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By: Tom Pyzdek The elements of continuous-flow work cells I n my training courses [1], I teach how to change a traditional batch-and-queue value stream into a lean value stream. Although thats valuable information on its own, in this article I want to discuss the design of the actual work that will take place within the processes of the value stream. By going a level deeper, we will be able to improve the flow of work within the different processes in the value stream. Specifically, I will explain how to design continuous-flow work cells. The discussion here focuses mainly on manufacturing work cells, but the lean principles described apply to any work, including that done in administrative, transaction, or services such as health care, retail, and so on.
Selecting subprojects
The first step is to identify subprojects within the value stream. Subprojects, sometimes called project loops, are determined by looking at the future-state value-stream map and choosing groups of related processes in the value stream for improvement analysis. Each subproject will require a different team with its own set of knowledge, skills, and abilities. However, it is desirable to have at least one member of the lean Six Sigma team who participates on all of the subproject teams. Once subprojects are identified, the lean Six Sigma team must decide which to pursue first, second, and so on. It is a good idea to begin at the customer end of the value stream and work backward. This provides the customer with improved service that they can see and feel quickly. Another criterion is that the pacemaker process should be improved early, because it sets the pace for the rest of the value stream. The inside-out rule should be observed: Get your own house in order before extending your improvement efforts to include the value streams of
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outside customers and suppliers. Of course, your decision regarding the starting point should also take into account the likelihood that the subproject will have a big effect on the business and its customers.
Elements of work
Figure 1 shows the relationship between value streams, processes, operations, workplaces, and procedures in creating value. The relationship is hierarchical. To implement lean all levels of the hierarchy are considered. In designing work cells we will go deeper than the process level and look at the design of operations, including the layout of workplaces and the standard procedures followed to perform the work in each operation. Such operations are known as standard operations because the way work is performed follows strict standard procedures.
Figure 1: Value-creation hierarchy Processes are distinct sets of operations nested within a value stream. In the context of designing continuous-flow work cells in lean Six Sigma, we focus primarily on the things in a process that inhibit flow, such as: Nonvalue-added process steps on the opportunity map The distance people, materials, or work-in-process (WIP) travel between process steps Changeover, setup, and adjustment time (discussed below) The root causes that create quality issues that are responsible for scrap, rework, or problems downstream
In lean Six Sigma we design work cells that improve the process as well as the specific operations within a cell. We get into nitty-gritty details of the work itself, considering fixtures, workplace layout, how materials are handled and moved, and the movement of various workers. The transfer of work elements (i.e., small units of work) between workers is carefully considered. Work is the sum of all of the work elements required to create one complete unit through the entire value stream.
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The rigorous study of efficient work design by Ralph Barnes predates lean Six Sigma by several decades.1 As a lean Six Sigma Black Belt or Green Belt, you should take advantage of this by learning the principles discovered long ago. Here are those principles most relevant to the design of work cells. You will see that we draw on these principles heavily when we discuss specific recommendations for work cells. Knowing the principles on which lean Six Sigma is based will help you understand why the recommendations are made, and it will make it possible for you to go beyond lean Six Sigma to discover improvements of your own.
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sitting and standing at work are easily possible. A chair of the type and height to permit good posture should be provided for every worker.
Considerations
What do we need to produce? How many and when? How fast do we need to produce in order to meet customer demand (takt)? Goal: produce precisely this much just in time.
Takt time
Takt time is used here when developing the continuous flow cell. You will recall that takt time, which is synonymous with cycle time in lean, is calculated as takt time = effective daily operating time / required quantity per day. Once this has been calculated, the amount of work for each worker is determined so he can work at a constant cycle time. No extra margin or fudge factor is allowed. In addition to takt, the team also determines the speed, degree of skill, and other standards required. New workers are considered trainees until they are able to consistently produce quality work at the required rate. As with value-stream design, the work cell uses takt time as the standard cycle time. Because no fudge factor or unplanned downtime is included in the calculation, waste becomes obvious. There will also be individual differences in ability that will emerge. Although all workers are required to match takt time, some people will be able to produce faster than others. Allowing them to do so in a work cell would be counterproductive; it would merely result in accumulated work-in-process inventory. The work cell must be designed to productively utilize the skills of the superior workers for the benefit of the team and the company. More about this later.
Considerations
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How fast do we need to produce in order to meet customer demand (takt)? Goal: produce precisely this much just in time.
Figure 2: Work-element time data Figure 2 shows an example of a process study that recorded the time it took three different people to place a part in a weld jig. Five times were observed for each person, the times recorded, and statistics calculated. Based on these data, the team will determine the standard time for this work element. (What would you choose to be the standard time? 3) I suggest that work elements be timed by recording several cycles with a camera and evaluating the recording off line. You can use the video timeline to identify precisely when an operation starts and stops, or you can get this information with the pause button and a stopwatch.
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Take a look at figure 2 again. Note that Worker B takes longer than either Worker A or Worker C. Such person-to-person variability is to be expected; people are different, after all. In the work cell design for multiple workers, you want to arrange overlap in areas of responsibility so the faster workers can help whenever the slower workers fall behind. Lean recognizes its the team, not the individual worker that produces value. It makes no sense to have the faster workers in a cell producing at a rate that exceeds takt while slower workers produce at a rate less than takt. People must work together to help their company compete. Once you have the cycle time data for all of the work elements, you can combine the data to determine the overall production capacity. Figure 3 shows this analysis for a machining process. The production capacity (column I) is based on the net operating time per day, which does not include scheduled breaks or lunch (cell I7, 51,600 seconds) divided by the total time per piece. The production capacity for the machining process is the smallest production capacity for all required operations. In this case, the value is 506 units, the production capacity for the Bore 10 mm ID operation. Because this exceeds the quantity needed per day of 255 (cell I5,) this process has adequate capacity, assuming unplanned downtime, scrap, etc. are held in check.
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Coming up
In Part 2 of this series we will discuss bottlenecks, autonomation, flexible machines, and workplace arrangement.
Footnotes 1. Barnes, Ralph M. Motion and Time Study Measurement of Work (1937; reprinted 1980 by John Wiley & Sons). This is the classic, seminal work on the subject, and these principles are still relevant today. 2. Gravity feed bins, gravity chutes, and other mechanisms that drop the needed parts and tools to the proper place for use by the worker or for moving the part(s) to the next operation. 3. I would choose 5 seconds. It is close to the overall mean, and its the average of the three medians and also the average of the three modes. 4. Cost accounting systems are often designed to measure output from individual pieces of equipment rather than from value streams. These systems need to be modified to accurately measure the lean value stream; failure to do this can undermine the entire lean Six Sigma program.
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http://www.qualitydigest.com/print/11574
7/1/2010