2.

Communication over the network

2.1.1 The Elements of Communication
Communication has three elements o The message source, or sender o The destination, or recipient o The channel, consisting of the media that provides the pathway over which the message can travel, from source to destination Network refers to data or information networks capable of carrying many different types of communications

2.1.2 Communicating the Messages

In theory, a single communication could be sent across a network as one continuous stream of bits. This would mean no other device would be able to transmit while this data transfer was in progress. This would result in significant delays. A better approach is to divide into smaller, manageable pieces of data. This is referred to as segmentation, and provides two main benefits. o Data can be interleaved over the network. This is called Multiplexing o Segmentation can increase the reliability of communication. The separate pieces of each message need not travel the same pathway across the network from source to destination. In the event of congestion, alternate pathways can be used to direct data. In the event of failure, only the missing segments need be retransmitted. The downside of this is the added levels of complexity. Various devices throughout the network participate in ensuring data arrives reliably at the destination.

2.1.3 Components of the Network

Devices and media are the physical elements or hardware of the network. Hardware is often the visible components of the network. Services and processes are the communication programs (software) that run on the networked devices.

2.1.4 End Devices and their Role on the Network

Network devices most familiar are called end devices. These form the interface between humans and the communication network. Some examples include o Computers o Network Printers o VoIP phones o Security cameras o Mobile handheld devices

 End devices are referred to as hosts. A host is either the source or destination of a message transmitted. In order to distinguish hosts, each host must be identified by an address. When a host initiates communication, it uses the address of the destination host to specify the destination.

2.1.5 Intermediary Devices and their Role on the Network

Networks also rely on intermediary devices to provide connectivity and ensure data flow. These devices include o Network Access Devices (Hubs, Switches, Wireless Access Ports) o Internetworking Devices (Routers) o Communication Servers and Modems o Security Devices (Firewalls) Management of data is also a role of intermediary devices. These use the destination host address in conjunction with information about the network interconnections to determine the path that messages should take through the network. Processes running on the intermediary network devices perform the following functions o Regenerate and transmit data signals o Maintain information about what pathways exist through the network and internetwork o Classify and direct messages according to QoS priorities

2.1.6 Network Media

Communication across a network is carried on a medium. The medium provides the channel over which the message travels from source to destination The signal encoding that must occur for the message to be transmitted is different for each media type. Metallic wires rely on electrical impulses, fiber optic transmissions rely on pulses of light. In wireless transmission, patters of electromagnetic waves depict the various bit values.

2.2.1 Local Area Networks

Networks can vary greatly in terms of the size of the area covered The number of users connected The number and types of services available

2.2.2 Wide Area Networks

WANs use specifically designed network devices to interconnect LANs. Because of the importance of these devices to the network, configuring, installing and maintaining these devices are skills that are integral to the function of an organizations network. LANs and WANs are very useful and allow many forms of communication including exchange emails, corporate training and resource sharing.

2.3.2 Network protocols

For devices to successfully communicate, a network protocol suite must describe precise requirements and interactions Networking protocol suites describes processes such as: o The format or structure of the message o The method by which networking devices share information about pathways with other networks o How and when error and system messages are passed between devices o The setup and termination of data transfer sessions Individual protocols in a protocol suite may be vendor-specific and proprietary

2.3.3 Protocol Suites and Industry Standards

A standard is a process or protocol endorsed by the networking industry and ratified by a standards organization such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) or the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Standards ensure products from various manufacturers can work together for efficient communication Unstandardized products may pose compatibility issues

2.3.4 The Interaction of Protocols

Application Protocol:
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol that governs webservers and clients interact It defines the content and formatting of requests and responses exchanged between client and server

Transport Protocol:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport protocol that manages conversations between web servers and clients. TCP divides the HTTP messages into smaller pieces called segments to be sent to the destination segments. Also responsible for controlling the size and rate at which messages are exchanged between the server and the client

Internetwork Protocol:
Internet Protocol (IP) is the most common internetwork protocol It is responsible for taking the formatted segments from TCP, encapsulating them into packets, assigning the appropriate addresses, and selecting the best path to the destination host

Network Access Protocol:

Network access protocols consist of two functions 1. Data link management 2. Physical transmission

 Data-link management protocols take packets from IP and format them to be transmitted over the media

2.3.5 Technology Independent Protocols

Networking protocols describe the functions that occur during network communications Protocols generally do not describe how to accomplish a particular function By describing what functions are required, the implementation of a particular protocol can be technology-indepentent

2.4.1 The Benefits of Using a Layered Model

To visualize the interaction between protocols, it is common to use a layered model Using a layered model: 1. Assists in protocol design 2. Fosters competition as vendors can work together 3. Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above and below 4. Provides common language to describe networking functions and capabilities

2.4.2 Protocols and Reference Models

Two basic types of networking models 1. Protocol Models 2. Reference Models A protocol model provides a model that matches the structure of a protocol suite Hierarchical set of related protocols in a suite represents all the functionality required to interface the human network with the data network The TCP/IP model is a protocol model, as it describes the functions that occur at each layer within the TCP/IP suite A reference model provides a common reference for maintaining consistency within all types of network protocols and services The primary purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer understanding of the functions and process involved

The TCP/IP Model

First layered protocol model was created in the early 1970s and referred to as the Internet model The architecture of the TCP/IP protocol suite follows the structure of this model Because the TCP/IP model is an open standard, one company does not control the definition of the model 1. Application 2. Transport 3. Internet 4. Network Access

 The TCP/IP model describes the functionality of the protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite These protocols interact to provide end-to-end delivery of applications over a network A complete communication process includes these steps: 1. Creation of data at the application layer of the originating source end device 2. Segmentation and encapsulation of data as it passes down the protocol stack in the source end device 3. Generation of the data onto the media at the Network Access layer of the stack 4. Transportation of the data through the internetwork, which consists of media and intermediary devices 5. Reception of the data at the Network Access layer of the destination end device 6. Decapsulation and reassembly of the data as it passes up the stack in the destination device 7. Passing this data to the destination application at the Application layer of the destination end device

2.4.5 Protocol Data Units and Encapsulation

As application data is passed down the stack, various protocols add information to is at each level. This is known as the encapsulation process The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is called a Protocol Data Unit (PDU) At each stage, the PDU takes on a different name to reflect encapsulation PDUs are named according to the protocols of the TCP/IP suite 1. Application layer Data 2. Transport layer Segment 3. Internetwork layer Packet 4. Network Access layer Frame 5. Physical transmission Bits

2.4.7 The OSI Model

The OSI model provides an extensive list of functions and services that can occur at each layer 1. Application Provides the means for end-to-end connectivity between individuals in the human network using data networks 2. Presentation Provides for common representation of the data transferred between Application layer services 3. Session Provides services to the Presentation layer to organize its dialogue and to manage data exchange 4. Transport Defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for individual communications between the end devices 5. Network Provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network between identified end devices

6. Data Link Describes methods for exchanging data frames between devices over a common media 7. Physical Layer Describes the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural means to activate, maintain and de-activate physical connections for bit transmission to and from a network device The protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite can be described in terms of the OSI reference model

2.5.1 Addressing in the Network

The OSI model describes the process of encoding, formatting, segmenting, and encapsulating data for transmission over the network Various types of addresses that must be included to deliver data from source to destination

2.5.2 Getting the Data to the End Device

During encapsulation, address identifiers are added to the data as it travels down the protocol stack on the source host There are multiple layers of addressing to ensure its delivery The first identifier is contained in the Layer 2 PDU (frame) Layer 2 (Data Link) is concerned with the delivery of messages on a single local network In a LAN using Ethernet, this address is called the Media Access Control (MAC)

 Once a frame is successfully received by the destination host, the Layer 2 address information is removed as the data in decapsulated and moved up the protocol stack to Layer 3 Layer 3 protocols are primarily designed to move data from one local network to another local network within an internetwork Unlike Layer 2, Layer 3 addresses must include identifiers that enable intermediary devices to locate hosts on different networks In the TCP/IP protocol suite, every IP host address contains information about the network where the host is located At the boundary of each network, an intermediary device, usually a router, decapsulates the frame to read the destination host address contained in the header of the packet, the Layer 3 PDU Routers use the network portion of the IP to determine the path to reach the destination host The router then encapsulates the packet in a new frame and sends it on its way toward the destination end device When the frame reaches its final destination, the frame and packet headers are removed and the data moved up to Layer 4 At Layer 4, information contained in the PDU header identifies the process or service running on the destination host