OPERATION ANALYSIS

A truck cycle includes at least following elements: Load Haul Dump Return Spot at the shovel There is a range of times required to perform these five functions, depending upon : operator efficiency Weather

OPERATION ANALYSIS
Equipment condition Method of analyzing the times is to use an average time , realizing there will be rates of production above and below the average. Contractor shall determine the range of times required for each element of the operation and top perform the entire cycle.

OPERATION ANALYSIS

MOTION AND TIME STUDIES

These are studies made by an observer using a stop watch and a clip board. Loading time starts when the shovel begins serving the truck and ends when the truck begins moving away. Hauling time continues until the truck stops at the dump site Returning time starts when truck begins moving away from the dump & ends when the truck returns to the shovel site.

MOTION AND TIME STUDIES

Spotting time is the time required to maneuver into a position for loading. Form used for recording these times shall have a space for recording delays. The causes of delay can be classified as Personal Mechanical Service ,fuel, oil, water Others as applicable

DURATION OF A TIME STUDY

Duration of time study shall permit the user to record enough cycles to assure results having the desired accuracy. Desirable to limit the observations to a minimum number required to produce a reliable estimate of the range of times to be expected. Time recording meters can be attached to the construction equipments to record the time for each elements of a cycle.

STATISTICAL METHODS OF DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS NEEDED

Statistics involves the application of probability theory to the analysis of a data scatter. There are two general types of data scatter : Systematic Random Statistics is used to analyze the random scatter. Several parameters of importance in analyzing the variability of the observations are as follows: Measures of central tendency : The arithmetic mean or average

STATISTICAL METHODS OF DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS NEEDED

The median The mode Measures of dispersion : The range The Variance The Standard deviation

TIME LAPSE PHOTOGRAPHY

Extremely important tool in measuring the productivity of the construction operations. It consists of a motion picture camera which can expose picture frame at specific rates from standard move rate of 18 frames per second. Most efficient use is in areas with concentrated activity. An accurate time log of activities can be determined. An actual record of work is made for later analysis.

APPLYING MOTION TME STUDIES TO BUILDING HOUSES

During early stages of building several houses contractor conducted several motion and time studies. Later based upon these studies the material delivery and craftsmen arrival were scheduled to ensure efficient operations with minimum time lost. As a result of preplanning the houses were complete with a substantial reduction in cost and time.

PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES OF TRUCKS AND WAGAONS

Productive capacity of trucks and wagons depend upon: Size of its load It can be determined from the specifications furnished by the manufacturer. Number of trips made per hour It depends upon Weight of vehicle, Engine horsepower, Haul distance, Haul road conditions. Performance charts can be used to determine the maximum speed for the each haul with different grades.

BALANCING HAULING UNIT CAPACITIES WITH EXCAVATOR SIZE

Desirable to use units whose capacities balance the excavator output. Illogical combination may lead to rise in the combined cost of excavating and hauling of material. A rule of thumb practice used for equipment selection is to use trucks with minimum capacity of four to five times the capacity of the excavator bucket or dipper. A few Guidelines for selecting equipments to have right combination are following.

ADVANTAGES OF SMALL TRUCKS

More flexible in maneuvering . Have higher speeds Less loss in production when one truck breaks down in fleet. Easier to balance the trucks with excavator output.

DISADVANTAGES OF SMALL TRUCKS

Difficult for the excavator to load owing to small targets for depositing earth. More total time lost in spotting the trucks because of the larger number of trucks required. More driver are required. Greater number of trucks required increases danger of bunching up at the pits, along the haul road, or at the dump. Greater number of trucks may increase the total investment in the hauling equipments.

ADVANTAGES OF LARGE TRUCKS

Few trucks are required. Fewer drivers are required. Smaller number of trucks facilitate the synchronizing the equipments. They give a larger target for excavator during loading Reduce frequency of sporting the trucks Fewer trucks to maintain and repair and fewer parts to stock. Engines ordinarily use cheaper fuels.

DISADVANTAGES OF LARGE TRUCKS

Cost of truck time at loading is greater especially with small excavators. Heavier load may cause more damage to the haul roads, thus increasing maintenance cost of haul roads. More difficult to balance the number of trucks with the output of the excavator. Repair parts may be difficult to obtain. Largest size may not be permitted to haul on the highways.

EFFECT OF TRUCK SIZE ON COST OF HAULING EARTH

Increased size of the excavator results into lowering the time lost by the larger trucks at loading. This reduces the hauling cost per unit of earth. Cost of trucks while they are being loaded will be higher because of : Higher hourly cost of larger trucks. longer time required to load. The use of larger trucks is justified if higher cost can be recovered by more economical performance during travel cycle.

EFFECT OF EXCAVATOR SIZE ON COST OF EXCAVATING & HAULING EARTH

Increase in excavator size (keeping truck size constant), reduces the time required to load a truck. This reduces truck cost and hauling cost per unit of earth during loading. The total cost may be obtained by adding the cost of operating the shovel and the labor cost.

EFFECT OF GARDE ON THE COST OF HAULING EARTH WITH TRUCKS

To construct a fill the earth may be obtained from a borrow pit located either above or below the fill. For borrow pit above the fill the effect of favorable grade on loaded truck is to reduce the rimpull by 20 lb per gross ton for each 1 % of grade. For borrow pit below the fill the effect of adverse grade on loaded truck is to increase the rimpull by 20 lb per gross ton for each 1 % of grade. Economical to obtain the earth from borrow pit above the fill.

EFFECT OF GARDE ON THE COST OF HAULING EARTH WITH TRUCKS

For downhill hauling sideboards may be added to increase the hauling capacity, up to maximum capacity the tires can take. Larger tires may be permitted to trucks to haul the greater loads. If earth is hauled uphill it is necessary to reduce the size of the load or travel speed, either of which will increase the cost of hauling the earth.

EFFECT OF ROLLING RESISTANCE ON COST OF EARTH HAULING

Rolling resistance is determined by two factors: Physical condition of road. Tires used on hauling unit. Rolling resistance can be reduced by : Proper maintenance if the road By selecting proper tires and keeping them inflated to correct pressures. Roads can be maintained by patrol grader, sprinkled with water, and compacted as required.

EFFECT OF ROLLING RESISTANCE ON COST OF EARTH HAULING

The size of selected tires and pressure should be based on resistance which the surface of the road offers to penetration.

EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON PERFORMANCE OF HAULING EQUIPMENT

Altitude leads to reduction in the sea level power of a four cycle internal combustion engine by approx. 3 % for additional 1000 ft of altitude above 1000 ft unless a super charger is installed on the engine.

Effect of Grade in locating A Borrow Pit

It is desirable, when possible, to locate a borrow pit at a higher elevation than the fill, in order that the slope down the haul road may help the loaded trucks or other hauling equipment by permitting them to carry larger roads or to travel at a higher speeds. Since the vehicles will be empty when returning up the haul road from the fill to the borrow pit, the effect of the grade will be considerably less.

The effect of Altitude on the Performance of Internal-Combustion Engines

The power of an Internal-combustion engine is a measure of the rate at which it can produce energy from fuel. For each charge of fuel and air into a cylinder there must be a correct ratio between the quantity of fuel and air if the maximum efficiency and power are to be obtained from the engine. The ratio between quantities should be that which will provide just enough oxygen to supply the requirements of the fuel for complete combustion.

 If the density of the air is reduced because of altitude, the quantity of oxygen in a given volume of air will be less than for the same volume of air at the sea level. As each cylinder of an engine draws in a given volume of air prior to firing stroke, there will be necessary to reduce the quantity of fuel supplied to an engine at high altitudes. This is usually done by adjusting the carburetor. The effect on the engine is to reduce the power.

Contd
The effect of loss in power due to altitude may be eliminated by the installation of a supercharger. This is a mechanical unit which will increase the pressure of the air supplied to the engine, thus permitting sea-level performance at any altitude. If equipment is to be used at high altitudes for long periods of times, the increased performance probably will more than pay for the installed cost of a supercharge.

 A contractor who has established production rates for his equipment at or near sea level will make a serious mistake if he uses those production rates in bidding a job to be constructed at a high altitude. He must install superchargers or apply a correction factor, which is more fully explained under the subjects of trucks and tractors.

The effect of Temperature of the Performance of Internal-Combustion Engines

Performs of automobile in hotter regions, like a desert during hot afternoon, is sluggish in nature. If driving was continued into the night after the temperature had decreased appreciably, the performance of the engine seemed to improve noticeably. An internal-combustion engine will develop a higher horsepower at a low air temperature than at a high temperature.

Effect of the depth of cut on the output of a power shovel

If the depth of the face from which a shovel is excavating material is too shallow, it will be difficult or impossible to fill the dipper in one pass up the face. The operatore will have a choice of making more than one pass to fill the dipper, which will increase the time per cycle, or he may carry a partly filled dipper to the hauling unit each cycle. In neither case the effect will be to reduce the output of the shovel. If the depth of the face is greater than the minimum required to fill the dipper, with favorable crowding and hoisting forces, the operator may do one of three things.

Contd..
He may reduce the depth of penetration of the dipper into the face in order to fill the dipper in one stroke. This will increase the time for a cycle. He may start digging above the base of the face, and then remove the lower portion of the face latter. He may run the dipper up the full height of the face and let the excess earth spill down to the bottom of the face, to be picked up later.

 The choice of any of above 3 procedures will result in some lost time, based on the time required to fill the dipper when it is digging at optimum depth.

The optimum depth varies with the class of material and the size of the dipper.

The effect of the Angle of swing on the output of a power shovel

The angle of swing of a power shovel is the horizontal angle, expressed in degrees, between the position of the dipper when it is excavating and the position when it is discharging the load. The total time in a cycle includes digging, swinging to the dumping position, dumping, and returning to the digging position. If the angle of swing is increased, the time for a cycle will be increased, while if the angle of swing is decreased, the time for a cycle will be decreased.

The effect of job conditions on the output of a power shovel

A shovel may operate in a large, open pit, with a firm, well-drained floor, where trucks can be spotted on either side of the shovel to eliminate lost time waiting for hauling units. The terrain of the natural ground may be uniformly level, so that the depths of cut will always be optimum. The haul road is not affected by climatic conditions, such as rains. A large job of this type is large enough to justify the selection of balanced hauling units. Such a project might be classified as having excellent job conditions.

Contd
Job conditions may be classified as Excellent, good, fair and poor. The re is no uniform standards which may be used as a guide in classifying a job. Each job planner must used his own judgment and experience in deciding which condition best represents his job.

The effect of management conditions on the output of a power shovel The owner of a shovel may take following steps to improve management conditions so as to improve the output the shovel ;
Greasing and lubricating the shovel frequently. Checking the shovel parts that are subject to the greatest wear, and replacing worn parts while the shovel is not being operated, as at the end of a shift.

 Replacing badly worn wire rope between shifts. Replacing dull dipper teeth with sharp ones, as required. Giving the shovel a major overhaul between jobs, if necessary. Keeping at the job extra parts that are subject to the greatest wear.

Contd
Keeping the pit floor clean and smooth to permit better truck spotting and to reduce the angle of swing. Providing adequate trucks of the correct size to eliminate lost time in loading and waiting for trucks. Paying a bonus to the crew for production in excess of an agreed amount to encourage high production.

 Providing a component supervisor to keep the job running smoothly.

Management condition can be classified as excellent, good, fair and poor.

Methods of increasing the output of a power shovel

A problem which frequently confronts a consultant on the selection and operation of excavating equipment is to analyze a project which is not being operated satisfactorily in order to recommend corrective steps to increase the output and reduce the cost of handling the material. This can be illustrated using an example.

Illustration
On one such project, where the cost was exceeding the estimate, an analysis was made to determine methods of reducing cost of excavating and hauling the earth. The material was common earth. The analysis of the operations revealed the following information :

 Size of power shovel, 1.5 cu yd. Depth of cut, 12 ft. Angle of swing, 1200 Size of trucks, 6 cu yd bm Round-trip time for a truck, 19 min\ No. of trucks 18

 The time spent by shovel in cleaning up the floor of the pit, moving, and undergoing repairs reduced the actual excavating time to about 30 min per hr.

Contd
The floor of pit was rough, muddy, and heavily rutted because of inadequate drainage, which reduced the efficiency of the hauling units. The output averaged 108 cu yd per hr. The direct cost of excavating and hauling the earth was determined as follows ; Shovel, operator and oiler =$87.50 per hr Trucks and driver, 8 @ $28.80 = 232.40 per hr Direct overhead and supervision = 31.20 per hr Total cost = sum of above three = $ 349.10 per hr Cost per cu yd, $349.10 / 108 = $3.23

Contd
The analysis indicates that the output could be increased by taking the following steps :
Use a small bulldozer to keep the floor of the pit clean and well drained. Reduce the depth of cut to the optimum. Reduce the angle of swing to 750 by improving the floor of the pit. Improve the job conditions to good by proper maintenance of the pit and haul roads and by excavating at optimum depth.

 Improve the management conditions to good by properly servicing the equipment at the end of the shifts and by paying a bonus of $0.04 per cu yd, to be divided among the workers, for all production in excess of 120 cu yd per hr. Reduce the round trip time of the trucks to 15 min by improving the haul road and the pit floor. Provide additional trucks to haul the increased output of the shovel.

Contd
If the recommended steps are taken, the probable output of the shovel will be as follows :
Estimated actual excavating time, 50 min per hr. Ideal output, 240 cu yd per hr Depth-swing factor, 1.07 Job-management factor, 0.75 Probable output, 240 X 1.07 X 0.75 = 193 cu yd per hr

 The no. of trucks required to haul the earth will be calculated as follows :
Assume trucks operate 50 min per hr. No. of trips per hr truck, 50/15 =3.33 Volume hauled per hr per truck, 3.33 X 6 = 20 cu yd No. of trucks needed, 193 / 20 = 9.6. Hence Ten trucks are needed.

Contd
The revised direct cost of excavating and hauling the earth will be as follows :
Shovel, operator and oiler =$ 87.50 per hr Trucks and drivers, 10 @ $28.80 = 288 per hr Direct overhead and supervision = 31.20 per hr Cost of bulldozer and operator = 27.75 per hr Cost of bonus, 73 cu yd @ $ 0.04 = 2.92 per hr Total cost = sum of above = $ 437.37 per hr Cost per cu yd, $437.37/193 = $ 2.24 Net reduction in the cost per cu yd, $3.23-$2.24 = $ 0.09

 This saving is sufficiently large to demonstrate the financial effect of applying intelligent engineering in the selection of equipment and in analyzing an operation. The failure to apply engineering analysis and in operation of a project is one reason why a contractor may complete a project with a loss, while another will complete a similar project with a profit.

The effect of the depth of cut and the angle of swing on the output of a Dragline % of Angle of Swing, in degree optimum 30 45 60 75 90 120 150 depth 20 1.06 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.81 0.75 40 60 80 100 120 140 1.17 1.08 1.24 1.13 1.29 1.17 1.32 1.19 1.29 1.17 1.25 1.14 1.02 0.97 0.93 0.85 0.78 1.06 1.01 0.97 0.88 0.80 1.09 1.04 0.99 0.90 0.82 1.11 1.05 1.00 0.91 0.83 1.09 1.03 0.98 0.90 0.82 1.06 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.81

Contd
A 2-cu-yd short-boom dragline is to be used to excavate hard tough clay. The depth of cut will be 15.4 ft, and the angle of swing will be 1200. Determine the probable output of the dragline if there are no other factors to affect the output. Solution : The percent of optimum depth, (15.4/11.8) X 100 = 130. Using previous table , the correction factor is 0.89. The probable output will be 195 X 0.89 = 173 cu yd per hr. For a 50-min hour the probable output will be; output = 0.83 X 173 = 143 cu yd.

The effect of job and management conditions on the output of a dragline The effect of job and management conditions on the output of a dragline will be about the same as for a power shovel.

The effect of the size of the Bucket and Length of the Boom on the Output of a Dragline In selecting the size and type bucket, the dragline and bucket should be matched properly in order to obtain the best action and the greatest operating efficiency, which will produce the greatest output of material. Buckets are generally available in three types: light-duty, medium-duty, and heavy-duty. Light-duty buckets are used for excavating materials which are dug easily, such as sandy loam, sandy clay, or sand.

 Medium duty buckets are used for general excavating service such as digging clat, soft shale, or loose gravel. Heavy-duty buckets are used for mine stripping, handling blasted rock, and excavating hardpan and highly abrasive materials. Buckets are sometimes perforated to permit excess water to drain form the loads.

Contd
The normal size of a dragline bucket is based on its struck capacity, which is expressed more accurately in cubic feet. In selecting the most suitable size bucket for use with a given dragline, it is desirable to know the weight of the loosened material to be handled, expressed in pounds per cubic foot. While it is desirable to use the largest size bucket possible in the interest of increasing the output, care should exercised to see that the combined weight of the load and the bucket does not exceed the safe load recommended for the dragline.

Contd
Size cu yd Struck Weight of Dimension capacity medium duty In inch bucket Cu ft L W B 32 39 47 60 2945 3300 3750 4825 48 45 27 49 45 31 53 48 32 54 51 38

1 1.25 1.5 2

Illustration
The importance of this analysis uses previous table. Assume that the material to be handled has a loose weight of 90 lb per cu ft. The use of a 2-cu-yd mediumduty bucket will be considered. If the dragline is to be operated with an 80-ft boom at a 400 angle, the maximum safe load will be 8600 lb. The approximate weight of the bucket and its load will be

Taking Bucket = 4825 lb ( Medium-duty bucket) Earth, 60 cu ft @ 90 lb per cu ft = 5400 lb Combined weight =sum of above two = 10,225 lb Maximum safe load = 8600 lb

Contd
As this weight will exceed the safe load on the dragline, it will be necessary to use a smaller bucket. Trying a 1.5 cu yd bucket, whose combined weight will be
Bucket = 3750 lb Earth, 47 cu ft @ 90 lb per cu ft = 4230 lb Combined weight = 7980 lb

If a 1.5 cu yd bucket is used, it may be filled to heaping capacity, without exceeding the safe load of the dragline.

 If a 70 ft boom, whose maximum safe load is 11,000 lb, will provide sufficient working range for excavating and disposing of the earth, a 2 cu yd bucket may be used and filled to heaping capacity. The reduced cycle time, in using the 70 ft boom, will probably offset the increased time required to fill the 2 cu yd bucket. The ratio of the output resulting from the use of a 70 ft boom and a 2 cu yd bucket, compared with a 1.5 cu yd bucket, should be approximately as follows; Output ratio, (60 cu ft / 47 cu ft ) X 100 = 127 % Increase in output = 27%

Contd
The previous example illustrates the importance of analyzing a job prior to selecting the size excavator to be used. The haphazard selection of equipment can result in a substantial increase in the cost of handling of earth.

The effect of the class of material on the cost of excavating earth

The hourly cost of machine includes fixed-machine, variable-machine, and labor costs. Each machine is assumed to operate 2000 hr per year at 75 percent efficiency. Thus, the probable hourly output of any given size machine is obtained by multiplying the ideal output by 75 percent. For example, the cost of excavating good common earth using a 1 cu yd machine is determined as follows : Operating cost per hr = $ 27.60 Ideal output per hr = 135 cu yd Probable output, 0.75 X 135 = 101 cu yd Cost per cu yd, $27.60/101 = $0.272

The effect of the class of material and the size of the bucket on the cost of excavating earth with a dragline
120 105 90 75 60 45 30 15 0 0 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1.25 1.5 Dragline size, cu yd 2 2.5 D C B A Excavating cost, cents per cu yd, bank measure Class of materials A, B, C, D A : Moist loam or sandy clay B : Good common Earth C: Hard, tough clay D: Wet sticky clay