Marine Algae For The Cotton Pest and Disease Management

Recent trends in Agriculture, Water and Environment Research
MARINE ALGAE FOR THE COTTON PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

K. SAHAYARAJ1, S. RAJESH1, A. ASHA1, AND J.M. RATHI2
1
CROP PROTECTION RESEARCH CENTRE, DEPARTMENT OF ADVANCED ZOOLOGY
AND BIOTECHNOLOGY, ST. XAVIERS COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), PALAYAMKOTTAI 627 002, TAMIL NADU, INDIA,
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DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY, ST. MARYS COLLEGE, THOOTHUKUDI 628 001, TAMIL NADU, INDIA
Abstract: Macroscopic marine algae, popularly known as seaweeds, form one of the important living resources of the ocean. Agar, carrageenan and alginate are popular examples of seaweedsthese have been used as food for human beings, feed for animals, fertilizers for plants and source of various chemicals. In the recent past, seaweeds have been gaining momentum as new experimental systems for biological research and integrated aquaculture systems. Totally 57 taxa belonging to 37 genera representing Chlorophyceae (17 species), Phaeophyceae (14 species) and Rhodophyceae (25 species) were recorded from the 19 sampling sites during our study period (June 2009 to June 2010). More number of algae were recorded from the Bay of Bengal (67.7%) followed by Indian Ocean (25%) and Arabian Sea coasts (8%).Among them, Caulerpa scalpelliformis (CS), Caulerpa veravalensis (CV), Ulva fasciata (UF), Ulva lactuca (UL), (Chlorophyta) Padina pavonica (PP), and Sargassum wightii (SW) were tested against Dysdercus cingulatus (Fab.) and fungal pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum (Atk.) Snyd & Hans. at different concentrations. Extractions were carried out using hot continuous extraction and cold Percolation methods using polar (water-AQ and methanol-ME) and non-polar solvents (Chloroform-CL and Hexane-HE). Steroids, tannins, flavonoids were observed in AQ extract of CS, PP, ST and CC. However, alkaloids, pholobatanins (except in AQ extract of ST), aromatic acids were not recorded in these algae. Soxhlation method can be used for the extraction of steroids, tannins, saponins, cardiac glycosides and phenolic compounds. Total tannins, Phenolic compounds, Bound Phenol and O.D. Phenol content was found higher in Sargassum wightii, Padina tetrastomatica, and Chaetomorpha crassa, respectively.It is concluded that tested algal seaweeds possess nymphicidal and adultoid, ovicidal, ovipositional, bactericidal and fungicidal activities. CV, CS and UF have nymphicidal and ovicidal activities, whereas CV has adultoid activity and both CV and CS ovipositional activity. Hence Caulerpa veravalensis chloroform extracts could be used for the red cotton bug management in cotton. CV methanol, Chloroform and Hexane have similar bactericidal activity, whereas CV chloroform and CS methanol extract has fungicidal activity. The study suggested that CV can be utilized for management of both bacterial and fungal diseases of cotton. All these algae synthesized silver-based green nanoparticles. These green nanoparticles reduce the radish seed germination rate by 36%. However, they did not affect the cotton, cucumber and tomato seed germination and could be suggested to utilize these weeds in the agriculture.
The SciTech Publishers & International Association for Teaching and Learning, 2012
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Keywords: Macroscopic marine algae, extraction, Dysdercus cingulatus, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum, nanoparticles, agriculture use Introduction: In India, cotton production is about 295.0 million (= 480-pound bales) during 20092010, as against 113.9 million bales in the world. India also has the largest area under cotton cultivation (10.31 million hectares), and yield is 486 kg/ha during 2009-2010 (http://cotcorp.gov.in). Cotton is damaged by over 160 species of insects from the seeding stage right up to the entire period of the plant growth. The cotton stainer, Dysdercus cingulatus (Fab.) (Heteroptera: Pyrrhocoridae), causes serious damage by feeding on developing cotton bolls and ripe cotton seeds and transmitting fungi that develop on the immature lint and seeds (Natarajan and Rajendran, 2005). Previously, Rajendran and Gopalan (1980) studied the impact of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. (Astraceae), Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Apocynaceae) and Nephrolepis exaltata (L.) Schott (Nephrolepidaceae) extracts on morphological changes of D. cingulatus. The impact of different neem parts extracts on mortality of D. cingulatus has also been studied (Sharma et al., 2010). Pedalium murex (L.) (Sahayaraj et al., 2006) and Streblus asper Lour. (Hashim and Devi, 2003) root extracts prolong mating duration and reduced fecundity, hatchability, adult longevity of D. cingulatus. Moreover, more than 2500 terrestrial plants have been screened against agricultural pests; however, scientists developed insecticides only from the neem. Wilt of cotton (Gossypium spp) is a important vascular disease caused by the soil borne pathogen Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend f.sp. vasinfectum (Atk.) Snyd and Hans. The disease is widespread and causes substantial crop losses in most of the major cottonproducing areas of the world (Assigbeste et al., 1994; Wang et al., 2004). Due to hazards associated with the increased use of synthetic pesticides the use of biopesticides esp., from marine algae has gained considerable attention on the eco-friendly approaches for the management of insect pest and plant pathogens. Apart from terrestrial plants now days seaweeds have been used for the pest management program. Dureja (1993), Ara et al. (1997), Rizvi (2003), Rizvi and Shameel (2003, 2004) highlighted the importance of algal seaweeds in insect pest management. Biju et al. (2004), Manilal et al. (2009), and Sahayaraj and Kalidas (2011) have recorded the insecticidal activity of seaweeds like Bryopsis plumosa (Huds), Padina pavonica (Linn) and Hyblaea puera (Cramer) on D. cingulatus and Culex quinquefasciatus respectively. We selected Caulerpa veravalensis, Caulerpa scalpelliformis, Padina pavonica, Sargassum wightii, Ulva fasciata and Ulva lactuca for this study. All these plants were available in plenty and moreover, drifted seaweeds are merely a waste in many parts of the world and it can be utilized for pest management program. Furthermore, a critical literature survey reveals that all these plants have less explore or not been studied for its pesticidal property on any agriculture pests. Hence, it is imperative to evaluate the insecticidal activity of marine plants. The objective of our present study was aimed to explore the impacts of C. veravalensis, C. scalpelliformis, P. pavonica, S. wightii, U. fasciata and U. lactuca extracts against the devastating, notorious cotton pest, D. cingulatus under laboratory conditions.
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Materials and methods: Collection and extraction of seaweeds: Drifted C. veravalensis, C. scalpelliformis, P. pavonica, S. wightii, U. fasciata and U. lactuca were collected from coastal area of Kanyakumari, Thoothukudi, Tirunelveli Districts, Tamil Nadu, India. Immediately after collection, alga was washed in sea water; epiphytes, associated organisms, sands and other extraneous matter were removed. After subsequent washing in fresh water, the plants shade dried for two weeks continuously. Then partially powdered using domestic blender and stored in air tight container until when needed. From the stock, 500 g of powdered material was extracted successively using benzene, (BN), chloroform (CH), hexane and water using Soxhlet apparatus continuously for 24 h at 50 C. The extract was concentrated with distillation apparatus at 40 C and again concentrated using vacuum desiccators at room temperature to obtain minimum quantity of crude extract for testing insecticidal activity on D. cingulatus. The extracts have also been tested against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum (Atk.) Snyd & Hans. Pest collection and maintenance: Dysdercus cingulatus nymphs and adults were collected from cotton fields, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, India, and subsequently maintained in the laboratory at 28 2 C and 70-75% RH on water soaked cotton seeds and fresh cotton leaves. The nymphs emerged from the laboratory laid egg masses were reared using cotton plants and newly emerged third instar nymphs were used for the experiments. Each treatment contains six replicates and 10 insects were used for each replicate. Seed dip method of Sahayaraj and Kalidas (2011) was followed for the insecticidal activity bioassay. Insecticidal bioassay: Five concentrations (0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.8%, and 1.6%) were prepared using 1 mL of respective solvents, then diluted with 10 mL water and used for the study. Cotton seeds (100 g) were separately taken in a conical flask and add 250 mL of plant extract and 3 mL of Tween 80 (0.1%) as an adjuvant. The flask was agitated at 65 rpm in a shaker (Remi, Mumbai) for 12 h at room temperature and provided as food to D. cingulatus. Ten third instar D. cingulatus nymphs were taken in a plastic container (300 mL capacity) which covered with aerated lid. Control category was provided with water mixed with adjuvant soaked cotton seeds. Both for experiment and control categories, cotton seeds were replaced every day by a new plant extracts soaked seeds for 4 d continuously. Mortality was recorded at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h. Antimicrobial activity: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum was isolated from infected cotton plants (Melameignanapuram, Tenkasi district, Tamil Nadu, India) and were used for the experiment. The pathogen was isolated, sub-cultured on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium and identified using standard protocol (Burgess et al., 1994). Antifungal activity was carried out using agar well diffusion method (Irobi et al., 1996). Petri plates were prepared with 20 ml of sterile PDA. Wells were made using sterile cork borer under aseptic condition. The C. scalpelliformis extract with various concentrations (0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4% and 0.8%) were prepared using Dimethyl Sulphoxide (DMSO) and were added to the respective wells. Carbendazim (Bavistin) (0.03%) was used as positive control and DMSO was maintained as negative control. They were incubated at 27C for 3 days. The zone of inhibition was measured using a ruler and expressed in mm.
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Secondary metabolites analysis : Both qualitative and quantitative [total phenols (g mg-1), Ortho dihydric phenols (ODP) phenol and bound phenols (BP) (mg g-1), and tannins (g mg-1) phytochemical analysis of the extracts was carried out following the method of Harbone (1998). Synthesis and characterization of liquid nanoparticles: Exactly 17 mg of AgNO3 was dissolved in 100 mL distilled water (10-3M). Ten mL of algal thallus extract was added to 90 mL of 10-3M AgNo3 solution for reduction of Ag+ ions. The reduction of pure Ag+ ions was monitored by measuring the UV-vis spectra of the solution at regular intervals after diluting a small aliquot (0.2 mL) of the sample 20 times. UV-vis spectra were recorded as a function of time of reaction on a UV- 1601Shimadzu spectrophotometer with samples in Quartz cuvette operated at a resolution of 1 nm. The liquid nanoparticle was kept as such for two months at room temperature (30-32C), then X ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the alga thallus broth reduced Ag nanoparticles were obtained using Siemens D5005 XRD (X- ray diffractometer) with Cu K radiation ( = 0.1542). XRD patterns were analyzed to determine peak intensity, position and width. The particle size was calculated using the Scherrer formula, d = 0.9 / cos where, d is the mean diameter of the nanoparticles, , the wavelength of X-ray radiation source and , the angular FWHM of the XRD peak at the diffraction angle (Culity, 1978). The alga thallus broth reduced Ag nanoparticles solution was centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 15 minutes, redispersed in sterile distilled water to get rid of any uncoordinated biological molecules for Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy measurements. Centrifugation and the redispersion were repeated thrice in order to ensure better separation. The purified KBr pellets were then air dried at room temperature and powdered subjected to FTIR spectroscopy measurement (Shimadzu FTIR-8300S). The morphology of the alga thallus broth reduced Ag nanoparticles was recorded using the JSM-6390 Scanning electron microscope (SEM). Samples for SEM were prepared by drop coating the Ag nanoparticles solutions onto carbon copper grid. The films on the grids were allowed to dry prior to SEM measurement. To record the size and shape of alga thallus broth reduced Ag nanoparticle, samples for Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) were prepared by drop-coating the Ag nanoparticle solution onto carbon-coated copper grids. The films on the TEM grids were allowed to stand for two minutes, following which the extra solution was removed using a blotting paper and the grid allow drying prior to measurement. TEM measurements were performed on a JEOL model 3010 instrument operated at an accelerating voltage at 120 kv. Statistical analysis: All results were expressed in mean with standard errors. Individual data was subjected to one-way ANOVA and post ANOVA Tukey Multiple Range Test (TMRT); the significances are expressed at 5% level.
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Results and discussion : Macroscopic marine algae form one of the important living resources of the ocean throughout the world and particularly in India (Anonymous, 1978, 1985, 2000, 2005; Subba Rao and Mantri, 2006). Agar, carrageenan and alginate are popular examples of seaweeds these have been used as food for human beings, feed for animals, anti-insect, anti-microbials, anti-helmonthics, fertilizers for plants and source of various chemicals (Mshigeni, 1992; Anggadiredja, 1993; Afaq-Husain et al., 2001; Freile-Pelargin and Morales, 2004; Dhargalkar and Neelam Pereira, 2005; Sabina et al. (2005); Salvador et al., 2007; Ayson et al., 2008). Distribution: One thousand and fifty specimens of algal seaweeds were collected by our team. The present annotated checklist of 57 taxa belonging to 37 genera representing Chlorophyceae (17 species), Phaeophyceae (14 species) and Rhodophyceae (25 species) (Table 1) were recorded from the study areas (Figure 2). The red algae dominated over green and brown algae. Presence of the rocky coasts of Tamil Nadu is abounding with a rich algal growth. Desikachary et al. (1990, 1998) also reported that Rhodophyceae are the common marine algae in Tamil Nadu, India as observed here. Caulerpa scalpelliformis was recorded from Circular Fort (N 0807'37.9', E 07734'02.7'), Kootapuli (N 0808'44.2', E 07736'02.5'), Idinthakarai, Kuthenkuzhi, Tuticorin, Therkukalmaedu, Tiruchendur and Mandapam. This species was found throughout the year with high population during March to June, 2010. Similar trend was also observed for Caulerpa veravalensis, Chaetomorpha crassa and Sargassum wightii. Sargassum wightii was found abundant in Kanyakumari, C. veravalensis in Idinthakarai and Kuthenkuzhi, Chaetomorpha crassa in Circular Fort, they were found attached to the rock. Chaetomorpha crassa was found to grow over Sargassum sp. Padina pavonica found abundant from June to August 2009 in Tuticorin and Mandapam. Padina tetrastromatica was abundant in Circular Fort during March 2010. Lobophora variegata was recorded abundant in Circular Fort only during April 2010. Similarly, Amphiroa anceps was abundantly collected only in Kootapuli during April 2010. Ulva lactuca was found abundant in Tuticorin (June to August 2009), Ulva fasciata in Muttam, Idinthakarai and Kuthenkuzhi (September to November 2009). Insecticidal activity: The toxicity of algal extracts was evaluated against D. cingulatus third instar nymphs to suggest a safe method for their control. The percentage of mortality increased when the concentration level increased. Chloroform extracts of Caulerpa veravalensis, Caulerpa scalpelliformis, Padina pavonica, and Sargassum wightii and methanol extracts of Ulva fasciata and Ulva lactuca were found to have maximum nymphicidal activity against third instar nymphs of Dysdercus cingulatus. Based up on the LC50 values, it was concluded that among the six algal seaweeds, Caulerpa veravalensis chloroform extracts considered as the best insecticidal algae followed by Caulerpa scalpelliformis, Ulva fasciata (methanol), Ulva lactuca (methanol), Sargassum wightii (chloroform) and Padina pavonica (chloroform) (Table 2).
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The algal extracts mixed with artificial diet might enter into the alimentary canal while feeding, affects the digestive physiology which lead to the death of the insect. Cetin et al. (2010) reported the larvicidal efficacy of the acetone extract of the thalli of Caulerpa scalpelliformis var. denticulata against late second to early third instars of Culex pipiens at 1, 200 ppm, the extract caused >70% larval mortality at 24-h, 48-h, and 72-h exposure. The LC50 (median lethal concentration) and LC90 values of C. scalpelliformis were 338.91 and 1,891.31 ppm, respectively. Bai and Koshy et al. (2004) reported that 40% leaf and 10% seed ethanolic extracts of Thevetia neriifolia Juvenomimetic activity on D. cingulatus. Sharma et al. (2010) reported that the 1.0% concentration of A. indica (Neem Seed Kernel) caused about 75% mortality in D. cingulatus. In conclusion, it can be stated that among the three solvent extracts of C. scalpelliformis the chloroform extract has potential at sub lethal concentration followed by the methanol and hexane extracts. Antimicrobial activity: The hexane, chloroform and methanol extracts of C. scalpelliformis, C. veravalensis and methanol extract of U. lactuca and U. fasciata inhibited the growth of F. oxysporum (Tables 3). However, P. pavonica and S. wightii showed no activity against F. oxysporum. Alam et al. (2002) showed that different parts of Vinca rosea and Azadirachta indica showed potential effect against F. oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum. Suwitchayanon and Kunasakdakul et al. (2009) reported that the clove extract at the concentration of 2600 ppm was required for MIC to control Fusarium oxysoporum, in our experiment the C. scalpelliformis extract at the concentration of 8mg/ml was required to inhibit this pathogen. Afifah (2010) investigated the antifungal activity of Halimeda discoidea and they reported that the algae was found to inhibit phytopathogenic fungus such as Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp. and Rhizopus sp. Obongoya et al. (2010) investigated water based crude plant extracts of Neem (Azadirachta indica), Mexican marigold (Tagetes minuta), tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum) and peri-winkle (Vinca rosea) in controlling soil-borne fungi (Fusarium oxysporum Schl. f. sp. phaseoli) of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). They found that Neem extract was the most effective, while Peri-winkle was the least in inhibiting F. oxysporum. The radial growth of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. psidii was significantly less in neem leaf extract treatment followed by Lantana leaf extract (Srivastava et al., 2011) treatments. Liquid nanoparticle synthesis : Using extra cellular synthesis technique, we were able to produce physically stable liquid nanoparticle formulation, both empty and seaweed thallus extract loaded. The change in color of empty and P. pavonica loaded liquid nanoparticle was noted by visual observation. The stability of the P. pavonica loaded liquid nanoparticle (PPLNP) checked at 16 hours, 24 hours and 16 weeks after synthesis by UV-vis spectroscopy. The UV-vis spectra recorded from the PPLNP at different times of reaction are plotted. The strong surface plasmon resonance centered at 422 nm clearly indicated an increase in intensity with time and stabilized after 5 minutes to 24 h of reaction. The metal particles were observed to be stable in PPLNP formulation from eight to twelve months after synthesis (Table 4) (still they are stable). Long-term stability of this formulation at room temperature indicating that there was no observable variation in the optical properties of the nanoparticle solutions with time.
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Invariably all the bio-nanoparticles synthesized using marine algal seaweeds were spherical and polydispersed and their size was ranged from 35.68 to 97.02 nm (Table 4). Similarly silver nanoparticles synthesized using many plant extracts (Sahayaraj and Rajesh, 2011) are spherical and polydispersed as observed for marine algal seaweeds. Secondary metabolites: Tannins, total phenols, ortho - dihydric phenols, bound phenols, alkaloids and flavanoids quantities were estimated. Steroids, saponins and xanthoprotein can be measured at 480, 420-500 and 500 nm respectively. Ahmad et al. (1994) reported that sterols are the common secondary metabolites of the brown algae. Tannin content was high in Sargassum wightii (61.20.2 g /g) followed by Caulerpa veravalensis (30.80.2 g /g). Minimum quantity has been observed in Ulva lactuca (7.50.2 g /g). Total phenolic compound was high in Caulerpa veravalensis (12.20.1 mg/g), whereas, bound phenol was found maximum in Sargassum wightii (7.90.1 g/g) and Ortho-di-hydric phenols in Caulerpa scalpelliformis (14.00.1 g/g). Total flavanoids content was high in Ulva lactuca (14.70.2 mg/g) followed by Sargassum wightii (14.10.4 mg/g) and minimum in Padina pavonica (11.50.3 mg/g). Distribution of secondary metabolites of marine algae is depends upon the season and habitat (Bhakuni and Rawat, 2005). However, in addtion to the season or habitate, type of algae also place an important role for the distribution of phytochemicals. Moreover, these metabolities govern the economic importance of the marine algae (Cardozo et al., 2007). Acknowledgements: The authors KS and JMR are grateful to MoES (Ref No. MRDF/01/33/P/07), Govt. of India for the financial support for this research works. The authors are thankful to Dr. Eswaran, Scientist In charge, Central Salt and Marine Algal Research Station, Mandapam, for aiding in the identification of algae. We are also thankful to the management of St. Xaviers College for the laboratory facilities and encouragement. References: Afaq-Husain, S., V.A. Saeed and A. Masood. 2001. Economic seaweeds of Pakistan coast. Pak.J.Mar.Biol. 7 (1-2): 281-290. Afifah, S.N., Daah, I., Fariza, S.S., Nordin, M.K.M.J. and Ali, Z.N. 2010. Antimicrobial Activity of Various Extracts of a Tropical Chlorophyta Macroalgae, Halimeda discoidea. J. Appl. Sci. 10(23): 3007-3013. Ahmad, V.U., S. Perveen., S. Uddin., S. Bano., W. Shaikh and M. Shameel. 1994. Isolation and Structure elucidation of sterol from the brown algae Myriogoia sciurus and Spatoglossum variabile. Hamd Med. 37: 2, 54-59. Alam, S., Banu, M.S., Ali, M.F., Akhter, N., Islam, M.R. and Alam ,M.S. 2002. In vitro inhibition of conidial germination of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. by fungicides, plant extracts and phytohormons. Pakistan J. Biol. Sci. 5:303-306. Anggadiredja, J. 1993. The Indonesian seaweed natural products. In: Chan, K.L., Hussain, A.H.J., Sadikun, A, Yuen, K.H.,Asmavi, M.Z. ans Ismail, Z. Eds. Trend in traditional marine research. Sch. Pharm. Sci, Univ Malaysia. pp. 291-295. Anonymous, 1978. A report on the survey of marine algal resources of Tamil Nadu, 1971 1976, Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar. pp. 137.
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Table 1. Algal seaweeds genus and species collected from various places of Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli, and Tuticorin and Ramanathapuram districts of Tamil Nadu
District Location Manavalakurichi Kadiapatinam Muttam Kanyakumari Circular Fort & Leepuram Kootapuli Idhinthakarai Tirunelveli Kuthankuli Uvari Manapaad Tiruchendur Tuticorin-Harbour & Hare island Therkukalmaedu Tuticorin Jalli island Keelvaipaar Vaembaar Kizhakarai Ramanathapuram Mandapam Rameshwaram Latitude and Longitude N 0808'30.8'' E 07718'09.7'' N 0807'46.6'' E 07718'23.7'' N 0807'27.5'' E 07718'48.8'' N 0804'39.8'' E 07733'01.8'' N 0807'37.9'' E 07734'02.7'' N 0808'44.2'' E 07736'02.5'' N 0810'32.3'' E 07744'31.3'' N 0812'49.0'' E 07746'58.4'' N 0817'05.1'' E 07754'01.0'' N 0822'28.5'' E 07703'54.6'' N 0829'48.4'' E 07807'47.8'' N 0846'32.1'' E 07811'56.5'' N 0856'37.5'' E 07811'55.0'' N 0902'49.4'' E 07812'57.4'' N 0902'31.4'' E 07812'54.6'' N 0904'31.4'' E 07821'50.3'' N 0902'31.4'' E 07812'54.6'' N 0904'31.4'' E 07821'50.3'' N 0913'34.7'' E 07847'03.2'' Number of Genus 3 (8) Number of species 3 (6)
3 (8) 5 (13) 15 (38) 13(33) 6(11) 29(55) 16(30) 2(4) 17(31) 6(11) 18(32) 7(13) 4(7) 1(2) 2(4) 3(17) 11(61) 4(22)
4 (8) 7 (13) 21 (39) 18(34) 7(9) 48(59) 23(29) 2(3) 26(35) 8(11) 25(34) 8(11) 4(5) 1(1) 2(3) 3(14) 15(68) 4(18)
Kanyakumari
Value in parentheses indicates percentage with total population within the district Figure 1. Total number of species of marine algae belonging to different groups occurring at four districts of south Tamil Nadu Coast
57
Chlorophyta 25
Paheophyta 21
Rhodophyta
N u m b e ro fS p e c ie s
20 15 10 5 0 Kanyakumari 14
18 15 11 9 7 6 4 4 8 7
Tirunelveli
Tuticorin
Ramanathapuram
Table 2. Impact of selected algal seaweeds (hexane, chloroform, methanol and aqueous extracts) on LC50 values and fiducidal limits, chi square parameters of D. cingulatus third instar nymphs
Solvent LC30 LC50 LC90 Regression Coefficient Intercept Chi Square df p
Caulerpa scalpelliformis Hexane Chloroform Methanol Aqueous 136.58 51.64 153.93 3846.33 271.05 108.23 275.43 13127.22 1447.17 660.31 1141.73 263663.35 1.7617 1.6317 2.0752 0.9836 -4.2862 -3.3195 -5.0635 -4.0508 3.013 0.076 9.322 1.945 3 3 3 3 0.390 0.995 0.025 0.584
Caulerpa veravalensis Hexane Chloroform Methanol Aqueous 287.26 24.75 188.38 1089.81 529.60 59.37 305.46 2294.26 2361.62 503.43 995.30 14148.64 Ulva fasciata Hexane Chloroform Methanol Aqueous 400.91 244.87 173.65 954.09 875.13 493.96 313.59 2282.47 5896.64 2744.54 1329.46 19238.67 Ulva lactuca Chloroform Methanol Aqueous 294.22 170.89 1456.28 643.61 399.27 2938.49 4359.48 3176.53 16338.05 1.5425 1.4229 1.7200 -4.3324 -3.7012 -5.9653 4.911 2.224 1.488 3 3 3 0.178 0.527 0.685 105468 1.7207 2.0429 1.3843 -4.5507 -4.6351 -5.0998 -4.6491 4.131 2.798 7.182 0.233 3 3 3 3 0.248 0.424 0.066 0.972 1.9739 1.3804 2.4982 1.6221 -5.3767 -2.4483 -6.2078 -5.4512 5.852 1.864 11.393 2.665 3 3 3 3 0.119 0.601 0.010 0.446
Padina pavonica

Hexane Chloroform Methanol Aqueous 473.09 354.30 448.26 1150.01 1326.45 1062.49 1553.43 2486.31 16478.35 15556.72 32388.28 16363.67 1.1712 1.0995 0.9715 1.5661 -3.6573 -3.3274 -3.1005 -5.3177 2.001 2.414 3.759 3.206 3 3 3 3 0.572 0.491 0.289 0.361
Sargassum wightii
Hexane Chloroform Methanol Aqueous 591.78 311.78 420.38 2089.98 1439.09 631.79 954.45 4520.77 12624.92 3549.51 7080.22 29789.71 1.3588 1.7097 1.4726 1.5651 -4.2913 -4.7881 -4.3878 -5.7206 1.103 1.456 7.356 3.437 3 3 3 3 0.776 0.692 0.061 0.329
Table 3. Antifungal activity (Zone of inhibition in mm) of chosen sea weeds against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum (n = 3)
Concentration Hexane (%) Chloroform Methanol
Ulva lactuca
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 5.30.3 5.30.6 6.30.1 8.70.3 6.00.6 8.00.5 10.30.3 11.30.2 11.70.1
Ulva fasciata
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 5.30.3 5.60.3 5.60.3 8.30.7 9.01.1 5.70.3 6.30.6 6.30.3 7.30.3 5.60.3 5.60.3 6.30.7 10.60.3 13.30.3
Positive control -
18.60.3
Indicates no activity recorded, MeanSE; Positive control 0.03% Carbendazim (Bavistin); Negative control Dimethyl Sulphoxide (DMSO)
59
Table 4. Properties of biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles using selected marine algae
Algal based silver nanoparticles Particle shape Spherical and polydispersed Spherical and polydispersed Spherical and polydispersed Spherical and polydispersed Spherical and polydispersed Spherical and polydispersed Particle size 44.421.75 58.633.91 40.102.21 35.681.16 45.734.20 97.026.00 Stability 08 months 08 months 08 months 08 months 24 months 08 months
Caulerpa veravalensis Caulerpa scalpelliformis Ulva fasciata Ulva lactuca Padina pavonica Sargassum wightii
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