Statistical &rocess control 8SPC9 ,as been 4idel) acce&ted among 7ualit)
&ractitioners as an aid for monitoringG managingG anal)'ing and im&roving &rocess
&erformance b) eliminating s&ecial causes of variation. T,e use of ,ard SPC data
&ermits a scientificG dataJ based management st)le in 4,ic, decisions are made
based on factsG rat,er t,an guess4or3G and better &roducts can be &roduced 4it,
less scra& and re4or3 8:ineG 1++(9. T,e &,iloso&,) under&inning t,e mec,anism of
SPC is t,at t,e &rocess out&ut can be broug,t into a state of statistical control b)
means of engineering and management action. SPC is a re&lacement of t,e
traditional a&&roac, to 7ualit) control 8sometimes referred to as ins&ection based
7ualit) control9G 4,ic, is rat,er e1&ensiveG inefficientG unreliable and &rovides no
value to continuous im&rovement activit). $ccording to ?uranG SPC is Pt,e
a&&lication of statistical tec,ni7ues for measuring and anal)'ing t,e variation in
&rocessesP 8?uranG 1+**9.
$lt,oug, SPC isG on t,e surfaceG an eas) and straig,tfor4ard tec,ni7ueG its
im&lementation in an Crgani'ation is a far more com&le1 issue. Kie and -o, 81+++9
identified t,ree main as&ects of an SPC s)stemL t,e managementG t,e ,uman and
t,e o&erational as&ectG 4,ic, include all t,e issues t,at are crucial for t,e successful
im&lementation of an SPC s)stem in an industrial environment. ;ird and Dale
81++49 identified t,ree 3e) factors for t,e successful introduction of SPCI a ca&able
measurement s)stemG &ro&er training and management commitment. T,e
successful a&&lication of SPC re7uires a blend of management s3illsG engineering
s3illsG statistical s3illsG communication and &lanning s3ills. $ccording to Dale 81++49G
more t,an (! &er cent of su&&liers to :ord 0otor Com&an) ,ad encountered
difficulties in t,e successful introduction of SPC &rogrammes. T,is indicates t,at in
order to im&lement SPC effectivel) in organi'ationsG one must understand t,e 3e)
ingredients t,at 4ill ma3e t,e a&&lication successful. T,e &ur&ose of t,is article is to
bring out ten 3e) ingredientsG 4,ic, 4ill ma3e a successful SPC &rogramme in
organi'ations. T,e follo4ing section briefl) describes t,ese ingredients.
A$$endiF A
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (-> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Ten in+redients for the su44essful $$li4tion of SPC
(0 Mn+e#ent 4o##it#ent
Senior management commitment is crucial for t,e successful a&&lication of SPC. It
is ,ig,l) desirable for managers to understand t,e im&ortance of SPC as a variation
reduction tec,ni7ue and t,erefore t,e conce&t and t,e underl)ing &rinci&les of SPC
must be taug,t to t,e senior managers 4it,in t,e organi'ation. 0anagement s,ould
also &rovide ade7uate budget and resources for im&rovement actions on t,e
&rocessQs)stem.
-0 Trinin+ for SPC
Ca3land 81+++9 suggested t,at training for SPC must start at t,e to& of t,e
organi'ation and s,ould t,en be cascaded do4n t,roug, t,e organi'ational
,ierarc,).
It is im&ortant to note t,at o&erators 4ill not res&ond to SPCG unless managers are
familiar 4it, SPCG and recogni'e t,eir res&onsibilit) in ta3ing t,e lead in c,anging
t,e s)stem and attitudes about it. It is advisable to ,ave inJ,ouse training course
follo4ed b) &rojects and 4or3s,o&s on SPC.
Training s,ould include e1&osure to relevant statisticsG use of 7ualit) tools in SPCG
control c,arts and t,eir inter&retation and t,e a&&reciation of t,e reasons for SPC.
It is a good &ractice to a&&oint an SPC facilitator in establis,ingG monitoring and
develo&ing t,e SPC &rogramme. T,e res&onsibilit) of SPC facilitator ma) includeL
to offer &ractical advice to senior managers and ot,ers
to &rovide information on all as&ects of SPC
to monitor &rogress and ensure t,at t,e action ta3en is &rom&t and
effective
to assist in t,e develo&ment of a training strateg)
)0 Te#?or9
Team4or3 can be fostered t,roug, better communication across various
de&artments 8e1am&le J &roductionG designG 7ualit)G materialsG administration etc.9
:or t,e effective a&&lication of SPC it is strongl) suggested to build a team
encom&assing to& managementG steering committee and a &rocess action team.
T,e steering committee s,ould be res&onsible to initiateG manage and control t,e
im&lementation of SPC. T,e committee ma) involve SPC facilitatorG 7ualit)
managerG &roduction managerG &urc,ase managerG &rocess managerG maintenance
manager. To& management s,ould give total commitment and su&&ort and s,ould
delegate t,e management of im&lementation to t,e steering committee. Progress is
monitored based on re&orts of steering committee. T,e steering committee and to&
management s,ould &la) a su&&ortive role to &rocess action team. $ t)&ical action
team ma) consist of o&eratorsG su&ervisorsG 7ualit) engineer8s9G maintenance
engineer and an SPC e1&ert.
It is advisable to ,ave SPC a4areness course to all t,e team members from SPC
e1&ert. T,e &ur&ose of t,is action team is to identif) to assignable causes of
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (-, of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
variation 4it, t,e &rocess and ta3e necessar) actions for &rocess im&rovement 4it,
t,e su&&ort of steering committee and to& management.
20 Pro4ess definition
T,is is one of t,e 3e) issues in t,e initial stages of SPC studies in organi'ations. It is
a good &ractice to identif) t,e &rocess 4,ere SPC can be a&&lied to reduce scra&
rateG re4or3 or variabilit). Ca3land believes t,at it is better to tac3le one &rocess at a
timeG and 4or3 on it till significant results ,ave been ac,ieved before moving to ne1t.
It is also suggested t,at a &rocedure for &rioriti'ation of &rocesses based on
statistical and tec,nical criticalit). =ere statistical criticalit) is based on stabilit) and
ca&abilit) of &rocesses 4,ereas tec,nical criticalit) is based on ,o4 critical is t,e
&rocess 4it, res&ect to t,e 7ualit) of finis,ed &roduct. =aving identified t,e &rocessG
it must be t,en defined in terms of its relations,i& to ot,er o&erationsG bot, u&stream
and do4nstreamG t,at affect t,e &rocess at eac, stage.
30 Choi4e of $erfor#n4e 4hr4teristi4 or $ro4ess $r#eters
:or an) 7ualit) im&rovement &rogrammeG t,e most im&ortant as&ect is t,e
measurement of a 7ualit) c,aracteristic t,at reflects t,e final &roduct 7ualit). :or
SPC &rogrammesG it is good &ractice to c,oose &erformance c,aracteristics t,at can
be measured accuratel) 4it, stabilit). It is advisable to select continuous
&erformance c,aracteristics rat,er t,an attribute c,aracteristics. >fficient and
effective studies ta3e advantage of relations,i&s among 7ualit) c,aracteristics. In
some SPC &rogrammesG one ma) re&lace &erformance c,aracteristics b) &rocess
&arametersG 4,ic, are most critical to t,e &rocess and &roduct &erformance.
*0 Mesure#ent s"ste# e%lution
0easurement is usuall) carried out in order to learn about a &articular as&ect of t,e
&roduct or &rocess. 0easurement is a &rocess t,at varies just as all &rocesses var).
Identif)ingG isolating and removing t,is measurement variation leads to im&rovement
to t,e actual measured values obtained from t,e use of t,e measurement &rocess.
T,ere is uncertaint) in ever) measurement t,at is ta3en and t,is can be attributed to
a number of in&utsI suc, as gaugesG o&eratorsG &artsG met,ods and environment. $ll
t,ese elements are sources of variation 4it,in t,e measurement &rocess. -auge
ca&abilit) studies can be useful to measure t,e variation in t,e measurement
s)stem. If t,e measurement s)stem is not ca&ableG t,e SPC stud) s,ould be
deferred.
=0 Control 4hrts
T,e &rimar) &ur&ose of a control c,art is to detect 4,et,er a major c,ange or s,ift is
imminent or ,as occurred in a &rocess resulting in an alteration in t,e mean value or
dis&ersion of t,e &rocess. T,e selection of a&&ro&riate control c,arts is absolutel)
vital for t,e success of an) SPC &rogramme. If t,e data is variable 8e.g. 4eig,tG
lengt,G t,ic3nessG strengt,G forceG &ressureG etc.9G t,e a&&ro&riate selection is a
variable control c,art 8e.g. KJbar and / c,art9. In contrastG if t,e data is of attribute
nature 8goodQbadG &assQfailG etc.9G t,e a&&ro&riate selection is an attribute c,art 8e.g.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ()' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
&Jc,art9. -ood &ractice c,ooses variable measurements over attributeG as variable
data &rovides more information.
>0 Or+niDtionl 4ulturl 4hn+e
$ successful introduction of SPC ma) involve t,e cultural c,ange in t,e entire
4or3ing environment. C&eratorsG 4,o 3no4 t,eir &rocesses better t,an an)bod)G
s,ould be em&o4ered to ta3e o4ners,i& of t,e 4or3 and of t,e &rocesses t,e) deal
4it, ever)da). /ecognition and being a &art of t,e com&an) for em&lo)ees is
crucial. If t,e o&erator cannot tac3le a s&ecific &roblemG t,en t,e &rocess action
team is res&onsible to tac3le it 4it, t,e su&&ort of steering committee and
management.
,0 Use of $ilot $roRe4t
It is not a good idea to a&&l) SPC in all de&artments at t,e same time. It 4ould be
better if t,e steering committee could come u& 4it, a &ilot &roject to ac7uire an
a&&reciation of t,e use of SPC as a &o4erful &roblemJsolving tool. T,e most
im&ortant t,ing ,ere is to gain t,e attention of to& management and get ever)one
interested in t,e area. Cnce SPC ,as been used successfull) in one &rocessG it is
t,en easier to e1tend its use to ot,er areas 4it,in t,e same de&artment and even
ot,er de&artments. $ t)&ical &ilot stud) can generall) ta3e from t,ree mont,s to
more t,an a )ear.
('0 Co#$uters nd SPC soft?re $49+es
T,e use of com&uters ,as received muc, attention recentl) and 4ill be e1tremel)
useful in t,e near future. tili'ation of SPC soft4are &ac3ages 8e.g. 0INIT$;G
ST$TISTIC$G ST$T-/$P=ICSG SDC P$C@G etc.9 4ill assist t,e users in &lotting t,e
control c,arts and t,ereb) eliminating t,e manual calculations involved in t,e
determination of control limits and c,arting &rocedure. Com&uterJbased training is
suggested as a &romising and effective 4a) to &resent SPC training material.
=o4everG C4en 81++39 is ma3ing an im&ortant &oint t,at soft4are &ac3ages s,ould
not be e1&osed to o&erators and &ersonnel involved in t,e SPC &rojects until t,e)
,ave full) understood t,e underl)ing &rinci&les of SPC. So also unless t,e users
initiall) 4or3 on SPC manuall) for understandingG it 4ould not be advisable to use
com&uter &ac3ages.
0an) of t,e SPC calculations can be &erformed b) standard 0icrosoft >1cel
&ac3ageG 4,ic, can cut do4n t,e calculations time drasticall).
Con4lusions
T,e above article ma3es an attem&t to remove m)t, t,at SPC is concerned 4it, onl)
control c,arting. T,e successful a&&lication of SPC re7uires man) ingredients suc,
as management commitmentG team4or3G 0S$G &rocess &rioriti'ationG selection of
&ilot &rojectG training and so on.
A$$endiF B
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ()( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
7or9ed eF#$leB 5isto+r#
T,e Telecom Com&an) 4anted to stud) t,e director) in7uir) ,andling times. T,e
data in a table is given in number of second re7uired to ans4er an in7uir). Dra4 a
,istogram and inter&ret it.
4% 3( (2 *1 !4 !% %2 %4 4%
42 !2 +2 %( (2 34 *+ !* 3%
!2 !! (% (3 *2 (2 2% !* 4%
44 !2 %4 (2 %4 !2 32 !2 3%
!2 44 *2 !4 (1 +2 21 !2 32
!* !2 *% %% (% !* +( %2 4%
!% (1 %1 %2 !2 *2 *2 %* 4%
!! %2 !% 44 42 %2 (2 1+ (%
!2 (2 (! !2 4% 4% %% %4 *%
122 32 %% 44 !% !* %% %* %+
!! !2 3* 3! 42 4% +1 *2 %2
+2 3* %2 44 4! 44 (* %1 (*

Ste$ ( 0
Count t,e number of observations S12*
Ste$ -0
Decide number of intervals 5 3 N S S7uare root of 12* S 12.3+

/ound off to 5 3 5 S 12
Ste$ )
Calculate class 4idt,G = S /Q3
/ange / S Aargest value E Smallest value
S 122 E1+ S *3
=S *3Q12 S *.3
:or convenience 4e ta3e = S12
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ()- of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Ste$ 20
Tabulate fre7uenc) distribution
-rou& Seconds 0id &oint -rou& fre7uenc)
1 12 E 1+.+ 1! 1
2 22J2+.+ 2! 2
3 32J3+.+ 3! 12
4 42J4+.+ 4! 1*
! !2J!+.+ !! 2%
% %2J%+.+ %! 21
( (2J(+.+ (! 1!
* *2J*2.+ *! +
+ +2J++.+ +! !
12 122J12+.+ 12! 1

Ste$ 30
Dra4 ,istogram. T,is can be done in eit,er com&uter e1cel standard &ac3age
8>1ce&t t,e curve9 or on gra&, &a&er. Ta3e time in seconds on KJa1isG and grou&
fre7uenc) on HJa1is
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ()) of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Ste$ *0
Inter&ret t,e ,istogram
T,e fre7uenc) distribution is a&&ro1imatel) normal and t,e &rocess is in statisticall)
in control. =ence t,ere is no s&ecial or assignable cause &resent.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ()2 of (*,
=istogram
'
3
('
(3
-'
-3
)'
(' -' )' 2' 3' *' =' >' ,' (''
Seconds
-
r
o
u
&

f
r
e
7
u
e
n
c
)
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A$$endiF C
Coeffi4ients for %ri:les 4hrts ; & R 9
Sub -rou&
si'e
Control Aimit coefficients Divisors for
estimate of $verage c,art /ange c,art
n A- /) /2 /-
2 1.**2 J 3.2%( 1.12*
3 1.223 J 2.!(4 1.%+3
4 2.(2+ J 2.2*2 2.2!+
! 2.!(( J 2.114 2.32%
% 2.4*3 J 2.224 2.!34
( 2.41+ 2.2(% 1.+24 2.(24
* 2.3(3 2.13% 1.*%4 2.*4(
+ 2.33( 2.1*4 1.*1% 2.+(2
12 2.32* 2.223 1.((( 3.2(*
11 2.2*! 2.2!% 1.(44 3.1(3
12 2.2%% 2.2*3 1.(1( 3.2!*
13 2.24+ 2.32( 1.%+3 3.33%
14 2.23! 2.32* 1.%(2 3.42(
1! 2.223 2.34( 1.%!3 3.4(2
1% 2.212 2.3%3 1.%3( 3.!32
1( 2.223 2.3(* 1.%22 3.!**
1* 2.1+4 2.3+1 1.%2* 3.%42
1+ 2.1*( 2.423 1.!+( 3.%*+
22 2.1*2 2.41! 1.!*! 3.(3!
21 2.1(3 2.42! 1.!(! 3.((*
22 2.1%( 2.434 1.!%% 3.*1+
23 2.1%2 2.443 1.!!( 3.*!*
24 2.1!( 2.4!1 1.!4* 3.*+!
2! 2.1!3 2.4!+ 1.!41 3.+31
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ()3 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A$$endiF /
Coeffi4ients for %ri:les 4hrts ; & s<

Sub grou&
si'e
C,art for
$verages 8
9
C,art for Standard Deviations 8s9
:actors for
control limits
Divisors for
estimates of
S.D.
:actors for Control limits
N A) C2 B) B2
2 2.%!+ 2.(+(+ J 3.2%(
3 1.+!4 2.**%2 J 2.!%*
4 1.%2* 2.+213 J 2.2%%
! 1.42( 2.+422 J 2.2*+
% 1.2*( 2.+!1! 2.232 1.+(2
( 1.1*2 2.+!+4 2.11* 1.**2
* 1.2++ 2.+%!2 2.1*! 1.*1!
+ 1.232 2.+%+3 2.23+ 1.(%1
12 2.+(! 2.+(2( 2.2*4 1.(1%
11 2.+2( 2.+(!4 2.321 1.%(+
12 2.**% 2.+((% 2.3!4 1.%4%
13 2.*!2 2.+(+4 2.3*2 1.%1*
14 2.*1( 2.+*12 2.42% 1.!+4
1! 2.(*+ 2.+*23 2.42* 1.!(2
1% 2.(%3 2.+*3! 2.44* 1.!!2
1( 2.(3+ 2.+*4! 2.4%% 1.!34
1* 2.(1* 2.+*!4 2.4*2 1.!1*
1+ 2.%+* 2.+*%2 2.4+( 1.!23
22 2.%*2 2.+*%+ 2.!12 1.4+2
21 2.%%3 2.+*(% 2.!23 1.4((
22 2.%4( 2.+**2 2.!34 1.4%%
23 2.%33 2.+**( 2.!4! 1.4!!
24 2.%1+ 2.+*+2 2.!!! 1.44!
2! 2.%2% 2.+*+% 2.!%! 1.43!
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ()* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A$$endiF E
Coeffi4ients for %ri:les 4hrts ;Medin<
Sub grou&
si'e
C,art for
0edians H
Control c,arts for /anges ; R 9
:actors for
control limits
Divisors for
estimate of
S.D.
:actors for control limits
n A- /- /) /2
2 1.**2 1.12* J 3.2%(
3 1.1*( 1.%+3 J 2.!(4
4 2.(+% 2.2!+ J 2.2*2
! 2.%+1 2.32% J 2.114
% 2.!4* 2.!34 J 2.224
( 2.!4* 2.(24 2.2(% 1.+24
* 2.433 2.*4( 2.13% 1.*%4
+ 2.412 2.+(2 1.1*4 1.*1%
12 2.3%2 3.2(* 2.223 1.(((
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ()= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A$$endiF 1
Coeffi4ients for %ri:les 4hrts ;Indi%iduls<
Sub grou&
si'e
C,art for
Individuals H
Control c,arts for /anges ; R 9
:actors for
control limits
Divisors for
estimate of
S.D.
:actors for control limits
n E- /- /) /2
2 2.%%2 1.12* J 3.2%(
3 1.((2 1.%+3 J 2.!(4
4 1.4!( 2.2!+ J 2.2*2
! 1.2+2 2.32% J 2.114
% 1.1*4 2.!34 J 2.224
( 1.12+ 2.(24 2.2(% 1.+24
* 1.2!4 2.*4( 2.13% 1.*%4
+ 1.212 2.+(2 1.1*4 1.*1%
12 2.+(! 3.2(* 2.223 1.(((
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e ()> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A$$endiF G
@ t @ Test ;Criti4l %lue of @ t @<
Degrees of
freedom
nJ1
Confidence Aevel 8M9
+2 +! ++ Cne sided
+2 +! ++ T4o sided
! 1.4* 2.22 2.!( 3.3% 4.23
( 1.42 1.+2 2.3% 3.22 3.!2
+ 1.3* 1.*3 2.2% 2.*2 3.2!
11 1.3% 1.*2 2.22 2.(2 3.11
1! 1.34 1.(! 2.13 2.%2 2.+!
1+ 1.33 1.(3 2.2+ 2.!4 2.*%
23 1.31 1.(1 2.2( 2.!2 2.*1
2( 1.31 1.(2 2.2! 2.4( 2.((
2+ or more 1.31 1.%4 1.+% 2.33 2.!*
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (), of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A$$endiF 5
Chi SGure Test ;Criti4l Vlues of @ S @ <
Degrees of
freedom
Confidence Aevel M
+2 +! ++
! +.24 11.2( 1!.2+
( 12.22 14.2( 1*.4*
+ 14.%* 1%.+2 21.%(
11 1(.2* 1+.%* 24.(2
1! 22.31 2!.22 32.!*
1+ 2(.22 32.14 3%.1+
32 42.2% 43.(( !2.*+
!2 %3.1( %(.!2 (%.1!
(2 *!.43 +2.!3 122.42
122 11*.1! 124.34 13!.*1
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (2' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A$$endiF I
@ 1 A Test
Critical values of 5:6 at +! M Confidence Aevel
Degrees of
freedom
Denominator
Degrees of freedom numerator
! ( + 12 1! 22 24 32
! !.2! 4.** 4.(( 4.%* 4.%2 4.!% 4.!3 4.!2
( 3.+( 3.(+ 3.%* 3.!( 3.!1 3.44 3.41 3.3*
+ 3.4* 3.2+ 3.1* 3.2( 3.21 2.+4 2.+2 2.*%
12 3.11 2.+1 2.*2 2.%+ 2.%2 2.!4 2.!1 2.4(
1! 2.+2 2.(1 2.!+ 2.4* 2.42 2.33 2.2+ 2.2!
22 2.(1 2.!1 2.3+ 2.2* 2.22 2.12 2.2* 2.24
24 2.%2 2.42 2.32 2.1* 2.11 2.23 1.+* 1.+4
32 2.!3 2.33 2.21 2.2+ 2.21 1.+3 1.*+ 1.*4
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (2( of (*,
A$$endiF T
Vrious $ro::ilit" /istri:utions
Nor#l
( )
/e%ition Std N
Men P ?here
e
U - N
(
"
-
-
N -
P B F
B
EF$onentil
Poisson
7ei:ull
Bino#il
Men P ?here
e
P
(
"
P
(

,
_
( )
( )
Pr#eter Lo4tion V
$r#eter Sh$e W
$r#eter S4le X ?here
e V B H W X "
W
V B H X ( W

( )
o44urren4e of " $ro::ilit $
s o44urren4e of no0 r
trils of no0 n ?here
Y r
e n$
"
Bn$ r
( )
$ B ( G
o44urren4e of " $ro::ilit $
s o44urren4e of no0 r
trils of no0 n ?here
G $
Y r B n Y r
Y n
"
r B n r
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A$$endiF 9
Glossr" of Sttisti4l Ter#s
T,is document contains t,e basic terms and t,eir definitions related to statistics.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (2) of (*,
Printed Printed copies of this document are not controlled
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A44e$t:le Pro4ess Le%el E In acce&tance control c,artingG t,e &rocess
level fart,est from standard t,at still )ields acce&table &roduct 7ualit) 12281J9
&ercent of time.
A44e$t:le !ulit" Le%el ;A!L9 E $ nominal value e1&ressed in &ercent
defective or defects &er ,undred units 4,ic, ever is a&&licableG for a given grou&
of defects or for a single defect.
A44e$tn4e Control J T,e number of lots included in com&utation of t,e &rocess
average.
A44e$tn4e Line E T,e acce&tance line is a se7uential sam&ling &lan
A44e$tn4e Nu#:er E T,e limiting acce&table value of cG or &n for a sam&le nG
t,at isG t,e number of defects or defectives allo4ed in a sam&le of si'e n.
A44ur4" E State of &rocess de&ending u&on ,o4 close its average is to t,e
desired target. C/
$ &rocess is said to be $ccurate if t,e value of central tendenc) or mean of its
out&ut is close to t,e targeted value.
A4tion Li#it J Aine on a control c,art be)ond 4,ic, t,e &robabilit) of finding an
observation is suc, t,at it indicates t,at a c,ange ,as occurred to t,e &rocess .
t,at action s,ould be ta3en to investigate andQor correct for t,e c,ange.
A4tion Cone E T,e 'ones outside t,e action limitsQlines on a control c,art 4,ere
a result is a clear indication of t,e need of t,e action.
Ad%n4ed Sttisti4l Method.J 0ore so&,isticated . less 4idel) a&&licable
tec,ni7ues of statistical &rocess anal)sis . control t,an included in ;asic
Statistical 0et,odsI T,is can include more advanced control c,art tec,ni7uesG
regression anal)sisG design of e1&erimentsG advanced &roblemJsolving
tec,ni7uesG etc.
Alternte 5"$othesis J <,en 4e 4ant to test if t4o entities G sa) $ . ; Gare not
e7ual or $ [ ; or $ X ; G4e &ro&ose ,)&ot,esis and &roceed to anal)'e t,e
available data to c,ec3 if ,)&ot,esis can be acce&ted or rejected. T,is is called
$lternate =)&ot,esis.
Anl"sis Of Vrin4e ;ANOVA9 J $n anal)sis in 4,ic, t,e total variation
dis&la)ed b) a set of observations8as measured b) t,e sum of s7uares of
deviations from t,e mean9 is se&arated into com&onents associated 4it, various
factors used in classif)ing t,e observations.
ARL E T,e average run lengt, to detection of a c,ange in t,e &rocess.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (22 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Are S#$lin+ B $ met,od of sam&ling in 4,ic, t,e total area of interest is
divided into subJareas 4,ic, are t,en randoml) sam&led. >ac, subJarea in t,e
sam&le is com&letel) enumerated.
Arr" J $rrangement of data into a se7uence from ,ig,est value to t,e lo4est
value.
Assi+n:le Cuse E $ cause t,at can be recogni'ed as t,e one giving rise to a
c,ange in t,e out&ut of a &rocess be)ond t,e normal variations caused b)
common causes. It is also referred as s&ecial cause.
Attri:ute E Dualitative c,aracteristic of a material or &roduct.
Attri:ute /t E $ttributes data are 7ualitative data 4,ere t,e results are
recorded in terms of good or badG defective or defect freeG &ass or failG acce&table
or not acce&table of a desired c,aracteristic. $ttribute data are usuall) gat,ered
in t,e form of nonJconfirming units or of nonJconformitiesI t,e) are anal)'ed b) &G
n&G c . u control c,arts.
A%er+e E T,e sum of values divided b) t,e number 8sam&le si'e9 of valuesI
designated b) a bar over t,e s)mbols for t,e values being averagedL e.g.I K bar
is t,e average of t,e K values 4it,in a subgrou&I K double bar is t,e average of
subgrou& averagesI K tildeJ bar is t,e average of subgrou& mediansI P bar is t,e
average of P6s from all t,e subgrou&s.
A%er+e /e%ition E $verage of t,e absolute deviations from t,e arit,metic
mean.
A%er+e Of Rn+e Relti%e J T,e average of sam&le ranges relative to t,e
universe standard deviation.
A?reness E Personal understanding of t,e interrelations,i& of 7ualit) .
&roductivit)G directing attention to t,e re7uirement for management commitment
. statistical t,in3ing to ac,ieve neverJending im&rovement.
Br B $ bar &laced above an) mat,ematical s)mbol indicates t,at it is t,e mean
value.
Bsi4 Sttisti4l Methods E $&&lies t,e t,eor) of variation t,roug, use of
basic &roblemJsolving tec,ni7ues . statistical &rocess controlI includes control
c,art construction . inter&retation 8for bot, variables . attributes data9 .
ca&abilit) data.
Bino#il /istri:ution E $ discrete &robabilit) distribution for attributes data t,at
a&&lies to confirming . nonJconforming units . . underlines t,e & . n& c,arts.
Brinstor#in+ E $n activit) normall) carried out inJgrou&sG in 4,ic, &artici&ants
are encouraged to allo4 t,eir e1&erience . imagination to run 4ildG 4,ile
centered on s&ecific as&ects of a &roblem or effect.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (23 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
C$:ilit" E M4hine8 Or Pro4ess E T,e natural tolerance of a mac,ine or
&rocess arbitraril) defined to include a&&ro1imatel) ++.(3M of all &o&ulation
values.
C$:le J $ &rocess 4,ic, is in statistical control . for 4,ic, t,e combination of
degree of random variation . t,e abilit) of t,e control &rocedure to detect c,ange
is consistent 4it, t,e re7uirements of t,e s&ecification.
Cuse & Effe4t /i+r# J $ sim&le tool for individual or grou& &roblemJsolving
t,at uses a gra&,ic descri&tion of t,e various &rocess elements to anal)'e
&otential sources of &rocess variation. $lso called fis,bone diagram 8after its
a&&earance9 or Is,i3a4a diagram 8after its develo&er9.
Centrl Tenden4" E. T,e clustering of a &o&ulation about some &referred value
Centre Line E $ line on a control c,art at t,e value of t,e
&rocess mean.
Chr4teristi4 E $ distinguis,ing feature of a &rocess or its out&ut on 4,ic,
variables or attributes data can be collected.
Chi SGure E :or significance of a difference bet4een variabilit)6sJn small or
large . 6 3no4n.
Chroni4 Pro:le# E $ &roblem due to t,e in,erent variation in a &rocess being
more t,an t,at &ermitted b) t,e s&ecifications.
Coeffi4ient Of Vrition E T,e ratio of t,e standard deviation to t,e arit,metic
mean of a given &o&ulation or lot.
Co##on Cuse E $ source of variation t,at affects all t,e individual values of
t,e &rocess out&ut being studiedI in control c,art anal)sis it a&&ears as a &art of
t,e random &rocess Jvariation.
Confiden4e Le%el JJ ;efore testing a ,)&ot,esis 4e ,ave to decide t,e degree of
confidence 4e need in t,e conclusion 4e arrive at. T,e levels of confidence
usuall) selected are +2 MG +! M and ++ M.
Confor#in+ K Totall) in agreement 4it, t,e s&ecification.
Conse4uti%e J nits of out&ut &roduced in successionI a basis for selecting
subgrou& sam&les.
Conse4uti%e S#$les E nits of out&ut &roduced in successionI a basis for
selecting subgrou& sam&les.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (2* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Continuous S#$lin+ Pln E T)&es of continuous sam&ling &lansI SingleG
doubleG CSPJ1 4it, sto&Jins&ection ruleG . CSP se7uential res&ectivel)
Control E T,e abilit) or need to observeQmonitor a &rocessG record t,e data
observedG inter&ret t,e data recorded . adjust t,e &rocess onl) 4,en an
adjustment can be justified.
Control Chrt E $ gra&,ic re&resentation of a c,aracteristic of a &rocessG
s,o4ing &lotted values of some statistic gat,ered from t,at c,aracteristicG a
central line . one or t4o control limits. It minimi'es t,e net economic loss from
T)&e I . T)&e II errors. It ,as t4o basic usesL as a judgment to determine if a
&rocess ,as been o&erating in statistical controlG . as an o&eration in aid in
maintaining statistical control.
Control Li#its E Aimits on control c,arts calculated on t,e basis of data
collected under controlled conditions. #alues outside t,ese limits indicate t,e
&resence of an assignable cause . need for corrective action.
Count:le /t E $ form of discrete data 4,ere occurrences or events can onl)
be counted.
Custo#erAs Ris9 J T,e ris3 of acce&tance 4,ic, t,e customer ta3es 4it, t,e
a&&lication of a sam&ling &lanG . is denoted b) 56
C
P
E $ &rocess ca&abilit) inde1 based on t,e ratio of t,e s&read of a fre7uenc)
distribution to t,e 4idt, of t,e s&ecification.
C
P9
E $ &rocess ca&abilit) inde1 based on bot, t,e centering of a fre7uenc)
distribution t,e ratio of t,e s&read of t,e distribution to t,e 4idt, of t,e
s&ecification. T,e fre7uenc) distributionG . ,ence t,e
C
P
@
G ma) reflect t,e
&otential for control 4it,in t,e &rocessG t,e actual &erformance of t,e &rocess
or t,e a&&arent &erformance after modification b) &roduct classification.
CUSUM Chrt J $ gra&,ic &resentation of t,e CS0 c,art. T,e CS0
c,art is &articularl) sensitive to t,e detection of smallJsustained c,anges.
CUSUM S4ore J T,e cumulative sum of t,e differences bet4een a series of
observed values . a &redetermined target value.
/t J T,e observations or t,e measurements of a c,aracteristic.
/t Sheet E $ tool for s)stematic collection of data.
/efe4t J $ fault or fla4 4,ic, is not &ermitted b) t,e s&ecification.
/e+rees Of 1reedo# E Number of 4a)s a value can differ from ot,ersJ one less
t,an t,e total number in a sam&le 8nJ19
/es4rete /t J Data not available on a continuous scale.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (2= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
/ete4tion J T,e act of discovering.
/e%ition E Difference bet4een desired . actual values. In SPC it is used for
difference bet4een individual values 8K9 . t,eir mean. It is denoted b) 89
/is$ersion J T,e s&read or scatter about a central tendenc).
/istri:ution E $ 4a) of describing t,e out&ut of a commonJ cause s)stem of
variationG in 4,ic, individual values are not &redictable but in 4,ic, outcomes as
a grou& form a &attern t,at can be described in terms of its locationG s&read .
s,a&e. Aocation is commonl) e1&ressed b) t,e mean or averageG or b) t,e
medianI s&read is e1&ressed in terms of t,e standard deviation or t,e range of a
sam&leI s,a&e involves man) c,aracteristics suc, as s)mmetr) . &ea3ednessG
but t,ese are often summari'ed b) using t,e name of a common distribution suc,
as t,e normalG binomialG or Poisson.
1lo? Chrt E $ c,art de&icting various ste&s in a &rocess 4it, t,e ,el& of
standard s)mbols.
1reGuen4" J :re7uenc) is count of occurrence of an) event. T,at is ,o4 often an
event occurs in numbers.
1reGuen4" /istri:ution J $ table or gra&,G 4,ic, dis&la)s ,o4 fre7uentl) some
valuesG occurs b) com&arison 4it, ot,ers. Common distributions include normalG
binomial . Poisson.
Gntt Chrt E $ c,art indicating t,e &eriod 4,en various activities in a &rocess
or a &roject are sc,eduled.
Grnd Men J T,e mean of eit,er a 4,ole &o&ulation or t,e mean of a series of
sam&les ta3en from t,e &o&ulation. T,e grand mean is an estimate of t,e true
mean.
5isto+r#s E Diagrams s,o4ing t,e fre7uenc) of values l)ing inJgrou&s or
classes of t,e same si'e &resented in t,e form of bar c,arts.
IndeF E /atio of current value to base value.
Indi%idul E $ single unitG or a single measurement of a c,aracteristic.
Inherent Vrition J T,at &rocess variation due to common causes onl)G
estimated b) Qd
2
.
Inter%l E T,e si'e of t,e interval used in constructing a grou&ed fre7uenc)
distribution.
Ishi9? /i+r# J /efer Cause and >ffect Diagram.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (2> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
6urtosis J :re7uenc) curves of some data are &ea3ed near t,e center 4,ile
t,ose of ot,er data ma) be flat near t,e center. $ fre7uenc) curve 4,ic, is
&ea3ed near t,e center is called Lepto+urticLG and a fre7uenc) curve t,at is flat
near t,e center is called )laty+urtic. T,e normal curve is said to be Meso+urtic.
LAL J Ao4er action limit or line
Li#itin+ Vlues 1or The Pro4ess A%er+e E T,e u&&er . lo4er control limits
for t,e average 7ualit) com&uted from t,e standard 7ualit) level.
Lo4tion J $ general conce&t for t,e t)&ical values or central tendenc) of a
distribution.
Lot K $ &o&ulation of units of an item formed for &ur&oses of ins&ection or
control.
Lo?er Control Li#it ;LCL9 E Control limit on t,e lo4er side of t,e central line in
a control c,art. $ value belo4 t,is line indicates &resence of an assignable cause
. need for corrective action.
Lo?er S$e4ifi4tion Li#it ;LSL9 E T,e lo4er limit of a tolerance or engineering
s&ecifications.
L7L J Ao4er 4arning limit or line
Mr+inl Testin+ J T,e &ractice of testing for failure at t,e NmarginsO of
s&ecificationsG t,at isG at t,e ma1imum . minimum limits.
MFi#u# Stndrd /e%ition J In acce&tance sam&ling b) variables E t4o
sided limitsG t,e u&&er limiting value for t,e standard deviation in order for t,e lot
to be acce&ted.
Men E T,e average of values in a grou& of measurements.
Men & Rn+e Chrt J T4o c,arts used to monitor t,e accurac) . &recision of
a &rocess being assessed b) observing variables.
Men Life ;Testin+ 7ith Re$l4e#ent< J T,e average of t,e number of ,our6s
life of 5n6 units &laced on test.
Men Rn+e J T,e mean of a series of ranges.
Men S#$le SiDe J T,e average or mean of sam&le si'es.
Medin K 0edian of set of data on a variable is t,at value 4,ic, lies in t,e middle
most &osition 4,en t,e values are 4ritten in an arra)G t,at isG in order of
magnitude. If t,e values are even in numberG t,en average of t,e t4o middle
most readings is median.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (2, of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Mid Rn+e ET,e average of e1treme readings.
Mode E Still anot,er measure of central tendenc) of a set values 4,ic, is t,e
value found most fre7uentl) in t,e set.
Mo%in+ Men J $ mean value calculated from a series of individual values b)
moving t,e sam&le for calculations of t,e mean t,roug, t,e series in ste&s of one
individual value . 4it,out c,anging t,e sam&le si'e.
Mo%in+ Rn+e K ;MR< Difference bet4een t4o consecutive individual values
used as range 4,en number of items in a grou& is one.
Mu ;< J T,e -ree3 letter used as t,e s)mbol to re&resent t,e true mean of a
&o&ulation as o&&osed to t,e various estimates of t,is value 4,ic, measurement
. calculation made &ossible.
Non BConfor#in+ Units E nits 4,ic, do not conform to a s&ecification or ot,er
ins&ection standardsI sometimes called discre&ant or defective units. P . n&
control c,arts are used to anal)'e s)stems &roducing nonJ conforming units.
Non Confor#ities S$e4ifi4tion E S&ecific occurrences of a condition 4,ic,
does not conform to s&ecifications or ot,er ins&ection standardsI sometimes
called discre&ancies or defects. $n individual nonJconforming unit can ,ave t,e
&otential for more t,an oneJnon conformities. c . u control c,arts are used to
anal)'e s)stems &roducing nonJconformities.
NonBConfor#it" J $ de&arture of a 7ualit) c,aracteristic from its intended level
or state t,at occurs 4it, severit) sufficient to cause an associated &roduct or
service to not meet a s&ecification re7uirement.
Nor#l Cur%e J =istoricall)G muc, of t,e anal)tical use of t,e algebraic
measures described above revolved around a t)&e of fre7uenc) Edistribution
termed a normal curve. T,is normal curve is t,e fre7uenc)J distribution curve
a&&roac,ed in man) situations 4,ere c,ance is given full &la)G as in t,e case of a
large number of t,ro4s of dice.
Nor#l /e%ite J T,e coefficient of standard deviation or standard error 4,en
using large sam&les from an assumed normal distribution.
Nor#l /istri:ution E $ continuousG s)mmetricalG bellJs,a&ed fre7uenc)
distribution for variable data t,at underlies t,e control c,arts for variables. <,en
measurements ,ave a normal distributionG about %*.2%M of all individuals lie
4it,in &lus or minus one standard deviation unit of t,e meanG about +!.44M lie
4it,in &lus or minus t4o standard deviation units of t,e meanG . about ++.(3M lie
4it,in &lus or minus t,ree standard deviation units of mean. T,ese &ercentages
are t,e basis for control limits . control c,art anal)sis 8since subgrou& averages
tend to be normall) distributed even if t,e out&ut as a 4,ole is not9G . for man)
ca&abilit) decisions 8since t,e out&ut of man) industrial &rocesses follo4s t,e
normal distribution9.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (3' of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
n$ C5ART J $ control c,art used for attributes 4,en t,e sam&le si'e is constant
. t,e number of conforming . non conforming items 4it,in a sam&le are bot,
3no4n. n is t,e sam&le si'e . & t,e &ro&ortion of nonJconforming items.
Null 5"$othesisJ <,en 4e ,ave to test if t4o entities G sa) $ . ; are same or
different G4e &ro&ose ,)&ot,esis t,at $ S ; and t,en &roceed to anal)'e t,e
available data to c,ec3 if t,e ,)&ot,esis can be acce&ted or rejected. T,is is
called as Null =)&ot,esis.
Nu#:er Of /e#erits Per Unit >7ual to t,e ratio of t,e number of demerits to
t,e sam&le si'e.
P J T,e fraction non conforming or fraction defective
P EC,art E $ control c,art used for attributes 4,en t,e sam&le si'es are not
constant . t,e number of conforming . nonJconforming items are bot,
3no4n. 5P6 is t,e &ro&ortion of nonJconforming items . &J bar re&resents t,e
average of a series of values of 5&6
Preto Chrt E $ sim&le tool for &roblemJ solving t,at involves ran3ing all
&otential &roblem areas or sources of variation according to t,eir contribution to
cost or to total variation. T)&icall)G a fe4 cause account for most of t,e cost 8or
variation9G so &roblemJ solving efforts are best &rioriti'ed to concentrate on t,e
Nvital fe4O causes tem&oraril) ignoring t,e Ntrivial man)O.
Per4ent+e Error JJ T,is is o&&osite to confidence level. It gives &robabilit) error
in t,e conclusion about a ,)&ot,esis. It is 12 MG ! M and 1 M res&ectivel) if t,e
confidence level is
+2 MG +! M and ++M.
Pie4e8 Prt8 Unit ;PPU9 J $n object u&on 4,ic, a measurement or observations
ma) be made.
Poisson /istri:ution J $ &robabilit) distribution for sam&les of attributesG
4,ic, a&&lies 4,en onl)G t,e numbers of nonJconformances are 3no4n.
Po$ultion E $ large set of data from 4,ic, sam&les can be ta3en.
Cr a total collection of units from common source.
Pre4ision E State of a &rocess de&ending u&on t,e dis&ersion or s&read of
variation in t,e out&ut.
Pre%ention B T,e act of see3ing to cause somet,ing not to occur.
Pro::ilit" J $ measure of t,e li3eli,ood of occurrence or incident.
Aet N be number of &ossible outcomes of a random e1&eriment and let t,ese be
all e7uall) li3el). If Na among t,ese outcomes are favourable to an event $G t,en
&robabilit) of $ is given b)
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (3( of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Pro::ilit" Of Sur%i%l ;EF$onentil< JT,e reliabilit) of a com&onent or
e7ui&mentG 4,ic, follo4s t,e e1&onential failureG &attern.
Pro:le# Sol%in+ J T,e &rocess of moving from s)m&toms to causes 8s&ecial or
common9 to actions t,at im&rove &erformance. $mong t,e tec,ni7ues t,at can
be used are Pareto c,artG cause . effect diagramsG . statistical &rocess control
tec,ni7ues.
Pro4ess E. $ &rocess is t,e transformation of set of in&utsG 4,ic, can include
materialsG actionsG met,ods and o&erationsG into desired out&utsG in t,e form of
&roductsG informationG services or generall) results.
Pro4ess A%er+e J T,e location of t,e distribution of measured values of
a &articular &rocess c,aracteristic usuall) designated as an overall averageG KJ
bar.
Pro4ess C$:ilit" J $ measure of t,e ca&abilit) of a &rocess ac,ieved b)
assessing t,e statistical state of control of t,e &rocess . com&aring t,e amount
of random variation &resent 4it, t,e tolerance allo4ed b) t,e s&ecification.
Pro4ess C$:ilit" IndeF J $n inde1 of ca&abilit) 8 See C& and C&39
Pro4ess Control J T,e management of a &rocess b) observationG anal)sisG
inter&retation . action designed to limit variation.
Pro4ess Men J T,e average observed value of an attribute or a variable 4it,in
a &rocess.
Pro4ess S$red J T,e e1tent to 4,ic, t,e distribution of individual values of
t,e &rocess c,aracteristic var)I often s,o4n as t,e &rocess average &lus or
minus some number of standard deviation 8e.g.G NKJbar t 3O9
Produ4erAs Ris9 J T,e ris3 of rejection t,at t,e &roducer ta3es 4it, t,e
a&&lication of a sam&ling &lanG . is denoted b) 56.
Pro$ortion /efe4ti%e J T,e ratio of t,e defectives to t,e sam&le si'e
re&resented b) t,e s)mbol &.&Jbar re&resents t,e mean value of a series of
values of &.
P"th+oren Asse#:l" Tolern4e J T,e assembl) tolerance based u&on t,e
standard error of a difference or sum.
!udrti4 J Cf or &ertaining to a second order mat,ematical relations,i&I a
good common e1am&le of somet,ing t,at is 7uadratic is &arabola.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (3- of (*,
N
N%
) P&( A
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
!ulit" Chr4teristi4 J $ &ro&ert) of a unitG &artG &iece affecting &erformance
or customer satisfactionG suc, as a dimensionG 4eig,tG or viscosit)G . 4,ic, ,el&s
to differentiate among units of a given sam&le or &o&ulation.
!urtile /e%ition J CneJ,alf of t,e difference bet4een t,e first . t,ird
7uartile mar3s.
!uin4unF B >7ui&ment designed to demonstrate t,e distribution &attern of
variation.
Rndo# Cuses J T,e contributions to variation 4,ic, are random in t,eir
be,avior.
Rndo#ness J $ state of disorder in 4,ic, is not &ossible to &redict an
individual result.
Rn+e E Difference bet4een t,e largest . t,e smallest value in a grou& used as
a measure of dis&ersion or s&read of variation.
Rtionl Su:+rou$ J $ subgrou& gat,ered in suc, a manner as to give
ma1imum c,ance for t,e measurements in eac, subgrou& to be ali3e . t,e
ma1imum c,ance for t,e subgrou&s to differ one from t,e ot,er. T,is subJ
grou&ing sc,eme assumes a desire to determine 4,et,er or not a &rocess6s
variation a&&ears to come from a constant s)stem of c,ance causes.
RBBr B T,e s)mbol for t,e mean of a series of value of /.
Redundn4"B Provision of standb) or &arallel units to ta3e over in t,e event
of failure of t,e &rimar) unit.
ReRe4tion Nu#:er J T,e lo4er limiting value of t,e unacce&table number of
defects or defectives in a sam&le of si'e 5n6.
Reli:ilit" J It is measure of t,e abilit) of a &roduct to function successfull)G
4,en re7uiredG for &eriod re7uiredG under s&ecified o&erating conditions.
Root Men SGure ;RMS< J /oot of t,e mean of t,e s7uares of a series of
values. In SPCG /0S of deviation of individual values from t,e mean is as
measure of variance.
/N J $ set of results 4,ic, a&&ears to lie in ordered series.
Run Chrt J $ sim&le gra&,ic re&resentation of a c,aracteristic of a &rocessG
s,o4ing &lotted values of some statistic gat,ered from t,e &rocess 8oftenJ
individual values9 . a central line. 8often t,e median of t,e values9G 4,ic, can be
anal)'ed.
S#$le J $ grou& of individual resultsG observationsG or data. $ sam&le is often
used for assessment 4it, a vie4 to determining t,e &ro&erties of t,e 4,ole
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (3) of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
&o&ulation or universe from 4,ic, it is dra4n. Sam&les s,ould be dra4n in a
random manner.
Sh$e J $ general conce&t for t,e overall &attern formed b) a distribution of
values.
SIGMA ;< J T,e -ree3 letter used in SPC to signif) t,e standard deviation of a
&o&ulation.
S$e4il Cuse J $ source of variation t,at is intermittentG un&redictableG
unstableI sometimes called an assignable cause. $ &oint be)ond control limits or
a run or ot,er nonJ random &attern of &oints 4it,in t,e control limit signals it.
S#$le SiDe J T,e number of individual results included in a sam&leG or t,e si'e
of t,e sam&le ta3en. Sam&le si'e is re&resented b) t,e s)mbol 5n6.
S4tter /i+r# J $ tool to stud) t,e correlation bet4een t4o variable
&arameters. T,e &attern of &oints on a gra&, indicate &resence or absenceG
&ositive or negative . strong or 4ea3 relations,i&.
S$ordi4 Pro:le# J $ &roblem 4,en t,e out&ut of a &rocess does not
conform to s&ecification re7uirements even 4,en t,e &rocess is 3no4n to be
ca&able. Suc, a &roblem is caused b) a s&ecial or assignable cause.
S$e4ifi4tion J T,e engineering re7uirement for judging acce&tabilit) of a
&articular c,aracteristic. $ s&ecification is never to be confused 4it, a control
limit.
S$red J $ general conce&t for t,e e1tent b) 4,ic, values in a distribution
differ from one anot,erI dis&ersion.
St:ilit" J T,e absence of s&ecial causes of variationI t,e &ro&ert) of being in
statistical control.
St:le Pro4ess J $ &rocess 4,ic, is in statistical control.
Stndrd /e%ition E $ measure of s&read of variation in a &rocess denoted
b) s)mbols L for &o&ulation . s or 6 for sam&le. It enables one to &redict
distribution of variation In values around t,e mean.
Sttisti4 J $ value calculated from or based u&on sam&le data 8e.g.G a
subgrou&Javerage or range9G used to ma3e inferences about t,e &rocess t,at
&roduced t,e out&ut from 4,ic, t,e sam&le came.
S4tter B /efers to t,e dis&ersion of a distribution.
S9e?ed /istri:ution J $ fre7uenc) distribution t,at is not s)mmetrical about
t,e mean value and a&&earing in one direction.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (32 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Su:BGrou$ J Cne or more events or measurements used to anal)se t,e
&erformance of a &rocess. /ational subgrou&s are usuall) c,osen so t,at t,e
variation re&resented 4it,in eac, subgrou& is as small as feasible for t,e &rocess
8re&resenting t,e variation from common causes9G . so t,at an) c,anges in t,e
&rocess &erformance 8i.e.G s&ecial causes9 4ill a&&ear as differences bet4een
subgrou&s. /ational subgrou&s are t)&icall) made u& of consecutive &iecesG
alt,oug, random sam&les are sometimes used.
Strtifi4tion J Se&arating data . &re&aring se&arate ,istograms 4,en a
,istogram indicates t,at t,e data being studied relates to a mi1ed lot. T,e tool
,el&s locate reasons for abnormal distribution &atterns.
Stndrd /e%ition J $ measure of t,e s&read or scatter of a &o&ulation
around its central tendenc). /e&resented b) t,e s)mbol 56. >stimates of t,e
standard deviation are re&resented b) various s)mbols suc, as
nG
8nJ19 . s.
She?hrt Chrt J T,e control c,arts for attributes . variables first &ro&osed b)
S,e4,art. T,ese include mean . rangeG n&G &G cG . u c,arts.
St:le Cone J T,e central 'one bet4een t,e 4arning limits on a control
c,art . 4it,in 4,ic, t,e results are e1&ected to fall.
S!C J Statistical 7ualit) control E similar to SPC but 4it, an em&,asis on &roduct
7ualit) . less em&,asis on t,e need to control &rocess.
St:le B T,e term used to describe a &rocess 4,en no evidence of assignable
causes is &resent.
Sttisti4l Control J T,e condition describing a &rocess from 4,ic, all
s&ecial causes of variation ,ave been eliminated . onl) common causes remainI
evidenced on a control c,art b) t,e absence of &oints be)ond t,e control limits .
b) t,e absence of nonJ random &atterns or trends 4it,in t,e control limits.
Sttisti4l Pro4ess Control ;SPC<B T,e use of statistical tec,ni7ues suc, as
control c,arts to anal)se a &rocess or its out&ut so as to ta3e a&&ro&riate actions
to ac,ieve . to maintain a state of statistical control . to im&rove t,e &rocess
ca&abilit).
Stndrd Error J T,e standard deviation of sam&le mean values E a measure
of t,ere s&read or scatters around t,e grand mean. /e&resented b) t,e s)mbol
S> 8 and also b)
1Jbar
9
S#$lin+ Rtio J :re7uenc) of sam&ling. >7ual to t,e fraction of t,e &roduct
selected for ins&ection in a continuous sam&ling &lan.
S4reenin+ Nu#:er J $ sam&ling 7ualification number in a continuous
sam&ling &lan. T,e number of successive defectJfree unitsG 4,ic, must &ass t,e
ins&ection station before sam&lingG ma) be started.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (33 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
S#$le Stndrd /e%ition T,e sam&le standard deviation in acce&tance
sam&ling b) variables . also an alternative s)mbol for standard deviation
generall).
Slo$e Of Re+ression Line J T,e slo&e of regression lineI t,e tangent of t,e
angle formed b) t,e regression line . KJa1is.
Su# B T,e o&erator Nto sumO or Nto sum ofO.
Tll" Chrt J $ sim&le tool offered to t,ose 4,o are called u&on to record events
as t,e) occur or to e1tract fre7uencies from e1isting lists of data.
Tr+et J T,e objectives to be ac,ieved . against 4,ic, &erformances 4ill be
assessedG or t,e mid &oint of a s&ecification.
Tolern4e J T,e difference bet4een t,e lo4est . t,e ,ig,est value stated in t,e
s&ecification.
Trend B $ series of results 4,ic, s,o4 an u&4ard or do4n4ard tendenc).
T"$e I Error J /ejecting an assum&tion t,at is trueI e.g.G ta3ing actions
a&&ro&riate for a s&ecial cause 4,en in fact t,e &rocess ,as not c,angedI over
control.
Totl Vrition J T,at &rocess variation due to bot, common . s&ecial causesG
estimated b)
s
.
T"$e II Error J :ailing to reject an assum&tion t,at is falseI e.g.G not ta3ing
action 4,en in fact t,e &rocess is affected b) s&ecial causesI under control.
UAL J &&er action limit or line.
UCL J &&er control limit or line.
USL J &&er s&ecification limit.
U7L J &&er 4arning limit or line.
U K Chrt E $ control c,art used for attributes 4,en t,e sam&le si'e is not
constant . onl) t,e number of nonJconformances is 3no4n. is t,e s)mbolG
4,ic, re&resent t,e number of nonJconformance6s found in a single sam&le . uJ
bar re&resents a mean value of 5u6.
VBMs9 J $ device used in conjunction 4it, a CS0 c,art to identif) trends of
3no4n significance.
Vrin4e J $ measure of s&read e7ual to t,e standard deviation s7uared.
Vri:le /t J Duantitative dataG 4,ere measurements are used for anal)sis.
>1am&les include t,e diameter of a bearing journal in millimetersG t,e closing
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (3* of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
effort of a door in @ilogramsG t,e concentration of electrol)te in &ercentG or t,e
tor7ue of a fastener in Ne4tonJmeters. KJ bar . /G KJbar . sG median . individual
control c,arts are used for variable data.
Vri:les Chrt J $re used for measurements in units of lengt,sG mass or time .
combinations of t,ese suc, as volumeG energ) . acceleration.
Vrition J T,e inevitable differences among individual out&uts of a &rocessI
t,e sources of variation can be grou&ed into major classesL common causes .
s&ecial causes.
7rnin+ Li#it; Line < J Aines on a control c,artG on eac, side of t,e central
lineG . 4it,in 4,ic, results are e1&ected to fallG but be)ond 4,ic, t,e &robabilit)
of finding an observation is suc, t,at it s,ould be regarded as a 4arning of a
&ossible &roblem..
7rnin+ Cone J T,e 'ones on a control c,art bet4een t,e 4arning . t,e action
limits . 4it,in 4,ic, a result suggests t,e &robabilit) of a c,ange to t,e &rocess.
7ie:ull Anl"sis ( It is a tec,ni7ue used to asses t,e reliabilit) of failure data.
Cone Anl"sis J T,is is a met,od of detailed anal)sis of a S,e4,art control
c,artG 4,ic, divides t,e Jc,art bet4een t,e control limits into t,ree e7uidistant
'ones above t,e mean . t,ree e7uidistant 'ones belo4 t,e mean. T,ese 'ones
are sometimes referred to as NsigmaO 'ones 8sigma is t,e standard deviation of
t,e $#>/$-> distributionG not t,e individuals9. >ac, 'one is assigned a
&robabilit) for t,e &ro&ortion of &oints e1&ected to be found over t,ereG &rovided
t,e data is normall) distributed 8i.e.G Nin controlO9. :or e1am&le t,e 'ones adjacent
to t,e mean are assigned &robabilities of .3413 t,e ne1t 'ones ,ave t,e
&robabilit) of .13% . t,e outer 'ones ,ave t,e &robabilit) of .2213!. T,e areas
be)ond t,e u&&er . lo4er control limit are eac, assigned a &robabilit) of .2213!.
Data ma) t,en be tested for unnatural &atterns based on 4,ere t,e data &oints
lie in relation to t,ese 'ones. Probabilities for range c,arts are de&endent on
sam&le si'eG 4,ile &robabilities for attribute c,arts are based on binomial or
Poisson distributions. T,e rules of t,umb derived from t,is s)stem ma) be used
as an earl) 4arning s)stem for subtle &rocess c,angesG 4,ic, ma) not be
reflected as &oints be)ond t,e control limits.
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (3= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A$$endiF. L
1or#ule of sttisti4l Ter#s
(0 Arith#eti4 Men ; A%er+e< I
set the in %lues of nu#:er n
%lues indi%idul the ll of su# is H
%lues indi%idul the re$resents H
#en rith#eti4 H
n
H
H
-0 Rn+e ; R <
/S 0a1imum /eading E 0inimum /eading
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ASA S Ao4er s&ecification limit
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M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
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AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
d9 C&3 smaller t,e better
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*0 Control Chrts
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U$$er Control li#it R 4hrt
Lo?er Control li#it R 4hrt
U$$er 4ontrol li#it n$ 4hrt
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M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (3, of (*,

R A H UCL
- F
+
R A B H LCL
- F

R / UCL
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R / LCL
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1
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4
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AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
Lo?er 4ontrol 4hrt 4 4hrt
U$$er 4ontrol 4hrt u 4hrt
Lo?er 4ontrol 4hrt u 4hrt

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (*' of (*,
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4

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A$$endiF M
:or $rea under normal CurveG t,e value of B are given in t,e follo4ing Tables
B 2.22 J2.21 J2.22 J2.23 J2.24 J2.2! J2.2% J2.2( J2.2* J2.2+
2.22 '02,,,,,,,,=> '02,*'('*-((( '02,-'-(*2*(3 '02>>'))2=)2, '02>2'2*3'((( '02>''*((-**= '02=*'===2=), '02=-',*=3,,2 '02*>((>3*')- '02*2(2)32)=2
J2.12 '02*'(=-('22= '023*-'2*)3=* '023--2(3-,=' '022>->)(==(' '0222)-,,*=2' '022')>-->>3' '02)*22'3-**, '02)-3'3'**3- '02->3=*-,'*> '02-2*323=,,'
J2.22 '02-'=2')(->) '02(*>))>*3,- '02(-,)3*())) '02','23,-*>' '02'3(*3(=33* '02'(-,)=-*-- '0),=2)(,2-** '0),)3>'(>3,( '0)>,=)>>(2(( '0)>3,'>(>-))
J2.32 '0)>-'>>*2-3) '0)=>->'32)2- '0)=22>2-)'2' '0)='='''232* '0)**,->)-='3 '0)*)(*,2(''* '0)3,2-)*-3*2 '0)33*,()'(-- '0)3(,=-=*')( '0)2>-*>)--3-
J2.42 '0)223=>)')2( '0)2',')'(223 '0))=-2-=*-,' '0)))3,=>3(=, '0)-,,*>3=,>' '0)-*)33-2(-) '0)--=3>(-3>= '0)(,(==3(,'' '0)(3*()='(-, '0)(-'**,2>=3
J2.!2 '0)'>3)=3)-*2 '0)'3'-3=(,22 '0)'(3)(=='>- '0-,>'33,2)3' '0-,23,>2>,)( '0-,((3,*33') '0->==),*>-2- '0->2))>>'>(* '0->',3=-*)=, '0-==3,3-=3**
J2.%2 '0-=2-3)'*2,2 '0-=',)'>2=3- '0-*=*->>)2'2 '0-*2)2=--,>- '0-*('>*-)2>) '0-3=>2*'2)*> '0-32*-*>233, '0-3(2->>-2)> '0-2>-3-(3>2( '0-23',='-'*)
J2.(2 '0-2(,*)3=>2> '0-)>>3(,,),= '0-)3=*-2-)3> '0-)-*,3'(>)) '0--,*2,,-)=( '0--**-=-=,=) '0--)*-=--'>= '0--'*2,>=*() '0-(=*,3)*>,, '0-(2=*)>(=2-
J2.*2 '0-((>33))),2 '0-'>,=''-333 '0-'*('=,,)=, '0-')-*,))2=* '0-''232(),(' '0(,=**-2,-'3 '0(,2>,22=)2( '0(,-(3'(3=*2 '0(>,2-,*()>- '0(>*=)-,'3='
J2.+2 '0(>2'*'',(=) '0(>(2((--3'> '0(=>=>*)3)*= '0(=*(>33-'-) '0(=)*'>=*--, '0(=('3*((--3 '0(*>3-=3,=2( '0(**'-)-2''( '0(*)32)'3=-= '0(*('>='*(2(
J1.22 '0(3>*33-3,=* '0(3*-2=*32=- '0(3)>*2-2)>, '0(3(3'3'-''2 '0(2,(*,,=(-2 '0(2*>3,'>'>3 '0(223=-)-=3, '0(2-)',*>3*) '0(2''=((-23, '0()=>3**',*)
J1.12 '0()3***('(3( '0())2,,33**- '0()()3*,-=', '0(-,-)>(*'>( '0(-=(2)-'(2> '0(-3'=(,>>=3 '0(-)'-223>(, '0(-('''32(2( '0((,'''(**(- '0((='-)-3*(,
J1.22 '0((3'*,=)(=- '0(()(),3','> '0(((-)-3'('3 '0(',)2>*(*>- '0('=2>==*-'= '0('3*2,>),', '0(')>)2=2*=, '0('-'2-)>'>( '0(''-=-*))3, '0',>3-3),22(
J1.32 '0',*>''32,3' '0',3',=,>-', '0',)2(=3=-3- '0',(=3,(,>-2 '0','(--=)),= '0'>>3'>'3(=( '0'>*,(3'-'>2 '0'>3)2)3'>(, '0'>)=,))=>() '0'>--*22,-*(
J1.42 '0'>'=3*=((-* '0'=,-*,>,(23 '0'==>')>>>), '0'=*)3>333(* '0'=2,))=2->( '0'=)3-,)''2* '0'=-(23'=3-, '0'='=>',(-=- '0'*,2)**3*), '0'*>((-(2>-,
J1.!2 '0'**>'=-->=, '0'*33-(=)*=* '0'*2-333',*' '0'*)''>)>))( '0'*(=>'(,-3, '0'*'3='=='>, '0'3,)=,,3'2= '0'3>-'=3*-2, '0'3='3)2)='3 '0'33,(=2'))'
J1.%2 '0'32=,,->,23 '0'3)*,>,-->, '0'3-*(*()'(, '0'3(33'=)=-3 '0'3'3'-3*,-, '0'2,2=(23',2 '0'2>23=-'*)' '0'2=23,*3,'' '0'2*2=>*)--> '0'233(),2,'(
J1.(2 '0'223*32)(=> '0'2)*)-,'-,2 '0'2-=(*(>2*= '0'2(>(3',,') '0'2',-,2*>'' '0'2''3,(()3= '0'),-')>3==* '0')>)*)3--*> '0')=3)=,)'*' '0')*=-*,'),>
J1.*2 '0')3,)'-*33( '0')3(2=>)>-' '0')2)=,223)= '0'))*-2,('=3 '0')->>2'3>3' '0')-(3*=()-3 '0')(22-=''(2 '0')'=2(>22,( '0')''3),=)>* '0'-,)=>,(),*
J1.+2 '0'->=(*2,->* '0'->'**3)>,2 '0'-=2->>>()) '0'-*>'))2,,3 '0'-*(>,==33* '0'-33>=,>,>' '0'-2,,=>-3(> '0'-22(,((3(= '0'-)>3(*,2-' '0'-)-,3),=*=
J2.22 '0'--=3''*-'2 '0'---(33-2=> '0'-(*,(*-22> '0'-((=>-''>( '0'-'*=3',23> '0'-'(>-(2==* '0'(,*,,-')2, '0'(,--*('*() '0'(>=*-='(-2 '0'(>)'>>)3*2
J2.12 '0'(=>*2)3=2- '0'(=2-,((3,2 '0'(=''-,*(>= '0'(*3>3=2=-' '0'(*(==)-3-3 '0'(3===33'=' '0'(3)>*-=,3, '0'(3''))*,)2 '0'(2*->*=>=* '0'(2-*-'*>'=
J2.22 '0'(),')),>,( '0'()33-3)2)- '0'()-',))>>( '0'(->=)*=>)- '0'(-3232-'-2 '0'(---22))2( '0'((,('3>>(= '0'((*')=3*)' '0'(()')>(('> '0'(('('*-=-3
J2.32 '0'('=-2'>('* '0'('222'3'-) '0'('(='2(2'' '0'',,')'3)'* '0'',*2(>2,*) '0'',)>**>=2( '0'',()=23(*- '0''>>,2'->,) '0''>*3*)'=32 '0''>2-2(==()
J2.42 '0''>(,=3->>= '0''=,=*-332- '0''==*'-3',( '0''=32,2(',> '0''=)2)*)-=' '0''=(2->(2** '0''*,2*>3*>= '0''*=33**'>) '0''*3*,(-,2> '0''*)>=(*=--
J2.!2 '0''*-',*=,>* '0''*')*3=2*= '0''3>*==*')2 '0''3=')(2*,* '0''332-*2*'2 '0''3)>*(='3' '0''3-))*)2*- '0''3'>2,32'> '0''2,2''23,2 '0''2=,>>->3>
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
J2.%2 '0''2**(--(=> '0''23-=(2**) '0''2),*3-332 '0''2-*,->--3 '0''2(23)2(>- '0''2'-2*)'3= '0''),'='=*(2 '0'')=,-*'=2' '0'')*>((323' '0'')3=-*2>>3
J2.(2 '0'')2*='-)'3 '0''))*2-(',= '0'')-*2(2=*2 '0'')(**=*,)) '0'')'=-'()22 '0''-,=,>(>3, '0''->,'(-23( '0''->'->=-(( '0''-=(>'')), '0''-*)32*(2,
J2.*2 '0''-333(,'*2 '0''-2==()*(* '0''-2'(-2223 '0''-)-=2*-,2 '0''--33=2'(3 '0''-(>*'-33> '0''-((>-*,>' '0''-'3-2-2)2 '0''(,>>22(=2 '0''(,-*-=33-
J2.+2 '0''(>*3>>'(2 '0''(>'=-((') '0''(=3'--23* '0''(*,2>==,> '0''(*2((-,2> '0''(3>>,)>(3 '0''(3)>-*),) '0''(2>,'*=*2 '0''(22()(',2 '0''(),2,3*)*
J3.22 '0''()2,,*=-- '0''()'*)'=*= '0''(-*),2-*2 '0''(--->)=>= '0''((>-,3,>3 '0''((22-=3>) '0''(('*=3)>- '0''('=')*-33 '0''(')3'=(2= '0''('''>3'=3
J3.12 '0''',*=*=(-2 '0''',)33'22* '0''','2)--*2 '0'''>=2',>*- '0'''>22>'3,- '0'''>(*2(>*> '0'''=>>,((** '0'''=*--*'-) '0'''=)*22')* '0'''=((2->*'
J3.22 '0'''*>=-'-'> '0'''**)=)>3' '0'''*2('(*(' '0'''*(,'()*= '0'''3,==('3- '0'''3=='>*2, '0'''33=(-(,) '0'''3)==,=*, '0'''3(,',3', '0'''3'',,3,2
J3.32 '0'''2>)2>-32 '0'''2**3)=*' '0'''23'(22)) '0'''2)2->*)3 '0'''2(>,2==' '0'''2'2((->= '0''')>,=**=2 '0''')=3>,2*' '0''')*-2>-() '0''')2,3(3),
J3.42 '0'''))*,>'>- '0''')-2>*3-2 '0''')()(33>' '0''')'(>2''- '0'''-,','3=* '0'''->')2(-- '0'''-='()2,( '0'''-*'-=3*= '0'''-3'=3-*3 '0'''-2(333)'
J3.!2 '0'''-)-*=))= '0'''--2',*,( '0'''-(3>(*-2 '0'''-'=>-(,3 '0'''-''('2,( '0'''(,-*3*-3 '0'''(>32*=)3 '0'''(=>3-,>3 '0'''(=(>)3*) '0'''(*3)=*>(
J3.%2 '0'''(3,(23=( '0'''(3)()2,) '0'''(2=))=-2 '0'''(2(=23** '0'''()*)3)), '0'''()((3)>3 '0'''(-*(2'*3 '0'''(-()'=*' '0'''((**2>*> '0'''((-(3>'>
J3.(2 '0'''('=>)'(3 '0'''(')*3,2' '0'''',,*2'32 '0'''',3=*>2( '0'''',-')>'2 '0''''>>2223, '0''''>2,>))> '0''''>(*2,>, '0''''=>2),=( '0''''=3)2>*'
J3.*2 '0''''=-)=-2) '0''''*,3'=-) '0''''**=2,(- '0''''*2',2)= '0''''*(3),)* '0''''3,'>'3, '0''''3*=(2*= '0''''322)>)) '0''''3--2>)> '0''''3'(2(==
J3.+2 '0''''2>((33- '0''''2*(**=* '0''''22-,-=- '0''''2-2,'=' '0''''2'=3>() '0''''),',-2> '0'''')=2,()) '0'''')3,3-)2 '0'''')22=)-2 '0''''))'3(>2
J4.22 '0'''')(*>*') '0'''')')=)== '0''''-,(()'> '0''''-=,'-'* '0''''-*=)>>= '0''''-3*-(=- '0''''-232>,( '0''''-)3(>== '0''''--3-,=- '0''''-(3>'(,
J4.12 '0''''-'**>=- '0''''(,=,)>3 '0''''(>,32-' '0''''(>(2>22 '0''''(=)=3-= '0''''(**))2* '0''''(3,-(=, '0''''(3-),(- '0''''(23>2)- '0''''(),3*))
J4.22 '0''''())32(' '0''''(-==**) '0''''(----,= '0''''((*,-(> '0''''(((>))= '0''''('*,3*, '0''''('-->-, '0''''',=>')= '0''''',)3((> '0'''''>,),,=
J4.32 '0'''''>32*'- '0'''''>(*>*3 '0'''''=>'=-' '0'''''=2*('- '0'''''=(-,3( '0'''''*>(-'> '0'''''*3'>(* '0'''''*-(=-' '0'''''3,)>*> '0'''''3*=-',
J4.42 '0'''''32(*,3 '0'''''3(=-=, '0'''''2,),(= '0'''''2=(3*2 '0'''''23'(>' '0'''''2-,=-2 '0'''''2('(3> '0'''''),(223 '0''''')=)33( '0''''')3*22'
J4.!2 '0''''')2''>' '0''''')-222' '0''''')',2,' '0'''''-,3-'' '0'''''->(32) '0'''''-*>2,- '0'''''-3*'-( '0'''''-22('* '0'''''-)-=-) '0'''''--(>3'
J4.%2 '0'''''-((2*2 '0'''''-'(323 '0'''''(,-'=) '0'''''(>)'-, '0'''''(=2),) '0'''''(**(3' '0'''''(3>->' '0'''''(3'=*, '0'''''(2)*'' '0'''''()*=3,
J4.(2 '0'''''()'-)- '0'''''(-2''2 '0'''''((>'*- '0'''''((-),2 '0'''''('*,>, '0'''''('(>)) '0'''''',*,(* '0'''''',---> '0''''''>==3> '0''''''>)2,=
J4.*2 '0''''''=,2)3 '0''''''=33*2 '0''''''=(>=2 '0''''''*>)3> '0''''''*3''= '0''''''*(>(3 '0''''''3>==2 '0''''''33>== '0''''''3)((= '0''''''3'2>,
J4.+2 '0''''''2=,>= '0''''''23*'2 '0''''''2)))3 '0''''''2((=3 '0''''''),(-' '0'''''')=(*) '0'''''')3)'' '0''''''))3-> '0'''''')(>2( '0'''''')'-)=
J!.22 '0''''''->=(' '0''''''-=-3> '0''''''-3>== '0''''''-23*2 '0''''''-))(3 '0''''''--(-= '0''''''-',,> '0''''''(,,-2 '0''''''(>,'2 '0''''''(=,)2
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (*) of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
J!.12 '0''''''(='(- '0''''''(*()* '0''''''(3)'2 '0''''''(23() '0''''''()=*- '0''''''()'2> '0''''''(-)=' '0''''''((=-* '0''''''((((3 '0''''''('3)3
J!.22 '0''''''',,>) '0''''''',2*' '0'''''''>,*2 '0'''''''>2,- '0'''''''>'23 '0'''''''=*-' '0'''''''=-(= '0'''''''*>)3 '0'''''''*2=- '0'''''''*(->
J!.32 '0'''''''3>'- '0'''''''32,) '0'''''''3(,, '0'''''''2,-( '0'''''''2*3= '0'''''''22'= '0'''''''2(=' '0'''''''),2* '0''''''')=)) '0''''''')3)(
J!.42 '0'''''''))2' '0''''''')(3> '0'''''''-,>= '0'''''''->-2 '0'''''''-*=' '0'''''''-3-2 '0'''''''-)>* '0'''''''--3* '0'''''''-()- '0'''''''-'(3
J!.!2 '0'''''''(,'2 '0'''''''(=,, '0'''''''(*,, '0'''''''(*'3 '0'''''''(3(* '0'''''''(2)- '0'''''''()3- '0'''''''(-== '0'''''''(-'* '0'''''''(()>
J!.%2 '0'''''''('=3 '0'''''''('(2 '0'''''''',3= '0'''''''','2 '0''''''''>3) '0''''''''>'2 '0''''''''=3, '0''''''''=(* '0''''''''*=3 '0''''''''*)=
J!.(2 '0''''''''*'( '0''''''''3*= '0''''''''3)2 '0''''''''3'2 '0''''''''2=3 '0''''''''22> '0''''''''2-- '0''''''''),> '0'''''''')=3 '0'''''''')3)
J!.*2 '0''''''''))) '0'''''''')() '0''''''''-,3 '0''''''''-=> '0''''''''-*- '0''''''''-2= '0''''''''-)- '0''''''''-(, '0''''''''-'* '0''''''''(,2
J!.+2 '0''''''''(>- '0''''''''(=- '0''''''''(*- '0''''''''(3- '0''''''''(2) '0''''''''()3 '0''''''''(-= '0''''''''((, '0''''''''((- '0''''''''('3
J%.22 '0''''''''',, '0''''''''',) '0'''''''''>> '0'''''''''>- '0'''''''''== '0'''''''''=) '0'''''''''*> '0'''''''''*2 '0'''''''''*' '0'''''''''3=
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (*2 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
B '0'' '0'( '0'- '0') '0'2 '0'3 '0'* '0'= '0'> '0',
2.22 '02,,,,,,,,=> '03'),>,)=>>, '03'=,=>)3)>3 '03((,**3-*3( '03(3,3)2,>>, '03(,,)>>=))) '03-),---3-*( '03-=,')-2''* '03)(>>(2),*> '03)3>3*23*-*
2.12 '03),>-=>,33) '032)=,3)*2-2 '032==3>2=')' '033(=(*>--,' '0333*='')-*' '033,*(==((3' '03*)33,2=))( '03*=2,2,))2> '03=(2-)=',)- '03=3)232-'('
2.22 '03=,-3,*>=(= '03>)(**()2'> '03>='*2)>**= '03,',32'=)-' '03,2>)2>-222 '03,>='*-=)=> '0*'-3*>'3=)2 '0*'*2(,>(2', '0*('-*((>3>, '0*(2',(>(=*=
2.32 '0*(=,(()3=2= '0*-(=(,23*3> '0*-33(3=*,*' '0*-,-,,,3232 '0*))'=(*=-,3 '0*)*>)'3>,,2 '0*2'3=*)=2)* '0*22)'>*,>=> '0*2>'-=-),*, '0*3(=)(*==2>
2.42 '0*332-(*,*3, '0*3,',*,>333 '0**-=3=-)=(' '0***2'-(2>-( '0*='')(2-'-' '0*=)*22=3>== '0*==-2(>=2() '0*>'>--2>('' '0*>2)>*-,>=( '0*>=,))'3(-3
2.!2 '0*,(2*-2*=)* '0*,2,=2->'3* '0*,>2*>--,(> '0='(,22'3*3' '0='32'(3('*, '0='>>2')22,= '0=(--*')(=3> '0=(3**((,(>2 '0=(,'2-=)*-( '0=--2'2=-2)2
2.%2 '0=-3=2*,)3'* '0=-,'*,(3-2> '0=)-)=((*3,* '0=)3*3-=='(> '0=)>,()=*3(= '0=2-(3),3*)- '0=23)=)(322( '0=2>3=((=3*- '0=3(=2=>2(3, '0=32,'-,=,)=
2.(2 '0=3>')*2-(3- '0=*((2>''*') '0=*2-)=3=*2- '0=*=)'2,>(*= '0==')3''=*-, '0==))=-=-'-= '0==*)=-==,() '0==,)3'(-)>= '0=>-)'2*)('( '0=>3-)*(>-3>
2.*2 '0=>>(22***'* '0=,('-,,=223 '0=,)>,-''*-( '0=,*=)'**3-2 '0=,,323>*',' '0>'-))=3'=,3 '0>'3('33-*3, '0>'=>2,>2-)* '0>('3=')>*(> '0>()-*=',2)'
2.+2 '0>(3,),,'>-= '0>(>3>>==2,- '0>-(-()*2*)) '0>-)>(22=,== '0>-*),(-)==( '0>->,2)>>==3 '0>)(2=-2'-3, '0>)),=*=3,,, '0>)*23*,2-=) '0>)>,(-,)>3,
1.22 '0>2()22=2'-2 '0>2)=3-)23-> '0>2*()3=3*(( '0>2>2,2,=,,* '0>3'>)''->=* '0>3)(2',(,(3 '0>332-=*=-2( '0>3=*,')(2)= '0>3,,->>=32( '0>*-(2)),')=
1.12 '0>*2)))>,>2, '0>**3''22))> '0>*>*2)'=-,( '0>='=*(>),(, '0>=->3*=,>3- '0>=2,->'((-3 '0>=*,=332(>( '0>=>,,,23>3, '0>>',,,>))>> '0>>-,=*=2)>(
1.22 '0>>2,)'-*>-> '0>>*>*'2,',- '0>>>=*=2,>,3 '0>,'*3()>)(> '0>,-3(--)=,) '0>,2)3'(*',( '0>,*(*3-3)-( '0>,=,3=*(,(, '0>,,=-=)**2( '0,'(2=2*'33,
1.32 '0,')(,,23'3' '0,'2,'-'(=,( '0,'*3>-2-=2> '0,'>-2'>'(=* '0,',>==-**') '0,((2,(,2>-, '0,()'>2,=,(* '0,(2*3*2,(>( '0,(*-'**-(>= '0,(==)33'=),
1.42 '0,(,-2)->>=2 '0,-'=)'('>33 '0,--(,*(((*( '0,-)*2(222>2 '0,-3'**-3=(, '0,-*2='*,,32 '0,-=>32,-2=( '0,-,-(,'>=-> '0,)'3*))2)*( '0,)(>>=>3(=(
1.!2 '0,))(,-==(-( '0,)22=>-*)-2 '0,)3=222,'2' '0,)*,,(*(**, '0,)>-(,>'=2( '0,),2-,--,(( '0,2'*-''2,3) '0,2(=,-2)=3( '0,2-,2*3*-,3 '0,22'>-3,*='
1.%2 '0,23-''=('33 '0,2*)'('==(( '0,2=)>)>*,>( '0,2>22,-*-=3 '0,2,2,=2)'=( '0,3'3->32,'* '0,3(32-=,)=' '0,3-32')2('' '0,3)3-()*==- '0,322>*'3',,
1.(2 '0,332)23*>-- '0,3*)*=',='* '0,3=->)>(3)) '0,3>(>2,'',= '0,3,'='3)-'' '0,3,,2'>>*2) '0,*'=,*(2--2 '0,*(*)*2==)- '0,*-2*-'*,2' '0,*)-=)',*'-
1.*2 '0,*2'*,=)22, '0,*2>3-(*(>' '0,*3*-'332*) '0,**)=3'>,-3 '0,*=((3,2(3' '0,*=>2)->*=3 '0,*>33=-,,>* '0,*,-3>(33', '0,*,,2*'-*(2 '0,='*-('>*'2
1.+2 '0,=(->)3'=(2 '0,=(,))2*('* '0,=-3=(((>*= '0,=)(,**3''3 '0,=)>('--222 '0,=22(-'('-' '0,=3''-(=2>- '0,=33>'>>2>) '0,=*(2>)'3>' '0,=*='2*'-))
2.22 '0,==-2,,)=,* '0,===>22=3-- '0,=>)'>)=33- '0,=>>-(=,,(, '0,=,)-2,'32- '0,=,>(=>3--2 '0,>')''=,*3( '0,>'==)>,)>= '0,>(-)=-,>=* '0,>(*,((*2)*
2.12 '0,>-()3*2-3> '0,>-3='>>2'* '0,>-,,=')>() '0,>)2(2-3->' '0,>)>--*=2=3 '0,>2---22,)' '0,>2*()=-'2( '0,>2,,**)'** '0,>3)=()-(-2 '0,>3=)=,)(,)
2.22 '0,>*',**'(', '0,>*22=2*3*> '0,>*=,'**((, '0,>=(-*)-(*> '0,>=2323=,=* '0,>===33**3, '0,>>'>,2((>) '0,>>),*-2)=' '0,>>*,*(>>,- '0,>>,>,)=-=3
2.32 '0,>,-=3,(>,2 '0,>,333,2,== '0,>,>-,3>*'' '0,,'',*,2*,2 '0,,')3>(3')= '0,,'*())(-3, '0,,'>*-32>)> '0,,(('3,=('= '0,,()2)*,-2* '0,,(3=3>-->=
2.42 '0,,(>'-2=(() '0,,-'-)=223> '0,,--),=2,', '0,,-23'3>,'- '0,,-*3*)*=)' '0,,->3=(>3)2 '0,,)'3)(2)() '0,,)-22)),(= '0,,)2)'>='3- '0,,)*(->)-=>
2.!2 '0,,)=,')-'(2 '0,,),*)2-3)) '0,,2()--),** '0,,2-,*>3)'2 '0,,223=)3),* '0,,2*()>-,3' '0,,2=**)*3)> '0,,2,(3'23,- '0,,3'3,,32'* '0,,3-'((=(2-
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (*3 of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
2.%2 '0,,3))>==>-- '0,,32=->3))= '0,,3*')2=22* '0,,3=)'=(==3 '0,,3>32*3>(> '0,,3,=3)*,2) '0,,*',-,-)>* '0,,*-'=),-*' '0,,*)(>>233' '0,,*2-=)3((3
2.(2 '0,,*3)-,=*,3 '0,,**)3=>,') '0,,*=)3>3-)* '0,,*>))-)'*= '0,,*,-=,>*3* '0,,='-'(>(2( '0,,=(',>=32, '0,,=(,=(-=>, '0,,=->(,,**( '0,,=)*23)>3(
2.*2 '0,,=222>',)* '0,,=3-->*)>2 '0,,=3,>=3333 '0,,=*=-3)='* '0,,==22-3,>3 '0,,=>(),=22- '0,,=>>(=)'-' '0,,=,2=3=3** '0,,>'((33>-* '0,,>'=)=-22>
2.+2 '0,,>()2((,>* '0,,>(,-=>>,= '0,,>-2,==322 '0,,>)'3(--'- '0,,>)3>>='3- '0,,>2(('*(>3 '0,,>2*(=)*'= '0,,>3(',)-)* '0,,>33>*>,'* '0,,>*'3'2)*2
3.22 '0,,>*3'')-=> '0,,>*,)*,-)) '0,,>=)*'3=)* '0,,>===(*-() '0,,>>(='2'(3 '0,,>>33=-2(= '0,,>>,)-2*(> '0,,>,-,*)=23 '0,,>,*2,->3) '0,,>,,,(2,-3
3.12 '0,,,')-)->=* '0,,,'*22,332 '0,,,',3*==)* '0,,,(-3,'()> '0,,,(33(,2'> '0,,,(>)3>()- '0,,,-(('>>)2 '0,,,-)==),== '0,,,-*)33,*2 '0,,,->>3=(2'
3.22 '0,,,)(-=,=,- '0,,,))*-*(3' '0,,,)3>,>),' '0,,,)>',>*)) '0,,,2'-->,2> '0,,,2--,()3( '0,,,22->=>'= '0,,,2*--'-)( '0,,,2>','2,( '0,,,2,,''2'*
3.32 '0,,,3(*3(=2* '0,,,3))2*-2' '0,,,32,>33*= '0,,,3*3=()*3 '0,,,3>('3-)' '0,,,3,3>>=() '0,,,*('-))-* '0,,,*-2('32' '0,,,*)=3(=>= '0,,,*3'2>2*(
3.42 '0,,,**)'(,(> '0,,,*=3()2=* '0,,,*>*>22-' '0,,,*,>(3,,> '0,,,=',',2-2 '0,,,=(,*3>=> '0,,,=-,>*3', '0,,,=),=-2)) '0,,,=2,-2=)3 '0,,,=3>222='
3.!2 '0,,,=*=)-**) '0,,,==3,')', '0,,,=>2(>)=* '0,,,=,-(=>'3 '0,,,=,,>,3', '0,,,>'=)2)=3 '0,,,>(23)-*3 '0,,,>-(2='(3 '0,,,>->(*2)= '0,,,>)2*-)(,
3.%2 '0,,,>2'>32-, '0,,,>2*>*3'= '0,,,>3-**-=* '0,,,>3>-32)2 '0,,,>*)*2**( '0,,,>*>>2*(3 '0,,,>=)>3,)3 '0,,,>=>*,-2' '0,,,>>))3()- '0,,,>>=>2(,-
3.(2 '0,,,>,-(*,>3 '0,,,>,*)2'*' '0,,,,'')3,2* '0,,,,'2-)(3, '0,,,,'=,*(,* '0,,,,((3332( '0,,,,(3'(**- '0,,,,(>)3'(( '0,,,,-(3*'-, '0,,,,-2*3(2'
3.*2 '0,,,,-=*-=3= '0,,,,)'2,-== '0,,,,))-3'>> '0,,,,)3,'3*) '0,,,,)>2*'*2 '0,,,,2',(,2( '0,,,,2)->3)) '0,,,,233*(*= '0,,,,2==3(*- '0,,,,2,>3>-)
3.+2 '0,,,,3(>>22> '0,,,,3)>))-2 '0,,,,33='=-> '0,,,,3=3',)' '0,,,,3,-2(>= '0,,,,*','=3- '0,,,,*-3'>*= '0,,,,*2'2=** '0,,,,*33-*=* '0,,,,**,2>(*
4.22 '0,,,,*>)(),= '0,,,,*,*-*-) '0,,,,='>>*,- '0,,,,=-',=,2 '0,,,,=)-*(() '0,,,,=2)=>-> '0,,,,=323(', '0,,,,=*2>(-) '0,,,,==2='-> '0,,,,=>2(,>(
4.12 '0,,,,=,))(-> '0,,,,>'-'*(3 '0,,,,>('23>' '0,,,,>(>3(3* '0,,,,>-*-2=) '0,,,,>))**32 '0,,,,>2'=>-( '0,,,,>2=*'>> '0,,,,>32(3*> '0,,,,>*'2)*=
4.22 '0,,,,>**23,' '0,,,,>=--))= '0,,,,>====') '0,,,,>>)'=>- '0,,,,>>>(**) '0,,,,>,)'2)( '0,,,,>,==(=( '0,,,,,'-(,*) '0,,,,,'*2>>- '0,,,,,('*'')
4.32 '0,,,,,(23),> '0,,,,,(>)()3 '0,,,,,-(,->' '0,,,,,-3)>,> '0,,,,,->='2, '0,,,,,)(>=,- '0,,,,,)2,(>2 '0,,,,,)=>->' '0,,,,,2'*()- '0,,,,,2)-=,(
4.42 '0,,,,,23>)'3 '0,,,,,2>-=-( '0,,,,,3'*'>) '0,,,,,3->2)* '0,,,,,32,>-' '0,,,,,3='-=* '0,,,,,3>,>2- '0,,,,,*'>333 '0,,,,,*-*22, '0,,,,,*2)3*'
4.!2 '0,,,,,*3,,-' '0,,,,,*=33*' '0,,,,,*,'3(' '0,,,,,='2>'' '0,,,,,=(>23= '0,,,,,=)(3'> '0,,,,,=2),=, '0,,,,,=33>,2 '0,,,,,=*=-== '0,,,,,==>(3'
4.%2 '0,,,,,=>>3)* '0,,,,,=,>233 '0,,,,,>'=,-= '0,,,,,>(*,=( '0,,,,,>-3*'= '0,,,,,>))>3' '0,,,,,>2(=-' '0,,,,,>2,-)( '0,,,,,>3*2'' '0,,,,,>*)-2(
4.(2 '0,,,,,>*,=*> '0,,,,,>=3,,* '0,,,,,>>(,)> '0,,,,,>>=*'* '0,,,,,>,)'(( '0,,,,,>,>(*= '0,,,,,,')'>2 '0,,,,,,'===- '0,,,,,,(--2- '0,,,,,,(*3')
4.*2 '0,,,,,,-'3*3 '0,,,,,,-22)* '0,,,,,,->(-* '0,,,,,,)(*2- '0,,,,,,)2,,) '0,,,,,,)>(>3 '0,,,,,,2(--* '0,,,,,,22(-) '0,,,,,,2*>>) '0,,,,,,2,3((
4.+2 '0,,,,,,3-'() '0,,,,,,32),* '0,,,,,,3***3 '0,,,,,,3>>-3 '0,,,,,,*'>>' '0,,,,,,*->)= '0,,,,,,*2='' '0,,,,,,**2=- '0,,,,,,*>(3, '0,,,,,,*,=*)
!.22 '0,,,,,,=(-,' '0,,,,,,=-=2- '0,,,,,,=2(-) '0,,,,,,=32)* '0,,,,,,=**>3 '0,,,,,,==>=) '0,,,,,,=,''- '0,,,,,,>''=* '0,,,,,,>(',* '0,,,,,,>-'**
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (** of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
!.12 '0,,,,,,>-,>> '0,,,,,,>)>*2 '0,,,,,,>2*,* '0,,,,,,>32>= '0,,,,,,>*-)> '0,,,,,,>*,3- '0,,,,,,>=*)' '0,,,,,,>>-=2 '0,,,,,,>>>>3 '0,,,,,,>,2*3
!.22 '0,,,,,,,''(= '0,,,,,,,'32' '0,,,,,,,(')* '0,,,,,,,(3'> '0,,,,,,,(,33 '0,,,,,,,-)>' '0,,,,,,,-=>) '0,,,,,,,)(*3 '0,,,,,,,)3-> '0,,,,,,,)>=-
!.32 '0,,,,,,,2(,> '0,,,,,,,23'= '0,,,,,,,2>'( '0,,,,,,,3'=, '0,,,,,,,3)2) '0,,,,,,,33,) '0,,,,,,,3>)' '0,,,,,,,*'32 '0,,,,,,,*-*= '0,,,,,,,*2*,
!.42 '0,,,,,,,***' '0,,,,,,,*>2- '0,,,,,,,='() '0,,,,,,,=(=* '0,,,,,,,=))' '0,,,,,,,=2=* '0,,,,,,,=*(2 '0,,,,,,,==22 '0,,,,,,,=>*> '0,,,,,,,=,>3
!.!2 '0,,,,,,,>',* '0,,,,,,,>-'( '0,,,,,,,>)'( '0,,,,,,,>),3 '0,,,,,,,>2>2 '0,,,,,,,>3*> '0,,,,,,,>*2> '0,,,,,,,>=-) '0,,,,,,,>=,2 '0,,,,,,,>>*-
!.%2 '0,,,,,,,>,-3 '0,,,,,,,>,>* '0,,,,,,,,'2) '0,,,,,,,,',* '0,,,,,,,,(2= '0,,,,,,,,(,* '0,,,,,,,,-2( '0,,,,,,,,->2 '0,,,,,,,,)-3 '0,,,,,,,,)*)
!.(2 '0,,,,,,,,),, '0,,,,,,,,2)) '0,,,,,,,,2** '0,,,,,,,,2,* '0,,,,,,,,3-3 '0,,,,,,,,33- '0,,,,,,,,3=> '0,,,,,,,,*'- '0,,,,,,,,*-3 '0,,,,,,,,*2=
!.*2 '0,,,,,,,,**= '0,,,,,,,,*>= '0,,,,,,,,='3 '0,,,,,,,,=-- '0,,,,,,,,=)> '0,,,,,,,,=3) '0,,,,,,,,=*> '0,,,,,,,,=>( '0,,,,,,,,=,2 '0,,,,,,,,>'*
!.+2 '0,,,,,,,,>(> '0,,,,,,,,>-> '0,,,,,,,,>)> '0,,,,,,,,>2> '0,,,,,,,,>3= '0,,,,,,,,>*3 '0,,,,,,,,>=) '0,,,,,,,,>>( '0,,,,,,,,>>> '0,,,,,,,,>,3
%.22 '0,,,,,,,,,'( '0,,,,,,,,,'= '0,,,,,,,,,(- '0,,,,,,,,,(> '0,,,,,,,,,-) '0,,,,,,,,,-= '0,,,,,,,,,)- '0,,,,,,,,,)* '0,,,,,,,,,2' '0,,,,,,,,,2)
A$$endiF N
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (*= of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
AVERAGES (X BAR CHART)
RANGES (R CHART)
PLANT . /EPT0 . OPN0 . /te Control Li#its 4l4ulted . ENGG0 SPEC0 . PART NO0 Cntrl0 Ite# ;< . YES NO
M&C NO0 . /ATE . C5ARACTERISTICS . SAMPLE SICE&1REE!UENCY . PART NAME .
/ATE
TIME
/
>
$
D
I
N
-
(
-
)
2
3
ACTION
CN SP>CI$A C$S>S
$NH PCINT CTSID> C: T=> CCNT/CA
AI0ITS
* INT>/#$AS $AA $;C#> C/ $AA
;>AC< T=> C>NT/$A AIN>
( INT>/#$AS CCNSIST>NTAH /ISIN-
C/ :$AAIN-
$NH CT=>/ C;#ICSAH NCNJ
/$NDC0 P$TT>/N
ACTION INSTRUCTIONS
' M9e no unne4essr" 4hn+es
to the Pro4ess
' Mintin lo+ ?ith detils of
ANY 4hn+es to the Pro4ess
Ele#ents ;Peo$le8 EGui$#ent8
Mteril8 Methods8 En%iron#ent<
SUBGROUP
SICE A
-
/
)
/
2
- (0>> B )0-=
) (0'- B -03=
2 '0=) B -0->
3 '03> B -0((
* '02> B -0''
= '02- '0'> (0,-
> '0)= '0(2 (0>*
, '0)2 '0(> (0>-
(' '0)( '0-- (0=>
T5E PROCESS MUST BE IN
CONTROL BE1ORE CAPABILITY
CAN BE /ETERMINE/0
S0
K S S0
NC. C: />$DIN-S
/S =I-=>ST E
AC<>ST
H I A%er+e H I UCL I H O A
-
R I LCL I H K A
-
R I
R I A%er+e R I UCL I /
2
R I LCL I /
)
R I
CONTROL C5ART
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (*> of (*,
AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR
A$$endiF O
M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(
P+e (*, of (*,
CONTROL C5ART for Attri:ute /t
Plant P c
n& u
Product >ngg. Designated Hes
Control Item 89 No
Part No. . Name
De&t. C&eration No. . Name $vg. S CA S ACA S
Date Control Aimits calculated

$vg. S .C.A. S A.C.A. S $verage Sam&le Si'e L
:re7uenc) L
Sam&le 8n9
No.
8n&G c9
Pro.
8&G u9
D
is
c
re
&
a
n
c
)
D
i
s
c
r
e
p
a
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c
y
Date
Any change in ':'+, ;&"'.N/, .A/<"A+-, ./=:D- or N)"<:N.N/ should be noted on the (oncern +og > (omment sheet.
/hese notes *ill help you to ta6e corrective or process actions *hen signaled by the (ontrol (hart.

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AUTOMOTIVE SECTOR

CONTINUING PROCESS CONTROL

0an) a times t,ere could be dilemma in guidelines &rovided for finding n.

4,ereG 536 is t,e number of subgrou&sG

4,ereG 536 is t,e number of subgrou&sG

8&ronounced as sigma ,at9. sing t,e e1isting

4,ere s is t,e average of t,e subJgrou& sam&le standard

T,e &rocess ca&abilit) information serves t,e follo4ing &ur&oses

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(

/ist0 of 4losest S0L0 fro# the Men

>1am&le L If t,e BSA is 2.13 . BASA is 1.42G t,en

) has to be reduced. $he etent to hich the ne

M!S&SPC&GL '( Re% '' )'&'*&'(

<,ere is t,e &o&ulation mean or traditional &rocess average in t,is case.

20 Stndrd /e%ition ;<

:or unilateral Tolerancing .. smaller t,e better

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