4236893

THE FAMILY ENVIRONMENT OF BI-CULTURAL
ADOLESCENTS AT INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS

IN BANGKOK AND PERIPHERY
NAWARAT PHAYUNGKIJ
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
(POPULATION EDUCATION)
FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY
2004
ISBN 974-04-4963-8
COPYRIGHT OF MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
During the writing of this thesis, I received many helps from the persons whom I
would like to thank.
My greatest debt is to my major advisor Assoc. Prof. Supavan Phlainoi and my
co-advisor Asst. Prof. Veena Sirisook for all their constant help, guidance and
encouragement during all of the works toward this thesis.
I wish to thank Assoc. Prof. Chanya Sethaput who was the external examiner of
the thesis defence for her constructive comments for improvement of the thesis.
I am very grateful to management and principals of the schools, namely; The
American School of Bangkok, Thai-Chinese International School and Ramkhamhaeng
Adventist International School for their kind allowance for data collection. My thanks
also go to all the students who were the samples in this study for their participation.
I sincerely thank my friends and classmates at Population Education who have
been helping and extending encouragement throughout the research.
Finally, my parents, my sister and my brother who are always my firmest
support through all my life, I would also give my deepest thank to them.
Nawarat Phayungkij
Fac.of Grad. Studies, Mahidol Univ. Thesis / iv
THE FAMILY ENVIRONMENT OF BI-CULTURAL ADOLESCENTS
AT INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS IN BANGKOK AND PERIPHERY
NAWARAT PHAYUNGKIJ 4236893 SHPE/M
M.A. (POPULATION EDUCATION)
THESIS ADVISORS: SUPAVAN PHLAINOI, Ed.D.,VEENA SIRISOOK, Dr.P.H.
ABSTRACT
Interracial families and mixed-race children are population forms having been
emerged in Thailand for many decades, and these days they have been made more
apparent by the expansion of international schools.
This survey research aimed to examine the family environment of bi-cultural
adolescents comprised of three main dimensions relationship, personal growth, and
system maintenance and to compare the family environment based on the different
family factors and cultural factors. The family factors included: 1) parental marital status,
2) number of siblings, 3) family type and 4) family leading role (father & mother). The
cultural factors included: 1) nationality of the father 2) nationality of the mother
3) religion, and 4) state of being bi-cultural. The sample group numbered 296 students
studying at medium sized international middle schools. In this research I used a
questionnaire adapted from a standard questionnaire as well as statistical analysis.
(percentage, average, standard deviation, t-test and one way ANOVA).
The findings showed that the overall family environment of bi-cultural
adolescents was moderately favorable. Comparison in each dimension revealed that the
personal growth dimension of the family environment was most favorable, followed by
the system maintenance and relationship dimensions.Those adolescents who reported that
their father and mother shared the leading role equally had a more favorable family
environment than those whose mother was in the leading role (0.05). As for the
comparison of cultural factors, Buddhist adolescents, overall and in the personal growth
dimension had a less favorable environment than the Christian and Muslim adolescents.
The research found that family leading role and religion were related to the
family environment, thus confirming the importance of these two components to family
quality. If the concerned parties can use the combination of these two factors to further
develop the quality of families, e.g.using the religious activities as the center to cultivate
mutual roles of the spouses, it will be beneficial to a certain extent.
KEY WORDS: FAMILY ENVIRONMENT/BI-CULTURAL ADOLESCENTS /
THAI INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS
109 pp. ISBN 974-04-4963-8
Fac.of Grad. Studies, Mahidol Univ. Thesis / v

(THE FAMILY ENVIRONMENT OF BI-CULTURAL ADOLESCENTS AT
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS IN BANGKOK AND PERIPHERY)
4236893 SHPE/M
. ()
: , .., , Dr.P.H.
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296
t-test

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109 ISBN 974-04-4963-8
CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH) iv
ABSTRACT (THAI) v
LISTS OF TABLES ix
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Background and significance of the problem 1
1.2. Research objectives 8
1.3. Research questions 8
1.4. Benefits of the research 8
1.5. Research hypotheses 9
1.6. Research parameters 9
1.7. Variables used in the research 9
1.8. Definitions in the research 10
1.9 Research conceptual framework 13
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 15
2.1. Concept and theory on family 15
2.2. Concept and theory on family environment 23
2.3. Concept on bi-cultural family and children 27
2.4. Concept and research on the studied variables 33
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 43
3.1. Population, sample group and random sampling 43
3.2. Research tool and apparatus 44
3.3. Data collection 47
3.4. Data analysis 48

vii
CONTENTS (cont.)
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS 49
4.1. Data on population characteristics and family factors of
the sample group 50
4.2. Data on family factors relating to the family leading role 51
4.3. Data on cultural factors of the sample group 58
4.4. Family environment of bi-cultural adolescents 59
4.5. Comparison of the family environment of bi-cultural
adolescents according to the variables of family
factors, i.e. parental marital status, number of
siblings, family type and family leading role 68
adolescents according to the variables of cultural
factors, i.e. nationality of father, nationality of mother
religion and state of being bi-cultural 74
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION 81
5.1. Family environment 81
adolescents based on the variables of family factors
comprising the parental marital status, number of
siblings, family type and family leading role 82
5.2.1. Parental marital status and the family environment 82
5.2.2. Number of siblings and the family environment 83
5.2.3. Family type and the family environment 83
5.2.4 Family leading role and the family environment 84
adolescents based on the variables of cultural factors
comprising the nationality of the father and mother, religion

viii
CONTENTS (cont.)
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION (cont.)
and state of being bi-cultural 85
5.3.1. Nationality of father and mother and the family
environment 85
5.3.2. Religion and the family environment 85
5.3.3. State of being bi-cultural and the family environment 86
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 88
6.1. Summary of research results 89
6.2. Recommendations from the research 91
BIBLIOGRAPHY 94
APPENDIX 101
A.The questionnaire 102
B. Names of the experts 108
BIOGRAPHY 109
LISTS OF TABLES
Table Page
1 The percentage of the sample group based on categories relating to
population characteristics 50
2 The percentage of the sample group categorized by the variables of family
factors 51
3 The percentage, average and standard deviation of the sample group with
regard to the variable of family leading role in activities relating to the
children and rules within the family by items 52
4 The percentage, average and standard deviation of the sample group
categorized by the variable of family leading role in recreational
activities by items 53
5 The percentage, average and standard deviation of the sample group based
on the variable of family leading role in activities relating to external
social communication by items 54
6 The percentage, average and standard deviation of the sample group
categorized by the variable of family leading role in activities relating to
expenses and financial matters by items 55
7 Number and percentage of the types of family leading role in each aspect 57
8 The percentage of the sample group based on the variable of cultural
factors 58
9 The percentage based on the relationship dimensions including cohesion,
expressiveness and conflict 59
10 The percentage based on the personal growth dimensions including
independence, achievement orientation, intellectual-cultural orientation,
active-recreation orientation and moral-religion orientation 61
11 The percentage based on the system maintenance dimensions including
organization and control 65

x
LISTS OF TABLES (cont.)
Table Page
12 Number and percentage of the sample group based on the level of family
environment 67
13 Correlation between parental marital status and the family Environment 68
14 Correlation between the number of siblings and the family environment 69
15 Correlation between family type and the family environment 70
16 Correlation between family leading role and the family Environment 71
17 Comparison of the difference between the overall family environment and
the family leading role, as a pair 73
18 Comparison of the difference between the family environment in the
system maintenance dimension pairing with the family leading role 73
19 Correlation between nationality of the father and the family
environment 74
20 Correlation between nationality of the mother and the family
environment
75
21 Correlation between religion and the family environment 76
22 Comparison of the difference in the overall family environment based on
religion 78
23 Comparison of the difference in the family environment in the personal
growth dimensions as a pair based on religion 78
24 Correlation between the state of being bi-cultural and the family
environment 79
Fac.of Grad. Studies, Mahidol Univ. M.A.(Population Education) / 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and significance of the problem
Society is made up of various complex relationship groups including that of a
family. Relationship in the family is a special one which represents equality and
interdependence among different genders and generations. It is based on biological
and legal state as well as tradition or selection of a spouse and often involves
economic conditions. (Office of the National Committee of Promotion and
Coordination of Women, 1994: 3)
As a result, one can not look at the family from a simple viewpoint and a
universal definition for it can not be found. Family comes in many forms and
structures. New types of families constantly come into being, which in turn affect our
opinion about the roles and functions of the family. Interpersonal relationships within
the family also differ both within the same society and among different societies.
These variations and differences reflect the cultural diversity of various communities
within a particular society. (Office of the National Committee of Promotion and
Coordination of Women, 1994: 3-4)
Like other countries around the world that place an importance on the
development of the family institution, Thailand regards the family as the unit that
creates and develops the fundamental quality of the members. Family is also expected
to play a role in developing basic social fundamentals according to the policy laid out
in the 5
th
, 6
th
and 7
th
National Strategy for the Economic and Social Development (B.E
2535-2539). The policy aimed to promote the stability of the family institution and its
role in the development of the population (Lek Sombat, n.d.: 5). Subsequently, the 8
th
National Strategy for the Economic and Social Development ( B.E 2540-2544) has set
the guideline that centers on the human development as its main goal with a view to
fulfilling the following; 1) happiness of the people, 2) cohesion of the family,
Nawarat Phayungkij Introduction / 2
3) strength of the community, 4) peace for the society and 5) sustainability of the
environment. The policy has placed equal importance on all groups of people
including the underprivileged. (Office of the National Committee of the Economic and
Social Development, 1997). All of these demonstrate that the direction of the national
development has equally been geared toward the people and family aspects. At
present, the overall vision and direction of the 9
th
National Strategy for the Economic
and Social Development ( B.E 2545-2549) (Office of the National Committee of the
Economic and Social Development, 2001: 14-15) aspire to create a strong and
balanced society in three aspects; 1) quality-based society, 2) knowledge-based
society, and 3) cohesive and caring society. To this end, the strategy for human quality
development and social protection, that fosters and recognizes the role of the family
regarding the development of its members in all dimensions, is still worthy of
continuous support and promotion.
During this decade, traditional and cultural factors relating to the
communication of meanings within the family are important topics that social
scientists or sociologists are increasingly interested in because they have a direct effect
on the formation of the parent-child relationship and the parental teaching. An
important function of the family is to teach and impress upon the children the social
custom, tradition and culture as well as encourage the children to behave in
accordance with the ways of the Thai society. This learning process is called
socialization. (Nonglak Empradit, 1996: 3) Regardless of the type of the family,
sociologists agree that the father and mother are the core of the family that influence
the behavior of the children. It can be said that starting from birth to infancy,
adolescence and early adulthood, the parents have a significant role and influence in
guiding the lives of the children both directly and indirectly. The parental roles and
behaviors can summarily be considered as the family factors (Nonglak Empradit,
1996: 34), which can, to a certain extent, be controlled or enforced by the parents and
are related to the external factors.
Many psychologists and sociologists have studied the variables relating to the
family environment which are also related to the environment and the new society of
the so-called Under the roof culture. It is noted that family environment during the
early period of an individual life has a great influence on the development of
individual personality and behavior (Pajongjit Pitakpakorn, 2000: 10). Based on the
studies of the family institution in the context of the Thai culture, it is found that
communication, internal relationships among the family members, upbringing,
parental role and behavior, individual experience and general family ambiance all have
an influence on the mental and behavioral development of children and youth.
Rapid demographic, economic and social changes have not only affected the
structure and size of the family, but also impact the lifestyle and relationships within
the family. Urban society does not provide a lot of opportunities for the family
members to spend time together because each member spends most of his/her time
working (Passorn Limanont, et al., 1995: 57), which results in the generational gap
and distance within the family leading to misunderstanding and lack of caring and
communication. Moreover, studies have shown that the conflict between the parents
and their adolescent offspring is more likely to intensify in the future due to the
difference between the conservative values of the former and the universal values of
the latter. Parents will have greater expectations with regard to their childrens
academic achievements resulting in a greater pressure on the family. (Office of the
National Committee for Promotion and Coordination of Youth, 1997: 5) These
changes in the relationships are the reflection of the problems faced by the modern
family, many of which lead to other social problems.
In line with the government policy that emphasized the importance of the
family and in order to obtain useful information that may be used to prevent family-
related problems, previous researches have studied the environment and the family
ambiance of several population groups in terms of upbringing, family relationships,
and internal communication including physical and biological factors of the family
both separately and holistically. It has been found that family environment is related to
or has an influence on other significant factors such as adjustment of adolescents
(Jongkolnee Tuicharoen, 1997: 82), attitude toward sexual role and sexual conduct of
adolescents (Sopapan Wiangpeom, 1998: 77), self-esteem of adolescents (Nuchlada
Rojanaprapapan, 1998: 101), mental health of adolescents (Pleonpis Chantarasak,
1998: 86) and attitude of adolescents with regard to the demographic aspects
(Vanishampayan & Srivastana, 1998: 28). All of these show that all of the components
of the so-called family environment are very important factors that have an influence
on all processes in life including the thinking and behavioral processes.
In the present Thai society, emerging families are of various forms including
those of mixed cultures. The speed and convenience of travel has increased the rate of
migration, overseas education, job search and interracial marriages. Spouses from
different societies and cultures naturally have different knowledge foundations and
experiences including interpretations in their own native language. As a result, a
family that is made up of spouses of different nationalities and cultures will face a
barrier from the very first step which is the difficulty of communication (Nonglak
Empradit, 1996: 33), which will affect the upbringing of the children and other
components of the family environment.
Demographically, cross-cultural marriages generally affect the make-up of
the population in terms of nationality, ethnicity, religion and language. People of a
particular nationality or ethnicity normally have their own culture and tradition as well
as religion and language. (Nipon Tepawal, 1980: 79-80). A country that has many
ethnic groups will have to give a careful consideration to the formulation of policy
regarding the minority groups because the cultural, religious and language differences
may create the problem of assimilation. There is a need for acculturation for the
minority groups and the government needs a policy that facilitates assimilation.
With regard to interracial families and mixed-race children, it can be seen that
there have been many studies in several countries with a view to providing education
about the status of this particular group of population through articles and a variety of
fact sheets in the web sites on the internet. For example, the article entitled Raising
Mixed-Race Children in a Racialized World (Wong, 2001: 1) spoke of the things that
the parents should be aware of in raising children of mixed race and the development
of parental skills to provide social support for their children since the children or
adolescents of mixed race do not only face the common problems of their age group,
but also those of their identity and ethnic confusion, which requires special attention.
In the article Growing up in Multicultural Families(Shenberger, 2001: 1-2), the
author talks about the influence of the cultural differences while emphasizing that
despite many studies that show the strength of multicultural families, there are many
cases where this type of family is regarded as unstable and divided. Similarly, in the
article Multiracial Children (American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry:
1999), there was a discussion of the parental role in providing emotional and social
support to their multiracial children. The article A Context to Take for Granted?
Literary Negotiations of Eurasian Identity Contents (Barth, 2001: 1-3) talks about the
deficiency with regard to self image, cultural and ethnic awareness as well as social
participation of the bi-cultural population.
In addition, multicultural families may be the result of migration. In an article
I m Just Who I Am (White, 1997: 1-3), the author mentions the multi-ethnicity in
America due to the migration of the people from other countries leading to the status
of minority groups and multiculturalism. Bi-cultural population is considered a special
group in the society and based on the information on the website there are plenty of
websites providing information and supporting emotional, social and educational
resources for the children, parents and families of cross-nationality marriages or
migrating families as well as information, news and facts about many aspects of
multiracial groups. Examples of these websites are www.Biracialkid.org,
wwwInterracial Families in Fellowship, RaceRelations.about,com, The Interracial
Connection, Center for the Study of Biracial Children. All of these show that bi-
cultural families and aspects relating to this particular group have received wide
attention abroad and many recognize the importance of the qualitative development of
this group of population.
In Thailand, problems relating to bi-cultural families or bi-cultural
adolescents may not be considered a national problem or lead to racial discrimination
because families of mixed marriages are still small in number when compared to the
overall population. Moreover, the Thai society is highly tolerant and not strongly
nationalistic, but the phenomenon of bi-cultural adolescence in Thailand has been
made apparent by the expansion of international schools.
When one thinks of the students in international schools, one often thinks of
children of special characteristics such as those whose ability with regard to the
English language is higher than students in Thai schools in general and those who are
self confident and expressive. In the past, international schools were operated only for
the children of foreign officers temporarily residing in Thailand with American or
British curriculum to facilitate transition to a higher education in the native country of
these children. (Patama Nakason, 1997: 1). But at present, international schools have
increased in number. Up to the year 2003, there are more than 40 international schools
that have registered with the International School Association of Thailand, some of
which have been recognized by the Ministry of Education and some have not.
(International School Association of Thailand, 2002: 1-2). These schools have become
the academic institutions of choice for certain groups of children whose parents hope
that their children will benefit from learning English with native speakers and from
being in an environment that is more universally accepted than the national academic
system (Patama Nakason, 1997: 1). This preference has created bi-culturalism
among the children through teaching and socialization in international schools.
The philosophy and curriculum of these international schools place an
importance and emphasis on multicultural education.(Patama Nakason, 1997: 44-46 ).
But the Thai government and society are not yet aware of this social phenomenon and
therefore have not prepared any serious measure to meet the demands created by this
group of population. The knowledge and basic information about this group are not
commonly found despite the interesting aspects of the cultural and ethnic differences.
Gollnick and Chinn (1994: 124) asserted that everybody has a culture because it is the
way in which one learns to accept the beliefs, judgment and behavioral practices. Each
student has his/her own culture based on his/her background which may be different in
terms of nationality and religion. Geographical differences and the interaction of self
knowledge in various aspects will determine understanding of self and lead to different
behaviors.
The students in international schools in Thailand may be divided into 3
groups; children from Thai families, children from families of mixed marriages
(mixed-race children), and foreign children. School-related factors have an influence
on bi-cultural adolescence. In other words, children from Thai families will learn
about Thai culture at home while being exposed to foreign culture in school, whereas
mixed-race or foreign children will have one culture at home and a different culture in
school. It is therefore interesting to learn about the family environment of this group of
population with such specific characteristics and to see whether it is different from one
to the other.
Academics, sociologists and psychologists have defined the term family
environment according to the concept and ideology discovered in each field based on
the different factors and variables. Sadia Dillard Parveen (2000: 6) offers a concrete
definition of the family environment as the characteristic of the household and
economic and social status of the household. In the research by J.V. Vaishampayan
and S. Srivastava (1998: 5), the family environment means the childrens perception
with regard to the relationship between the parents and the children that covers 4
dimensions, which according to the researchers are related to the variables, namely
independence, trust, caring and communication. While Dr. Bina Shah (1990 quoted in
Vanishampayan & Srivastana, 1998: 4) defined the family environment as the criteria
for measuring the childrens perception of the ambiance within the family, which can
be divided into 10 aspects; independence, forgiveness, fairness, caring, mutual
acceptance, close relationship, trust, domination, expectation and communication. The
research of Cindy I. Carlson and team (Carlson, et al., 1991: 11-12) gave the
dimensions of the family environment according to the scale of Moos and Moos
(1985 quoted in Carlson, et al., 1991: 11-12 ) which comprises 3 main dimensions; 1)
relationship dimensions which have 3 sub-components which are 1.1. cohesion, 1.2.
expressiveness, 1.3. conflict, 2) personal growth dimensions comprising 5 sub-
components; 2.1. independence, 2.2. achievement orientation, 2.3. intellectual-cultural
orientation, 2.4. active-recreation orientation, 2.5. moral-religion orientation, 3)
system maintenance dimensions comprising 2 sub-components; 3.1. organization and
3.2. control.
The compilation of various definitions of the family environment
demonstrates that the family environment is the characteristics and quality of the
components and activities of the members of the family that include biological,
emotional and social aspects. The environment is created through perception and can
be evaluated by the members of the family.
For this research, the emphasis is placed on the study of the family
environment based on the perception of, on the one hand, the bi-cultural adolescents,
either by birth or cross-nationality marriages, who have a mixed culture at home and,
on the other hand, adolescents in international schools whose parents are both Thai but
are exposed to a second culture in school. The reason is that, based on the literature
review, textbooks and previous researches on family education in Thailand, there has
not been any study pertaining to this particular type of family, although bi-cultural
families have a role to play in the education and personal development of bi-cultural
children who will grow up to be permanent citizens of our country. Moreover, the
tendency of interracial marriages is rising due to facilitating factors such as
international communication, travel, migration, and international economic and
academic exchanges. The study and understanding of this particular group of
population, as part of our national demographics, are therefore necessary and useful.
Data obtained from this research can be used as preliminary information for the
agencies and personnel who are involved with family education or family psychology,
which can subsequently be used for the promotion and development of the well-being
of bi-cultural adolescent population.
1.2 Research objectives
1.2.1 To study the 3 main dimensions of the family environment which are
relationship dimensions, personal growth dimensions and system maintenance
dimensions.
1.2.2 To compare the differences of the family environment of adolescents
who have different family and cultural factors.
1.3 Research questions
1.3.1 What is the perception of the family environment of bi-cultural
adolescents?
1.3.2 Is there any difference in the family environment of adolescents whose
variables concerning family factors and cultural factors are different?
1.4 Benefits of the research
This research will provide knowledge about the family environment of bi-
cultural adolescents in Thailand and other related factors that will serve as preliminary
information to various groups of people such as guardians, teachers, executives, and
academics as well as the interested public. The information can be used for the
planning and strategy with regard to improvement of the family quality and as
guideline for future researches.
1.5 Research hypotheses
1.5.1 Adolescents of different family factors, i.e. parental marital status,
number of siblings, type of family and family leading role, experience different family
environments.
1.5.2 Adolescents with different cultural factors, i.e. nationality of the father
and the mother, religion and state of being bi-cultural, have different family
environments.
1.6 Research parameters
This research studies only the population of early adolescence, aged 12-16
years old, who are studying at lower secondary school level or middle school in
international schools in Bangkok and periphery.
1.7 Variables used in the research
Drawing on related researches and ideas, the following variables are selected
for this research;
1.7.1 Independent variables
1.7.1.1 Variables regarding family factors are 1) parental marital status,
2) number of siblings, 3) type of family, 4) family leading role
1.7.1.2 Variables regarding cultural factors are 1) nationality of the
father, 2) nationality of the mother, 3) religion and 4) state of being bi-cultural
1.7.2 Dependent variable is the family environment based on the perception
of the adolescents, which comprises the following dimensions and sub-components;
1.7.2.1 Relationship Dimensions have 3 sub-components;
1) Cohesion
2) Expressiveness
3) Conflict
1.7.2.2 Personal Growth Dimensions have 5 sub-components;
1) Independence
2) Achievement Orientation
3) Intellectual-Cultural Orientation
4) Active-Recreation Orientation
5) Moral-Religion Orientation
1.7.2.3 System Maintenance Dimensions have 2 sub-dimensions;
1) Organization
2) Control
1.8 Definitions in the research
1.8.1 Family environment is defined as the interaction between the parents
and the children as well as other members of the family as measured through the
perception of the adolescents in the family using the Family Environment Scale of
Moos and Moos (2002: 4) which can be divided into 3 main dimensions and 10 sub-
components;
1.8.1.1 Relationship dimensions are the evaluation of the family
environment in terms of relationships, which comprise 3 sub-components;
1) Cohesion means the obligation, assistance and support
among the family members.
2) Expressiveness refers to the level of support the members of
the family receive to encourage them to openly express their feelings.
3) Conflict refers to the level at which the family members
express their discontent, anger and disagreement.
1.8.1.2 Personal growth dimensions are the evaluation of the family
environment in terms of personal growth development, which comprise 5 sub-
components;
1) Independence means the level of expression with regard to
self-demands, fulfillment of self-desires and self-decision making.
2) Achievement Orientation refers to the level of activities
within the family that foster determination toward achievement or competition.
3) Intellectual-Cultural Orientation refers to the level of
activities relating to politics, society, culture and intellect.
4) Active-Recreation Orientation refers to the level of
participation in the activities relating to society and recreation.
5) Moral-Religion Orientation refers to the level of importance
assigned to issues relating to morality and religion including religious values.
1.8.1.3 System maintenance dimensions are composed of;
1) Organization means the level of planning and organization of
family structure and allocation of responsibilities in the family.
2) Control refers to the level of enforcement of rules and
regulations within the family.
1.8.2 Bi-cultural adolescents are the respondents to the questionnaire who are
adolescents being subjected to bi-cultural socialization process of 12-16 years of age at
the Middle School level in the academic year 2003, both male and female, in
international schools under the jurisdiction of the Office of the Management of the
Committee for the Promotion of Private Education, Office of the Permanent Secretary
of the Ministry of Education.
1.8.3 Parental marital status identifies the marital status of the parents as
either living together or separated.
1.8.4 Number of siblings refers to the number of the siblings born from the
same parents of the adolescent respondents, which is divided into 3 categories;
-only child means the respondent is an only child, with no sibling
-2-3 siblings (including the respondent)
-more than 3 siblings (including the respondent)
1.8.5 Family type means the structure of the family which is:
-nuclear family refers to the family with only the parents and the
children
-extended family refers to the family that includes other members or
relatives
1.8.6 Family leading role refers to the decision-making role between the
father and the mother based on the perception of the adolescents, which can be
categorized as 1. the father is the decision maker, 2. the mother is the decision maker
and 3. both parents have equal roles. The questionnaire will enquire about the leading
role in 4 aspects, according to the research guideline of Charoenpong Inkai (1998
: 15 );
1. Activities relating to the children and the rules within the family
2. Activities relating to recreation and entertainment
3. Activities relating to external communication
4. Activities relating to expenses or financial matters of the family
1.8.7 Nationality of the father refers to the nationality of the father of the
adolescents responding to the questionnaire, classified as Thai and non-Thai
1.8.8 Nationality of the mother refers to the nationality of the mother of the
adolescents responding to the questionnaire, classified as Thai and non-Thai
1.8.9 Religion refers to the religion of the respondents, classified as Buddhist,
Christian, Muslim, Sikhs, Hindu or others, and non-religious.
1.8.10 State of being bi-cultural refers to the characteristic of the bi-cultural
state of the adolescents;
1.8.10.1 Adolescents from a Thai family with a Thai culture at home
(Thai-Thai) who are exposed to foreign culture in school are considered Thai
adolescents in international schools.
1.8.10.2 Adolescents from a bi-racial family (both half-Thai and
others) with a mixed culture at home and in school are considered mixed-race
adolescents in international schools.
1.8.10.3 Adolescents of the same-nationality parents who are both
foreigners (non Thai-non Thai) are considered foreign adolescents in international
schools.
1.9 Research conceptual framework
Independent variables Dependent variables
Family factors
-Parental marital status
-Number of siblings
-Family type
-Family leading role
Family environment
Relationship dimensions
-Cohesion
-Expressiveness
-Conflict
Personal growth dimensions
-Independence
-Achievement Orientation
-Intellectual-Cultural Orientation
-Active-Recreation Orientation
-Moral-Religion Orientation
System maintenance
dimensions
-Organization
-Control
Cultural factors
-Nationality of the father
-Nationality of the mother
-Religion
-State of being bi-cultural
Nawarat Phayungkij Literature Review / 14
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The researcher studied family environment of bi-cultural adolescents from
related researches, texts, and academic documents in order to be the study guidelines.
The researcher determined topics in order to present literature review as follows;
2.1 Concept and theory on family
2.1.1 Family category and meaning
2.1.2 Family duties
2.1.3 Theories on family

2.2 Concept and theory on family environment
2.2.1 Meaning and various dimensions of family environment
2.2.2 Measuring family environment
2.3 Concept on bi-cultural family and children
2.3.1 Migration and building bi-cultural family
2.3.2 Study on cultural diversities
2.3.3 Bi-cultural family
2.3.4 Theory on ethnic phenomena
2.3.5 Management of multi-cultural education
2.4 Concept and researches on the studied variables
2.4.1 Researches on the studied people
2.4.2 Researches on family environment
2.4.3 Researches on factors which had relationship with family
environment
2.1 Concept and theory on family
Family is a system in the society. It comprises members who have various
roles and duties, relationship, and cooperation in order to maintain normal condition in
the family. Family is an institution which is very important and influences human life.
Apart from reproduction, family raises, protects, gives affection and warmth, and
developes its member in every aspect.
2.1.1 Family category and meaning
Goldenberg (1991 quoted in Methinin Phinyoochon, 1996: 23-24)
classified family categories as follows;
1.Nuclear family is the family which comprises husband, wife and
children
2.Extended family comprises husband, wife, children, grandfather,
grandmother, relatives of husband or wife.
3. Blended family comprises husband, wife and children from previous
marriage of husband, wife or both parties.
4.Common law family comprises a woman and a man who live
together without wedding ceremony and marital registration. After having a baby, they
have to register their baby and legally treat their baby.
5. Single parent family comprises father or mother who is a family
leader. Husband or wife might pass away or divorces or is left.
6. Commune family comprises several families which stay together,
sharing right, duty and responsibility among commune members, and own property
and income. Some family might not adhere to monogamous tradition.
7. Serial family comprises a man or a woman who continuously gets
married for several times. They used to have several wives and husbands. While living
together from the past to the present time, they stay in the form of nuclear family
every time.
8. Composite family comprises two nuclear families or more. These
families live together in the form of polygamy or polyandry.
9. Cohabitation. As for this family, a woman and a man decide to live
together without being married. Each person has no legal commitment. In fact, this
family is nuclear family but it is classified by dimension in order to have sub-
categories of family.
This study divided family types into 2 models according to Thai family
dividing characteristics that were nuclear family and extended family.
2.1.2 Family duties
Every family has to treat children according to similar family duty.
Friedman (1992: 75) mentioned 5 family duties for responding to members need as
follows;
1. Responding to biological need of members by sufficiently providing
the living necessities such as house food, clothes, health care, and receiving health
service.
2. Affection and care. Family had to respond to mental need of
members by giving affection and care. This would enable members to have stable
personality because they receive affection and warmth and could suitably respond to
mental and emotional need.
3. Bringing up members to be good and quality people of the country
in the future. Family has to teach, give advice, watch behavior, and give opportunity
for members to learn and practice skills for use in living in the future.
4. Building economic status. Every family has to perform this duty
because family has to find income for use in providing physical necessity to the
family.
5.Reproduction by getting married, having children, or adopting
children.
Suphattra Supharp (1991: 57-59) has discussed important family duties as
follows; family has to respond to sexual need by commiting mariage. Family has to
produce new members to be suitable with domestic resources. Family has to bring up
children until children grow up and could stay safely in the society. This duty is
very important for birth to growth. This duty was very important for a system of
developing childrens body and mind. Family would mostly bring up children until
children fully grow up. Family would give affection and warmth which would make
members have safety and encouragement for suitably living in the society. Family
teaches children to know regulations of the society. Family would be the initial
teaching place which mostly influences children at all times. And family also
determines status of members of the family.
Moreover, Duvall, E.M. & Miller, B.C; (1985: 60 ) have explained about 8
family tasks as follows;
1. Physical care . For example, family is a place where children are
brought up, given food, clothes and apprpriate taking care when they are ill.
2. Being mental and physical refuge. Family is a place for affection
and warmth. It is the origin of respects to each other.
3. Delegating the working duties. Family determines who would
seek income, who would clean the house, and who would take care of children.
4. Making people in family have social interaction. Family has to
make members to know how to suitably control their anger and get rid of anger by
talking.
5. Producing new family member. Family has to suitably plan about
giving birth to a baby, raise children. Family has to give education and love to
children, give timely education and allow the cgildren sufficient independence and
liberty.
6. Maintaining orderliness, having management scope in family,
setting up regulations which makes everybody stably stay.
7. Having interaction with other people in the society. Family should
contact and build relationship with schools, temples, or offices or other social places
so that family would receive help if necessary.
8. Building moral motivations. Family has to encourage members by
suitably giving rewards to members. Family hasto teach children to have honesty and
mutual affection. When family members are in severe crisis, family should be ready
to face the obstacle and solve the problem.
According to United Nation documents on family matters translated by Office
of National Women Coordination and Encouragement Committee (1994: 44), the most
outstanding characteristic in every family model was relationship among people in
family. Family duties are determined as follows;
1. Building economic, social and mental commitment between couple
2. Giving birth to a baby and sexual relationship between married couple
3. Giving name and status especially to children
4. Bringing up children and looking after elders and the handicapped
5. Encouraging social learning and giving education to children or parents
6. Protecting family members
7. Caring of emotion, mind and relaxation of family members
8. Exchanging things and various services.
These duties are not arranged into significance sequence because these duties
can be diffenet in each culture . As for nuclear family in the western society, duties on
mind, emotion, and relationship among people in family and mutual affection are very
emphatic. Significance sequence of various duties can change according to life-cycle
of that family and steps or turning point of family life such as courtship, marriage,
giving birth to the first baby, leaving home for building new family of the last child,
ending economic activities of old married couple, divorce etc.
Some academics have mentioned sub-roles and duties of family for treating
children in each age, which are called development tasks. Development tasks mean
family s responsibility for various stages of growth. Rowe (1981 quoted in Ruja
Phoophaiboon, 1994: 84) said that development tasks are the expected tasks when
roles change due to members increase or leaving.One might say that development
tasks are under time frame and determine a change in family members roles. So,
development tasks are action for responding to need according to family development
and society expectancy (Ruja Phoophaiboon, 1994: 84)
In conclusion, development tasks are family tasks expected by the society,
and respond to family development need . If family could successfully do these tasks,
family life would be happy and successful in doing tasks in the later stages. If family
could not successfully do these tasks, they would not be happy and would not find
success in the future. Development tasks have been discussed as follows:
Friedman (1992: 23) said that development tasks of family having adolescent
children comprise 1) bringing about balance of independence and responsibility in
order to make children grow up as mature adults and have self confidence 2)
maintaining good relationship of married couple and 3) maintaining open
communication between parents and children
Duvall & Miller (1985: 244-258) indicated various components of
development tasks as follows:
1. Responding to the need of each family member by sufficiently
providing basic necessities to children because adolescent children requireacceptance
in the society. Children would have more activities inside and outside house. Female
adolescents meet more male friends. Male adolescents would want to do hobbies and
other activities such as playing sports and playing music etc.
2. Allocating money. Family having adolescent children mostly face
the financial problem because they have to pay more for childrens food, clothes and
education. So family should suitably allocate money these purposes. Family should
encourage adolescent children to manage by themselves and find special income after
class.
3. Delegating responsibility to adolescent children. Parents should
encourage children to have more responsibility in family. For example, daughters
would be interested in cooking food and decorating house. While sons might be
interested in various repair works within a house. Adolescent and parents should be
jointly responsible to do these activities. If children could successfully do these
activities, they would be proud of themselves and have more confidence.
4. Giving correct knowledge on sex study. As there would be
changes in adolescents body, sexual organs and mind, adolescents have to face the
driving force within body, friend groups, sexual stimulation within body, sexual
media. These could make children in doubt and try to find independence in sexual
expressiveness. This would lead to having sex before marriage; moreover it would
cause problems on unwanted pregnancy abortion, and sexual diseases. Parents should
give knowledge and teach children about sex study in order to prevent children from
incorrect finding knowledge by themselves.
5. Maintaining communication and relationship in family. It is
necessary for family having adolescent children to openly communicate with each
other. Father, mother and children naturally have the communication problem.
Adolescent may think that parents concern and interest is to interfere the personal
matter or control them.. Therefore, parents should listen to childrens problem and be
tolerate with some behavior of adolescents.
6. Giving advice on drugs and wrongdoing. Adolescent are curious.
They always want to find new experience. They mostly receive influence from their
friends so they might be induced into a bad way.
7. Teaching suitable roles. Adolescents would be interested in
various activities. Social development is important for children at this age stage.
Adolescents would meet both male and female friends. Parents should accept various
behaviors of adolescents. They should accept new values in order to adapt themselve
to adolescents.
Due to significance of family duties both physically and mentally toward
family members and significance of development tasks forward adolescents who are
sensitive, critical and by nature require social support from several sources in the
society, especially family, the researcher, therefore, is interested to study family
environment of family having adolescent children.
2.1.3 Theories on family
Family is an sensitive matter with several characteristics which
could be tangibly and intangibly expressive. For example, there are a lot of related
theoretical concepts used in explaining relationship between children and parents as
follows;
2.1.3.1 Duty and structure theory
Duty and structure theory says that family is a sub-unit or a system
under big structure of the society. In the family system, family members would have
close interaction and mutual dependence. Family would respond to the need of
members and society. Generally, the family system has the following important
characteristics; 1) Having family structure 2) Having duty 3) Maintaining boundary
and 4) Having changes (Pratt, 1996 quoted in Ruja Phoophaiboon, 1998: 25). A
change of any element in the family system could impact the family overall system.
Family would perform duties for family survival. Family duty involves family
structure. Family having good structure would also well perform duty.
Friedman (1986 quoted in Ruja Phoophaiboon, 1998 : 48) mentioned family
duty and structure as follows;
1. Family structure consists of relationship of sub-elements which
combined together within family and characteristics of relationship which affected
family structure ehic are role structure, power structure, value system, and
communication process.
2. Family duty means activities which should be done by family
members for family survival by responding to the need of family members such as
giving affection and care , bringing up members, etc. Family duty is very important.
Family has to give knowledge and implant moral to family members as well as
socialize behavior and teach family members to be quality people. Family members
have to accept norm and duty toward family and the society. These things would be
absorbed by family members through socialization process.
Duty performing methods might be varied according to custom, tradition, or
culture of different societies.
2.1.3.2 Social learning theory
Water Mischels social learning theory (Phanthip Siriwanabut,1997:
173-189) indicates that children would learn behavior by imitating people around
them. Children learn difference between sex and different behavior guidelines from
behavior of male and female adults and friends around them. But, the most which
children could learn from the beginning of life is from ther parents who are the model
having most power in childrens life
Sears social learning theory (Phanthip Siriwanabut, 1997: 173-189)
said that development of humans social behavior has stemmed from upbringing and is
a continuous process according to society expectancy in children. According to Sear,
family is the important origin of learning. Therefore, parents upbringing would make
people learn various things which would affect peoples attitude and behavior which
might derive from upbringing or imitation.
2.1.3.3 Different upbringing theory
This theory presents that culture is an important driving force toward
childrens sexual model. Initial culture which children receive is family culture.
Different upbringing theory involves the learning theory. But,
different upbringing theory does not emphasise conditional experiment. If focuses on
familys upbringing and other social environment which might influence childrens
behavior, such as, childrens doubt abot their parents love , childrens arguing with
parents or childrens obedience with parents. All of those have not stemmed from
instinct but from parents upbringing model. This is consistent with Horneys and
Fromms concept (Horney & Fromm, 1968 quoted in Sriruan Kaewkangwarn, 1997:
87-95) which emphasise significance of childhood experience influence, learning
environment in family, culture, and tradition. Home and children upbringing
considerably influence giving basic principles and building personality of children.
In conclusion, duty and structure theory explains that if family
structure, power structure, and communication system structure are good, family could
well perform duty, especially in the aspect of upbringing and socialization. Social
learning theory explains that childrens behavior ahs stemmed from imitation from
close people. Childrens behavior in the society initially depended on learning from
sub-society which was family. As for different upbringing theory, this theory clarifies
that if upbringing value and practical principle of each family is different, learning
environment in family for children of each family is also different.
Said theoretical concepts could explain that family environment affects
childrens qualification i.e personality, attitude, value, and behavior. The researcher,
therefore, is interested to study family environment of family having special
characteristics in the urban society like bi-cultural family in order to know about the
satisfactory level on family environment of said family according to sample groups
perception. The results derived from the study shall be used as the initial information
as a guideline for concerned parties to perform contunuing reserches on related
matters in the future.
2.2 Concept and theory on family environment
2.2.1 Meaning and various dimensions of fmily evironment
It is difficult to give exact meaning of family environment due to its
several definitions. Some research used the term family environment to describe
physical and structural characteristics of the family only. For example, the research of
Parveen (2000: 6) defined that family environment was family element
characteristics on family size (nuclear family or extended family) and economic
characteristic (household income).
While, the research of Vaishampayan & Srivastava (1998: 5)
explained that family environment meant relationship between parents and children
according to childrens perception covering 4 dimensions including independence
reliability, care, and communication in family
After compiling similar concept characteristics of research on family
issue; the researcher found that family environment could be explained by some other
dimensions such as family strength, relationship of family members, and family well-
being which could be concluded as follows;
2.2.1.1 Family strength dimension
Definition in Phajongjit Phithakphakorns research (2000: 14)
applied from Bengtson & Scharades concept (1982 quoted in Phajongjit
Phithakphakorn, 2000: 14 ) explains that family unity is the driving force or
qualification which bring about unity among family members such as jointly doing
activities, mutually giving affection, similar opinion, mutual hospitality, family norm,
and relationship among different aged members.
2.2.1.2 Family members relationship dimension
Family environment could be considered from quality and
characteristics of family members relationship which could be divided as follows;
(Juthanart Phadungjaroen, 2000: 31-34)
Relationship between husband and wife: Husband and wife are the
most important starting point of relationship in family. If husband and wife love and
understand each other, have good relationship, try to adapt oneself for each other,
help each other to solve various family problems, that family would be a happy
family. And other family members, especially children would also be happy. On the
contrary, if husband and wife have bad relationship, family members would receive
disadvantages.
Relationship between parents and children: This relationship is
originated from relationship between husband and wife. After a baby is born, family
relationship shall increase and relationship among parents and children follow as
shown in the following figure;
This relationship triangle represents a relationship linking line
among father, mother and children. That linking line would be perfectly tight if father
and mother steadily llove each other. Parents cohesion reflects to their children.
Relationship among siblings:After mother gives birth to the second
and third children, relationship among siblings would occur. Good or bad relationship
depends on familys condition, which comprises basic relationship and upbringing
characteristics of father and mother.
Relationship among all family members: As for nuclear family,
relationship of all family members is relationship between husband and wife, mother
and children, father and children, brother and sister. In other word, it is combination
of relationship of everybody. As for Nuclear family, Harvighurst (1962 quoted in
Juthanart Phadungjaroen, 2000: 33) has explained that relationship in this type of
family is very close and in a form of face to face. As for extended family, family
members would include grandfather, grandmother, uncle, aunt, cousin, son-in-law, and
daughter-in-law. When number of family members increased, family relationship
would be extended to a wider area.
In accordance with guide line of the Office of National Women Coordination
and Encouragement Committee one of eight desired characteristics of Thai family is
that all family members have mutual cohesion, unity, help and concern. They have
to talk to each other to find creative way to solve their difficulties.
Father Mother
Children
2.2.1.3 Family Well-being
There is a research on family environment concerning family well
being. Caldwell (1988: 405-406) has explained that family well-being is a
phenomenon and process of family life which is dynamic and consists of several
dimensions. There is correlation between stress and well-being. This means that if
family stress is high, family well-being would be less and vice versa if family stress is
low, family well being would be high. In conclusion, family well-being is a 3-aspect-
perception of family members toward family situation as follows;
Family structure: Family structure is the major component of
familys unity. Environment within family which encourages members to be
independently expressive, reasonable , have clear communication, and jointly solve
various family problems would help bring about family well-being. Evaluation of
family structure could be done in 5 sub-parts including family stress, family
satisfaction, family support, family cohesion and family adaptation.
Family role process: Family role process is an important part which
could lead to family well-being . Family members perfectly performing duty, having
little or no role conflict and ambiguity, having no feeling of role over load, having
participation and preparedness in role process would have family well-being.
Evaluation of this aspect of family well being could be done in 5 sub-parts including
role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, role non participation and role
preparedness.
Vulnerability: Vulnerability and abovementioned aspects would
jointly reflect family well-being. Evaluation of this aspect could be done in 2 sub-
parts such as psychosmatic symptom and life satisfaction.
2.2.2 Measuring of family environment
Family Environment could be measured by using several scales and
tools and divided into variables according to the research need.
In the book Family Assessment Inventories for Research and
Practices (McCubbin & Thompson, Eds.,1987: 26-31), the editors present research
tools on family environment which are divided according to elements of things which
required measurement of the structure Family Adjustment and Adaptation. Example,
the tool Family Inventory of Life Events & Changes is used to measure family
vulnerability in case of facing family stress. The tools Family Adaptability and
Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES I , FACES II, FACES III) are used to measure
cohesion and adaptation. The tools Family Environment Scales (FES) (Moos ,
1974) and Family Inventory Resources for Management (FIEM) (McCubbin ,
Comeau & Harkin , 1981) are used to measure family resources. The tools Coping
Health Inventory (CHIP) , Family Coping Inventory (FCI) and Adolescent Coping
Orientation for Problem Experience are used to measure Problem coping and solving
for adolescents.
As for this study, the researcher used research tools from Family
Environment Scale of Moos & Moos, (2002) which divides the study dimension into
3 main dimensions and 10 sub-components as follows;
Relationship dimension which includes 3 sub-components as follows;
1.Cohesion
2.Expressiveness
3.Conflict
Personal Growth Dimensions which includes 5 sub-components as follows;
1.Independence
2.Achievement Orientation
3.Intellectual-Cultural Orientation
4.Active-Recreation Orientation
5.Moral-Relation Orientation
System Maintenance Dimensions which includes 2 sub-dimensions as
follows;
1.Organization
2.Control
The research on Family Environment is a social science research made
through the inventory in form of psychological questionnaires. This means that family
environment level is based only on perception of populations who answered
questionnaires.
2.3 Concept on bi-cultural family and children
Ethnic qualifications can considerably affect family. Ethnic influences
familys ability to have access to benefits and opportunity. In-depth study on ethnic
would make family psychologists clearly understand about family interaction, role,
family communication characteristics, emotional expressions etc. (Schmid, 1995: 54)
The ethnic realization is necessary for family science. Ethics are often defined as a
part of bloodline. The ethnic realization usually stemms from the ancestor family to
descendant family through socialization process (Alba, 1990: 45). Therefore, the study
on family having dominant characteristic on ethics has academic use and significance.
So the researcher has reviewed literatures which involve the studied
populations who are adolescents of bi-cultural family by focusing on the following
issues;
2.3.1 Migration and emerging of bi-cultural family
Migration is a factor which causes a change in population and the
first factor which brings about the bi-cultural family. Migration which involved this
study was International Migration. Characteristics of International Migration could be
divided into 2 main characteristics such as immigration and emigration (Chaiwat
Panjaphong & Narong Thiensong, 1982: 29-30).
International migration or cross continent migration in the past
stemmed from colonialism and discovery of new continent by Europeans, either
migration of Europeans to stay in colonial countries or pushing labours from colonial
countries to work in countries of people who owned the colony (Phenphorn
Theerasawas, 1984: 89)
Migration is behavior which occurred in order to respond to political,
social, and economic condition. General migration pattern was migrations from the
area having political, social, economic pressure into the area having lower pressure.
From the beginning of colonialism to the beginning of World War II, 60 million
Europeans, 10-12 million Asian people, and several millions of African people who
did not live in the innate country had migrated to settle in other continents (Phenphorn
Theerasawas, 1984: 89)
In the global level, immigration might cause a change in cultural and social
condition, especially immigrants having difference of race, language and culture. If
there are a lot of immigrants, that area would have diversities. As for this case, if
people could assimilate various cultures, or new arrivals could adapt to main stream
culture, it would be advantageous for the society of that area. On the contrary, if that
area could not assimilate various cultures or inter-racial people could not adapt to the
main culture, problems would occur. (Phenphorn Theerasawas, 1984: 89).
In Thailand, as for consideration in the macro level, migration of foreign
people such as Chinese, Vietnamese, Laotian, Indian, Mon, Cambodian and Western
people do not cause critical problems. These foreign people could live in Thailand
with cultural assimilation and never have ethnic problem. (Pramote Prasartkul, 2000:
252)
However, international migration which likely leads to inter-racial marriage
form a special kind of family called bi-cultural family with their product that is bi-
cultural children. Although these children are such a small group in Thailand, they
have cultural significance and unique which is interesting to study.
2.3.2 The study on cultural diversities
Concept which is a basic for the study on cultural diversities
comprises of the following (Coretes, 1996 quoted in Patama Nakason, 1997: 43)
2.3.2.1 Individuality and group identity
Ones who study about cultural diversities have to understand impor-
tant characteristics of groups such as race, ethnic, sex, culture, language, nationality.
They have to understand that each person is a part in several groups, which is a result
of decision and experience. Being a part in several groups might influence thought,
practice, belief, perception.
2.3.2.2 Subjective and objective culture
The studies on cultural diversities have to include the consideration
on objective culture such as food, clothes, music, art and various playings and the
study on subjective culture such as peoples general attitude on value, norm,
expectance and belief.
2.3.2.3 Similarities and differences
While giving knowledge on diversities of race, tribe, sex, religion
and cultural experience, the researcher has to realize joint basic characteristics which
are the bridges connecting between individuals and between groups.
2.3.2.4. Multiple perspective
Difference leads to multiple perspective and perception. Therefore
individuals having different experience, tradition, culture, attitude but staying
together would by all means have conflicts. The study on cultural diversities would
help bring about realization and understanding on different perspective which would
result in various conclusions which could help overcome various conflicts.
2.3.3 Bi-cultural family
Bi-culture means either an individual who enters into the others
culture staying under dominant or non-dominant culture or family members having
mixed culture by mean of marriage. (McRoy & Freeman, 1986 quoted in Pattama
Nakason, 1997: 47-86)
Gollnick & Chinn (1994 : 44) indicated that everybody has culture
because culture is a way of receiving belief, decision and practice. Each person has
his own culture which might be different according to background of that person who
might have difference of race religion and geographical condition and interaction
between self knowledge on various matters, such as age, language, sex, race which
would determine self understanding.
Bi-cultural family has special characteristics, especially,
development of childrens identity. Father and mother of said family could encourage
development of childrens identity in several steps by starting from perceiving that
childrens race was different from their race. They should encourage their children to
talk about ethics. They should give opportunity for children to develop relationship
with people with different backgrounds through multi-cultural schools. They should
help children develop personality by participating in activities held by groups
supporting bi-cultural family. (McRoy & Freeman, 1986 quoted in Pattama
Nakasorn , 1997: 47-86)
As for some children and youth, their mixed race could cause
conflict on racial attitude, being marginal people in the society, sexual problem and
inspiration on education and occupation (Gibbs, 1989 quoted in Schmid, 1995: 63).
Ethnics affect perception and stress coping. Stress coping might be difficult because
there are few organizations set up to help special ethnic groups in the society (Boss,
1988 quoted in Schimd, 1995: 63). Culture and ethnic diversities have influence over
family cohesion and adaptation because some ethics and religions have high
expectancy toward family characteristics . Adaptation ability of members of this kind
of family has tends to be low.
In a literature called Half-Half (O Hearn, Ed., 1998), the editor
compiled articles written by 18 mixed-race writers. One part of those articles describe
difficulty for adolescents to accept culture of their father or mother. American-people
mostly called American-African children as African People. While African people
would call thems as African-American people (Wamba, In O Hearn, Ed., 1998: 152).
Therefore, mixed-race children have to learn to determine neutral way in order to
determine their existence.
In the same literature, an African-Polish writer narrated about
alienated feeling which he faced during childhood. He had black complexion because
of African blood while his mothers complexion was white. But his family never
talked about racial issue (McBride, In OHearn, Ed., 1998: 181-196). The other writer
with American mother and India father said that moved to stay with fathers family
but she could not speak local language of her father. She could speak English only.
She rarely spoke with her grandmother because her grandmother could not speak
English, However while staying in India, She was happy and did not feel alienated.
When She had to move to America, she felt that she was not a part of that society
(Metha, In O Hearn, 1998: 216-243)
Ogbu (1989 quoted in Somphong Jitradab, 1993: 70-75) did a
research on minority groups who were Chinese people and African people in the
United Sates of America. These people were bi-cultural. The first culture was innate
culture. The second culture was culture in new community where these people lived.
Ogbu built the minority group theory which was different from original belief which
stipulated that minority groups in the United States of America having low income and
complexion which was different from white people could not sufficiently succeed in
education due to cultural Mismatch or Cutural Discontinuities. Influence of difference
used to be proved to have influence in thought, action, expressiveness, value, and life
frame of minority groups. But Ogbu built the theory based on belief as follows;
Minority groups who migrated to stay in the United States of America had built new
culture by mixing original culture with main culture. It was Cultural ecology. Finally,
influence of white peoples main culture would be an important variable for building
said culture.
The above literature and research has reflected a fact that difference
of race, language and culture of couple affected children of that family. Bringing up
children and building relationship in multi-cultural family is intensively difficult. The
research on said family was an interesting matter for people to pursue further research
in the future.
2.3.4 Theory on ethnic phenomena
2.3.4.1 The Ecological Theory
Park (1921 quoted in Jutharat Ua-amnuay, 1999: 10) who was
American sociologist had received influence from Darwins theory. He answered
questions on ethnic groups that each human carried a burden of genetic inheritance in
2 overlapping status. As for the first status, human was a member of his ethnic race
through Biological Inheritance. As for the second status human was a member of the
society or society group through Social Inheritance.
Park mentioned 4 important issues in his theory as follows;
1. Migration causes unequal relationship toward people having
specific identity.
2. As for competitive relationship each person posses different
image according to his status.
3. People having higher status are not willing to compete with people
having lower status. .
4. Bias is expression of privileged people to protect their interest and
encourage existence of class division.
2.3.4.2 The Cultural Conflict Theory
Sellin (1938 quoted in Jutharat Ua-amnuay, 1999: 10) expressed his
opinion on criminal and cultural conflict in his book. He said that Different values
caused different behaviors. This value was instilled through socialization process for
society member to adhere to his value from childhood.
2.3.5 Management of multi-cultural education
State of being bi-cultural children discussed in this study has
stemmed partly from influence of international schools of which teaching system is
different from general Thai school. Therefore, the researcher has summarized the
concept on educational management of international schools as follows;
Muti-cultural education is using of childrens cultural background
as development tool for teaching technique in school (Gollnick & Chinn, 1994: 124)
with the following principles;
1.Students are the centre of the teaching process.
2.Encouraging human right and respecting cultural
difference.
3. Believing that every student could learn
4.Giving knowledge on life history and experience of
students who were members of sub-cultures.
5. Analyzing with discretion in order to understand about
race, sex, class and difference between disability and seniority.
6. Criticizing the society about social decision and equality.
2.3.5.1 Curriculum models of multi-cultural education
There are 2 curriculum models of multi-cultural education as
follows; (Banks, 1994 quoted in Patama Nakason, 1997 : 44)
1. Curriculum model that makes people in the main culture
accepted different culture of other people (Enlightening Power Group Model)
2. Curriculum model that makes people in sub- culture
understand themselves in their social context and main cultural (Share Power Model)
2.3.5.2 Objectives of multi-cultural education
Hall & Rhomberg (1994 quoted in Patama Nakason, 1997: 44) have
analyzed and set up Anti Bias Curriculum with 4 main objectives as follows;
1.To help children feel good about their identity without
superiority feeling over other people.
2. To help children feel good with other people and people with
difference. This would help children to learn to feel sympathize with other people.
3. To help children seriously think and have discretion on
feeling of other people when they face unequality.
4. To help children to be representative of themselves and other
people when they face with unfairness and bias. This would help children learn to
express their role.
2.4 Concept and research on the studied variables
2.4.1 Research on the family environment
The researcher has reviewed the research including research which
studied about similar issues on family relationship and found the interesting research
which could be divided into the following issues;
2.4.1.1 Studying by using Family Environment as dependent variable
Juthanart Phadungjaroen (2000: 74) studied about family
communication models toward attitude on couple selection and marriage. She has
found that family communication models has relationship with attitude on couple
selection and marriage. The study of Nuchlada Rojjanapraphaphan (1998: 111-112)
found that family relationship has positive relationship at the significant level. While
Sophaphan Wiangpherm (1998:124) found that middle-adolescent students having
different forms of family relationship has different attitude on sexual role and different
sexual role. Moreover, the thesis of Bu-nga Phooshakhram (1990: 132) showed that
perception of family well-being of mother of Limploblas Leukemia children has
positive relationship with problem coping by using family cohesion and optimism.
Vaishampayan & Srivastava (1998: 51-52) studied about family
environment and attitude on Population Education by studying from students in India.
The study result revealed that family environment influenced youths attitude on
population problem. Students who reported high satisfaction in family environment
mostly studied in scientific field. Their father and mother were educated people. Their
mother worked in offices. And their family had rather higher income, This could be
concluded that father and mother who are educated people mostly have few children.
Children of few siblings usually receive more attention from parents so they could
more perceive the favorable family environment. As for the factor on family
environment which has affected the attitude on Population Education, youths having
the favorable family environment have more suitable thought on population matter
than youths having the unfavorable family environment. This finding shows that
family environment is very important for building correct attitude frame for the study
on population to the youth.
2.4.1.2 Studying by using Family Environment as dependent
variables
Sakchai Bunpheng (1999: 120) studied about attitude of police,
Metropolitan Constabulary Headquarter 6 toward family relationship building
guidelines. He has found that polices family has good family relationship but little
compliance with role and duty of family members. He found relationship between
ranks and family environment building and family members adaptation.
Commissioned police could build Family Environment in the higher level than warrant
police.
Ruangrong Hongsa (1999: 142) found that family relationship
among husband, wife and children in 4 aspects which were family role, duty,
responsibility of husband and wife, ability between mother and children, relationship
between mother and children, relationship between husband and wife, and relationship
among family members were in the moderate level. After considering relationship
between variables in each aspect the researcher found 6 variables which had
relationship with family relationship level such as age, education level, husbands
working characteristics, marriage duration, Family expenditure and number of
children.
Phimjai Maitreeprem (2000: 85) studied about family relationship of
business staff in the economic crisis in Bangkok by dividing relationship into 4 aspects
including agreement, satisfaction, cohesion and expression of love. The study result
showed that similarities from married couples father and mother, acceptance from
married couples relatives influenced some aspects of family relationship whereas
seeing model of father and mother, income sufficiency, role unity, being life couple,
communication efficiency, family conflict and working status were factors which
influenced every aspect of family relationship.
Pinphet Phokudsai (1997: 91) studied about relationship between
selective factors and burden of caring patients and well-being in family of spouse of
patient who waited for a change of kidney. The study found that burden of caring
patients had negative correlation with family well-being in general and in each aspect
at the significant level. Different treatment type and family income had correlation
with family well-being on vulnerability aspect only.
Piyawadee Singphan (2001: 111) studied about guidelines of
preventing the conflict problem and building family relationship by family with
adolescent children. She found that parents with different marital status, educational
level, occupation, income and number of children had different relationship with their
adolescent children.
Cindy I Calson, et al. (1991: 18-28) studied about shared view and
distinctive view among family members on family environment by studying from
father, mother and adolescent children. They found that adolescents had less
perception of family environment on cohesion and independence than father and
mother. As for personal growth, father and mother thought that their family had
cultural activity growth. While children thought that family had more development on
recreational activities. But, family conflict as perceived by father, mother and
children was not different.
2.4.2 Research on the studied populations
As for this study, the researcher would study about bi-cultural
adolescents both by birth and by education system. Innate bi-cultural adolescents have
inter-racial parents, either father or mother is Thai. Or both father and mother are not
Thai but have different races. Bi-cultural adolescents by educational system would be
children of Thai parents but studying in international schools. The targeted
population would be adolescents of middle school level in international school in
Thailand.
As for the research on said sample groups in Thailand, Patama
Nakason (1997: 42) did a research on development of Thai language teaching
curriculum for students in international schools. The studied populations were nursery
students in international schools in Thailand. Phussadee Trongtorkarn (1997: 12) did a
research on academic administration of international schools in Bangkok and
periphery. And Hawks, Jon-David (2001: 65) did a research on self esteem realization
of adolescent students in international schools. He found that factors which influenced
self esteem realization in the high level were good communication with father, mother
and siblings, support from friends and good relationship with teachers. But, there was
no research which directly involved family relationship of these populations.
As for research in foreign countries, there was a research on mixed
race children and inter-marriage as follows;
Sumran Noisuwan (1986: 79-81) studied about acculturation of
adolescents in Thai-American family in the American urban society by determining
the study frame that when Thai people married with American people, this was
combination of 2 cultures. Children of these families, who live in bi-cultural
environment would unavoidably face the problem of conflict among father, mother,
children regarding difference of communication language, status of family,
socialization, study in the house, lifestyle and dressing. Therefore, relationship among
father, mother and children in this type of family would be different from relationship
of pure Thai or pure American family.
The study result reveled that most families used English as the main
language. Although a half of the families used 2 languages, their main language was
English. Although father and mother would encourage children to study Thai
language, their children did not like Thai language much. Their children slightly
understood Thai language. Most of them could well communicate with father and
mother.
As for family relationship, father and mother said that their children
equally obeyed father and mother and helped do housework. Few parents thought that
raising mixed race children was more difficult than raising single race children.
As for socialization, father and mother taught their children about
religion and wanted to make their children assimilate with American society. Most
children obeyed friends or older relatives. And they could well get along with friends.
In conclusion, in the family, children were still taught with 2 cultures
according to their inter-racial parents. Meanwhile, if children stayed under American
society, it was necessary for family to encourage their children to assimilate with main
stream of the society.
2.4.3 Research on factors which have relationship with family
environment
Family Environment is perception of favorable level in family by
family members. Favorable or unfavorable family environment depends on
development tasks of family members. After reviewing literature and studying related
research, the researcher has selected some factors which are basic variables that
could exhibit some facts and conditions of the studied populations and might have
correlation with family environment as follows;
2.4.3.1 Parental marital status and family environment
These days, there are more families in which only either father or
mother takes care his/her children alone (single parents). That may cause by the death
of each party, divorce or separation due to the career needs. Although such practice of
the spouse presently is not seriously considered the family shame, it can still be an
index that could forecast the success or failure in each family. According to Hirschs
finding (1973 quoted in Nonglak Empradit, 1996: 38 ) , break up family rather have
relationship with the cases juvenile delinquency. He also stated that the more
children have closeness to their father and mother the more they well behave to
fulfill their parents expectation and not breaking the law. In addition , many
behaviorists agreed that children and youth who come from incomplete families are
less likely to be successful in their future marriage life than the ones who are brought
up in complete families.
Research done by Amornlak Akartwipas (1999: 84) on attitudes
toward family of the students of private collages in Bangkok revealed that most
respondents thought that a considered blissful family should be the family with warm
environment having both father and mother in the family. Similarly the study
performed by Krabee Cholwit (2000: 107) on the quality families in the impression of
the military bank workers in Bangkok revealed that the good quality family in the
sample groups impression were the family with the spouse that live together with
closeness and cohesion.
In the study on influence of family communication behavior toward
the mental health of adolescents, case study at Bangpakok Wittayacom school
(Plernpit Chantarasak, 1998: 113), it was found that parental marital status had
influence on quality of communication in family. This study results corresponded with
the research of Juthanat Padungcharern (2000: 74) which indicated that parental
marital status variable had influence on communication within family.
Above mentioned research signified the importance of marital status
off spouse or parents against issues relating to family relationship. The researcher has
therefore set the hypothesis for this study that adolescents whose parents have
different marital status have different family environment.
2.4.3.2 Number of siblings and the family environment
Ruangrong Hongsa (1999: 142) found that the variable on number of
children had relationship with family relationship. Family having few children had
higher family relationship than family having many children. Pantipa Neungtawee
(1996: 97) found that number of siblings had relationship with relationship between
children and father. If there were many siblings, fathers family role had to be
scattered to each child. This resulted in less relationship with father. Similarly, the
study of Piyawadee Singphan (2001: 111) found that father and mother having
different number of children had different relationship with their children. Roam (1993
quoted in Premwadee Arwutkampreecha, 1997: 48) studied 3,741 sample families and
found that family having over 1 child had less contact or time for family members than
family having only 1 child. While Premwadee Arwutkampreecha (1997: 99) found
that number of children had negative relationship with relationship between daughter
and mother in Bangkok.
In reference with the above research result data, the researcher,
therefore, set the hypothesis that adolescents with different number of siblings have
different family environment.
2.4.3.3 Family type and family environment
At present, Thai families are mostly nuclear family which include
members of one single family in the same household. However, several families have
relatives such as relatives of husband or wife or both parties or siblings of couple
living in the same household. This has caused another type of family called extended
family.
The issue on family types could be found in research of Sopha
Choophikulchai, et al. (1987: 32-72). They studied about environment which affected
mental health of adolescents in the city and found that adolescents coming from
nuclear family would have negative attitude toward relatives.
Jutanart Padungjaroen (2000: 74) studied about influence of
demographic variables toward communication model within family of postgraduate
students in Bangkok and found that the variables on age, marital status, occupation
and family size influenced family communication models.
Banpot Wiangnon (1995: 55) studied about factors which influenced
polices satisfaction in marriage life. He found that satisfaction of having adults in
family had positive influence over satisfaction in marital life. This means that the
studied populations were delighted having adult members in family. In other word,
couple were happy with having extend family.
However, the research of Pajongjit Pitakpakorn (2000: 88) found
that the factor on family structure or family type did not influence Thai familys
unity level.
As the study result can be divided into 2 types, the researcher,
therefore, has been interested to study in order to find connection between the factor
regarding family type and family environment by setting the hypothesis that
adolescents of different family type (nucear family & extended family) have different
family environment.
2.4.3.4 Family leading role and family environment
Family role is an essential factor for proceeding of family. In the
past, women were housewives only. But, at present, women have also earned income
by working. Womens involement in working has been credited to have economic
value. (Naiyana Suphapheung, 1990 quoted in Jaroenpong Inkai, 1998: 9 ).
Watchara Khlainathorns research (1983 quoted in Jaroenpong Inkai,
1998: 16 ) on family income earning role and power use between couple in Bangkok
found that family livelihood role of couple caused difference in power using by
married couple. Phanee Bunyakuakoon ( 1991 quoted in Jaroenpong Inkai, 1998: 16 )
studied about participation of agriculturists wives in decision on agricultural
activities. It was found that 2 factors which were most important for decision
participation were the factor on wives activity, participation role and the factor
regarding social and cultural norm on power. Methanee Thaisomboon (1992: 111-
112) studied about wifes family decision power in the changing society into industry
society. She found that difference between age of husband and wife had relationship
with wifes decision power. Jaroenpong Inkais thesis (1998: 83) presented that the
factor on married couples resources including difference of education and income
had relationship with family decision power at the significant level.
The above research show decision making role between wife and
husband is an indispensable basic qualification of every family. However, this
factor has never been used as the independent variable to find correlation with other
dependent variables. The researcher, therefore, would like to bring the factor on family
decision, which can actually be considered as family leading role between father and
mother, to be independent variables in her study. The hypothesis laid in this study is
adolescents whose parents are of different family leading role have different family
environment.
2.4.3.5 Nationalities of father and mother and family environment
People having the same race had similar tradition and culture. Inter-
racial married couple had to mutually adapt to culture and tradition.
Such fact could be refered to the qualitative research of Humphrey-
Smith, V.J (1995: 193-200), for which the data were collected from 28 key informants
who were foreign wives of Thai men and migrated to stay with their husbands in
Thailand. The study sample populations were divided into 2 groups i.e 1. foreign
wives having stayed in Thailand for less than 20 years and 2. foreign wives having
stayed in Thailand for more than 20 years. It was found that two-third of key
informants found difficulty in several issues emerged from inter-marriage. And these
key informants thought that cultural difference which used to be a charm in the state
of courtship before living together had become an important obstacle for marriage life
afterwards. Some interviewees thought that difficulty in marital life is truth of evrey
culture. However, as for inter-marriage, couple life would be more difficult. This was
because one party had to adjust self to new culture, new environment, new kinship.
The research also indicated that cultural difference had positive significance toward
mariage relationship. One-third of key informants who were foreign wife having
moved to Thailand in the latter years did not feel that they had difficulty in
couple life.
However, both groups of key informants thought that a change in
Thai economy society,in to the more westernised form has helped foreign wives to
lead their lives more easily. Their marginal feeling was less. But they totally agreed
that relationship between married couple having different cultures had more difficulty
than married couple having the same culture.
The mentioned research studied about women spouse only. The
recommendations of the research mentioned development of research into
comparative study by studying from children of inter-racial married couple or mixed-
race children who were yields of these populations. The researcher, therefore, study
about mixed-race adolescents by setting the hypothesis that adolescenets whose
parents are of different nationalities have different family environment.
2.4.3.6 Religion and family environment
When discussing the term culture, religion is always brought to be
under the cultural concept. One quality of 6 desired qualities of a qualified family in
accordance with Nicholas Stimettss model (Stimetts, 1983: 27-38) is having a strong
faith in religion. That is, in a high quality family of any religion , family members
always have very high respect to their religion. They would participate in religious
activities together such as attend regularly Sunday services, listen to the monks
preach. Some families have taken part in founding of religious institution like
building of churches, Buddhist temples or actively assist in their own religions
activities. Faith family members have toward their religion would help develop their
self-regulation, sense of forgiveness tolerating to anger and strengthen their sense of
care to the others. All of these are essential factors for running a good family.
Most families of any period and time have naturally relation with
religion resources. Nonglak Empradit (1996: 8) mentioned that religious representative
and symbols such as temple, monks, priests, religious instructors etc, all of those are
the bodies which aid in implanting knowledge about religious rules, morals, belief as
well as life philosophy which differs among different religions but certainly share the
same role in building up good values, in line practices of family members which
eventually influence the styles of each family.
The research relating to religious and family environment issues
found was the study of Seksit Inphrom (1990: 98) who did the research on
comparison of future family environment expectation between the juvenile
delinquents and the common juveniles. The study revealed that the youth with
different religion had different future family expectation at a significant level. That
was the Buddhist youth had the highest expectation comparing to Christian and
Muslim. The Christian youth had most considerate expectation.
With the significance of religion in the cultural aspect and its
importance on family as summarized, the researcher would like study the family
environment of adolescents with different religion by setting up the hypothesis that
adolescents of different religions have different family environments
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research was an exploratory research that was aimed to study the family
environment based on the perception of the adolescents in bi-cultural families by
comparing the differences between the independent variables and the family
environment of the students at middle school level in international schools in Bangkok
and periphery. The research methodology included the following steps;
3.1 Population, sample group and random sampling
3.2 Research tools and apparatus
3.3 Data collection
3.4 Data analysis
3.1 Population, sample group and random sampling
The population for this research was the students of early adolescence, aged
between 12-16 years old, both male and female, from middle school level in academic
year 2003 from international schools under the jurisdiction of the Office of the
Management of the Committee for the Promotion of Private Education, the Office of
the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Education.
There are at present 71 international schools in Thailand (Office of the
Management of the Committee for the Promotion of Private Education, 2003: 1), of
which 54 schools are located in the central area (Bangkok and periphery). Initially, the
researcher would like to study sample groups from all middle school students from the
three largest international schools, but due to the policy of school security and
protection of privacy of the students and the parents and the fact that the time the
researcher made contact with the schools coincided with the crisis of transnational
crime, the target schools have all turned down the researchers request. As a result, the
researcher contacted medium-sized international schools and received cooperation
from 3 schools as follows:
Nawarat Phayungkij Research Methodology / 44
School No. 1 is a medium-sized international school in the periphery that has
an American system and is recognized by the Office of the Management of the
Committee for the Promotion of Private Education, Ministry of Education. The school
caters to students of foreign families from Asia, especially China and Taiwan. There
are 120 middle school students in this school and 100 questionnaires have been
completed and returned.
School No. 2 is a medium-sized international school in the periphery that has
an American system and is recognized by the Office of the Management of the
Committee for the Promotion of Private Education, Ministry of Education. The school
caters to students of foreign Western families. There are 111 middle school students in
this school and 89 questionnaires have been completed and returned.
School No.3 is a medium-sized international school in Bangkok that has an
American system. The teaching and instruction also draw from the Bible but the
students are not required to convert to Christianity. Similarly, the admission is not
limited to Christians. There are 117 middle school students in this school and 107
questionnaires have been completed and returned.
The total number of the population of the sample groups was 296 students.
3.2 Research tool and apparatus
3.2.1. Tool for data collection
The tool used in this research was the questionnaire that required the
respondent to give his/her own answer, which has been modified from relevant scales.
The questionnaire comprised 3 parts;
Part 1 general information about the respondent, i.e. age, class level,
gender, nationality, religion
This part requested the respondents to put in a
Part 2 Family environment scale, which is based on the Real Form
(R Form) Family Environment Scale of Rudolf H. Moos and Bernice S. Moos
(Moos & Moos, 2002: 1-4), which comprises 40 questions with regard to the
relationship between the family members according to 3 dimensions and 10 sub-
components;
1. Relationship Dimensions are the evaluation of the family environment in
terms of relationships, which comprise 3 components;
1.1. Cohesion means the obligation, assistance and support among
the family members.
1.2. Expressiveness refers to the level of support the members of the
family receive to encourage them to openly express their feelings.
1.3. Conflict refers to the level at which the family members express
their discontent, anger and disagreement.
2. Personal Growth Dimensions are the evaluation of the family environment
in terms of personal growth development, which comprise 5 components;
2.1. Independence means the level of expression with regard to self-
demands, fulfillment of self-desires and self-decision making.
2.2. Achievement Orientation refers to the level of activities within
the family that foster determination toward achievement or competition.
2.3. Intellectual-Cultural Orientation refers to the level of activities
relating to politics, society, culture and intellect.
2.4. Active-Recreation Orientation refers to the level of participation
in the activities relating to society and recreation.
2.5. Moral-Religion Orientation refers to the level of importance
assigned to issues relating to morality and religion including religious values.
3. System Maintenance Dimensions are composed of;
3.1. Organization means the level of planning and organization of
family structure and allocation of responsibilities in the family.
3.2. Control refers to the level of enforcement of rules and
regulations within the family.
This part of the questionnaire was based on the Likert Scale with
scores ranging from 1 to 4 indicating the level of accuracy of the description given in
each question with regard to the family environment. The choices are False, Mostly
False, Mostly True, Totally True for all 40 questions.
The scores were distributed as follows:
Positive description Negative description
False 1 4
Mostly False 2 3
Mostly True 3 2
Totally True 4 1
The results were then ascribed to 3 different levels of family environment ;
-Average scores 1.00-2.00 unfavorable family environment
-Average scores 2.01-3.00 moderate favorable family environment
-Average scores 3.01-4.00 most favorable family environment
Part 3 information about the family of the respondents, i.e.
-Nationality of the father
-Nationality of the mother
-Parental marital status
-Number of siblings of the respondent
-Number of the family members of the respondent
This part requested the respondent to put a in a
Part 4 family leading role based on the perception of the adolescents
which was measured in 4 aspects;
1. Activities relating to the children and the rules within the family
2. Activities relating to recreation and entertainment
3. Activities relating to external communication
4. Activities relating to expenses or financial matters of the family
This part of the questionnaire used the Likert Scale based on 5 levels as
follows:
Score
Mother takes the most leading role 1
Mother takes more leading role than father 2
Father and mother have equal leading role 3
Father takes more leading role than mother 4
Father takes the most leading role 5
The results were divided into 3 categories; father is the leading decision
maker, both father and mother are equal decision makers, mother is the leading
decision maker according to these ranges:
Average scores 3.67-5.00 father has the leading role
Average scores 2.34-3.66 father and mother have equal
leading role
Average scores 1.00-3.33 mother has the leading role
3.2.2. Test for quality of the research tool
3.2.2.1. Content validity, in terms of the plausibility of the questions
and linguistic accuracy, was reviewed by the experts. The recommendations were
then used to modify the research tool.
3.2.2.2. With regard to reliability, the internal consistency reliability
of this standard questionnaire is reported to be 0.78 (Conbrachs Alpha). However, to
ensure the reliability of the research tool, the researcher has tested the tool among 30
middle school students in another international school that did not belong to the
sample group, but had similar characteristics to those in the group. The questionnaires
were then tested for reliability through the calculation of Conbrachs Coefficient
Alpha. The coefficient for the family environment was 0.69 and the coefficient for the
measurement of the family leading role was 0.87.
3.3 Data Collection
Data collection was carried out through coordination with the school
management board and the class teachers in each school. Data was collected on a
school day and the sample group was requested to complete the self administered
questionnaire according to the following steps;
3.3.1 The researcher obtained an official note from the Faculty of Social
Sciences and Humanities, Mahidol University, addressed to the Headmaster of the
schools in the sample group.
3.3.2 The researcher and the schools in the sample group decided on a date
for data collection. The process took 4 months from November 2003 to February
2004.
4.4 Data analysis
The data was evaluated and analyzed by a ready made computer program
using the following statistics;
4.4.1 Descriptive statistics comprised of the percentage, average and
standard deviation to explain the population characteristics of the sample group
4.4.2 Analysis of the intercorrelation between variables by determining the
differences between family factors of the sample group, i.e. parental marital status,
number of sibling, family type, and family leading role, and cultural factors, i.e.
nationality of father and mother, religion, and state of being bi-cultural with regard to
the differences in family environment using t-Test and One Way Analysis of Variance
tested at the significant level of 0.05.
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
This research aimed to study the family environment based on the perception
of the bi-cultural children of early adolescence and to compare the differences of the
family environment of the population in the study group and the various independent
variables of the students at the middle school level in international schools in Bangkok
and periphery. The research used the questionnaire as the tool in collecting data from
the population in the study group, which comprised 296 students at the middle school
level from three international schools. The results of data analysis are presented as
follows:
4.1 Data on population characteristics and family factors of the sample group
4.2 Data on family factors relating to the family leading role
4.3 Data on cultural factors of the sample group
4.4 Family environment of bi-cultural adolescents
4.5 Comparison of the family environment of bi-cultural adolescents
according to the variables of family factors, i.e. parental marital status, number of
siblings, family type and family leading role
according to the variables of cultural factors, i.e. nationality of father, nationality of
mother, religion and state of being bi-cultural
Nawarat Phayungkij Results / 50
4.1 Data on population characteristics and family factors of the
sample group
The sample group in this study comprised 296 students at the middle school
level from 3 international schools that gave permission to the data collection.
Table 1 The percentage of the sample group based on categories relating to
population characteristics (N=296)
Population characteristics %
1.Age
12 20.6
13 33.1
14 23.3
15 16.2
16 6.8
x = 13.5 S.D.=1.18
MIN=12 MAX=16
2.Sex
Male 52.0
Female 48.0
3.Nationality
Thai 56.1
Non-Thai 43.9
From table 1, the average age of the sample group was 13.5 years. Most of
the students (33.1%) were 13 years old. The smallest age group was 16 years old at
6.8% of which there were more male (52.0%) than female (48%). There were more
Thai nationalities (56.1%) than others (43.9%).
Table 2 The percentage of the sample group categorized by the variables of family
factors (N=296)
Family factors %
1.Parental marital status
- Stay together 83.1
- Separated 16.9
2.Number of siblings
- Single child 18.6
- 2-3 siblings 73.3
- More than 3 siblings 8.1
3.Family type
- Nuclear family 72.6
- Extended family 27.4
Table 2 shows that most of the parents (83.1%) were living together and only
16.9% were separated. The majority (73.3%) of the sample group had 2-3 siblings and
the minority (8.1%) had more than 3 siblings.
In terms of family type, most of the sample group belonged to a single family
(72.6%) and 27.4% belonged to an extended family.
4.2 Data on family factors relating to the family leading role
For this research, the family leading role was considered a family factor and
referred to leadership role in 4 aspects, i.e. activities relating to the children and rules
in the family, social activities, recreational activities, and activities relating to
expenses and financial matters, as shown in the table.
Table 3 The percentage, average and standard deviation of the sample group with
regard to the variable of family leading role in activities relating to the
children and rules within the family by items (N=296)
F= father M= mother
Activities relating to
children and rules
within the family
F takes
the most
leading
role
(%)
F takes
more
leading
role than
M (%)
F & M
have
equal
leading
role (%)
M takes
more
leading
role than
F (%)
M takes
the
most
leading
role(%)
( x )
SD
Making decision when
you want to stay
overnight outside
17.6 13.5 38.2 14.9 15.9 3.02 1.28
Total father-mother
tendency
31.1 30.8
Settling down the
conflicts between you
and your siblings or
among the other
family members
10.1 9.1 50.7 16.2 13.9 2.82 1.09
Total father-mother
tendency
19.2 30.1
Being consulted when
you orthe family
members have
personal difficulties
8.1 9.8 53.0 15.2 13.9 2.83 1.05
Total father-mother
tendency
17.9 29.1
Scolding or punishing
you when you go out
of the line
12.2 9.8 41.6 8.6 17.9 2.80 1.20
Total father-mother
tendency
22 26.5
Total 2.86 1.15
From table 3, the sample group exhibited the family leading role with regard
to rules at a medium level ( x = 2.86), that was, both the father and the mother had an
equal role. The itemized analysis shows that the father and mother had an equal role in
the activities relating to the children and rules within the family, but there was a
tendency toward the maternal role in this area as the questionnaire demonstrated that 3
out of 4 items were related to the maternal role.
Table 4 The percentage, average and standard deviation of the sample group
categorized by the variable of family leading role in recreational activities
by items (N=296)
F= father M= mother
Recreational
activities
F takes
the
most
leading
role
(%)
F takes
more
leading
role
than
M (%)
F & M
have equal
leading
role (%)
M takes
more
leading
role than
F (%)
M takes
the most
leading
role (%)
( x )
SD
Making decision
where to go for
vacation
17.6 13.9 51.4 8.4 8.8 3.23 1.11
Total father-
mother tendency
31.5 17.2
Making decision
where to eat out or
to see the movies
12.5 12.2 48.3 16.6 10.5 3.03 1.10
Total father-
mother tendency
24.7 27.1
Making decision
when want to visit
the relatives
together
10.1 7.8 59.5 14.2 8.4 2.97 0.98
Total father-
mother tendency
(17.9) (22.6)
Total 3.07 1.06
From table 4, it was found that the family leading role in recreational
activities wasin the middle ( x =3.07), that was, both the father and mother played an
equal role. Itemized consideration also shows that the father and mother had equal
influence on all counts, whereas tendency-wise, the father had a greater leading role
than the mother, on 2 out of 3 items.
Table 5 The percentage, average and standard deviation of the sample group based on
the variable of family leading role in activities relating to external social
communication by items (N=296)
F= father M= mother
Activities relating to
external social
communication
F takes
the
most
leading
role(%)
F takes
more
leading
role than
M (%)
F & M
have
equal
leading
role (%)
M takes
more
leading
role than
F (%)
M takes
the most
leading
role
(%)
( x )
SD
Selecting the
physician when
you/family members
fall sick
11.5 10.8 46.3 16.9 14.5 2.88 1.14
Total father-mother
tendency
22.3 31.4
Being the family
representative or
assigning the
representative in
contacting social
units
24.7 13.5 43.9 11.5 6.4 3.39 1.16
Total father-mother
tendency
38.2 17.9
Being the family
representative or
assigning the
representative
14.2 12.2 56.1 9.5 8.1 3.15 1.04
Total father-mother
tendency
26.4 17.6
Table 5 The percentage, average and standard deviation of the sample group based on
the variable of family leading role in activities relating to external social
communication by items (cont.)
F= father M= mother
Activities relating
to external social
communication
F takes
the most
leading
role (%)
F takes
more
leading
role than
M (%)
F & M
have
equal
leading
role (%)
M takes
more
leading
role
than F(%)
M takes
the most
leading
role
(%)
( x )
SD
Making decision in
career change or
family business
plan
24.3 15.9 47.6 6.1 6.1 3.46 1.11
Total father-
mother tendency
40.2 12.2
Total 3.22 1.11
Table 5 shows that the family leading role in activities relating to external
social communication was in the middle ( x = 3.22), that was, both the father and
mother had an equal role. But considering the tendency for leadership, it was found
that the father tended to play the leading role in this area, especially with regard to
change of career or business.
expenses and financial matters by items (N=296)
F= father M= mother
Activities relating
to expenses and
financial matters
F takes
the most
leading
role
(%)
F takes
more
leading
role than
M (%)
F & M
have
equal
leading
role (%)
M takes
more
leading
role than
F (%)
M takes
the most
leading
role
(%)
( x )
SD
Making decision
on daily expenses
of family
12.5 8.8 44.3 22.0 12.5 2.87 1.14
expenses and financial matters by items (cont.)
Activities relating
to expenses and
financial matters
F takes
the most
leading
role
(%)
F takes
more
leading
role than
M (%)
F & M
have
equal
leading
role (%)
M takes
more
leading
role than
F (%)
M takes
the most
leading
role
(%)
( x )
SD
Total father-
mother tendency
21.3 34.5
Making decision in
buying costly
household equip.
such as refrigerator,
TV, air conditioner
15.2 11.1 44.9 14.9 13.9 2.99 1.19
Total father-
mother tendency
26.3 28.8
Making decision in
buying consuming
products in the
family
7.1 5.7 42.9 23.6 20.6 2.55 1.10
Total father-
mother tendency
12.8 44.2
Making decision in
buying things on
installment
condition
15.9 16.6 46.3 11.8 9.5 3.10 1.11
Total father-
mother tendency
32.5 21.3
Total 2.88 1.13
From table 6, the overall family leading role in activities relating to expenses
and financial matters was in the middle ( x =2.88). In other words, both the father and
mother played an equal role, but the comparison of tendency shows that for decisions
regarding big purchases or expensive items, the father had a greater role, whereas for
decisions concerning daily expenses or household purchases, the mother had a greater
role.
Table 7 Number and percentage of the types of family leading role in each aspect
(N=296)
Family leading role
Mother Both father
and mother
Father
Aspect
No. % No. % No. %
( x )
SD
1. Activities relating to
children and the rules
within the family
71 24.0 187 63.2 38 12.8 2.86 1.15
2.Recreational
activities
37 12.5 212 71.6 47 15.9 3.07 1.06
3.Activities relating to
external social
communication
32 10.8 180 60.8 84 28.4 3.22 1.11
4.Activities relating to
expenses and financial
matters
66 22.3 193 65.2 37 12.5 2.88 1.13
Total 32 10.8 235 79.4 29 9.8 3.01 1.11
From table 7, the dominant type of family leading role was found to be in the
middle ( x = 3.01) with both the father and mother having an equal role in all aspects.
The average scores for each aspect are x = 3.07 for recreation, x = 3.07 for external
social communication, x = 2.88 for expenses and financial matters, and x = 2.86 for
activities relating to rules in the family. But in terms of tendency in each aspect, it was
found that the father tended to have the leading role in recreation and external social
communication (15.9% and 28.4% respectively) and the mother tended to have the
leading role with regard to expenses and the children and rules within the family
(24.0% and 22.3% respectively).
4.3 Data on cultural factors of the sample group
For this research, the cultural factors included nationality of father,
nationality of mother, religion and state of being bi-cultural.
Table 8 The percentage of the sample group based on the variable of cultural
factors (N=296)
Cultural factors %
Nationality of father
Thai 50.7
Non-Thai 49.3
Nationality of mother
Thai 56.1
Non-Thai 43.9
Religion
Buddhist 61.8
Christian 21.6
Muslim 3.8
Others (Sikh, Hindu) 4.0
Non-religious/ undecided/unidentified 8.8
State of being bi-cultural
Thai adolescents in international schools
47.6
Mixed-race adolescents in international
schools
14.9
Foreign adolescents in international
schools
37.5
Table 8 shows that the majority of nationalities of the father in the sample
group were Thai (50.7%) as opposed to non-Thai (49.3%). Similarly, the majority of
the nationalities of the mother were Thai (56.1%) as opposed to non-Thai (43.9%).
Most were Buddhists (61.8%), followed by Christian and others (21.6% and 12.8%
respectively). Only 3.7% were Muslims.
As regards the state of being bi-cultural, most of the students in the sample
group were Thai adolescents studying in international schools (47.6%) followed by
foreign adolescents in international schools (37.5%) and mixed-race adolescents in
international schools (14.9%).
4.4 Family environment of bi-cultural adolescents
This variable consisted of 3 main dimensions and 10 sub-components;
1) Relationship dimension which included cohesion, expressiveness and conflict,
2) Personal growth dimension which included independence, achievement orientation,
intellectual-cultural orientation, active-recreation orientation, and moral-religion
orientation, 3) System maintenance dimension which include organization and control.
The results of the study are as follows:
Table 9 The percentage based on the relationship dimensions including cohesion,
expressiveness and conflict (N=296)
Responses
Statement on
sub-components
False
%
Mostly
false %
Mostly
true %
Totally
true %
( x )
SD
Cohesion
Family members really
help and support one
another
0.7 7.4 51.4 40.5 3.32 0.64
We often seems to be
killing time at home
16.6 31.8 37.2 14.5 2.50 0.94
We put a lot of energy
into what we do at
home
11.5 39.2 41.2 8.1 2.54 0.81
expressiveness and conflict (cont.)
Responses
Statement on
Sub-components
False
%
Mostly
false %
Mostly
true %
Totally
true %
( x )
SD
Cohesion
There is a feeling of
togetherness in our
family
4.7 18.6 42.9 33.8 3.06 0.84
Total 2.85 0.80
Expressiveness
Family members often
keep their feeling to
themselves
10.1 46.6 35.5 7.8 2.59 0.78
We say anything we
want to around home
12.5 29.7 39.2 18.2 2.60 0.90
Its hard to blow off
steam at home without
upsetting somebody
18.6 39.9 29.4 12.2 2.65 0.92
We tell each other
about our personal
problems
12.2 27.4 39.9 22.6 2.69 0.93
Total 2.63 0.88
Conflict
We fight a lot in our
family
29.4 51.0 14.9 4.7 1.95 0.79
Family members rarely
become openly angry
19.6 42.9 28.0 9.5 2.73 0.88
expressiveness and conflict (cont.)
Responses
Statement on
Sub-components
False
%
Mostly
false %
Mostly
true %
Totally
true %
( x )
SD
Conflict
Family members
sometime get so angry
they throw things
59.5 23.3 10.5 6.8 1.65 0.92
Family members hardly
ever loose their tempers
15.2 37.8 34.8 12.2 2.56 0.89
Total 2.22 0.87
Based on table 9, the sample group exhibited the family environment with
regard to cohesion in the relationship dimensions at a medium level ( x = 2.85) with
regard to expressiveness in the relationship dimensions at a medium level ( x = 2.63)
and with regard to conflict at medium level ( x =2.22). When considering the
questions one-by-one, those indicating fighting and emotional display in the family
were at a low level.
Table 10 The percentage based on the personal growth dimensions including
active-recreation orientation and moral-religion orientation (N=296)
Responses
Statement on
sub-components
False
%
Mostly
false %
Mostly
true %
Totally
true %
( x )
SD
Independence
We dont do things on
our own very often in
our family
18.2 44.9 30.7 5.7 2.76 0.82
active-recreation orientation and moral-religion orientation (cont.)
Responses
Statement on
sub-components
False
%
Mostly
false %
Mostly
true %
Totally
true %
( x )
SD
Independence
In our family, we are
strongly encouraged to
be independent
6.8 27.4 42.2 23.3 2.82 0.87
We think things out
for ourselves in our
family
8.4 32.8 41.2 17.6 2.60 0.80
We come and go as we
want to in our family
16.9 34.1 35.8 13.2 2.45 0.92
Total 2.65 0.85
Achievement orientation
We feel it is important
to be the best at
whatever you do
9.1 23.0 44.3 23.6 2.82 0.90
Getting ahead in life is
very important in our
family
3.4 14.9 50.0 31.8 3.10 0.77
Getting ahead in life is
family
16.6 30.4 35.8 17.2 2.46 0.96
Achievement Orientation
We believe in
competition and may
the best man win
13.2 37.8 37.2 11.8 2.48 0.87
Total 2.71 0.87
Responses
Statement on
sub-components
False
%
Mostly
false %
Mostly
true %
Totally
true %
( x )
SD
Intellectual-cultural orientation
We often talk about
political and social
problems
14.9 32.4 39.9 12.8 2.52 0.90
We rarely go to
lectures, plays or
concerts
20.3 40.9 25.3 13.5 2.68 0.95
Learning about new
and different things is
family
2.4 14.9 45.3 37.5 3.18 0.77
We are not that
interested in cultural
activities
22.6 45.3 26.0 6.1 2.80 0.80
Total 2.79 0.85
Active-recreation orientation
We spend most
weekends and evening
at home
9.1 30.4 43.9 16.2 2.33 0.85
Friends often come
over for dinner or to
visit
17.9 37.8 32.1 12.2 2.39 0.92
Nobody in our family
is active in sports,
little league, bowling,
etc
41.2 35.1 18.2 5.4 3.12 0.89
Responses
Statement on
sub-components
False
%
Mostly
false %
Mostly
true %
Totally
true %
( x )
SD
We often go to the
movies, sports events,
camping etc
7.1 28.7 35.8 28.4 2.85 0.91
Total 2.80 0.89
Moral-religion orientation
Family members
attend church,
synagogue, or Sunday
School fairly often
49.7 26.4 11.5 12.2 1.86 1.04
We dont say prayers
in our family
28.4 25.3 20.6 25.2 2.50 1.10
We believe there are
some things you just
have to take on faith
10.8 30.7 35.8 22.6 2.70 0.94
Family members
believe that if you sin
you will be punished
17.2 26.4 33.8 22.6 2.62 1.02
Total 2.42 1.02
Table 10 shows that the family environment with regard to independence in
the personal growth dimensions in the sample group was at medium level ( x = 2.65)
similary with regard to achievement orientation was at medium level ( x =2.71). On
an itemized basis, the sample group exhibits a high level environment with regard to
advancement in life as an important aspect . Family environment with regard to
intellectual-cultural orientation in personal growth dimensions was at medium level
( x = 2.79). Item-by-item analysis shows that the sample group placed a high
importance on the statement regarding learning about new and different things. The
family environment with regard to active-recreation orientation was at medium level
( x = 2.80). Itemized analysis shows that the family environment was at high level
with regard to sports. As to moral-religion orientation family environment in this
aspect was at medium level ( x = 2.42). Itemized analysis shows that the family
environment was at low favorable level with regard to participation in religious
activities.
Table 11 The percentage based on the system maintenance dimensions including
organization and control (N=296)
Responses
Statement on
sub-components
False
%
Mostly
false %
Mostly
true %
Totally
true %
( x )
SD
Organization
Activities in our family
are pretty carefully
planned
7.1 29.7 48.3 14.9 2.71 0.80
We are generally very
neat and orderly
5.1 25.3 53.7 15.9 2.80 0.76
Its often hard to find
things when you need
them in our household
13.5 41.9 29.1 15.5 2.53 0.91
Being on time is very
important in our family
4.4 22.0 39.9 33.8 3.03 0.86
Total 2.76 0.83
Control
Family members are
rarely ordered around
10.5 43.2 41.2 3.4 2.62 0.72
Table 11 The percentage based on the system maintenance dimensions including
organization and control (cont.)
Responses
Statement on
sub-components
False
%
Mostly
false %
Mostly
true %
Totally
true %
( x )
SD
Control
There are very few
rules to follow in our
family
8.8 27.4 43.2 20.6 2.24 0.88
There are set ways of
doing things at home
9.1 31.4 45.6 13.9 2.62 0.80
There is a strong
emphasis on following
rules in our family
11.1 38.2 38.2 12.5 2.52 0.85
Total 2.50 0.81
Table 11 shows that the overall family environment with regard to
organization in system maintenance dimensions in the sample group was at medium
level ( x = 2.76). Item-by-item consideration shows that the environment with regard
to punctuality was at high level in the sample group. Similarly, overall family
environment with regard to control in system maintenance dimensions in the sample
group was at medium level ( x = 2.50)
Table 12 The number and percentage of the sample group based on the level of
family environment (N=296)
Family Environment (FE)
Unfavorable Moderate
favorable
Most favorable
Dimensions
N % N % N %
( x )
SD
Relationship dimension
-Cohesion 39 13.2 247 83.4 10 3.4 2.85 0.80
-Expressiveness
-Conflict
83
193
28.0
65.2
208
103
70.3
34.8
5
-
1.7
-
2.63
2.22
0.88
0.89
Total 67 22.6 229 77.4 - - 2.56 0.85
Personal growth dimension
-Independence
-Achievement orientation
-Intellectual-cultural
orientation
-Active-recreation
orientation
-Moral-religion orientation
69
71
53
84
136
23.3
24.0
17.9
28.4
45.9
219
214
231
198
149
74.0
72.3
78.0
66.9
50.3
7
11
12
14
11
2.4
3.7
4.1
4.7
3.7
2.65
2.71
2.79
2.80
2.42
0.85
0.87
0.85
0.89
1.02
Total 30 10.1 266 89.9 - - 2.67 0.89
System maintenance dimension
-Organization
-Control
47
113
15.9
38.2
240
177
81.1
59.8
9
4
3.0
1.4
2.76
2.50
0.83
0.81
Grand total 41 13.9 255 86.1 - - 2.63 0.82
Total of overall FE 19 6.4 277 93.6 - - 2.62 0.85
Table 19 shows that the overall family environment in the sample group was
at medium level ( x = 2.62). Dimension-wise, it was found that the family environment
in the personal growth dimensions was the highest ( x = 2.67), followed by system
maintenance dimensions ( x = 2.63) and relationship dimensions ( x = 2.56). The
details are as follows:
1. In the relationship dimensions, it was found that the family environment
wasstrongest with regard to cohesion ( x = 2.85), followed by expressiveness
( x = 2.63), and conflict ( x =2.22)
2. In the personal growth dimensions, it was found that the family environment is
strongest with regard to active-recreation orientation ( x = 2.80), followed by
intellectual-cultural orientation ( x = 2.79), achievement orientation ( x = 2.71),
independence ( x = 2.65) and moral-religion orientation ( x = 2.42)
3. In the system maintenance dimensions, it was found that the family
environment was strongest with regard to organization ( x = 2.76) as opposed
to control ( x = 2.50)
according to the variables of family factors, i.e. parental marital
status, number of siblings, family type and family leading role
This research compared the level of family environment in the sample group
based on the selected variables using t-test analysis and ANOVA. The results are
presented in the order of each variable in the following table.
Hypothesis 1: Adolescents of different parental marital status have different
family environments.
Table 13 Correlation between parental marital status and the family Environment
(N=296)
Marital status
x
SD T Sig.t
-Stay together
-Separated
30.94
30.42
3.00
3.16
1.112 .267
Table 13 Correlation between parental marital status and the family Environment
(cont.)
Marital status
x
SD T Sig.t
-Stay together
-Separated
53.37
52.45
5.10
6.24
1.092 .276
-Stay together
-Separated
21.22
20.66
2.76
2.66
1.319 .188
Overall family environment
-Stay together
-Separated
105.51
103.39
7.39
9.42
1.72 .085
From table 13, it was found that the adolescents with parents of different
parental marital status, whether living together or separated, did not have different
family environment at the significant level of 0.05. The finding rejected the
hypothesis
Hypothesis 2: Adolescents with different number of siblings have different
family environments.
Table 14 Correlation between the number of siblings and the family environment
Number of siblings
x
S.D F-Test Sig.F
-Single child
-2-3 siblings
-More than 3 siblings
30.57
31.05
29.62
2.94
3.03
2.94
2.734 .067
Table 14 Correlation between the number of siblings and the family environment
(cont.)
Number of siblings
x
S.D F-Test Sig.F
-Single child
-2-3 siblings
52.57
53.33
53.66
5.79
5.25
4.75
.534 .587
-Single child
-2-3 siblings
20.96
21.09
21.75
2.66
2.71
3.26
.721 .487
-Single child
-2-3 siblings
104.21
105.41
105.04
8.65
7.41
9.16
.496 .609
From table 14, it is found that adolescents with different number of siblings
did not have different overall family environments and in all dimensions at the
significant level of 0.05. The finding rejected the hypothesis
Hypothesis 3: Adolescents with different family type have different family
environments.
Table 15 Correlation between family type and the family environment (N=296)
Family type
x
SD T Sig.t
-Nuclear family
-Extended family
30.80
30.97
3.80
2.91
-.421 .674
Table 15 Correlation between family type and the family environment (cont.)
Family type
x
SD T Sig.t
-Nuclear family
-Extended family
53.14
53.43
5.32
5.30
-.417 .677
-Nuclear family
-Extended family
21.13
21.11
2.66
2.98
.060 .952
-Nuclear family
-Extended family
105.02
105.51
7.62
8.24
-.483 .630
From table 15, it was found that adolescents who had different family type
did not have different family environment at the significant level of 0.05. The result
rejected the hypothesis.
Hypothesis 4: Adolescents with different family leading roles will have
different family environments.
Table 16 Correlation between family leading role and the family Environment
(N=296)
Family leading role
x
S.D F-Test Sig.F
-Mother is the leading decision maker
-Father and mother are equal decision
makers
-Father is the leading decision maker
30.12
30.87
31.51
2.74
3.02
3.29
1.630 .198
Table 16 Correlation between family leading role and the family Environment (cont.)
Family leading role
x
S.D F-Test Sig.F
makers
51.87
53.42
53.03
5.66
5.03
6.87
1.196 .304
System Maintenance dimension
makers
20.25
21.33
20.44
2.40
2.83
2.18
3.203 .042*
makers
101.96
105.62
105.00
7.32
7.60
9.11
3.046 .049*
* Having the significant level of .05
From table 16, it was shown that the value of variance of the overall family
environment (.049) and in the system maintenance dimensions (.042) were lower than
the significance level of .05, meaning that adolescents with different family leading
roles had different overall family environments and in the system maintenance
dimensions.
In order to determine the difference in the average value of the overall family
environment and in the system maintenance dimensions as a pair based on the family
leading role, an LSD Test was performed as shown in tables 17-18.
Table 17 Comparison of the difference between the overall family environment and
the family leading role, as a pair
Family environment
Family leading role
(
x
)
S.D
1 2 3
makers
101.96
105.62
105.00
7.32
7.60
9.11
-
*
-
*
-
-
-
-
-
Table 17, displaying the difference between the overall family environment
and the family leading role as a pair, shows that the children from a family where both
parents played leading role ( x = 105.62) had a higher family environment as opposed
to those from a family where the mother plays a leading role ( x = 101.96)
Table 18 Comparison of the difference between the family environment in the
system maintenance dimension pairing with the family leading role
System maintenance
dimension Family leading role
(
x
)
S.D
1 2 3
-Mother is the leading decision
maker
20.25 2.40 - * -
Table 18 Comparison of the difference between the family environment in the
system maintenance dimension pairing with the family leading role (cont.)
System maintenance
dimension Family leading role
(
x
)
S.D
1 2 3
-Father and mother are equal
decision makers
-Father is the leading decision
maker
21.33
20.44
2.83
2.18
*
-
-
-
-
-
From table 18, it was found that the children from a family where both
parents played a leading role ( x =21.33) had a higher family environment in the
system maintenance dimensions as compared to those from a family where the mother
plays a leading role ( x = 20.25)
according to the variables of cultural factors, i.e. nationality of father,
nationality of mother, religion and state of being bi-cultural
Hypothesis 5: adolescents whose fathers are of different nationalities have
different family environments
Table 19 Correlation between nationality of the father and the family
environment
x
SD T Sig.t
Thai
Non-Thai
31.05
30.64
3.06
2.99
1.148 .252
Table 19 Correlation between nationality of the father and the family environment
(cont.)
x
SD T Sig.t
Thai
Non-Thai
52.95
53.48
5.29
5.32
-.848 .397
Thai
Non-Thai
20.99
21.26
2.64
2.86
-.845 .399
Thai
Non-Thai
105.11
105.21
7.39
8.20
-.102 .919
From table 19 , displaying the correlation between nationality of the father and
the family environment, it was found adolescents whose fathers are of different
nationalities did not have different family environments. The finding rejected the
hypothesis.
Hypothesis 6: adolescents whose mother are of different nationalities have
Table 20 Correlation between nationality of the mother and the family
environment
x
SD T Sig.t
Thai
Non-Thai
30.94
30.73
3.05
3.01
.588 .557
Table 20 Correlation between nationality of the mother and the family environment
(cont.)
x
SD T Sig.t
Thai
Non-Thai
52.81
53.75
5.13
2.50
-1.503 .134
Thai
Non-Thai
21.01
21.26
2.67
2.84
-.768 .443
Thai
Non-Thai
104.87
105.54
7.19
8.52
-.729 .467
From table 20 , displaying the correlation between nationality of the mother
and the family environment, it was found adolescents whose mothers were of
different nationalities did not have different family environments. The finding
rejected the hypothesis.
Hypothesis 7: adolescents of different religion have different family
environments
Table 21 Correlation between religion and the family environment
Religion
x
S.D F-Test Sig.F
-Buddhist
-Christian
-Muslim
-Others
30.83
31.26
32.18
29.89
3.15
2.52
4.09
2.66
2.404 .068
Table 21 Correlation between religion and the family environment (cont.)
Religion
x
S.D F-Test Sig.F
-Buddhist
-Christian
-Muslim
-Others
52.45
54.82
55.09
53.62
5.15
4.89
5.26
6.10
3.837 .010*
-Buddhist
-Christian
-Muslim
-Others
20.91
21.26
22.27
21.57
2.75
2.70
3.40
2.54
1.383 .248
-Buddhist
-Christian
-Muslim
-Others
104.24
107.03
109.54
105.27
7.34
6.99
10.92
9.32
3.212 .023*
Table 28 shows that the values of variance the overall family environment
(.023) and in the personal growth dimensions (.010) were lower than the significant
level of .05, meaning that religion had a correlation to the overall family environment
and to the personal growth dimensions. In other words, adolescents of different
religions had different overall family environments and different environments in the
personal growth dimensions.
To determine the difference in the average value of the overall family
environment and in the personal growth dimensions as a pair based on religion, an
LSD Test was performed as shown in tables 22-23.
Table 22 Comparison of the difference in the overall family environment based on
religion
Family environment
Religion
(
x
)
S.D
1 2 3 4
Buddhist
Christian
Muslim
Other
104.24
107.03
109.54
105.27
7.34
6.99
10.92
9.32
-
*
*
-
*
-
-
-
*
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Table 22 shows that Buddhist adolescents ( x = 104.24) had lower family
environment as compared to Christian adolescents ( x = 107.03) and Muslim
adolescents ( x = 109.54)
Table 23 Comparison of the difference in the family environment in the personal
growth dimensions as a pair based on religion
Family environment
Religion
(
x
)
S.D
1 2 3 4
Buddhism
Christian
Muslim
Other
52.45
54.82
55.09
53.62
5.15
4.89
5.26
6.10
-
*
-
-
*
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Table 23, comparing the difference in the family environment in the personal
growth dimension as a pair based on religion, demonstrates that Buddhist adolescents
( x = 52.45) had lower family environment in the personal growth dimensions than
Christian adolescents ( x = 54.82).
Hypothesis 8: adolescents of different states of being bi-cultural have
Table 24 Correlation between the state of being bi-cultural and the family
environment
x
S.D F-Test Sig.F
-Thai adolescents in
international schools
-Mixed-race adolescents in
-Foreign adolescents in
30.95
30.54
30.84
3.05
3.27
2.92
.309 .735
52.78
52.86
53.90
5.28
5.56
5.21
1.469 .235
System Maintenance
dimension
21.03
20.63
21.44
2.61
2.92
2.83
1.500 .225
Table 24 Correlation between the state of being bi-cultural and the family
environment (cont.)
x
S.D F-Test Sig.F
104.84
104.18
105.96
7.16
9.06
8.01
1.014 .364
From table 24, showing the correlation between the state of being bi-cultural
and the family environment, it wasfound that Thai adolescents in international schools,
mixed-race adolescents in international schools or foreign adolescents in international
school did not have different overall family environments or in each of the dimensions
at the significant level of .05. The finding rejected the hypothesis.
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
This study explored the family environment of the children of early
adolescence who were studying at the middle school level in international schools.
The research placed an emphasis on bi-cultural adolescents and compared the
difference in family environment of the population in the study group based on the
different initial variables among the students at the middle school level in international
schools in the Bangkok area and periphery. The research used a questionnaire as the
tool for data collection. The sample group numbered 296 students. The findings are as
follows.
5.1. Family environment
The family environment of the adolescents comprised 3 main dimensions and
10 sub-components, which were found to be moderately favorable in general
( x = 2.62) and in every dimension, i.e. relationship dimensions ( x =2.56), personal
growth dimensions ( x =2.67) and system maintenance dimensions ( x =2.63). The
average for the personal growth dimensions was the highest among the three
dimensions. The finding that the family environment in this group was moderately
favorable corresponded with the research on similar topics by Nuchlada
Rojanaprapapan (1998: 111-112), Reungrong Hongsa (1997: 142), Pimjai Maitriprem
(1998: 85) but did not correspond to the study by Sopapan Wiangperm (1998: 124)
that has found the family environment of most adolescent students to be highly
favorable.
A closer analysis of the sub-components of each dimension shows the
following.
Nawarat Phayungkij Discussion / 82
In the relationship dimensions, the family environment of the sample group
was most favorable in terms of cohesion ( x = 2.85) and least favorable in terms of
conflict ( x = 2.22).
In the personal growth dimensions, the family environment of the adolescents
tended most toward active-recreation orientation ( x = 2.80) and least toward the
moral-religion orientation ( x = 2.42)
In the system maintenance dimensions, the family environment was more
favorable to organization ( x = 2.76) than to control ( x = 2.50).
All of this means that the adolescents belong to normal families with
peaceful environment without any extremity. In the relationship dimensions, cohesion
is high and conflict is relatively low. In the personal growth dimensions, since most of
the respondents are in early adolescence and are guided by their own personal
interests, which involve recreational and sporting activities, the answers therefore are
related to this area. On the other hand, moral and religious activities do not
particularly attract these adolescents and therefore receive low rating. As for the
system maintenance dimensions, it is found that most of the families gear toward
organization more than control, which demonstrates that these families allow freedom
that is a common characteristic of most modern families.
It can be said that the sample population for this research has been pre-
selected to a certain extent because families that can afford to send their children to
international schools have higher living standard and rather blissful lifestyle.
based on the variables of family factors comprising the parental
marital status, number of siblings, family type and family leading role
5.2.1 Parental marital status and the family environment
The results of the study did not show any difference in family environment
between adolescents whose parental marital status was different. This means that the
parental marital status, i.e. living together or separated, did not have a correlation to
the family environment in general and in each main dimension, which, however, did
not correspond to the literature review and the hypothesis.
Although it is generally believed that a blissful family environment should
require the presence of both the father and mother (Amornlak Akartwipas, 1999: 84-
85), but for this sample population, the conditions for the separation of the parents are
different and are not the result of a broken family. Most parents voluntarily live apart
due to professional reasons. The communication technology such as long-distance
phone calls, mobile phones or the internet all have a role to play in maintaining the
family relationships by fostering regular contacts among the parents and the children.
Even in the cases where the parents are divorced or deceased, other close relatives can
fill in. Moreover, single parents are becoming more adapt at their role and therefore do
not create any problem for the children.
5.2.2 Number of siblings and the family environment
The study showed that the different number of siblings did not result in
different family environment, thus demonstrating that the number of siblings did not
have a correlation to the family environment in general and in each main dimension,
which did not correspond to the hypothesis. The explanation may be that other
previous researches, that have found a correlation between the number of siblings and
the father-children relationship (Pantipa Neungtawee,1996: 97-98) or a correlation
between the number of siblings and the mother-daughter relationship (Premwadee
Awutkampreecha, 1997: 99) or a correlation between the number of siblings and the
children-parents relationship (Piyawadee Singpan, 200: 111), were all based on the
evaluation of the spouses or the parents. This research, however, is a survey of the
perception of the children in the family and may yield different results.
5.2.3 Family type and the family environment
The study showed that the adolescents of different family type, either a single
family (only the parents and the children) or an extended family (comprising the
parents, the children and other relatives), did not have different family environment.
This corresponded to the research by Pajongjit Pitakpakorn (2000: 128) that has found
that the factor regarding the size of the family did not have an influence on the
cohesion of the Thai families. It, nonetheless, contradicted the research by Jutanart
Padungjaroen (2000: 128) and Banpot Wiangnon (1999: 55) that has found a
correlation between the family type and the relationship in the family. It also did not
correspond to the research hypothesis that families of different sizes have different
family environments. This may be the result of the other factors that have not been
considered such as the frequency or quality of the communication among the members
of the family. The communication in a larger family may not be different from a
single family.
5.2.4 Family leading role and the family environment
The study showed that different family leading roles, i.e. father in the leading
role, mother in the leading role, and both father and mother in the leading role,
resulted in different family environments in general and in the system maintenance
dimensions. A pairing analysis found that the adolescents whose father and mother
were both in the leading role had more favorable family environment than those
whose mother was in the leading role. Similarly, the adolescents whose father and
mother were in the leading role equally also have more favorable family environment
in the system maintenance dimensions than those whose mother are in the leading
role, which corresponded to the research hypothesis.
However, the literature that has been reviewed involved the leading role
between spouses but did not lead to determination of relationship with other
dependent variables (Phanee Boonyakeukul ,1991: 136-137, Methanee Thaisomboon
,1995: 111-112, Jaroenpong Inkai ,1998: 43). This research, on the other hand,
showed that the family leading role was an important factor to the family environment
and played an important role in the development of family quality.
based on the variables of cultural factors comprising the nationality
of the father and mother, religion and state of being bi-cultural
5.3.1 Nationality of the father and mother and the family environment
The variables with regard to the nationality of the father and mother were
categorized as Thai and non-Thai. The study showed that the adolescents whose
parents were of different nationalities did not have different family environments,
meaning that the nationality of the father and mother did not have a correlation to the
family environment in general and in main dimensions. This did not correspond to the
research hypothesis and the literature review. However, the research of Humphry
Smith (1995: 193-200), that studied the foreign wives married to Thai men and
offered a qualitative research with in-depth data, may have better reflected the issues
in the study.
Moreover, the foreign population in this sample group was mostly Asian and
it was therefore likely that the child-rearing behaviors in this group were not different
from Thai families, which did not lead to a noticeable difference in the family
environment.
5.3.2 Religion and the family environment
The results of the study showed that adolescents of different religions had
different family environments in general and in the personal growth dimensions,
demonstrating that religion had a correlation to the family environment. A pairing
analysis showed that adolescents of Buddhism had less favorable family environment
in general than the Christian and Muslim adolescents. In the personal growth
dimensions, Buddhist adolescents had less favorable family environment than
Christian adolescents.
The discrepancy may be related to religious activities. Participation in
Buddhist religious activities in Thailand is rather informal and not on a regular basis
as opposed to the church-going habit of Christians on Sundays. Moreover, on other
occasions, Christian children also accompany their parents to attend religious
ceremonies according to the Christian values. Similarly, Muslims have strict code of
conducts and religious rules and laws. In this regard, family relationships that are
embedded in the context of religious processes are stronger and more favorable.
In terms of personal growth dimensions, the study did not in any way intend
to prove that a particular religion is superior to any other, but it merely reflected the
fact that participation in religious activities of adolescents of different religions did
have an impact on the larger dimension that was the family system.
5.3.3 State of being bi-cultural and the family environment
The results of the study showed that the 3 states of being bi-cultural, i.e.1)
Thai children in international schools, 2) mixed-race children in international schools,
and 3) foreign children in international schools, did not affect the family environment
in general and in the main dimensions, which meant that the state of being bi-cultural
did not have a correlation to the family environment and therefore did not correspond
to the research hypothesis. However, the literature review did not find many
researches with regard to this particular group of population.
The explanation for this lack of discrepancy may be that the sample group
has already shared a common characteristic, which is that all families have decided to
send their children to international schools, which have their own identity and status in
Thailand. This suggests that these families have similar values and child-rearing
practices. The multi-cultural education that draws on the cultural diversity of the
students also blends and teaches these children to compromise, which may affect their
evaluation of their own perception of the family environment. (Gollnick and Chin,
1994 : 44)
In summary, this study, by comparison of the variables of family factors of
the bi-cultural adolescents, found the difference in the family environment at a
significance level with regard to the variable of the family leading role, but not with
regard to other variables, i.e. parental marital status, number of siblings or family type.
As for the comparison of cultural factors comprising the nationality of the father and
mother, religion and state of being bi-cultural, there was a difference at a significance
level in only one variable, which was religion.
In a further study based on the research objectives, the researcher attempted
to find an intercorrelation between the two variables affecting the family environment
at a significance level, i.e family leading role and religion, using the 2-way ANOVA
and found that the two variables did not have a joint influence on the family
environment.
Nawarat Phayungkij Conclusions and Recommendations / 88
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study was an exploratory research that aimed to examine the family
environment and to compare the family environment based on the different
independent variables of the adolescents studying at the middle school level in
international schools in Bangkok and periphery, who belonged to two cultures that
were the native culture at home and a second culture in international schools.
The sample group consisted of students at the middle school level in the
academic year 2003 in 3 medium-sized international schools that gave permission for
the study. The data collection lasted from November 2003 to February 2004. Of all
the questionnaires that were returned, 296 completed questionnaires were selected for
this study.
The tool used in this research was the questionnaire that has been adapted
from standard questionnaires and has been evaluated by the experts. Native speakers
were also consulted with regard to the language used in the questionnaire since it was
to be used among English speaking population. It was then tested on adolescents in
another international school outside the capital that was similar to Bangkok and
periphery, who were also international students.
The data was collected through coordination and assistance of the school
management and the class teachers. The students were requested to complete the
questionnaires during the administrative period or during the session of the class
teacher. The questionnaires were collected on a later date.
The data analysis was based on the allocation of frequencies, percentages,
averages and standard deviation to explain the general characteristics of the
population, i.e. demographic data, data on family factors of the sample group, family
leading role, cultural factors and the family environment of the bi-cultural
adolescents.
The t-test, F-test and One Way Analysis of Variance were used to compare
the family environment of bi-cultural students based on the variables of family factors
consisting of parental marital status, number of siblings, family type and family
leading role, and also the variables of cultural factors, i.e. nationality of the father and
mother, religion and state of being bi-cultural.
The results of the research can be summarized as follows.
6.1 Summary of research results
6.1.1 Characteristics of the sample population
The sample group comprised students at the middle school level in 3
international schools in Bangkok and periphery, numbering 296 students; 52 % of
which were male and 48% were female. The average age was 13.5 years old and
56.1% were Thai nationality and 43.9% were non-Thai.
6.1.2 Family factors of the sample group
Of the 296 students, the parents of 83.1% of them were living together and
only 16.9% were separated.
Most of the population had 2-3 siblings, which was common in the majority
of families at present (73.3%), only 8.1% had more than 3 siblings and only 18.6%
were single child.
Most were single families (72.6%) and 27.4% were extended families.
6.1.3 Family factor with regard to the family leading role in the families
of bi-cultural adolescents
For this study, the family leading role was considered a family factor, which
was based on 4 aspects; activities relating to the children and the family members,
recreational activities, activities relating to external communication and activities
relating to expenses or financial matters. The study showed that most adolescents
were from the families where both the father and mother had the leading role ( x =
3.01) in general and in each dimension. But the comparison of the percentages in each
dimension where either the father or the mother was clearly in the leading role
showed that the mother was the leading decision maker with regard to the children
and the family members (24% for mother and 12.8% for father) and the expenses and
family finances (22.3% for mother and 12.5% for father) whereas the father was the
leading decision maker with regard to recreation (15.9% for father and 12.5% for
mother) and external communication (28.4% for father and 10.8% for mother).
6.1.4. Cultural factors of the sample group
56.1% of these adolescents had Thai mothers and 43.9% non-Thai. 50.7%
had Thai fathers as opposed to 49.3% who had non-Thai fathers. Most (61.8%) were
Buddhists, followed by Christians and Muslims. In terms of the state of being bi-
cultural, 47.6% were Thai children studying in international schools, followed by
37.5% foreign children in international schools and 14.9% mixed-race children.
6.1.5. Family environment of the families of bi-cultural adolescents
The study showed that the family environment of bi-cultural adolescents
based on their own perception was, in general, moderately favorable ( x = 2.62).
Comparison in each dimension showed that the family environment in the personal
growth dimensions was most favorable ( x = 2.67), followed by the system
maintenance dimensions ( x = 2.63) and relationship dimensions ( x = 2.56).
Consideration of the sub-components found the following;
In the relationship dimensions, the sample group had the most favorable
environment with regard to cohesion ( x = 2.85) and the least favorable with regard to
conflict ( x = 2.22), which meant they had least conflict.
In the personal growth dimensions, the adolescents had the most favorable
family environment with regard to recreation orientation ( x = 2.80) and the least
favorable with regard to the moral-religious orientations ( x =2.42).
In the system maintenance dimensions, the family environment was more
favorable with regard to organization ( x = 2.76) than control ( x = 2.50).
6.1.6. Comparison and correlation between variables
The independent variables for this research were the family factors and the
cultural factors. In terms of the family factors, the study found that one variable,
which was the family leading role, had a correlation to the family environment. In
terms of the cultural factors, the religion variable had a correlation to the family
environment. Those adolescents who reported that their father and mother are both in
the leading role had more favorable family environment than those whose mother
were in the leading role. With regard to religion, adolescents of different religions had
different family environments both in general and in the personal growth dimensions,
meaning that religion had a correlation to the family environment. The pairing
analysis showed that Buddhist adolescents had less favorable overall family
environment than Christian and Muslim adolescents. Similarly, in the personal growth
dimensions, Buddhist adolescents had less favorable family environment than
Christian adolescents.
6.2 Recommendations from the research
6.2.1 Recommendations based on the research results
The results showed that the family environment of bi-cultural adolescents
was moderately favorable. Although a detailed analysis pointed to the satisfactory
tendency toward a low level of conflict and control, it may be useful for those who are
particularly interested in or directly involved with this group of population to find
ways and means to further enhance the relationships in the families to render the
family environment even more favorable.
The research found that family leading role and religion had a correlation to
the family environment, thus confirming the importance of these two components to
the family quality. In other words, religion was the essence of most families.
According to Nocholas Stimett (1983, 27-38), one of the 6 important characteristics
for family of quality includes strong religious faith, adherence to religious teachings,
and participation in religious activities that promote relationships and favorable
environment in the family. Every religion is universal and therefore has a greater
influence than any other cultural factors such as nationality of the father and mother
or state of being bi-cultural. With regard to the family leading role, it can be deduced
that the relationship between the parents is an important factor in the development of
family environment, whereas other specific or intrinsic components, except religion,
do not have influence on the family environment.
Nevertheless, the test for variables that had significance level using 2-WAY
ANOVA did not find any joint influence between the family leading role and religion
on the family environment. But if the relevant parties can use the combination of
these two factors to further develop the quality of the families that are not limited to
only those in the sample group, e.g. using the religious activities as the center to
cultivate mutual roles of the spouses, it will be beneficial to a certain extent.
6.2.2. Limitations in the research
The researcher intended to study the population in the international schools
who are both Thai students and foreign students from Asia, Europe and the United
States. But during the initial access to the population, there was a problem in getting
permission to distribute the questionnaires due to the security concerns of the school
management;
1. The schools were concerned about the security of the students because the
period scheduled for data collection followed the occurrence of several terrorist
attacks in many countries. The school management had then to increase their security
measures especially in those schools where there were western or American students,
which affected the school policy with regard to permission for external contacts with
the students.
2. The schools felt obligated to protect the privacy of the students, parents
and the schools themselves, leading to unwillingness to disclose information about the
students.
The reasons above resulted in the modification of the sample group from
large to medium-sized international schools where the school management or the
headmaster had an interest or a more favorable attitude toward supporting researches
of the college students from academic institutions in the host country. This
modification resulted in a decrease in the number of western students that were
expected to be studied and a greater conformity in the sample group.
6.2.3. Recommendations for further researches
6.2.3.1 This research is a preliminary introduction to the population
of bi-cultural adolescents that still has certain limitations. Those who are interested in
further research may study a larger group, which may be possible through formal
coordination and support from the international schools, which will ensure that the
research objectives are more accurately met.
6.2.3.2 It may be interesting to study the family environment in
other age groups such as the late adolescence or college students as well as other
groups such as spouses in cross marriages.
6.2.3.3 It is recommendable to study additional variables such as the
child-rearing practices, or to determine the correlation between the family
environment and other dependent variables such as self esteem or self competency.
6.2.3.4 For the future research, it may be useful to create sub groups
with regard to the number of siblings into a group of 2 and 3 siblings because at
present, the majority of Thai families have 2-3 siblings, which does not allow for
sufficient differentiation.
6.2.3.5 The study of family environment or other related issues may
be strengthened by the use of qualitative research that will lead to more in-depth data
and analysis.
Nawarat Phayungij Bibliography / 94
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APPENDIX
Nawarat Phayungij Appendix A/ 102
APPENDIX A
The questionnaire
Explanation :
This survey has an aim to investigate the environment within the family of the
students.
There is no correct or incorrect answers for these questions. It is your
freedom to put or choose the answer in accordance with the facts and on your
own idea.
Data collected from you will be used as the materials for my research in
fulfillment of Master Degree Programme. You are the real important
contributor for my achievement. Please accept my true thanks and
gratefulness.
Ms. Nawarat Phayungkij
Population Education Programme
Faculty of Social Sciences and
Humanities , Mahidol University
Part I
Please check in and put the answer which explains yourself in
1. Your age
2 Sex
3. In what grade you are studying :
4. What is your nationality ..
5. What is your religion
Christian
Buddhist
Muslim
Hindu
Sikh
Undecided
Other (Please specify) ..
Part II
Please read the following statements and decide to what extent each of these
listed below is false or true about your family. Check in the box which best
expressed your family experiences
Statement
False Mostly
False
Mostly
True
Totally
True
1. Family members really help and support
one another
2. Family members often keep their feeling to
themselves
3. We fight a lot in our family
4. We dont do things on our own very often
in our family
5. We feel it is important to be the best at
whatever youdo
6. We often talk about political and social
problems
Statement
False Mostly
False
Mostly
True
Totally
True
7.We spend most weekends and evenings at
home
8. Family member attend church, synagogue
or Sunday School fairly often
9. Activities in our family are pretty carefully
planned
10. Family member are rarely ordered around
11. We often seem to be killing time at home
12. We say anything we want to around home
13. Family members rarely become openly
angry
14. In our family we are strongly encouraged
to be independent
15. Getting ahead in life is very important in
our family
16. We rarely goes to lectures, play or
concerts
17. Friends often come over for dinner or to
visit
18. We dont say prayers in our family
19. We are generally very neat and orderly
20. There are very few rules to follow in our
family
21. We put a lot of energy into what we do at
home
22. Its hard to blow off steam at home
without upsetting somebody
23. Family members sometime get so angry
they throw things
24. We think things out for ourselves our
family
25. How much money a person makes is not
very important to us
26. Learning about new and different things is
very important in our family
27. Nobody in our family is active in sports,
little league, bowling etc.
28. We believe there are some things you just
have to take on faith
29. Its often hard to find things when you
need them in our household
30. There are set ways of doing things at
home
31. There is a feeling of togetherness in our
family
Statement
False Mostly
False
Mostly
True
Totally
True
32. We tell each other about our personal
problems
33. Family members hardly ever loose their
temper
34. We come and go as we want to in our
family
35. We believe in competition and may the
best man win
36. We are not interested in cultural activities
37. We often go to the movies, sport events,
camping etc.
38. Family members believe that if you sin
you will be punished
39. Being on time is very important in our
family
40. There is a strong emphasis on following
rules in our family
Part III
1. What is your parents present status :
Married and stay together
Married but stay separately
Divorce
Widow
2. What is your mothers nationality ..
3. What is your fathers nationality ..
4. How many brothers/sisters do you have (including yourself) :
1 (I am a single child)
2-3
more than 3 (please specify)
5. How many family members living the same house as you _______ They are :
Mother
Father
Sisters / Brothers , number
Grand parents , number
Others , please specify
Part V
Read the following statement and check in the box which most describes your
parents decision making behavior as perceived/recalled by you. If you cannot answer
any questions, please skip those questions.
Statement
My father
mostly
takes the
lead
My father
takes more
lead than
my mother
My
father &
my
mother
have
equal
decision
role
My
mother
takes
more
lead than
my father
My
mother
mostly
takes the
lead
Who takes the lead in :
1.making decision when you
want to stay overnight outside
2. making decision where to go
for vacation
3. selecting the physician when
you/family members fall sick
4. making decision on daily
expenses of family
5. settling down the conflicts
between you and your siblings
or among the other family
members
6. making decision where to eat
out or to see the movies
7. being the family
representative or assigning the
representative in contacting
social units
8. making decision in buying
costly household equipment
such as refrigerator, TV, air
conditioner
consuming products in the
family
10. being consulted when you or
the family members have
personal difficulties
Statement
My father
mostly
takes the
lead
My father
takes more
lead than
my mother
My
father &
my
mother
have
equal
decision
role
My
mother
takes
more
lead than
my father
My
mother
mostly
takes the
lead
Who takes the lead in :
11.being the family
representative or assigning the
representative in participating in
social get together
things on installment condition
13.scolding or punishing you
when you go out of the line
14. making decision when want
to visit the relatives together
15. making decision in career
change or family business plan
Nawarat Phayungij Appendix B / 108
Appendix B
Name of the experts
Names of the experts who reviewed contents validity of the questionnaire
1. Asst.Prof. Panee Vong-ek
Institute for Population and Social Research,
Mahidol University
2. Dr. Wirot Watananimitgul
Master of Education Programme in Curriculum and Instruction,
Rajabhat Bansomdejchaophraya University
3. Mr. William Berglund
Principal, The American School of Bangkok
BIOGRAPHY
NAME Ms. Nawarat Phayungkij
DATE OF BIRTH 30 November 1970
PLACE OF BIRTH Suratthanee, Thailand
INSTITUTIONS ATTENDED Chulalongkorn University, 1987- 1990
Bachelor of Arts
Mahidol University, 1999 - 2004
Master of Arts (Population Education)
HOME ADDRESS 30/3 Moo 2 Pechkasem 79 Nongkhaem
Bangkok 10160
028088847

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THE FAMILY ENVIRONMENT OF BI-CULTURAL

ADOLESCENTS AT INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS

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