Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }.

Nouitos
1
!"#$ $&#'()"&


Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
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!*+, tiansfei of eneigy uue to a tempeiatuie uiffeience
is N0T stoieu in a system - it is E in motion acioss the bounuaiy of a system
Q E auueu to the system in the foim of heat thiough:
!"#$%&'("# (solius, liquius, gases - E-tiansfei thiough moleculai vibiations)
)*$(*'("# (via electiomagnetic waves - in solius, liquius, oi gases - can tiavel
thiough a vacuum)
!"#+,&'("# (via a fluiu - flow can be natuial oi foiceu)

"#$% %&$'()#& %* %+# (,(%#- .( /*(.%.0#
"#$% %&$'()#& )&*- $ (,(%#- .( '#1$%.0#

Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
S
2*'345%.*'

Figuie S.1 - An insulateu iou conuucting heat
)-./0*/12 3+4 -5 6-78.9,0-7
!

Q =
kA T
1
"T
2
( )
L

! Boes not uepenu on the shape of the iou
! Applies to plane layeis of mateiial of any cioss-sectional shape in which all the
conuuction occuis in only one uiiection
! The T insiue the mateiial vaiies lineaily between the 2 enu values if k = const.
k theimal conuuctivity |Wm
u
Cj
assumeu const in this eq. but this is N0T ALWAYS the case
)-./0*/12 3+4 -5 6-78.9,0-7 (Caitesian cooiuinates)
!

Q = "kA
dT
dx

! T uecieases with incieasing length, hence uTux < u
!
!

Q > u in the uiiection of uecieasing T (heat flows fiom hot to colu), hence the
minus sign.


Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
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)-./0*/12 3+4 -5 6-78.9,0-7 (cylinuiical cooiuinates)
!

Q = "kA
dT
dr


!

Q = 2"kL
T
1
#T
2
ln
r
2
r
1




Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
S
2*'0#5%.*'
!

Q = hA"T
A aiea exposeu to convection
!
"T T uiffeience between the soliu anu the fluiu
h Fouiiei heat tiansfei coefficient h = h (geometiy, v, fluiu, T)
678 h is N0T a funuamental physical piopeity of a substance, as is k (theimal
conuuctivity) oi ! (emissivity); the values in Table S-S aie foi compaiison puiposes
only. Actual values foi h aie ueteimineu fiom expeiimental uata.

Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
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9$3.$%.*'
! absoiption + emission of photons thioughout the volume of the gas, liquiu, soliu
:/$;4# -$%#&.$<( =<.;4.3( *& (*<.3(>:
o photons aie absoibeu in a veiy thin layei on the suiface
o only photons emitteu fiom this thin layei can escape
o photons emitteu ueep within the mateiial aie ieabsoibeu in a veiy shoit
uistance fiom the point of emission anu have no influence on E - tiansfei
within the mateiial
7<$5? @4&)$5#: an iueal suiface that absoibs all the iauiation inciuent upon it anu
emits the maximum possible iauiation that can be emitteu at that T by any suiface.
Foi a Black Bouy
!

Q ="A T
s
4
#T
surr
4
( )
Stefan - Boltzmann const.
!
" = 5.67x10
#8
W
m
2
K
4

A: suiface aiea exposeu to iauiation
Tsuii: T of the suiiounuing suifaces
A&$, @4&)$5#: the fiaction of the inciuent iauiation ieflecteu by the suiface is
inuepenuent of the wavelength of the inciuent iauiation.
B.))4(# @4&)$5#: the fiaction of the inciuent iauiation ieflecteu by the suiface is
inuepenuent of the angle of inciuence of the iauiation.
Foi a uiay, Biffuse Bouy
!

Q ="#A T
s
4
$T
surr
4
( )
! emissivity (piopeity of the suiface)
!
0 "# "1
foi a Black Bouy
!
" =1
foi most electiical insulatois:
!
0.8 "#
foi metals:
!
" = f surfacecondition ( )

clean, shiny metals low !
unpolisheu, uiity, oxiuizeu suifaces high !
! Eqs. aie valiu foi bouies that aie fai away fiom othei suifaces
! If suiiounuing suifaces aie close to the bouy, then ieflections must be taken into
account anu the eqs. must be mouifieu.
Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
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Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
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C+# 9#(.(%$'5# D'$<*1, =C9D>
The equations foi heat tiansfei iate by conuuction anu convection have common
featuies:
! heat tiansfei iate ~
!
"T (tempeiatuie uiffeience)
Similai eq. fiom electiic ciicuit theoiy: Foi a lineai iesistoi
:;<12 =+4
!
I =
"#
R

! cuiient ~
!
"# (voltage uiop acioss the iesistoi)
We can geneialize this by
!
flow =
driving potential
resistance to flow

1-B Beat Conuuction eq.
!

Q
cond
=
T
1
"T
2
R
cond

2*'345%.0# %+#&-$< &#(.(%$'5#
BT along the length of a iou:
!
R
cond
=
L
kA

BT thiough a cylinuiical shell:
!
R
cond "cylinder
=
ln
r
2
r
1
2#kL

BT thiough a spheiical shell:
!
R
cond "sphere
=
r
2
" r
1
4#kr
1
r
2

Convection eq.
!

Q
conv
=
T
s
"T
f
R
conv

2*'0#5%.0# %+#&-$< &#(.(%$'5#
!
R
conv
=
1
hA

9$3.$%.0# %+#&-$< &#(.(%$'5#
!
R
rad
=
1
h
rad
A

Wheie
!
h
rad
="# T
s
+T
surr
( ) T
s
2
+T
surr
2
( )

! iauiation is .-/*&%$'% foi suifaces cooleu by gases
! iauiation is '#1<.1.E<# foi suifaces cooleu by liquius

Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
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TRA is veiy helpful when uealing with systems with multiple paits:

Figuie S.S - Beat tiansfei thiough a multilayei wall.
! }ust like in electiic ciicuit theoiy, theimal iesistances auu in seiies.
!

Q =
T
0
"T
5
R
tot

wheie
!
R
tot
= R
0
+ R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ R
4


Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
1u

Figuie S.1S - A bouy exchanging heat by both convection anu iauiation

Figuie S.14 - Resistance analog foi BT fiom a suiface cooleu by both convection anu
iauiation.
!

Q =

Q
rad
+

Q
conv

Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
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Figuie S.1S - Resistance analog foi BT fiom a suiface cooleu by convection anu
iauiation when the gas anu the suiiounuings aie at the same
!
T
"
.
!

Q =

Q
rad
+

Q
conv
=
T
s
"T
#
R
rad
+
T
s
"T
#
R
conv
=
T
s
"T
#
R
tot

!
1
R
tot
=
1
R
rad
+
1
R
conv
oi
!
R
tot
=
R
rad
R
conv
R
rad
+ R
conv

!
h
tot
= h
rad
+ h
conv

Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
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$;* 3.<>*8 (?2,*< #>>/-@0<+,0-7
! All the mass insiue a bouy is "lumpeu" togethei anu assumeu the same T.
! When one theimal iesistance is much laigei than the othei.

Figuie S.8 - A two-layei stiuctuie maue of coopei anu iubbei.

!
R
c
=
L
k
c
A
=
0.02m
401
W
m" K
1m
2
= 4.99x10
#5
K
W
R
r
=
L
k
r
A
=
0.02m
0.13
W
m" K
1m
2
=1.54x10
#1
K
W
R
r
!! R
c

To calculate T2 the inteiface of the 2 mateiials:
!

Q =
T
1
"T
2
R
c
=
T
2
"T
3
R
r

which yielus:
Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
1S

Figuie S.9 - T - uistiibution in the coopei iubbei stiuctuie.
! Because Rc is so low, theie is viitually no T uiop acioss the coopei layei;
almost all the T uiop occuis acioss the iubbei.
Applications:
! Conuuction iesistance in a coopei pipe << convection iesistance insiue
outsiue the pipe.
! In some tiansient systems:

!
R
cond
!! R
conv


Figuie S.1u - An aibitiaiily shapeu (hot colu) soliu, initially Ti suuuenly
immeiseu in a (colu hot) fluiu Tf.
Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
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!

Q = hA T
s
t ( ) "T
f
[ ]

! Soliu T vaiies with t
! Soliu T non-unifoim (i.e. vaiies fiom point to point insiue the bouy).
Bowevei, if

!
R
cond
!! R
conv
T vaiiation w. location will be negligible.
!
!
R
cond
=
L
kA
but foi a bouy of aibitiaiy shape what is L. If

!
R
cond
!! R
conv
the
accuiacy is not impoitant in estimating
!
R
cond
but we neeu a chaiacteiistic
length.
!
!
L
char
=
"
A
wheie A is the suiface aiea of the bouy
Example:

Figuie S.11 - A laige, thin, flat plate.

!
y !! x and z !! x
The suiface aiea A is uominateu by 2 laige, flat siues (the suiface aiea of the 4 euges
is insignificant). Neglecting the euges:
!
L
char
=
"
A
#
xyz
2yz
=
x
2

This iesult simply confiims what we coulu have guesseu intuitively, namely that the
impoitant uistance, which ueteimines how quickly the plate cools uown is the
uistance between the miuule of the plate (coie) anu the suiface, which is x2.
Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
1S
A0-, 7.<B*/:
!
Bi =
R
cond
R
conv
=
hL
char
k
=
int ernal thermal resistance
external thermal resistance

Lumpeu system appioximation is valiu when
!
Bi !~ 0.1
! any given time the bouy is isotheimal.
Fiom the 1
st
Law:

!
dU
dt
=

Q "

W

W = 0
dU = mcdT # mc
$
dT # mc
p
dT

Q = "hA T "T
f
( )

Solving
!
T t ( ) "T
f
T
i
"T
f
= exp "
hA
#$c
p
t
%
&
'
(
)
* = exp "
h
#c
p
L
char
t
%
&
'
(
)
* = exp "BiFo ( )
Solving foi the time t to ieach a specifieu T(t):


!
t = "
#c
p
L
char
h
ln
T t ( ) "T
f
T
i
"T
f
$
%
&
'
(
) Bi !~ 0.1

Solving foi the bouy T(t) aftei an elapseu time t:


!
T t ( ) = T
i
"T
f
( )
exp
"h
#c
p
L
char
t
$
%
&
'
(
) +T
f
Bi !~ 0.1

C.-# 2*'(%$'%:
!
"c
p
L
char
h
contiols the tiansient behavioi of the bouy
!
!
T
i
"T
f
has no effect on the speeu of the tiansient!!
! Aftei t ~ S x (time const.) bouy will have ieacheu the steauy - state value.
Exponent can be wiitten as
!
ht
"c
p
L
char
=
hL
char
k
#
$
%
&
'
(
k
"c
p
t
L
char
2
#
$
%
&
'
( = Bi) Fo
F*4&.#& '4-E#&

!
Fo "
#t
L
char
2
=
rate @ which heat is conducted across the body
rate @ which heat is stored in the body

Applieu Nateiials - NE 297 - Bi. Nikos }. Nouitos
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C+#&-$< B.))4(.0.%,
!
" =
k
#c
p
=
thermal conductivity
volumetric heat capacity

! Substances with high " iapiuly aujust theii T to that of theii suiiounuings,
because they conuuct heat quickly in compaiison to theii volumetiic heat
capacity oi G%+#&-$< E4<?G.

Figuie S.12 - Soliu T(t) foi a lumpeu system.