Taste and Flavour

The Creator, in making man eat in order to live,

persuaded him by appetite and rewarded him by pleasure. (Jean Anthelme Brillat !avarin, "#$%& 'n this se(tion we e)plore *lavour, *o(using on using the available s(ienti*i( knowledge to help (he*s and other *ood industry pro*essionals to develop new (on(epts, te(hni+ues and re(ipes. As (he* Andoni ,uis Aduri- o* the *amous Bas+ue restaurant .ugarit- writes (in (ollaboration with Arboleya et al($//#&, 0(ooking and s(ien(e are well pla(ed to work in harmony *or both the development and reali-ation o* innovative and 1healthy2 dishes. 3hilestudying how, at 4F,, s(ienti*i( knowledge (an help (he*s utili-e the *ull potential o* ingredients, novelty should not be pursued *or it5s own sake. 3hile new te(hni+ues (an and should be used when relevant, these are tools to a(hieve an end, the end being more important than the means (Adria et al $//6&. Components o* *lavour per(eption (i& (ii& Tastes 7 per(eived soluble mole(ules in the mouth, (ommonly Aroma 7 ortho nasal per(eption through the nostrils on inhale it is suggested listed as the tastes *or sweet, salt, sour, bitter, umami. and retro nasal per(eption whi(h o((urs during e)hale 7 (!hepard, $/"$&. (iii& Trigeminal nerve sensations that in(lude (hemesthesis (pungen(y (garli(&, hotness ((hili& or *reshness (mint&& as well as *eelings o* temperature, pain, te)ture, tou(h et(. (iv& (v& 8ther senses, *or e)ample audition and vision, may play an Comple) e(ologi(al parameters su(h as hunger level, e**e(t on per(eived *ood *lavour. e)pe(tan(y, (ultural ba(kground, so(ial situation or an)iety may also have an e**e(t on per(eived *lavour. The most important thing in *ood preparation is a(hieving a deli(ious *lavour. 9verything else (omes se(ond. 't has been shown again and again that the *lavour o* a *ood is key to its a((eptability (Ahn, $/"". :losse et al, $//;&.

that humans are parti(ularly well adapted *or retro nasal odor per(eption

Taste and smell are the body5s prin(iple me(hanism *or assessing the (hemi(al (omposition o* *oods, *or both nutrients and to)i(ity (Chandrasekhar, $//6<,.orini, $//=<, !ell, $//6&. They are known as the >(hemi(al senses5 and they are the oldest senses we have. 3e are rewarded by *ood that gives us nutrients with good taste, we *ind (ertain *oods pleasurable, be(ause they bene*it us. >?uot sapit nutrit5 (*rom ,atin as@ >'* it tastes good, it5s good *or you5&. From the perspe(tive o* a >Aarwinian gastronome5 humans have evolved tastes *or (ertain (hemi(als whi(h give us pleasure be(ause o* their nutritional bene*its, not *or some innate *eature o* the ingredient itsel* (Aarwinian gastronomy 7 de*ined by !herman et al ($//%&, re*ers to the phenomenon by whi(h man has evolved taste pre*eren(es *or *oods whi(h have led to >evolutionary5 bene*its, *or e)ample, health and *itness&. Bre*eren(es evolve to mat(h the *oods whi(h bene*it us, (!herman $//%, .orini $//=, .eyerho*, $//%&. ?uite (lear e)amples o* this phenomenon (an be seen in some o* the basi( tastes. For e)ample, sweetness is an indi(ator o* sugar levels, thereby sweetness is a key in re(ogni-ing ri(h (alorie sour(es in our environment. The taste umami is triggered prin(ipally by the amino a(id Clutamate. Amino a(ids are the basi( building blo(ks o* proteins, so by this logi( the human desire to eat *oods per(eived as umami (an be seen as a biologi(al and evolved me(hanism o* re(ogni-ing proteins in our *ood environment, rewarding the body with pleasure when we *ind them. 8ur aversion to (ertain tastes, su(h as the overly a(idi(< or smells, su(h as that o* amines or mer(aptans, is almost (ertainly an evolved me(hanism to steer us away *rom to)i( substan(es or *ood spoiled by ba(terial de(omposition, and thereby away *rom *ood poisoning (!ell $//6&. 'ndeed some parti(ularly striking e)amples o* this o((ur in the (ultural phenomena o* spi(ing *ood. !pi(es, due to their high bioa(tivity and pharma(ologi(al properties have been the *o(us o* e)tensive studies, many o*whi(h suggest that these ingredients have been sele(ted through human e)perimentation over millennia on a((ount o* their anti mi(robial properties (!herman and Dash, $//"< !herman, $//%&. 8ne e)ample o* humans *inding plants with parti(ular aromas appealing (an be *ound with .yrrh (resin o*Commiphora abyssinica&. .yrrh has been used in per*umery, and *ood preparation sin(e an(ient times. (!ell, $//6& 't Eust happens to have very strong anti*ungal and antiba(terial properties 7 a

(oin(iden(e that we *ind su(h a potent medi(al produ(t pleasurableF Brobably not. To *orm part o* a (ultural (a(he (the (omplete (olle(tion o* (ultural knowledge o* a given so(iety&, a re(ipe must prove use*ul to a (ulture. The *itness o* an ingredient or te(hni+ue to *orm part o* a traditional (uisine is at least in part de*ined by the *lavour it gives (as well as nutritional bene*its&. As (ultural ideas are (ross *ertili-ed with (ultural migrations and (ommer(ial e)(hanges instead o* instead o* an inevitable homogeni-ation o* *ood (ultures, an overall in(rease o* the diversity o* lo(al *ood (ultures may be e)pe(ted. This is due to ea(h so(iety using imported (ustoms in their (apa(ity as bri(oleurs they use mi)tures o* an ever in(reasing number o* available ingredients and te(hni+ues to (reate new ways o* eating (.ontanari, .assimo ($//#& adapted *rom personal (onversation &. At 4F, a (ons(ious e**ort is made to e)pand this (onstant building on past e)perien(e aiming to (reate new pillars o* lo(al gastronomy in a diverse world. 'n any traditional situation, the number o* re(ipes held within a (ulture is never su**i(ient to (ompletely e)plore the possibilities o* available ingredients and even in the (ase o* the invasion o* a new ingredient, whi(h has high level o* *itness to be adapted to a lo(al (uisine, the (han(es o* the said ingredient ever (ompletely repla(ing the lo(al analogue is low, as with the passing o* time, lo(al produ(ts and pro(esses be(ome in some sense *ro-en in (ulture(:inou(hi et al, $//#&. 3e (an note a type o* gastronomi( >*ounder e**e(t5 analogous to that o* evolutionary biology within ingredient sele(tion patterns. The >*ounder e**e(t5 is a loss o* diversity due to a small number o* individuals starting an isolated population, or, in our gastronomi( analogue, a small number o* ingredients available to a so(iety during its early development, may mean that the so(iety develops te(hni+ues *or pro(essing limited numbers o* ingredients, and never *ully adapts to alien te(hni+ues or ingredients. The pra(ti(e o* this means that regardless o* the invasion by alien ingredients and re(ipes, the idiosyn(rasies o* a lo(al (uisine will rarely disappear. (:inou(hi et al, $//#& 3hile *ear o* (ultural >dilution5 is (ompletely understandable, some mi)ing is inevitable. Berhaps we should en(ourage adopting *oreign ingredients or (ultural pra(ti(es, i.e. re(ipes and te(hni+ues and assimilating them into our own (ultures, but only i* they (an *ind a suitable pla(e within the (ulture. They will only add to the

wealth o* ingredients with whi(h one (an e)periment. 'ndeed, the #th point in The .ani*esto o* a 4ew 4ordi( Cuisine states this purpose (learly@
To (ombine the best in 4ordi( (ookery and (ulinary traditions with

impulses *rom abroad. 'n trying to dis(over new dishes, many have looked *or patterns or systems o* logi( used in *lavour (ombinations. Barti(ularly interesting theories have emerged re(ently, espe(ially the *lavour pairing hypothesis that was put *orward in "GG$ by Deston Blumenthal o* The Fat Au(k and Fran(ois Ben-i o* Firmeni(h. The theory states that *oods that share prominent *lavour (ompounds, will sit harmoniously together. This theory was taken *orward by the Belgian,Bernard ,ahousse *ounder o* the website www.*oodpairing.(om, and a*ter lengthy e)perimentation by other top Belgian (he*s, su(h as !ang Doon Aengiembre o* ,5Air du Temps and !ergio Derman o* 8ul !luis the website now re(eives (onsiderable attention *rom *ood and beverage pro*essionals. By analy-ing aromati( pro*iles o* ingredients using gas (hromatography (oupled mass spe(trometry (CC .!& ingredients are inserted into a database. Following this ingredients (an be looked at in a tree *ormat, with all the other ingredients with whi(h there was a (ross over o* aromati( (ontent (!ee (u(umber *lavour >tree5 below&. This system is now used by some o* the world5s top (he*s as a methodology o* dis(overing new *lavour (ombinations. Brevious e)amples o* these have been, (aviar with white (ho(olate, liver with Easmine, bee* with (o**ee or (ho(olate and blue (heese. Dowever the prevalen(e o* shared (ompounds should be taken only as an indi(ator o* (ompatibility, and may not show in any way, how ingredients may have been used in traditional (uisine.

Food pairing tree o* (u(umber (Aownloaded *rom Foodpairing.(om, $/"$& At 4F, when investigating new seasonings and spi(es a period was spent dehydrating many di**erent *oods, and powdering them in order to obtain spi(es that (an be used many ways. 't was dis(overed that peeled (u(umber responded parti(ularly well to this treatment. 3hile attempting to *ind uses *or this (possibly& >new5 spi(e (whi(h has a surprisingly >middle eastern5 *lavour&, it was *ound that looking at the *lavour pairing tree *or (u(umber gave us lists o* ingredients and many ideas *or (ombinations.

Beeled (u(umber dehydrated at 6/HC (above& Butting the *ood pairing hypothesis to the test, resear(hers Ahn et al ($/"" &, studied patterns o* ingredient (ombination in %6,;G# di**erent re(ipes. Ising topologi(al network patterns between re(ipes, it was *ound that patterns in *lavour (ombinations di**ered relative to geographi(al lo(ation. 't seems that (ombination prin(iples may not trans(end *ood (ultures. 'n 4orth Ameri(an and 3estern 9uropean (uisines there is a high likelihood o* re(ipes where ingredients share *lavour (ompounds. Dowever 9ast Asian and southern 9uropean re(ipes were more likely to avoid *lavour (ompound overlap (Ahn, $/""&.

4odes are ingredients, linked i* they

share at least one (ompound. The thi(kness o* links represents the number o* *lavour (ompounds two ingredients share and the si-e o* ea(h (ir(le (orresponds to the prevalen(e o* the ingredients in re(ipes. (Craphi( and (aption, Ahn $/""&

Analy-ing pre e)isting re(ipes is one way o* trying to give some logi( to re(ipe invention. By using s(ienti*i( algorithms *or both (ombination and pro(essing, predi(tive models o* (ookery e)perimentation may be born, hope*ully leading to a predi(tion o* a((eptability o* a plate, be*ore it is (reated, this providing alink *rom theories to pra(ti(al problem solving, thereby allowing (he*s to (reate relatively *ewer e)periments, to a(hieve (al(ulated results. An analysis o* the most su((ess*ul plates o* "# .i(helin starred (he* in the 4etherlands led :losse et al ($//;& to the (on(lusion that there were various things whi(h all o* these plates held in (ommon. 't was hypothesi-ed that the palatability and a((eptan(e o* dishes by diners (an be improved by remembering the *ollowing >(ulinary su((ess *a(tors5. Culinary !u((ess Fa(tors (i& (ii& (iii& (iv& (v& (vi& 4ame and presentation *it the e)pe(tation Appeti-ing smell that *its the *ood Cood balan(e o* *lavour (omponents in relation to the *ood Bresen(e o* umami taste 'n mouth *eel a mi) o* hard and so*t te)tures Digh *lavour ri(hness (:losse

et al, $//;&

't is now worth a brie* e)ploration o* ea(h o* these points, (i& Jeomans et al ($//=& have *ound that name and presentation may be less important with highly novel *oods su(h as the smoked salmon i(e (ream with whi(h they e)perimented. (ii& Aromas should mat(h (olours, as diners may dis(ount their nasal per(eption on a((ount o* misleading in*ormation available *rom the visual senses. (.orrot, $//"& (iii& Flavour balan(e should be kept, not serving any dishes that are too ri(h in any o* the % basi( tastes. 't is worth noting that in nature, o*ten sweet and sour tastes (ome together (*or e)ample in *ruit&. !alty and umami tastes are*re+uently served together, *or e)ample with salted meat, although the salt normally (omes through human addition. .any *lavours in nature are not parti(ularly sensitive to (on(entration@ add more

apri(ot to yogurt@ it be(omes sweeter and more a(idi( and it will taste more o* apri(ot, this (an be (ontinued until there is only the apri(ot with a tiny amount o* yogurt, it may serve a di**erent purpose, but i* it5s a good apri(ot it will not be out o* balan(e (Taylor, $//$ &. 3ith power*ul seasonings and spi(es it is important to remember that too mu(h (an be overwhelming. (iv& 4ot only , Clutamate is per(eived as umami. 8ther mole(ules, su(h as %5 '.B and %5 C.B are highly synergisti( with glutamate, very small +uantities (an in(rease overall umami taste and hedoni( rating (Khang et al, $//#& (.ore on this in a later post&. (v& 't was seen in the report as (ru(ial to have a mi)tures o* te)tures in a (ertain plate. For e)ample having something (rispy or (run(hy on one side with something Eui(y, (reamy or moist on the other (:losse et al, $//%&. Arawing *rom humanitarian s(ien(es, perhaps it is interesting at this point to (onsider how meals were (onstru(ted to be (onsidered balan(ed in the times when Dippo(rati( medi(ine was the prevalent dieteti( do(trine. The strength (*or a (he*& o* this philosophi(al approa(h to diet (onstru(tion is the emphasis on balan(e. 'n order to obtain this balan(e the diet, and *or our uses perhaps the individual plate should be balan(ed between the *our elements< air, *ire, earth and water< in order to maintain a stable humor. 9a(h o* the elements, was held as having its parti(ular +ualities@ air whi(h is hot and moist< *ire, being hot and dry< earth being dry and (old and water, whi(h is (old and wet. 'n this system o* dieteti(s, a balan(ed plate o* *ood would represent ea(h o* the *our elements so as not to (ause dietary imbalan(e in the (onsumer. ' suggest that by using this an(ient philosophy, (he*s (an (onstru(t plates whi(h represent (i* only to themselves& ea(h o* the *our, thereby giving a *ramework on whi(h to build an aestheti(ally balan(ed meal. !ee diagram below o* the hippo(rati( elements. (vi& Flavour ri(hness (an be improved by many te(hni+ues. Dowever, without adEusting the *ood itsel*, more *lavour (ompounds are released with in(reased masti(ation. As *ood parti(les are broken down to in(reasingly small si-es by masti(ation more volatile parts leave the *ood and are per(eived as retro nasal aroma. .asti(ation also allows a greater sur*a(e area o* the *ood to be e)posed to digestive en-ymes, thus in(reasing nutrient absorption. Food masti(ation (an be in(reased by thinning the saliva (This, $//$&. This works be(ause the diner must (hew

more in order to a(hieve a homogenous paste that (an be swallowed. Tannins have the e**e(t o* pre(ipitation salivary proteins (BaEe( and Bi(kering, $//G&, whi(h is why we *eel grainy parti(les in our mouths when we drink tanni( wine or eat astringent *ruit. This has the e**e(t o* meaning a diner will have to (hew more to *orm bolus, thus allowing them to enEoy the release o* aroma *or their retro nasal bene*it.

The Dippo(rati( elements, whi(h may help (he*s to (onsider varieties o* te)ture and temperature.

About the author .y 4ame is Ben Leade, '5m a (he* *rom 9dinburgh, !(otland, and *or the past M.% years ' have been studying at The Iniversity o* Castronomi( !(ien(es in Bollen-o, 'taly. For my *inal thesis, ' (ame to 4ordi( Food ,ab to resear(h many subEe(ts where my varied interests inerla(ed with those o* the ,ab. The resear(h arose out o* time spent at the 4ordi( Food ,ab between $G !eptember and $$ Ae(ember $/"". The aim is to des(ribe 4F,5s (urrent resear(h to both (he*s and non spe(iali-ed readers, e)plaining and (oding the (reative and s(ienti*i( methodologies employed during the resear(h at 4F,, e)ploring their appli(ation in *ood e)perimentation and innovation. 8ver the ne)t month or so ' will be breaking down this thesis into manageable blog style (hunks, this is (hunk $ o* around $% ' hope you *ind it interesting. '* you want to ask me any +uestions dire(tly, '5m (onta(table on Twitter Nbenreade.

Bibliography

Ahn, J .J . et al ($/""& Flavour network and the prin(iples o* *ood pairing,Scientific Reports " @ "G6. Adria, F. et al ($//6& !tatement on the >new (ookery5, The Observer "/ Ae(ember $//6 Arboleya, J.C. et al ($//=& From the (he*s mind to the dish@ how s(ienti*i( approa(hes *a(ilitate the (reative pro(ess, Bresented at the (on*eren(eDelivery of Functionality in Complex Food Systems, I!A. BaEe(, ..L. and Bi(kering, C.J. ($//G& Astringen(y@ me(hanisms and per(eption Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition ;# @ #%#. :inou(hi, 8. et al ($//#& The none+uillibrium nature o* (ulinary evolution,New Journal of hysics "/ http@OOar)iv.orgOpd*O/#/$.;MGM :losse, B.L. et al ($//;& The *ormulation and evaluation o* (ulinary su((ess *a(tors (C!Fs& that determine the palatability o* *ood, Food Service Technolo!y ; @ "/=. .eyerho*, 3. ($//%& 9lu(idation o* mammalian bitter taste, Reviews of hysiolo!y, "iochemistry and haramacolo!y "%; @ M=. .orini, C. ($//=& .ole(ular aspe(ts o* taste, Castronomi( !(ien(es $ @;$. !ell, C.!. (ed& ($//6& The Chemistry of fra!rances from perfumer to Consumer, Loyal !o(iety o* Chemistry, Cambridge, I:. !hepard, C. .. ($/"$& 4eurogastronomy@ how the brain (reates *lavour and why it matters, Columbia #niversity ress, I!A !herman, B.3. and Dash, C.A. ($//"& 3hy vegetable re(ipes are not spi(y,$volution % &uman "ehaviour $$ @ ";=. !herman, B.3. and Billing, J. ($//%& Aarwinian gastronomy@ why we use spi(es, "ioscience, ;G @ ;%M. Talon, L. et al ($//;& Ary *ermented sausages, in Dui J .D. et al. (eds &,&andboo' of Food and "evera!e Fermentation Technolo!y( pp. ;%= ;=G, CLC Bress. This, D. ($//$& )olecular *astronomy, Translated by AeBevoise Columbia Iniversity Bress, I!A. Jeomans, .. L. et al ($//#& The role o* e)pe(tan(y in sensory and hedoni( evaluation@ the (ase o* smoked salmon i(e (ream, Food +uality and reference "G@ %%6. Khang, F. et al ($//#& .ole(ular me(hanism *or the umami taste synergism, roceedin!s of the National ,cademy of Sciences #S, "/% @ $/GM/