Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

Atoms, Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Arithmetic

Significant figures.
The total number of digits in a number including the last digit whose value is uncertain is called the number of significant figures e.g. 12.4267 0.0001 has six significant figures. Rules for determining the number of significant figures (1) All non-zero digits as well as the zeros between the non-zero digits are significant e.g. 5004 has four significant figures. (2) Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit in a number are not significant e.g. 0.0045 has two significant figures. (3) If a number ends in zeros but these zeros are to the right of the decimal point, then these zeros are significant e.g. 2.500 has four significant figures. (4) If a number ends in zeros but these zeros are not to the right of a decimal point, these zeros may or may not be significant e.g. 10500 written as 1.05104 has three significant figures but written as 1.050104 has four significant figures and so on. (5) The result of on addition or subtraction should be reported to the same number of decimal places as that of the term with least number of decimal places e.g. sum 4.525+2.3+6.24=13.063 will be reported as 13.1. (6) The result of multiplication or division should be reported to the same number of significant figures as is possessed by the least precise term e.g. 4.3272.8=12.1156 will be reported as 12. (7) If calculation involves a number of steps, the result should contain the same number of significant figures as that of the least precise number involved, other than the exact numbers. Rounding off non significant figures It implies as follows (1) If the digit just next to the last digit to be retained is less than 5, the last digit is taken as such and all other digits to its right are dropped e.g. 1.234=1.23. (2) If the last digit is greater than 5, the digit to be retained is increased by 1 and all other digits on its right are dropped e.g. 1.236=1.24. (3) If the digit just next to the last digit to be retained is equal to 5, the last significant figure is left unchanged if it is even and is increased by 1 if it is odd e.g. 1.235=1.24, 1.225=1.22. S.l. Units. Seven basic SI units for physical quantities are as follows Length metre (m) Mass Kilogram (kg) Time Second (s) Temperature Kelvin (K) Electric Current Ampere (A) Luminous Intensity Candela (Cd) Amount of substance Mole (mol)

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

Some derived units : Volume = m 3 , Velocity = ms 1 , Acceleration = ms 2 , Force= kg ms 2 = newton (N) Pressure = kg m 1 sec 2 = pascal (Pa), Energy = kg m 2 s 2 = joule (J), Density = kg m 3 . Some prefixes used for subsidiary units : These are either multiples or fractions of the base units e.g. deci = 10 1 , centi = 10 2 , milli = 10 3 , micro = 10 6 , nano = 10 9 , pico = 10 12 , femto = 10 15 , (fermi = 10 13 cm = 10 15 m ), deca = 10 1 , hecta = 10 2 , kilo = 10 3 , Mega = 10 6 , giga = 109, tera = 10 12 , peta =
10 15 , exa = 10 18

Some useful conversion factors : 1= 10 10 m, 1 nm= 10 9 m, 1pm = 10 12 m, 1 litre = 10 3 m = 1dm 3 , 1 atm = 760 mm or torr = 101, 325 pa or Nm 2 , 1 bar 10 5 Pa, 1 calorie = 4.184J, 1 electron volt (eV) = 1.6022 10 19 J.

Atom and Molecules.

Atom : It is the smallest particle of an element that takes place in a chemical reaction. It may or may not be capable of free existence. Molecule : It is the smallest particle of an element or a compound that is capable of free existence. (i) The term molecule was given by Avogadro. (ii) The term element was given by Robert Boyle.

Laws of chemical combinations.

Based on the quantitative results of chemical reactions dealing with the weightweight and weightvolume relationships, few laws were formulated which are Law of conservation of mass : In all physical and chemical changes, the total mass of the reactants is equal to that of the products or Matter can neither be created nor destroyed. Law of constant composition or definite proportions : A chemical compound is always found to be made up of the same elements combined together in the same fixed ratio by weight Law of multiple proportions : When two element combine together to form two or more chemical compounds, then the weights of one of the elements which combine with a fixed weight of the other bear a simple ratio to one another. Law of Reciprocal Proportions : The ratio of the weights of two elements A and B which combine with a fixed weight of the third element C is either the same or a simple multiple of the ratio of the weights of A and B which directly combine with each other.

Note

Law of reciprocal proportion can be used to obtain equivalent weights of elements.

Hence it is also called law of equivalent proportion. Gay Lussacs law of gaseous volumes : When gases react together, they always do so in volumes which bear a simple ratio to one another and to the volumes of the products, if gaseous, all measurements are made under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.

Dalton's Atomic Theory.

It was based on laws of chemical combinations. The different assumptions of the theory are. (1) All types of matter is composed of atoms. (2) Atoms are extremely small, invisible and indestructible, i.e. atom can neither be destroyed nor created. (3) Atoms of the same are alike in properties. (4) Atoms combine in small whole numbers to form compound atoms (known as molecule). (5) Compound atoms of a substance are alike posses similar properties.

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

Berzelius and Avogadros hypothesis.

Berzelius Hypothesis : Equal volumes of all gases contain equal number of atoms under same conditions of temperature and pressure. When applied to law of combining volumes, this hypothesis predicts that atoms are divisible and hence it is contrary to Dalton's atomic theory. Avogadros hypothesis : Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. Avogadro hypothesis is used in (1) Deriving the molecular formula of gases. (2) Determining atomicity of gases. (3) In deriving the relation, molecular wt. = 2 vapour density

Atomic and Molecular mass.

Atomic Mass : It is the average relative mass of its atoms as compared with an atom of carbon 12 isotope taken as 12. Atomic mass =
Average mass of an atom 1/12 Mass of an atom of C 12

Average atomic mass : If an elements exists in two isotopes having atomic masses a and b in the (m a) + (n b) ratio m : n, then average atomic mass = . m +n Since the atomic mass is a ratio, it has no units and is expressed in amu, 1 amu = 1 .66 10 24 g . Following are the important methods for determining atomic mass: (a) Dulong and Petit's method (b) Specific heat method

(c) Volatile chloride formation method (d) Isomorphism method Molecular mass : Molecular mass of a substance is the average relative mass of its molecules as compared with an atom of C12 isotope taken as 12. Thus, molecular mass is a ratio and hence has no units. It is expressed in amu. Molecular mass =
Mass of one molecule of the substance 1 / 12 Mass of one atom of C 12

Following are the important methods for determining molecular mass; (a) Vapour density method, (b) Diffusion method, (c) Colligative properties and (d) Victor Mayer method

Difference between atomic mass and actual mass of an atoms.

The atomic mass of an atom (element) is not its actual mass. It is relative mass as compared with an atom of carbon taken as 12. It is expressed in amu. The actual mass of an atom means its mass in grams which is obtained by dividing the atomic mass of the element by Avogadros number (6.021023) because one gram atom contains Avogadros number of atoms.

Gram atomic & Molecular mass.

Gram atomic Mass (GAM) : The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is called gram atomic mass. This amount of the element is called one gram atom.

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

Gram molecular mass or molar mass (GMM) : The molecular mass of a substance expressed in gram is called gram molecular mass or molar mass. This amount of the substance is called one gram molecule. (1) Aston, Dalton and avogram are the other names of 1 amu. (2) Accurate determination of atomic weights and relative abundance of the isotopes can be determined with the help of an instrument known as mass spectrometer. Developed by Aston. (3) In the beginning John Dalton determined the atomic weight with respect to hydrogen.

Mole concepts.
Mole is unit which represents 6 .022 10 23 particles (atoms molecules or ions, etc.) irrespective of their nature. The number 6 .022 10 23 is called Avogadro's number and is represented by N 0 . Avogadro's number of gas molecules occupy a volume of 22 ,400 cm 3 at S.T.P. The number of molecules in 1cm 2 of gas at STP is called Loschmidt number. Its value if 2 .688 10 19 . The calculation of this number is based on the Faraday's law of electrolysis.

Note

A mole any substance is related to mass of a substance, number of particles and volume

of a gaseous substance

Equivalent weights.
The equivalent weight of a substance is the number of parts by weight of the substance that combine with or displace directly or indirectly 1.008 parts by weight of hydrogen or 8 parts by weight of oxygen or 35.5 parts by weight of chlorine. Eq. wt. of an element = Eq. wt. of a base = Eq. wt. of radical =
Atomic mass ; Valency

Eq. wt. of an acid = Eq. wt. of a salt =

Mol. wt.of the acid Basicity Formula weight Total + ve charge or - ve charge

Mol. wt. of the base ; Acidity Formula weight of radical No. of units of charge

Eq. wt. of an oxidizing or reducing agent =

Mol. wt.of the substance Number of electrons gained or lost by one molecules

Basicity is the number of displaceable H+ ions from one molecule of the acid (e.g. 1 for HCl, 2 for H 2SO 4 , 3 for H 3 PO 4 ) . Acidity is the number of displaceable OH ions from one molecule of the base (e.g. 1 for NaOH, 2 for Ca( OH) 2 etc. Following are the important methods of determining equivalent weight (1) Hydrogen displacement method (for metals which can displace hydrogen from acids) Eq. wt. of metal =
weight of metal weight of hydrogen displaced weight of metal 8 .0 weight of oxygen weight of metal 35 . 5 weight of chlorine

(2) Oxide method Eq. wt. of metal =

(3) Chlorine method Eq. wt. of metal =

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

Stoichometrys.
Calculation based on chemical equation is called stoichiometry. The chemical equation gives us important information regarding (1) Molar ratio between reactants and products. (2) Mass ratio between reactant and products. (3) Volumes ratio between gaseous reactants and products. The calculation based on chemical equation are of three types namely (i) Mass-mass relationship, (ii) Mass-volume relationship, (iii) Volume-volume relationship The various steps involved in solving problems based on chemical equations are. (i) Write balanced equations for the reactions involved. (ii) Write the relative number of moles or relative masses of the reactants and products involved in the problem below their formulae. (iii) In case of a gaseous substance, write down 22.4 L at STP below the formula in place of 1 mol (if volume is involved). (iv) Apply unitary method to make the required calculations.

Emperical and molecular formulas.

Emperical formula - It is the simplest formula of a compound which gives the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of the various elements present in one molecule of the compound e.g. emperical formula of glucose (C6 H 12 O6 ) is CH 2 O. Calculation of emperical formulas First calculate % of oxygen = 100 Sum of % of all other elements. Then E.F. is calculated through the following steps :
Element % of element Atomic mass Relative no. of atoms = % At. mass Simplest atomic ratio Simplest whole no. ratio

Molecular formula - It is the actual formula of a compound which gives the actual number of atoms of various elements present in one molecule of the compound e.g. molecular formula of glucose is C6 H 12 O6 . Relationship between emperical formula and molecular formula Molecular formula = n Emperical formula Where n is any integer such as 1.,2,3.etc. n =
Molecules mass Emperical formula mass

Volumetric Analysis.
(1) Normality of a solution is the number of gram equivalents of the solute present in one litre of the solution. (2) Molarity of a solution is the number of moles of the solute present in one litre of the solution. (3) No. of gram equivalents = (4) No. of moles =
Wt. of the solute in grams Eq. wt. of the solute

Wt. of the substance in grams Mol. wt. of the substance

(5) When a solution is diluted, we can apply normality equation or molarity equation.
N1 V1 (Before dilution)

N 2 V2 (After dilution)

or

M 1 V1 (Before dilution)

M 2 V2 (After dilution)

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

(6) When the solutions of two substances ( an acid and a base or an oxidizing and a reducing substance) react completely, we apply normality equation viz.
N 1 V1 N 2 V2 = (solution 1) (Solution 2)

(7) In terms of molarity equation, for the reaction n1 A + n 2 B Products, we apply

M1 V1 M 2 V2 = n1 n2 ( A) (B )

Important formula used for numerical problems.

Mass of one atom of element =
GAM . N0 GMM . N0

Mass of X atoms of element =

GAM X . N0 GMM X . N0

Mass of 1 molecule of a substance =

Mass of X molecule of a substance =

No. of atoms in w gram of element = No. of moles of element for X atom =

w N 0 . No. of atoms in n moles of element = n N 0 . GMM

X . N0

No. of molecules in w gm. of substance =

w N0 . GMM
X . N0

No. of molecules in n moles of substance = n N 0 . Moles in n atoms =

n atomicity . N0

No. of moles in X molecules =

Atomic wei ght . Valency

Eq wt. =

For elements with atomicity > 1, The formula can be modified as; Atoms in n moles = n N 0 atomicity .
At. wt. No. of atoms per molecule Weight % of an element = Mol. wt. of the compound 100 .

According to Dulong and Petit's rule for any element Atomic wt. Specific heat = 6.4 (approx.) or 6 .4 Approx. Atomic weight = Specific heat

Atomic Structure
Structure of Atom. (1) John Dalton 1801, believed that matter is made up of extremely minute indivisible particles, called atoms. Atom consists of two parts Nucleus : Neutron (n) +Proton (p) Extra nuclear part : Electron (e) only. Fundamental particles

(2) The characteristics of fundamental particles are given below.

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure Particl e

Electron Proton

Symbol

Mass in amu
0.000548 1.00757 1.00893

Mass in Kg

Charge in esu

Charge in coulomb

e/m

Discovery
Thomson Goldstein (1886) J. Chadwick (1932)

1 e

0 1

9 . 1091 10 31

4 .803 10 10
+ 4 . 803 10 10

1 . 602 10 19 + 1 . 602 10 19

1 . 76 10 8 c / g 9 . 58 10 4 c / g

+1 P 0n

1 . 6725 10 27 1 . 6748 10 27

Neutro n

Note
atom.

: The mass of electron given above is the rest mass. It is 1/1837 times the mass of a hydrogen

(3) Other fundamental particles and Antiparticles Bryons : These are heavy particles and include protons, neutrons etc. Mesons : These are particles of intermediate mass. Leptons : These are lighter particles viz. electron, particles and neutrions. Positron : C.D. Anderson (1932) discovered it. It has same negligible mass and same amount of charge as of the electron. But charge is+ve and of short life 10 8 sec. Meson : Yukawa (1935) discovered it. It has mass in between that of proton and electron in cosmic rays. The charge may be +ve, ve or zero. Neutrino ( ) : Pauli (1927) suggested the existence of a particle called neutrino. It has a variable mass less than that of an electron. The charge on this particle is zero. Allen and Rodebeek (1952), showed their free existence. Antiproton ( p ) : Segre (1956) discovered it. It has mass equal to that of a proton but with a negative charge. Allotropy : When the element exists in 2 or more forms in the same state that differ in physical properties, it is said to exhibit allotropy, while these forms are called allotropes of that element.

Note
m=

: The mass (m) of a particle (electron) at high speed is given by:

m rest 1- c
2

Where , = velocity of particle, c = velocity of light If

= c, then m = .

(4) Rutherford's Experiment : In 1911, Rutherford observed that when particles emitted from Ra struck thin metallic sheets, many of them passed through the sheet with no change in their path but a few of them got deflected 90 o or through larger angles. He concluded that : (i) As most of the -particles passed undeflected, the atom must predominantly consists of empty space. (ii) As a few particles carrying +ve charge are strongly deflected there must be a heavy +ve charged body present in each atom and the volume occupied by this is only a minute fraction of the total volume of an atom an atom. He called this +vely charged body as nucleus. It is surrounded by small negatively charged particles called electrons, at relatively large distances form the nucleus.

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

In order to explain why the electrons do not fall into the nucleus due to electrostatic attraction, Rutherford proposed that electrons are revolving round the nucleus at high velocities. The centrifugal force arising from this motion just balances the force of electrostatic attraction. Objections to Rutherfords Model : When ever an electric charge is subjected to acceleration, it emits radiation and loses energy. As a result of this, the orbit will become smaller and the electrons will drop on the nucleus. This, however, does not happen. This model also fails to explain the line spectrum of hydrogen.
Atom +
1015 m

Nucleus

1010 m Size of the nucleus = 1 Fermi = 1015 m Size of the atom 1 = 1010 m Unstability of atom

(5) Atomic number and Mass number Atomic number (Z) : Mosley denoted atomic no. of element by Z representing the no. of protons in the nucleus of an element.
Z = No. of protons in the nucleus of an atom = No. of electrons in the extra nuclear part of neutral atom.

Mass number (A) : It is equal to sum of numbers of protons and no. of neutrons in an atom.
A = p + n , or A = Z + n , or A Z = n

An element X having mass no. (At. wt.) A and At. no. Z, is represented as

XA

Note

: Actual mass of atom is not equal to the sum of mass of e, p and n present in it, e.g., for

Chlorine (17 Cl 35 ) = 17 (1 . 007276 ) amu + 18 (1 . 008665 ) amu + 17 (0.0005486) amu = 35.289005 amu. However, the mass of chlorine has been accurately determined as 34.96885 amu. This difference between the two values (35.28901 amu 34. 96885 amu)= 0.32016 amu is known as mass defect. This difference, expressed in its energy equivalent, is called the binding energy of the nucleons (neutrons + protons) in the nucleus of the atom in question. (6) Different types of atomic species Isotopes : Atoms of an element having the same atomic no. but different at. wt. are called isotopes. eg
35 17

Cl and

37 17

Cl ,

1 1

2 3 H, 1 D and 1 T,

16 8

O, 17 8 O and

18 8

Isotopes have the same no. of protons and electrons but different no. of neutrons. They have the same chemical properties. The fractional at. wt. of an element is due to the different proportions in which various isotopes are present in it, eg. chlorine has two isotopes Average at. wt. =
3 35 + 1 37 = 35 .5 amu 4
17

Cl 35 and

17

Cl 37 present in the ratio 3:1.

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

Isobars : Atoms of different elements having different at. no. but the same at. wt. are called isobars. eg.
40 19

K,

40 20 Ca

Isobars have different no. of protons, neutrons and electrons, but the sum of no. of protons and neutrons is same. They have different chemical properties. Isotones : Atoms having the same no. of neutrons but different no. of protons are called Isotones. eg.
30 14

Si ,

31 15 P

Isoelectronic ions or molecules : Species having same no. of electron but different charge on nucleus are known as isoelectronic ions. (a) O , F , Ne , Na + , Mg + + , Al 3 + (d) N 2 , CO , CN
(b) NO 3 , CO 3

(c) NH 3 , H 3 O (f) H , He , Li +

(e) NCS

and CS 2

Isodiaphers : Species with same isotopic number i.e. (A-2Z) or (nZ) (7) Electromagnetic radiations : Electromagnetic radiations is a form of energy transported in the forms of waves from any source continuously with the velocity of light and consists of electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. Every wave has following five characteristics, viz, Wavelength ( ) : The distance between two neighbouring troughs or crests. Expressed in cm, nm, units. 1 = 1 10 1 nm = 10 8 cm . Frequency ( ) : The number of times a wave passes through a given point in one second. Expressed in cps or Hz. 1Hz = 1cps. Velocity (c) : The distance travelled by the wave in one second. All waves have same velocity i.e.
3 10 10 cm s 1 = 3 10 8 m s 1 = 186 , 000 miles s 1 .

Wave number ( ) : The number of wavelengths per cm. Expressed in cm 1 . Amplitude ( ) : The height of the crest or depth of through of a wave. It determines the intensity or brightness of the light beam. Relation between wave characteristic : =
c

= c

(8) Electromagnetic spectrum : When sunlight is passed through a prism, it absorbs wavelength range of black colour radiation and other splits into a series of colour bands known as emission spectrum and black colour band which is known as absorption spectrum. The splitting of light into seven colours is called emission Spectrum.The characteristic range of wavelength of electromagnetic radiation situated in an increasing or decreasing order called electromagnetic spectrum.

Narrow beam or white light

Prism

Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

Screen The dispersion of light

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

Wavelengths and frequencies of electromagnetic radiations

Electromagnetic radiation Radiowaves Microwaves
Increasing v, E

Wavelength()
3 10 13 to 3 10 9 3 10 9 to 6 10 6 6 10 6 to 7600 7600 to 3800

Frequency (Hz or sec-1)

1 10 5 to 1 10 9 1 10 9 to 5 10 11 5 10 11 to 3 . 95 10 14

Infra red (IR)

Decreasing

Visible Ultraviolet (UV) XRays Gamma rays Cosmic rays

3. 95 1014 to 7.9 1014

7 . 9 10 14 to 2 10 16
2 10 16 to 3 10 19 3 10 19 to 3 10 20 3 10 20 to infinity

3800 to 150 150 to 0.1 0.1 to 0.01 0.01 to zero

Limitations of electromagnetic waves : Electromagnetic wave theory was successful in explaining the properties of light such as interference, diffraction etc. but it could not explain the phenomena of Black body radiation, and Photoelectric effect. (9) Planck's quantum theory : This theory was proposed by Max Planck to explain black body radiations and photoelectric effect. According to this theory, Radiant energy is emitted or absorbed only in discrete units or packets of energy called photon (quantum). the energy 'E' associated with a quantum is given by E = h , where h is Planck's constant and v is frequency of radiations.
E = h = hc

= hc

1 =

Where

is

Planck's

constant

6 .625 10 34 J sec . = 6 .625 10 27 erg sec

c is velocity of light = 3 .0 10 8 m sec 1 = 3 .0 10 10 cm sec 1

is frequency of light in sec 1 ; is wave no. in m 1 or cm 1 .

It is thus clear that energy of photon decreases with increase in .
VIBGYOR increases and E decreases

Note

: Energy 'E' associated with a photon can also be written as

E= 12375

eV . where E is energy in eV and is wavelength of light in .

(10) Neil's Bohr Atomic Theory (1913) : it is based on the following assumptions. (i) The electron moves around the +vely charged nucleus in a circular orbit, the centripetal force for this motion is balanced by the electrostatic attraction. (ii) The electron can rotate only in certain orbits which are known as stationary or quantized orbits for h which the angular momentum is an integral multiple of . When the electron moves in these orbits it cannot 2 emit any radiation.

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

(iii) The electron radiates a quantum of energy of frequency v only when it jumps from an orbit of higher energy to an orbit of low energy. If E 1 and E 2 are the energies of the electron in two successive orbits, then
E 2 E1 = h (h is Planck's constant= 6 .62 10 27 ergs ).

; c = 3 10 10 cm / s, = wavelength

The energy of the electron in an orbit characterised by quantum number 'n'

En = 20 2 Z 2 e 4 m 13 . 6 Z 2 1311 . 8 Z 2 1 = eVatm = KJmol h 2n 2 n2 n2
1

Where, Z is atomic number; m and e are mass and charge of the electron respectively. The radius of the paths in which an electron can revolve is given by;
r= n2h2 4 2 me
2

= 0 .53 n 2

(1 = 10 8 cm )

Putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4 etc., the radii of the first five orbits of H atom are: Orbit (n) Radius () 1 0.529 2 2.116 3 4.761 4 8.464 5 13.225

When an electron jumps from an outer orbit in which its quantum number is ' n 2 ' to an inner orbit in which it is ' n 1 ' ; the energy emitted as radiation is given by
E n 2 E n1 = 2 2 Z 2 e 4 m 1 1 2 n2 n2 h 2 1

and the frequency expressed in wave number will be

1 1 2 2 Z 2 e 4 m 1 1 = R 2 3 2 2 2 h c n1 n 2 n1 n 2

Where R is the Rydberg constant. For hydrogen R is 109677.8 cm 1 . Bohr's model explains sucessfully the spectrum of hydrogen atom and species having one electron. It explains the appearance of five series of lines in hydrogen spectrum.
Comparative study of important spectral series of Hydrogen atom S.No. Spectral series Lymen series Lies in the region Ultraviolet region Transition

max =

2 2 (n 2 n1 )R

2 2 n1 n2

min =

2 n1 R

max n2 = 2 2 2 min n 2 n1

1.

n1 = 1 n 2 = 2,3,4 ....

n1 = 1 and n 2 = 2

n1 = 1 and n 2 =

max

4 = 3R

min

1 = R

max 4 = min 3

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure 2. Balmer series Visible region

n1 = 2 n 2 = 3,4 ,5 .... n1 = 3 n 2 = 4 ,5,6 .... n1 = 4 n 2 = 5,6,7 .... n1 = 5 n 2 = 6,7,8 ....

n1 = 2 and n 2 = 3

n1 = 2 and n 2 =

3.

Paschen series

Infra red region

36 5R n1 = 3 and n 2 = 4

max =

4 R n1 = 3 and n 2 =

min =

max 9 = min 5 max 16 = min 7

4.

Brackett series

Infra red region

144 7R n1 = 4 and n 2 = 5

max =

9 R n1 = 4 and n 2 = max

min =

5.

Pfund series

Infra red region

16 25 max = 9R n1 = 5 and n 2 = 6

16 min = R n1 = 5 and n 2 =

min

25 9

max =

25 36 11 R

min =

25 R

max 36 = min 11

(11) Sommerfeld theory (1915) : It states that : (i) The orbits in which the electrons move are in most cases elliptical. (ii) The orbits are capable of interpenetrating and electrons in these orbits are spinning like a top. (iii) The orbits are further divided into sub-orbits or sub-states which are denoted as s p d f orbitals. A result of sommerfeld model suggests that e.g., if principal quantum no. n = 4 . The values of k can be 1, 2, 3, 4 only, since k is an integer
4th shell have 4 subshells.

n length of major axis = k length of minor axis

Total spin and magnetic moment : The total spin (s) of an atom is given by s = number of unpaired electrons.

1 n, where n is 2

The spin magnetic moment ( ) of electron (excluding orbital magnetic moment) in Bohr magneton (B.M.) is given by : effective = 4 s(s + 1) If
s =1/ 2n;

effective = n(n + 2) B. M .

To derive the possible no. of in line spectrum, when an electron de-excites form one o level to other. Say an electron is in 4th shell in H atom. It is to be de-excited to ground state level, i.e., I shell. The possible no. of given out = n = (4 1) = 3 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 (12) Photoelectric effect : The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal when light of suitable frequency strikes on it, is called as photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons. Threshold energy is a character of a particular metal, therefore

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

h = x +

1 m 2 2

If the threshold frequency is 0 , then Threshold energy, x = h 0 , so that

h = h 0 + 1 1 m 2 or m 2 = h h 0 2 2

1 Therefore kinetic energy of ejected electron ( m 2 ) 2

K . E. = h h 0

In this equation h = energy of incidental photon and h 0 = minimum value of energy required to eject the electron. (13) Particle and wave nature of electron i.e. dual nature : de Broglie proposed a relationship between of a moving particle with its velocity on the basis of quantum theory.

h h = = mu p

h 2m (KE )

( KE =

1 mu 2 ) 2
u is its velocity

Where

m is mass of moving particle,

P is momentum of particle equal to or

2rn = n

2m (KE ) , h is Planck's constant.

The circumference of the n th orbit (if closed) is equal to integer multiple of wavelength. Thus, Also,

Frequency of matter wave =

u mu 2 2 KE = = h / mu h h

(14) Heisenberg's uncertainty principle : According to this principle, it is impossible to determine momentum and position of a subatomic particle precisely and simultaneously.
p. x h 4

Where p is uncertainty in momentum

x is uncertainty in position u is uncertainty in velocity.

h m . u. x 4 h u. x 4 m

(15) Schrodinger wave equation : Bohr treated electron as a particle. However, de Broglie suggested that e has a dual nature, i.e., it behaves both as a particle as well as wave. The wavelength of moving particle is

h m

....(1)

Where and m are the velocity and mass of moving particle respectively. If r is radius of the wave,
2r its circumference, then

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

n = 2r

....(2)

Thus according to wave theory, an electron is a stationary wave moving around the nucleus in a circular path. The wave character was later on confirmed by Davison, Germer (1927) and Thomson (1928). From eq. (1) and (2), we have
2r = nh nh or mvr = mv 2

According to Schrodinger, the electron does not move round the nucleus in fixed orbits, but may, infact, be any where with different probabilities. The probability of its presence near the nucleus is greatest and as the distance from nucleus increases the probability decreases. Schrodinger from mathematical treatment of wave motion gave a general wave equation describing the behaviour of a small particle. Consider a system such as a stretched string. For its vibration,
= A sin 2x

. Where x = displacement , = wave function , A = amplitude of the wave, =

wavelength
d 2 dx 2 + 8 2 m h2 (E P. E.) = 0

2 for an electron at a given point indicates the probability of occurrence of the electron at that point.

(16) The quantum numbers : The quantum numbers are results of Schrodinger wave equation. (i) Principal quantum no. Denoted by 'n'
The values of n are from 1 to n

n =1 n=3

K shell; M shell;
n=4

n=2

L shell

N shell

'n' signify for the size and energy level of major energy shell.

(ii) Azimuthal or angular quantum no.

Denoted by 'l' The values of l are from 0 to n 1

l = 0 for s subshell; l = 2 for d subshell;

l = 1 for p subshell l = 3 for f subshell

'l' signify for shape and energy level of subshells.

(iii) Magnetic quantum no.

Denoted by 'm'

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure The values of 'm' are from l to l

Let

l =1

m = 1

0
pz

+1
p y or p x

p x or p y

Let

l=2

m = 2

+1 +2
d yz or d x 2 y 2 ,
d xz or

d xy or
d x 2 y 2

d xz or d z 2 ,

d yz

d xy

m signify for the possible no. of orientations of subshells.

(iv) Spin quantum no

Denoted by s The values of s are +

1 1 or 2 2

s Signify for the direction of spin of electron in a sub- subshell or orbital.

Angular momentum Angular momentum of an electron in an orbital = n Angular momentum of an electron in an orbital = (17) Paulis exclusion principle (i) It is impossible for two electrons of an atom to have all their four quantum no. same. (ii) e.g. is correct for 1 s 2 is wrong for 1 s 2 (iii) Following results have been obtained by Paulis exclusion principle.
Maximum no. of electrons in a shell can be 2n 2 . Maximum no. of electrons in a subshell can be 2, 6, 10 , 14 in s, p, d , f respectively. Maximum no. of electrons in a sub-subshell (orbital) is 2 only.

h 2

h [(l + 1)l] 2

(18) Rules for writing electronic configuration : The electronic configuration is written on the basis of following rules : (i) Aufbau principle : The electrons in a poly electronic atom are filled one by one in order of increasing energy level. e.g. 1 H : 1 s 1 is correct, 2 s 1 is wrong because energy level of 1 s < 2 s. (ii) Hund's rules : In filling a group of orbitals of equal energy (or subshells) it is preferred to assign electrons to empty orbitals rather than pair them in a particular subshell, because the former arrangement leads to lower energy level. Same spin of unpaired electrons in sub-subshell also gives rise to lower energy level.

Atoms Molecules, Chemical Arithmetic and Atomic Structure

e.g. 7 N : 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 3 for 2 p 3 is correct is wrong is wrong (iii) (n + l) rule : The subshell with lower values of (n + l) possesses lower energy level and should be filled first. e.g.,
19

K : 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 ,3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 1 is wrong

1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 ,3 s 2 3 p 6 ,4 s 1 is correct
n + l of 4 s = 4 + 0 = 4 n + l of 3 d = 3 + 2 = 5

Thus, 4s should be filled first. If (n + l) is same for two subshells, the one with lower values of n possess lower energy and should be filled first. e.g.
21

Sc : 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 , 4 s 2 4 p 1 is wrong

1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 1 , 4 s 2 is correct
n + l of 4 p = 4 + 1 = 5 n + l of 3 d = 3 + 2 = 5

Thus, 3 d should be filled first.

n of 3 d < n of 4 s

(iv) A subshell having nearly full filled or nearly half filled configuration tends to acquire exactly full filled or exactly half filled nature in order to attain stability i.e. lower energy level. e.g.
24

Cr : 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 4 , 4 s 2 is wrong

1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 5 , 4 s 1 is correct
29

Cu : 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 9 , 4 s 2 is wrong

1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 10 , 4 s 1 is correct
46

Pd : 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 10 , 4 s 2 4 p 6 4 d 8 ,5 s 2 is wrong

1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 10 , 4 s 2 4 p 6 4 d 10 is correct

Number of nodes : Total number of nodes in a shell = (n 1) Angular nodes = l Spherical nodes = n l 1

***