LESSON ONE THE BASIC KNOWLEDGE FOR CALCULUS 1. An important tautology for using in a proof 1.1 p 1.3 p 1.

5 1.7 1.9 1.11 1.13 1.15 2 REAL NUMBERS Real numbers consist of counting numbers, integers, rational numbers and irrational numbers. Co-ordinate lines or real lines amount to the straight line lying below. An each of number of real Numbers correspond to only one point on the real line The point replacing a digit zero is called an origin. All points lying on the right-hand replace positive Real numbers, Definition1.1 Let a,b 1. a 3. a The numbers 0,1, There exist the numbers 0,1 2. 1b 4. b are called the identities for b ,when b where such that All points lying on the left-hand replace negative real numbers, 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.10 1.12 1.14

Respectively Theorem 1.1 In the real numbers system, The following expressions are to be true. 1. There is the unique identity for addition and multiplication. 2. There is the unique inverse of each of a number for addition and multiplication.

3. If ab

then

, when a,b

Proof Leave the proof as exercises. 3 An inequality Since, 1. 0 2. If a,b 3. If x then ab then x and a or x=0 or THE ONLY ONE CASE. = and the trichotomy law as follows.

We can make the following definition. Definition1.2 Let a,b , We say that if and only if if and only if b and

1. a is greater than b which be written by a 2. a is less than b which be written by a

From this definition and the trichotomy law, we can make the following theorems. Theorem1.2 Let a,b,c and d are real numbers. The following expressions are to be true. 1. If a 3. If a 5. If a 7. If a 9. a 11. a 13. If a 15. If ab 17. If a 18. If a Proof we prove 14. Since, a 15. Since, ab then then a if and only if a if and only if ac then a then then then , and 0 b ,when c then ab then ab 2. If a 4. If ab 6. If ab 8.If a 10. a 12. If a 14. If a 16. If a , when a,b,c,d , when a,b,c,d and leave the remaining points as exercises. bd then then then , when c then ab

if and only if ac then a then ac then ac

, when a,b,c,d , when a,b,c,d

 18 Since a , where a,b,c,d

Definition1.3 Let a , b and c are real numbers. It follows that. 1. a 2. a 3. a 4. a Example1.1 Show that if a 1. a 2. a and d then

Solution we want to show the only point 2 and leave the point 1 as exercise. Since, a and

EXERCISE 1.1 1. Let a show that there exists a number k such that a and exemplify. and d

2. Let a, b, c, d, e and f are positive real number, where a Show that 1. ad 2.

3. From the point 2, RESTRICT both inequalities when a, b, c, d, e and f are negative real numbers. 4. Prove that 5. Let a,b 1. If a , Prove that then there exists an c that make where a , Prove that. that make b then a ,

2. If there is c 6. Let a, b

1. a

and 2. a then then b

7. Prove that if a 8. Prove that if a

Each man can approach to lifes highest success by tries and tries itself continuously. 4. INTERVALS Interval amount to SETS being subsets of SET of the real number possessing elements are all Real numbers according to the restricted condition Definition1.4 Let a, b 1. Open interval 2. Closed interval 3. Half-open interval 4. Half-open interval , Where amount to amount to amount to amount to

REMARK: ALL are called bounded INTERVALS. Definition1.5 Let a 1. Infinite interval 2. Infinite interval 3. Infinite interval 4. Infinite interval amount to amount to amount to amount to and to refer to

REMARK: ALL are called bounded INTERVALS. W e use the symbol positive

And negative infinity and do not denote real numbers, they merely enable us to describe Unbounded conditions more concisely. 5. ABSOLUTE VALUE Definition1.6 Let a, b And defined by Theorem1.3 Let a, b 1. , the absolute value of a is written by , It follows that. 2.

3. 5. 7. 9.

8.

4. 6.

10. 11. ,

Proof we only prove

points and exempt the remaining properties as exercises.

2. According to the definition Therefore And Therefore

From the both cases, we conclude 4. We apply the definition as follows. Consider the following expression. And ,

From the both cases, we can conclude that 9. we apply by the point as follows. So Implies that And then Therefore

6. ABSOLUTE VALUE AND DISTANCE Definition1.7 When a and b are real numbers corresponding to points A and B on a real line respectively and d is the distance between A and B. It will get.

Theorem1.4 If d is the distance between A and B then d Proof It is so easy. Theorem1.5 Let k Proof It is so easy. Theorem1.6 Let k Proof It is obviously. Theorem1.7 Let k Proof It is obviously. EXERCISE 1.2 1. Let a Find and a that make x where a,b and a , It will get that. and a , It will get that. and a , it will get that.

lie together in the interval

2. Find same the one. When let a,b 3. Defined Let possesses properties same the theorem 1.3

are intervals. Show that Exempt a point 6 c,d

Although it will be little success but, if it is arisen from the doing correctly by you, then It is proudly and it is called that is the success that can be eaten. 7. MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM Definition1.8 Let a and b are any real numbers. Maximum of a and b are written by Max Minimum of a and b are written by Min , Denoted by Max , Denoted by Min

REMARK: 1. Max 2. Min 3. Max 4. Min Theorem1.8 Let a, b 1. Max Remark: 1. Max Proof It is left as exercises. Theorem1.9 the following expressions are to be true. 1. Max 2. Min 3. Max 4. Min Max Min Min Max Min 3. Max Max 2. Min Min 2. Min Min Max

Proof It is exempted as exercises. Hint: consider the six cases as follows. a EXERCISE 1.3 LET a ,b ,c and d are real numbers. Prove that. 1. Max 3. Max 5. Max 6. Min 7. Max 8. Min Min Max Min Max Min 2. Min 4. Min Max

The giver gave and the receiver received but the giver possesses the success more Than the receiver 8. THE AXIOM OF COMFLETENESS Let S , We see that 5, 5.2, 6, 100 are greater than all elements of S.

Similar these numbers Definition1.9 Let S and S

are less than all elements of S.

1. A real number a is called that is an upper bound of S if and only if a In this case, we say that a set S is bounded above. 2. A real number b is called that is a lower bound of S if and only if b In this case, we say that a set S is bounded below. EXAMPLE1.2 Find lower bound and upper bound of each of the following sets 1. A 3. C So 2. Since, x k Thus k but k , 4. B

Solution 1.since x

are a lower bound and an upper bound respectively. if let k is a lower bound. It follows that. , so k

means that B has not a lower bound. There exists a contradiction.

But B has an upper bound Such as 10 3. Similar C has a lower bound such as but it has not an upper bound.

4. Similar D has not both a lower bound and an upper bound. Definition1.10 Let S and S

A set S is bounded if and only if a set S are bounded above and bounded below. It follows that there exist a and b such that b Definition1.11 Let S and S C is called that be the least upper bound of S

if and only If 1. C is an upper bound of S 2. If k is any upper bound of S then C Or, if k , then there exists an such that and we write

Similar D is called that be the greatest lower bound of S if and only if 1. D is a lower bound of S 2. If k is any lower bound of S then K Or, if k , then there exists an such that and we write

A set S is called that is bounded set when has both bounded above and bounded below

EXAMPLE1.3 Find the L.u.b and G.l.b of each of the following sets. 1. A 3. C Solution 1.Since, That is A 2. Since, 0 That is 0 respectively. 3. Since, 0 Therefore C 4. Since, 2 But We can see that , , So 0 ,That is 1 ,L.u.b respectively. , So which make o, are the G.l.b So 0 , Therefore B , the L.u.b ,L.u.b respectively. 4. D 2. B

which make o,1 are the G.l.b

which make 1, 2 are the G.l.b , , That is, is the G.l.b , So 0 ,

but there is no L.u.b

The uniqueness of L.u.b and G.l.b Theorem1.10 Let 1. If there is 2. If there is . It obtain that , then has a unique , then has a unique

Proof Exempt as exercises by supposing that there are the two, and then find the contradiction. The axiom of completeness Definition1.12 Let A set S which is bounded above has a least upper bound. Or If S is a set having an upper bound, then S possesses the least upper bound. Now, If S is a set having an upper bound, then there exists an C such that l.u.b Example1.4 Let , we find that

 Therefore a set S is bounded set. Important notice: 1. . We find that

2. Theorem1.11 L et And if And 2.If Therefore Theorem1.12 Let Proof Since S And since And since Set We choose , if S is bounded below, then S has a greatest lower bound , and S is bounded below is bounded above. Proof According to definition 1.11 And 2.if Since

So, there exists a real numbers such that which make a set

is an upper bound of , thus according to the axiom of completeness

have to possess the least upper bound is L.u.b now finally, according to the theorem above , or

Upper bound and lower bound for function Definition1.13 Let f is real valued function having domain D if and , then we say that f is a bounded function on

a set S if and only if T is a bounded set. REMARK: A set S is bounded set if and only if S are bounded above and bounded below If and only if there exist any elements being both upper bound and lower bound

Example1.5 Let We find that

, and T is bounded set. and T is bounded set. and T is bounded set.

Therefore f is bounded function on And if let Consider That is,

Therefore f is bounded function on But if let Consider That is,

Therefore f is bounded function on But if So, ; is unbounded set.

Therefore f is unbounded function on Definition1.14 if f is a function with domain D and A D, then the image of A under f is Denoted by , where

Definition1.15 a real valued function f with domain D is bounded function on If and only if Example1.6 Let f Solution Since So, is the image of is bounded set, where , find the image of A, where A under f ,

According to definition1.14 Let S= Hence,

And if there is a number c which

and , It follows that

Example1.7 Let f Find Thus Since Thus , since

Since Thus From 1-3 we see that f is bounded function on Since are bounded sets. EXERCISE 1.4 Find the least upper bound and the greatest lower bound of each of the following sets. If possesses. 1. A 3. C 5. E 7. G 2. B 4. D 6. F 8. H

If everybody recall to only mistakes itself and discover some good of other persons Moreover, have to improve itself and congratulate with other person, then the society Will has only common happiness 9. PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION. All sets being subsets of NATURAL number have to possess an element having least value. Definition1.16 Let S Lemma1.13 Let S and S , It follows that there exists x S which x S if and only if , S.

it will get that

1. 1 S and 2. If n S then Proof Let S see that are to be true. are to be true. And S and since m-1 1 S means that m 1 , and from choosing m, we find that will get that m S S S S

Suppose that So,

, by well ordering principle have to exists m thus m-1

Which m According to Hence,

And according to

which is impossible.

Since arise a contradiction with respect to assumption m Therefore Theorem1.14 Let P P If P instead of an expression concerning n positive integer. If is to be true. And is to be true, then P is to be true, is to be true,

Then will obtain that P Proof Let P

instead of the expression gratifying the condition

And let S According to will get that 1 S and according to will get that if k S implies that

, then by the lemma 1.10 will obtain that S is the set of positive integer. Therefore P is to be true for all n

EXAMPLE1.8 Prove that Solution Let P : is to be true for all n

We have to show that P .P is to be true, as

. If accept P Suppose that Consider

is to be true then have to show that P is to be true.

is to be true.

We can see that That is, P Therefore, Theorem1.15 Let P .P If P is to be true. ,

is to be true.

instead of an expression concerning n integer and a is to be true. . For k integer which k is to be true. .

is to be true, then P

It follows that P Proof Since, n If let m so n and P

is to be true foe all n integer that n

so will obtain m are the same expressions. is to be true for all n integers which n P is to be true, ,

And will obtain P

So in the proof that the expression P instead of P instead of P

It is the enough to prove that the expression P Let Q instead of P

Now, it will obtain that Q Q Q Consider, .Q . If Q

which is P

instead of P

is to be true, as P

is to be true according to the given 1. is to be true, where k is to be true. that n is to be true.

is to be true will get p

It follows that k+a-1

and when P

According to the given 2 will get that P That is, Q Q

is to be true, according to 1,2 can conclude that , hence P is to be true, .

is to be true,

Therefore P Example1.9 Prove that Solution Let P 1. P : is to be true as

is to be true for all n

2. Suppose that P Consider

is to be true will get that

So, P Therefore

is to be true.

EXERCISE 1.5 1. Let P Prove that P 2. Prove that 3. Prove that n 4. Prove that 5. Prove that 1+3+6+10+15+21+28++ 6. Prove that 7. Prove that 1+2+ 8. Prove that 9. Prove that 10. Prove that 2.6.10.14.18.22 , +1 ,

The accuracy often be bored or kept down so deep, as our society are material society Almost man can not evade. How to lie without hardness and pain. 10. FUNCTIONS If f is a function then f is a relation but if f is a relation then f is a function

Definition1.17 A relation f that each of element in its domain is used only one to be called A function and if f is a function from A into B then it is written by f : A B, defined by y That is, if then if and only if

Definition1.18 a function f is the function from A into B, , written by f: A B

Definition1.19 a function f is the one-to-one function from A into B if and only if

1. f is the function from A into B and 2. Each of elements in its range if is used will be used only one, and written by f: A B then if and only if

Test, if

Definition1.20 a function f is the function from A onto B, 1. f is the function from A into B 2. Test, let And written by there exists such that

Definition1.21 a function f is the one-to-one correspondence function from A onto B if and only if is f the one-to-one function with And written by Example1.10 let , find the domain and range of f and

Show that 1. f is a function from 2. f is a one-to-one function from 3. f is a function from Solution Since, 1. Let Thus, 2. Let Then 3. Let , thus if , where , if therefore , now, since we have , we have and then ,

, we have to choose as follows , therefore 11. ALGEBRA OF FUNCTION ANDCOMPOSITE FUNCTION

Finally, we substitute

Definition1.21 Let f and g are functions having domain and range are subset of Real number, then The Sum, The Difference, The Product and The Quotient Of f and g are written by and and defined by

1. 2. 3. 4. EXAMPLE1.11 Let and , Find

And its domain and range Solution since domain and range of f and g are So, 1. 2. 3. 4. Demonstration of each of ranges above 1. 4. 2, 3 have to utilize an application of differentiation. Defintion1.22 The composite function of g and f is written by And defined by EXAMPLE1.12 Let , and , and find , , and it follows that respectively.

Solution as 1.

And, then Therefore

so, we have

And, then Therefore 3. And, then Therefore 4.

+1

And, then Therefore 12. THE INVERSE FUNCTIONS Definition1.23 when the inverse of a function f is the function, it is called the inverse function of f And written by And defined by y Therefore EXAMPLE1.13 Find the inverse function of the following function. 1. Solution 1 As 2. 3. Defined by 4. which ,

Considering, So, Defined by , substitute y by x

2. As Considering,

, Defined by by Quadratic formula, we have

So, 3. As Considering,

Defined by Defined by

, substitute y by x

by Quadratic formula, we have , substitute y by x

So,

4. As

Defined by Defined by

respectively

Defined by

Considering,

, substitute y by x respectively

So,

Theorem1.16 A function f possesses the inverse function if and only f is one to one function. Proof when the inverse of f is a function, we have to show that f is one to one function. Let ;

Therefore f is one to one function. When f is one to one function, we have to show that f possesses the inverse Is a function, Let

Therefore f possesses the inverse is a function. 13. INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTION. Definition1.24 let f is real valued function of real variables, and A 1. f is a increasing function on A, if and only if , it follows that

If 2. f is a decreasing function on A, if and only if If 3. f is a non-increasing function on A, if and only if If 4. f is a non-decreasing function on A, if and only if If Remark: A may be equal to EXAMPLE1.14 1 let f is a increasing on 2 let Solution 1 As Hence, , such as f show that and a decreasing function show that q is a non-decreasing function on ,where is decreasing function on its entire domain.

Therefore f is a increasing function on And, if Hence, , where

Therefore f is a decreasing function on 2 As If Hence, If Hence, , so, if ,

Therefore q is a non-decreasing function on its domain. Theorem1.17 let f possesses the inverse function, it will obtain that 1. if is increasing on its domain, and then 2. if is decreasing on its domain, and then is increasing on its domain. is decreasing on its domain.

Proof we prove the first part and leave the proof of the second part as an exercise.

Let

, then there exist , and since is increasing, hence

such that

Holds precisely, when Which implies that

, therefore is increasing.

14. PERIODIC FUNCTIONS We call functions that its graphs have recurrent character that is the periodic functions Definition1.25 if g is a periodic function and p is a length of an interval such that Its graph is recurred, then will obtain Definition1.26 if g is no constant function, then will be the periodic function there exists p such that =

Definition1.27 the primitive period or fundamental period amount to the shortest length Such that its graph is recurrent character Definition1.28 the periodic function g will has a period is p if and only if p is The primitive period such that Amplitude and Asymptote Definition1.29 let g is a periodic function which has maximum value and minimum Value, g will has an amplitude is k if and only if Definition1.30 let is restricted equation into is meaningless. and then

1 vertical asymptote, rearrange Consider a value of x such that Such as ;

is a vertical asymptote into is meaningless. and then

2 Horizontal asymptote; rearrange Consider a value of y such that Such as ;

is a horizontal asymptote.

3 Oblique asymptote amounts to asymptote inclining and angle with x- axis Substitute y by A pattern into and rearrange term into , solve equations

Will obtain m and b such that Theorem1.18 Let is a function having a period is p and

is oblique asymptote

Then a function g has a period is Proof is a period of g if and only if Let m is them such that Since So, we have And then f has the period is p such that So, it follows that p Test, let g , hence And then f has a period is p, now we have That is According to will get , we will obtain . is the least positive number such that

Therefore g has a period is 15. MONOTONIC AND STRICTLY MONOTONIC FUNCTIONS Definition1.31 a function f is monotonic on an interval if it is either non-increasing on the entire interval or non- decreasing on the entire interval. That is, 1 if then , 2. if then , only one

A function f is strictly monotonic on an interval if it is either increasing on the entire interval or decreasing on the entire interval. That is,

1 if

then

, 2. if

then

, only one

Theorem1.19 if f is strictly monotonic on its entire domain, then it is one to one and has to Possesses the inverse Proof it is exempted the proof as an exercise. Hint by the contra positive of 15. EVEN, ODD AND A TYPE OF FUNCTIONS. Definition1.32 let f is real valued function of real variables, will obtain that 1 The function 2 The function is even if is odd if

3 A polynomial function amount to functions lying in pattern Where is a degree of this, and , are coefficients having is the leading.

4 A rational function amount to functions lying in this pattern. , such as 5 An exponential function amount to functions lying in this pattern , Property: 1 3 4 If 0 5 If 1 , then is decreasing function on its entire domain. , then e is increasing function on its entire domain. , 2. ,

6 A logarithmic function amount to functions being the inverse of the exponential

Property: 1 2 3 then l is decreasing function on its entire domain. then l is increasing function on its entire domain.

4 Let A, B

e Leonhard Eule Definition1.33 Let

is irrational number which is assigned by Scottish mathematician , where e

is written by And In calculus, is defined by is original graph which it is invented by the Scottish

Mathematician John Napier Definition1.34 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. , Let

Is horizontal shift h units to the right. Is vertical shift h units to the left. Is vertical shift k units downward. Is vertical shift k units Is reflection with respect to the X- axis. Is reflection with respect to the Y- axis. EXERCISE 1.6

1. Let

, find

and show that 1.2 is one-one function from 1.4 If then has a period is equal to four.

1.1 is a function from 1.3 is onto function from And 2. Let find

3. Let 4. Let

, find find .

5. According to point above, find 6. Let is one-one function from A to B, show that 6.1 6.2

7. Let f and g are real valued function of real variables 7.1 If f is increasing and there exists an inverse function then 7.2 If f is decreasing and there exists an inverse function then is increasing. is decreasing.

7.3 If f and g are increasing function and there exist an gof and fog then gof and fog are increasing function. 7.4 If f and g are decreasing function and there exist an gof and fog then gof and fog are decreasing function. 8. If 9. If , show that , prove that

10. Prove that if f has an inverse, then the inverse is unique. 11. If f has an inverse, then 12. Prove that f has an inverse if and only if it is one-one function. 13. Prove that if f and g are one-one function, then 14. If f is strictly monotonic on its entire domain, then it is one-one And hence, possesses an inverse. 15. Show that the function is odd. 16. Show that is even. 17. Show that the product of two odd or two even are even. 18. Show that the products of odd and even are even. Desperate man always do desperately, we have to make and assign hence and hope ,

With these group for comeback efficiently 16. BASIC ANALISYS GEOMETRY STRAIGHT LINES AND DISTANCE IN A PLANE Definition1.35 Are Equation of lines Theorem1.20 And let is a point lying on a line of slope m the slope of a non-vertical line passing through the points ;

are any other points on the line, then , that is

Proof by utilizing property similar triangle Theorem1.21 the graph of the equation And a y- intercept at Proof by theorem above PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES Definition1.36 a angle of inclination of L amount to From to L are a slope and angle of inclination which measure anti-clockwise is a line having a slope of m

Theorem1.22 if L is non-vertical line and there exist m, Respectively then Proof by definitions of slope and tangent

Theorem1.23 two distinct non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if Their slopes are equal Proof by definitions of function and one-one function Theorem1.24 two distinct non-vertical lines are perpendicular if and only if Their slope are rated by the following equation, Proof by utilizing and one-one function

THE DISTANCE AND MIDPOINT FORMULAR Theorem1.25 the distance d between the points in a plane

Is given by

Proof by these two points, the right-triangle can be formed and utilize the Pythagorean Theorem Theorem1.26 the midpoint of the line segment joining the points Is Proof by property of similar triangle CIRCLES Definition1.37 let is a point in the plane and the set of all points is called a CIRCLE.

Such that r is the distance between The point Theorem1.27 the point If and only if

are called a centre and a radius of the circle respectively. lie on the circleof radius r and a centre

Proof by utilizing theorem1.25 EXERCISE 1.7 1 prove that the diagonal of a rhombus intersect at right-angle. 2 prove that the figure formed by connecting consecutive midpoints of the sides of Any quadrilateral is a parallelogram. 3 prove that if the points Then, , assume lie on the same line as

4 prove that if the slope of two non-vertical lines is negative reciprocals Of each other, then the lines are perpendicular. 5 Prove that the distance between the points Ax+ By+ C=0 is 6 The distance between Ax+ By+ =0 and Ax+ By+ C=0 is and the line

7 Use the midpoint formula to find the three points that divide the line segment Joining into four equal parts

8 Prove that Joining

is one of the points of trisection of the line segment , also, find the midpoint of the line segment joining , To find the second point of trisection.

9 Prove that the line segment joining the midpoints of the opposite sides of a Quadrilateral bisects each other. 10 Prove that an angle is inscribed in a semi-circle is a right-angle. 11 Prove that the perpendicular bisector of a chord of a circle Passes through the centre of the circle 12 let are diameters of a circle, prove that are parallel.

Good youngsters should recognize when to start what has to be done, Good elders should know when to stop what is being done. 7. GRAPH, INTERCEPT, SYMMETRY AND INTERSECTION Graph of an equation having two variables x and y Definition1.38 let , its graph is the sets of all points in the plane

That is solution points of the equation. That is such that are to be true.

Intercept point on X-axis and Y-axis Definition1.39 let 1 The point 2 The point Definition1.40 1 A graph of if, whenever That is, 2 A graph of if, whenever That is, is an equation is X-intercept of its graph, when is Y-intercept of its graph, when let is an equation is to be true. is to be true.

=0 is said to be symmetric with respect to the Y-axis are points lying on its graph. (x, y) p

=0 is said to be symmetric with respect to the X-axis are points lying on its graph. (x, y) p

3 A graph of if, whenever That is, 4 A graph of p if, whenever That is,

=0 is said to be symmetric with respect to the origin are points lying on its graph. (x, y) p

=0 is said to be symmetric with respect to the identity function are points lying on its graph. (x, y) p POINTS OF INTERSECTION

Definition1.41 let A point

=0 are all two equations is an intersected point of =0 if and only if

Satisfies both equations That is Moreover, the intersected point of two its graph can be found by Solving the equations simultaneously EXAMPLE1.15 let 1 find X-intercept and Y-intercept

2 show that it possesses symmetries with respect to the X-axis The origin and the identity Solution 1 let x=o will obtain Hence Y-intercepts are Let y=0 will obtain Hence X-intercepts are Therefore it possesses X-intercepts and Y-intercept 2 The following expressions are to be true has a solution set is has a solution set is

Therefore it possesses symmetries with respect to the X-axis, the Y-axis The origin and the identity consecutive EXAMPLE1.16 finds all intersected points of graphs of Solution To find these two points, we proceed as follows : given equation

 X= : solve the equation

: substitute y by x, rearrange term

The corresponding values of y are obtained by representing x=

and

Into either of the original equations, we choose the equation y=-x, then The values of y are consecutive

Therefore the two intersected points are EXERCISE 1.8 1 Prove that if the graph of

=0 is symmetric with respect to the X-axis, Y-axis, then

It is symmetric with respect to the origin, given an example to show that the converse Is not to be true 2 Prove that if the graph of =0 is symmetric with respect to the one axis and the

Origin, then it is symmetric with respect to the remaining axis also. 3 Let -x, write the definition to show that the graph of -x, and prove that the graph of =0 =0

Is symmetric with respect to Is symmetric with respect to

-x if and only if it is symmetric

With respect to the X-axis, the Y-axis and the origin. Law can be evaded but khamma can not be evaded. 18. REVIEW TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS Definition1.42 the relation r= Remark: 1 is called an unit circle

2 its graph has centre is the point 3 its X-intercepts are points 4 its Y-intercepts are points Let

is a real number and measure a length of arc from a point units, there exists a point and we find that each of a such that will possess

According to an arc to be long A correspond to or

Only

that is corresponding, so

is a function is positive

Remark: 1 measuring an arc anti-clockwise, if a 2 measuring an arc clockwise, if a

is negative

According to rule above, we can define new function as follows 1 Cosine And it is written by Cos 2 Sine And it is written by Sin According to two trigonometric functions will obtain four trigonometric Functions as follows 3 Secant And it is written by Sec 4 Cosecant And it is written by Csc 5 Tangent And it is written by tan 6 Cotangent And it is written by Cot , where Sin , where Cos , where Cos

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES Pythagorean identities 1 4 Sin 7 Sin 10 Sin 2 Reduction formula 5 Cos 8 Cos 11 Cos 6 Tan 9 Tan 3

12 Tan

13 Sin 16 Sin 19 Sin 22 Sin 25 Sin

14 Cos 17 Cos 20 Cos

15 Tan 18 Tan 21 Tan 24 Tan 27 Tan

23 Cos 26 Cos

The sum or the difference of two angles 28 Sin 30 Tan The sum or the difference of the sum or the difference of two angles 31 Sin 33 Cos 32 Sin 34 Cos 29 Cos

The sum of the difference of an angle 35 Sin 37 Cos 36 Sin 38 Cos Double angle formula 39 Sin2 40 Cos2 41 Tan2 Half- angle formula 41 Sin 42 Cos 43 Tan

Laws of Cosines and Sine 44 45 47

All points can be proved by the reader from the following hints. 1 in the unit circle, 2 the unit circle possesses symmetric with respect to the X-axis, Y-axis

The origin, f

and g

3 in a single circle or a same circle, chord AB equal to chord CD if and only if Arc AB equal to arc CD 4 the Pythagorean Theorem and the distance d= 5 when

has a, b, c are lengths of opposite sides of A, B and

Respectively, we can assign arbitrarily A, B, C are standard position angles 6 a area of triangle = length of the base height

Evaluation of trigonometric functions by 1 decimal approximation with calculator or a table of trigonometric values 2 exact evaluations utilizing trigonometric identities and formulas from geometry We demonstrate the second method first EXAMPLE1.17 evaluate the following trigonometric functions 1 Cos 5 if Sin Find 1 Sin Solution 1 Cos 2 Sec 3 Sin 4 Tan2 2 Sin 3 Sec 4 Tan ,0 , when Cos and Sin

and Sin

5 since, Sin So, Consider Sin

And Replace Sin

Cos

..

Multiply Add ; 5Cos Cos Therefore Tan such that Tan

, Sin =

Solving trigonometric equations The solving trigonometric equations are the finding values of Satisfying the given trigonometric equations EXAMPLE1.18 solve for 1 Sin 3 Tan Solution 1 Sin And then So, , similarly in each of the following equations 2 4 Cos in domain

Now, we have intersected points are That is

Therefore a solution set is 2 Thus such that , therefore a solution set is rearranged term

factorized by cross method

: replace : multiply both sides by Cos2 , so 2 Therefore a solution set is

,Cos2

4 Cos

: pull the common factors of two termS : Theorem

Now, the answer is Therefore a solution is Graph of trigonometric functions In the XY-coordinate system we usually use the variable X in place of as follows

Where x can have any real number Domain and range of trigonometric functions Since of are Periodic functions Trigonometric functions are periodic functions and have periods as follows , , hence

When b

we will obtain that

Amplitude Since, Thence, Now, we have A= And A= and when y= when y=a y= y=a

For remaining trigonometric functions have not amplitude, not applicable Asymptotes The equation x=n And y= as Sin are vertical asymptote lines of y= are vertical asymptote lines of y=

The equation x= And y= For as

have not asymptote lines, not applicable Graph of trigonometric functions

We can sketch and illustrate graphs of each of trigonometric functions by its domain, range, amplitude, Asymptote and period which these are left as exercises EXERCISE1.9

1 evaluate each of the following expressions 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

2 solve each of the following equations 2.1 2.3 2.5 Sin2x+Cos2x+Sinx+Cosx+1=0 3 show that 5 show that 6 show that if The recurred graph then 6.1 6.2 7 let when p is the length of an interval that is 2.4 2.6 4show that

7.1 show that f is the period function. 7.2 show that there exists the primitive period is 1. 8 show that the trigonometric functions Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Secant, Cosecant And Cotangent are the period functions and there exist the primitive period Are 4 show that the trigonometric functions Sin Csc , Cos , Tan , Sec

possess the primitive are

One after the other and the graph of trigonometric functions above are obtained by

Shift its original graphs according to X-axis is

All remaining times of each person always have value for itself and society As each person can utilize the remaining times make the good work And assign to refer to society LOSSON TWO LIMITS AND CONTINUTIES 1 An introduction to limits Let f , consider for all values other than x=1

When x approaches 1 from left or right will make f Although x can not be equal to 1, but we can move arbitrarily close to 1 and as result f moves arbitrarily close to 2, we say that the limit of f as x approaches 1 is 2

And it is written by Ordinarily, if f becomes arbitrarily close to a single number L as x approaches a from as x approaches a is L and it is written by

Either sides, then we say that the limit of f

The next three cases for which a limit does not exist 1f approaches a different number from the right side of a than it approaches from the

Left side, such as 2f 3f increases or decreases without bound as x approaches a such as oscillates between two fixed values as x approaches a such as if and only if the following two phrases are true

According to 1f

becomes arbitrarily close to L His definition

2 and x approaches a The following is assigned by Augustin-Loius Cauchy Of a limit is the standard which be utilized today Consider the first phrase; f Interval becomes arbitrarily close to L means that f lies in the

in terms of absolute value as follows

, Expresses the fact that x , while the second,

Similarly, the second phrase; x approaches a means that there exists a positive number Such that x lies in either in the interval That is x The first inequality,

Says that x is within a distance of a

These bring us to the following formal definition of a limit Definition2.1 let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a

And let L be a real number, the statement Means that for all x A such that , for each there exists

whenever 0

The present, the mathematician assigned obviously the definition of a limit By a limit point Definiotion2.2 let D For all EXAMPLE2.1 let A= and a , we say that a is a limit point of D if and only if

that appoint it will obtain

We find that all points in A, B are limit points of A, B one after the other. And all points in C are limit points of C except 6 as there exists =0.5 such that Definition2.3 let f: D possesses A limit to be a number L as x approaches a if and only if for all x , there exists a such that whenever , for each , when D and a is a limit point of D we will say that f

And it is denoted by EXERCISE2.1 prove that Solution let D= by definition of a limit there exists a , 1 is a limit point such that

, we have to show that Whenever 0 = thence , we choose , and

We begin by writing Since,

= we choose

That is, when

It follows that whenever 0 Finally, letting 0,2 It follows that whenever

we have

EXample2.2 utilize the definition of a limit t0 prove that Solution let x Such that Considering, since So, and we have to show that whenever And , we can say that we have , it follows that whenever , , we choose there exists a

It follows that whenever And if We have Whenever Example2.3 prove that Solution let x , we will choose

, finally letting

will obtain that

by the definition of a limit , there exists

, we are required to show that

such that

whenever

We have to begin by writing Since

and

Hence will obtain that We can say that when And if

whenever

, we have to choose such that ,

, we have to choose

Finally, letting We have Theorem2.1 let f: when

it follows that whenever

and a is a limit point of D, and if

exist

Then the value of a limit has unique Proof according to the given information, we have If Suppose that And, because Whenever that make Whenever imply that 0, we choose , there exists a that make

Similar there exists a Thus, letting X where x = , therefore

and then a is a limit point such that there exists , now we have

which be a contradiction, so

EXERCISE2.1

1 prove the following statements by the 1 3 5 2 4 6 then

2 let L and M are real numbers, prove that if 3 prove that if and only if a=b that make that make

4 prove that there is not L 5 prove that there is not L 6 prove that 7 prove that 8 prove that there is not L 9 let f: D numbers D

and defined by f

=0, 1 when x are rational numbers and irrational

One after the other, prove that there is not L 1859

that make

The function is assigned by the German mathematician Peter Gustav DIRICHLET

If goodness, happiness, success, love, accuracy, and, and, can be knew, I shell tell them That down to you 2 LEFT-HAND LIMITS AND RIGHT-HAND LIMITS Definition2.4 let f: When D and a is a limit point of D

We say that there exists a limit to be a real number L as x approaches left-hand Of a if and only if Definition2.5 , for each Whenever alet f:D there exists a and we write , When D and a is a limit point of D such that

We say that there exists a limit to be a real number L as x approaches right-hand limit

If and only if Theorem2.2 let f: D Where L Proof let Whenever 0 And since Now, we have Whenever a

, for each Whenever a

, there exists a and we write

such that

and a is a limit point of either D

or D

then will obtain that if and only if is tautology such that and Whenever a , therefore such that 0 such that

It is exempted to be exercise Example2.4 let a Pricewise function f as follows

Show that Solution let f: So, We have to show that Whenever 2

and

there exists a

such that

, since our choice for depend on , we try to establish and

A connection between the in-equality By simplifying the first in-equality, we will get Finally, we choose Implies that

, this choice works, because

The remaining is exempted as exercise EXERCISE2.2

1 show that 2 show that 3 show that 4 prove that 1 2 3 5 prove that there is not L 6 prove that there is not L 7 prove that there is not L that make that make that make and and

=1, when f

and

3 PROPPERTIES OF LIMITS A strategy for finding limits, limits of algebraic functions and limits of trigonometric functions We have pointed out already that a limit of f as x approach a does not depend on , then we say

The value of x at x=a, however if it is happened that the limit is precisely f That the limit can be evaluated by direct substitution, that is Substitute for x

Such well-behaved functions are said to be continuous at a, an important application of Direct substitution is shown in the following theorem Theorem2.3 let a and f g for all x in D, where a is a limit point of D also exists

If the limit of g And Proof since f So, f =g =g , ,

as x approaches a exists then the limit of f

x a which a is a limit point of D for each restrictive by the definition of the limit, it follows that such that , where x a whenever 0

And if assume that For each there exists a =g ,

However, since f

Now, we have

whenever also

Therefore we can conclude that That is EXAMPLE2.5 let f and g

, show that f and g have

The same values for all x other than x=2 Solution by factorizing the numerator of f, we have f Hence, if x f We see that where x f =g ,we can cancel like factor to obtain =g so x

A strategy for finding limit 1 Learn to recognize which limits can be evaluated by direct substitution 2 if the limit of f as x can not be evaluated by direct substitution, try to discover

A function g that agrees with f for all x other than x=a Of g can be evaluated by direct substitution )

3 apply theorem before to conclude that Limits of algebraic functions Theorem2.4 if a and b are real numbers and n Are true 1 2 3 such that then the following properties 4

Proof we prove the property 3 and exempt the proof of the others as an exercise Assume that Hence we choose Let x , so

there exists a

Whenever

and then we choose x=a+0.1 whenever

Considering

Now, it arise of a contradiction

Therefore Theorem2.5 Let a and b are real numbers and n Exist as x 1 if 2 if 3 scalar multiple: 4 if then there exists a Whenever 5 sum or difference: 6 products: 7 if then there exists a Whenever 8 if 9 quotients: 10 Powers: 11 nth-roots: Proof 1since And as there exists a Whenever Whenever such that then such that such that then will obtain that then then , f and g be functions whose limits

Finally, we have 2 since Such that And then if and only if for each restrictive Whenever 0 , let then and since ;b there exists a

Therefore, we can write 3 assume that

We know that there exists a Considering Whenever

such that ;

Finally, we say that for each

there exists a

such that it follows that

Whenever

4 assume that Such that And since

will obtain that Whenever Whenever and then

there exists a

5 let For all Such that

and then, since we know that there exists a Whenever Whenever and and

We complete by choosing Whenever

such that

Finally, we operate by the triangle inequality as follows This implies that 6 let and M there exists a Whenever such that

We have to express that

Considering So, there exists a And And since Finally, let Therefore 7 since Such that And since Now, we have , ,

such that

there exist Whenever Whenever such that + Whenever and

we choose

then, since Whenever whenever

there exists a

For the remaining are left the proof as exercise Theorem2.6 If P is polynomials having degree n, a is a real number then

Proof let P

is a polynomial

Repeated applications of the sum and scalar multiple properties produce

Finally, utilizing properties 1, 2 and 3 of theorem2.4 we obtain Theorem2.7 if R is a polynomial function which is given by R =P , and a is

A real number that make q Proof the proof is left as exercise Theorem2.8 If f and g are functions that make Then Proof considering gof =g =

, then

, where u=f

and x

f such that

For each restrictive Since Now, will obtain that Moreover, since Such that g

, we have to discover a Whenever

, we know that there exists a Whenever when whenever

such that

whenever

, replace x by u

, we know that there exists a

Finally, we have Then will get that Therefore Theorem2.9 If h f g ,

where a be a limit point of D, except possibly at a

Itself, and if Proof because Hence for each restrictive And there exist Whenever whenever and such that

Now, letting

and then we have

Considering And But, since h And, then

f g

, it follows that =

Finally according to the - definition of a limit, we have Or considering

Whenever Theorem2.10 define If f And then Proof hint: assume that

, where a is a limit point of D that make

then discover a contradiction, leave the proof as exercise EXERCISE2.3

1 Prove that if Then 2 Prove that if 3 Prove that

exists and does not exist then ; m, n and = is defined

does not exist

4 Let f be a piecewise function, where F= , find the values of a and b that make Exist 5 Discover two functions f and g that make But 6 An expression if exists then do not exist

Show that that the expression is false 7 Prove that

8 Prove that 9 Prove that 10 Prove that if 11 Prove that if 4 LIMITS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS The limits of basic trigonometric functions can be evaluated also by direct substitution. Theorem2.11 if a is a real number lying in domain of the given trigonometric Functions, then the following properties are true 1 3 5 7 9 2 4 6 8 10 Two special limits of trigonometric functions 11 Such that f Proof 1 Since Such that 12 if and only if for each whenever and
C (cos x, sin x) B

then

13 If then

and there exists a

there exists a

So, we have to find the bearing between For restricting Considering the unit circle: Case 1when x From a figure, co-ordinate of point C is While and are vertical each other

from the following figure

O A

Now, by properties of a triangle and chord, we have The length of arc BC =x= , so or 1-

Case 2 when x Considering 1 Therefore

=1

According to the two cases above conclude that Finally, for each That is 2 Since And So, we have That is 6 Now, by letting h=x-a and observing that x by the squeeze theorem = ,x

,x

=0

, we can write

= = 11

B C A

Considering the unit circle: Case 1 when x From the figure, Such that So, co-ordinate of a point B is and

from the following figure

are vertical at a point A

. Now, we can see that

Area of a triangle OAC area of circular sector OAC area of a triangle OAB That is

While x

we find that

Hence by the squeeze theorem, And while x And then Hence by the squeeze theorem, Finally, from 1 and 2 we can conclude that For remaining properties are exempted as exercises EXERCISE2.4 1 Determine the following limits 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.9 1.12 1.15 2 Use the squeeze theorem to find 2.1 c=0, 3 Prove that 5 Prove that there is not 6 Prove that there is not 2.2 c=a, b 4 prove that that make that make 5 INFINITE LIMITS A limit in which f increases or decreases without bound as x approaches a 1.2 1.5 1.8 1.10 1.13 1.11 1.14 1.3 1.6 , it will obtain that

Is called that be an infinite limits Definition2.6 let f is real valued function of a real variable, where f: D 1 Statement a such that when D and a is a limit point of D means that for each restrictive B whenever whenever , there exists there exists

2 Statement a such that

means that for each restrictive B ,

Remark: according to definition above, we can define the infinite limit from the left By replacing 0 by a a, and we can define the infinite limit by a a+ as follows. there exists a

From the right by replacing 0 1 Such that 2 Such that 3 Such that 4 Such that

means that for each restrictive whenever a ,

means that for each restrictive whenever a whenever a whenever a,

there exists a there exists a

means that for each restrictive ,

means that for each restrictive ,

there exists a does not

Be sure to notice that the equal sign in the statement lim f

Mean that the limit exists? On the contrary, it tell us how the limit fails To exist by denoting the bounded behavior of f EXAMPLE2.6 Prove that 1 Solution 1 For each B ,2 as x approach a ,3 such that

we have to show that there exists a

Consider

we have a

Finally, we see that for each B Therefore

3 we have to show that for each Considering 1 when x 2 when x , then 0 then 0

there exists a

such that

and there exists a

Finally, we can conclude that fro each B That make Therefore Theorem2.12 Such that Theorem2.13 Such that Theorem2.14 Such that Theorem2.15 Such that if and only if whenever a if and only if whenever a if and only if whenever 0

and there exists a

and there exists a and there exists a

whenever a if and only if and there exists a

whenever a

Proof we prove only the theorem2.12 and leave the proof of the remaining theorem as exercises Since Such that f So, when B=1 if and only if for each restrictive B whenever a there exists a such that f whenever a such that there exists a 0

And for each restrictive f Now, by letting

, we choose B= there exists a whenever a , we have f

whenever a

That is Since

whenever a

therefore for each restrictive B , we choose there exists a

Such that f Finally, we let Whenever a Therefore,

whenever a

but as there exists a

such that

and then we have f now, it follows that ,

and whenever a

Remark: according to the four theorems above, we obtain that 1 Such that 2 Such that Definition2.7 If f approaches infinity or negative infinity as x approaches a from the left whenever whenever and there exists a and there exists a and

Or right, then we call the line x=a that is a vertical asymptote of graph of f That is the line x=a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f if and only if EXAMPLE 2.7 Show that 1 Such that f Solution 1 For each B A such that and whenever we have to discover whenever -1 , it is implied that , , , or and there exists a

Considering Now, while Therefore

2 For each

we have to discover a and -1 ,

such that

Whenever -1 Considering Now, while Therefore Theorem2.16

, it is implied that

and we have x=-1 is a vertical asymptote.

If a and L are real numbers and f, g are functions that make and then the following properties are true. 1The sum or the different: 2 The product: 3 The quotient: Similarly, properties hold for one-sided limits and for functions for which The limits of f as x approaches a is

Proof We prove the first property and leave the proofs of the remaining properties as exercise. if and only if for each B Such that whenever 0 there exists a , D there exists

For simplicitys sake, we assume L is a negative and let A such that f whenever 0 such that

And also, let By letting Now, since We have

there exists a

whenever 0

, we conclude that And =B whenever 0

, and adding this to the first inequality

Thus, we can conclude that 1

The proof for

can prove similarly EXERCISE2.5

1 Prove the following given limits by definition and theorem 1 4 7 10 13 2 Prove that 3 Prove that 4 Prove that 5 Prove that 6 Prove that 6 LIMITS AT INFINITY Let , we see that the value of f , similarly f By Definition2.8 Let f is a real valued function of a real variable, where f: D , when D and for each k will have x that make x there exists an approaches 2 as x increases without bound , we denote these limits at infinity 2 5 8 11 14 3 6 9 12 15 , when m is an even number , when m is an odd number , when m is an odd number

approaches 2 as x x

1 Statement Such that 2 Statement Such that 3 Statement , ,

means that for each whenever x means that for each whenever x

there exists an

means that for each

there exists an

Such that f 4 Statement Such that f 5 Statement Such that f 6 Statement Such that f , ,

, ,

whenever x means that for each whenever x means that for each whenever x there exists an 5 there exists an there exists an

means that for each whenever x 2

EXAMPLE2.8 Show that 1 3 Solution 1 Since So, for each That is 2 since So, for each there exists an N Whenever x That is 3 Since So, for each B That is 4 Since So, for each B , there exists an N= there exists an N Whenever x 4

such that

such that

there exists an N= whenever x

such that

such that

 That is 5 Since So, for each B , That is Theorem2.17 Such that f Theorem2.18 Such that f Theorem2.19 Such that f Theorem2.20 Such that f

Whenever x

such that

there exists N Whenever x if and only if whenever x if and only if whenever x if and only if whenever x if and only if whenever x

and there exists an

and there exists an

and there exists an

and there exists an

Proof We will prove the theorem2.17 and exempt the proof of the remaining Theorems as exercises Since f f Such that f By letting N=max And f for each whenever x whenever x , there exists an N such that such that so will has

, then since

will has an , then since

and for each B whenever x

it follows that whenever x

, we have

Therefore For each B we let there exists an such that whenever implies that

Similar by letting N=max f That is and

it follows that whenever x f

EXAMPLE2.9 According to example above, show that 1 Solution 1 We say that when 2 3 have to possess an N=1+ that make Whenever Therefore 2 12 We say that when have to possess an N= Whenever Therefore 3 We say that when have to possess N= Whenever Therefore that make that make

Definition2.9 If Then the straight lines y=L and y=-L are called horizontal asymptotes of the graphs of f and g respectively Remark: According to the definition above, it follows that the graph of a function of x can have At most two horizontal asymptotes one to the right and one to the left EXAMPLE2.10 Verify that f Solution f And then has two horizontal asymptotes f

We conclude that the lines y=1 and y=-1 are horizontal asymptotes of the graph of y= Theorem2.21 Let 1 2 3 4 5 Similar, properties hold for limits at Proof We will verify only the second property and exempt the proof of the remaining Properties as exercises 1 since So, for each , , then, since there exist an and and such that then the following properties are true.

whenever x whenever x implies that ,

And then N=max And

whenever x

Finally, we apply the triangle inequality to conclude that

This implies that

When evaluating limits at infinity, the following theorem is helpful. Theorem2.22 if s is a positive rational number and a is any real number then , Furthermore if Proof 1 When Since there exists N = Whenever such that let s= , where p is defined when then

Now, for each Therefore

The proof of in the case a=0, a

and the second part of the theorem are similar

EXEMPLE2.11 Evaluates the following limits. 1 Solution 1 2 To resolve this difficulty, we have to divide both the denominator and the numerator By x, after this division, the limit may be evaluated as follows = Hence, the line y=3 is a horizontal asymptote to the right and by taking the limit as x We can see that y=3 is also a horizontal asymptote to the left. REMARK: In the indeterminate we are able to resolve the difficulty by rewriting the 2

Given expression in an equivalent form, in general, we suggest dividing by the highest

Power of x in the denominator, this is illustrated in the following example. EXAMPLE2.12 Evaluate the following limit. 1 2 In this case, we conclude that the limit does not exist because the numerator increase Without bound while the modified denominator approaches 2 REMARK: We see obviously that if f right And to the left are same however, function that are not rational function may approach Different horizontal asymptote to the left and to the right, as shown in the following example EXAMPLE2.13 determine the following limit 1 Solution 1 for x By x produces 2 for x By x produces we have x= = 2 , we have x= = . Thus dividing both the numerator and the denominator = . Thus dividing both the numerator and the denominator = is a rational function then a horizontal asymptote to the

We see that the line y=2and y=-2 are horizontal asymptote to the right and to the Left one after the other of the graph of f EXAMPLE2.14 Determine the following limits by the squeeze theorem 1 Solution 1 since -1 And 2 , so ,x by the squeeze theorem

2 Since And , where =0

Finally, by the squeeze theorem, we have Theorem2.23 Let f is a real valued function of a real variable, where L, t 1 3 5 2 4 6

Proof We will prove the first and sixth points and leave the proof of the remaining as exercises 1 that Whenever Therefore for each When N Therefore 6 for each there exists such that and we define N Whenever 0 and . It follows that whenever there exists a such that implies that , for each Whenever x there exists an N , when such that and t it follows

we define

implies that

Whenever

, when

we define

It follows that whenever There fore

implies that

For each

there exists a , when

such that and

whenever

we define

It follows that whenever Therefore REMARK: If define 1 2 3 4

implies that

will obtain that

, assign for being exercises

And similar properties hold for limits at

EXERCISE2.6 1 Find the indicated limit. 1 4 7 10 12 15 17 19 13 16 18 20 2 5 8 11 14 3 6 9

2 Verify that each of the following functions has to horizontal asymptotes 1f 2f 3f 4f

3 Prove the following limits by the concerned definition 1 4 7 4 Prove that if p q 2 8 , n=m 5 Prove that there is not L 6 Prove that there is not L 7 Prove that 8 Prove that Hint: by utilizing the squeeze theorem 7 CONTINUITY To say that a function is continuous at x=a means that there has no interruption in the graph f At a that is, its graph is unbroken at a and there are no holes , jumps or gaps Thus, it appears that the continuity of a function at x=a can be destroyed by Anyone of the following conditions 1 The function is not defined at x=a 2 The limit of f 3 The limit of f does not exist at x=a or exists at x=a but it is not equal to f that make that make 5 9 , and then n m , f is the Dirichlet function 3 6

This brings us to the following definition Definition2.10 Let f:D when D and a , we say that f is continuous at point a

If and only if the following three conditions are true together 1f is defined 2 exists 3

REMARK: if a

and a is a limit point of D then

f is continuous at a if and only if

That is for each Theorem2.24 Let f:D Proof

there exists a Whenever When and a

such that where a is a limit point of D there exists a such that

f is continuous at a if and only if for each Whenever

Since a is a limit point of D and f is continuous at a, according to definition so there exists a whenever Whenever there exists a such that such that : third point is true

We can investigate that for each Whenever

And first point Therefore 1f 2 3 Example2.15 Let is defined as

As a is a limit point of D and for each Whenever and

, we can investigate that whenever is true

exists is true according to designed expression is true as = , when x implies that when x=3

Consider whether f is continuous at x=3, 4 Let , when and , when x 3

Consider whether is continuous at x=3 Solution Since f and , , it follows that

Does not exist, That is f is not continuous at x=3 At x=4 obtain f =1,

Therefore f is continuous at x=4 At x=3, obtain f We find that Thus f is continuous at x=3 , and then also that is

8 PROPERTIES OF CONTINUITY The next, will say to continuity of algebraic functions, composite function Inverse function and continuous of some functions Theorem2.25 Let f and g are functions from D to If f and g are continuous at x=a then 1 f g is continuous at x=a 3 f.g is continuous at x=a 2 bf is continuous at x=a, when a 4 is continuous at x=a, g when D and a

Proof 1 Since f and g are continuous at x=a. so, we have 1f And 3 1 2 3 Therefore is continuous at x=a and g are defined 2 , exists exists and such that exist

For the remaining properties are exempted the proof as exercises Theorem2.26 If Proof We have to show that As g is continuous at b, so Such that For , whenever implies that and g is continuous at b then for each and such that there exists a

there exists a whenever

Finally, letting u=f gb< Therefore Theorem2.27 Let f:

, it follows that whenever

and g:

where

and

If f is continuous at a and g is continuous at f That is to say

then gof is continuous at a

Or Proof g is continuous at f if and only if for each Whenever there exists a implies that such that there exists a such that

f is continuous at a if and only if for , whenever

Finally, by letting u=f Therefore Or

,it follows that whenever

Implies that

Theorem2.28 The following functions are continuous at Entire points in their domains 1 Power functions: f 2 Radical functions: p 3 Polynomial functions: q 4 Rational functions: r 5 Trigonometric functions: Proof we will prove 3rd property and others properties are left the proof as exercises. 3 as q q And = , , , ,

Therefore q is continuous function on its entire domain. The following, we will say to the continuity on an interval. Definition2.11 Let f:D , when D and a D

f is continuous from the right if and only if the following three conditions are true together. 1f is defined. 2 when D exists and 3 and a D

Definition2.12 Let f:D

F is continuous from the left if and only if the following three conditions are true together.

1f

is defined. 2

exists and 3

REMARK: In the case that D is an interval with a be terminal point 1 If a is left terminal point of an interval then we agree on the continuity at a Signify the continuity from the right at a 2 If a is right terminal point of an interval then we agree on the continuity at a Signify the continuity from the left at a Definition2.13 Let f:D , when D and open interval I

f is continuous on I if and only if f is continuous at all x And if there is I Definition2.14 Let f:D 1 f is continuous on , when D , we will say that which f is not continuous at then we say that f is not continuous on

if and only if the following two conditions are true together.

1.1 f is continuous from the right at a and 1.2 f is continuous on 2 f is continuous on if and only if the following two conditions are true together.

2.1 f is continuous from the left at b and 2.2 f is continuous on 3 f is continuous on if and only if the following three conditions are true together.

3.1 f is continuous from the right at a 3.2 f is continuous from the left at b and 3.3 f is continuous on E XAMPLE2.16 Test that h is whether continuous on its entire domain. h and test

Solution For convenience we can create functions f and g such that gof By theorem2.27, let f ,g , we can state that

From the obtained conditions above and properties of polynomial and radical functions, We have 1 f and g are continuous on interval 2 , it follows that f and respectively.

3 g is continuous on f

be an interval

By theorem2.27, we can conclude that h is continuous on its entire domain. EXAMPLE2.17 Test that f is continuous whether on its entire domain, where f

Solution we have to examine continuity as follows 1The continuity from the right at -2 2The continuity on 3The continuity from the right at 0 1 As f 2 As f 3 As f 4 As f 5 As f 4The continuity on and

5The continuity from the left f , so f is continuous from the right at -2 is a polynomial function, so f is continuous on f , so f is continuous from the right at 0

is a polynomial function, so f is continuous on f , so f is continuous from the left at 2

Finally, we can conclude that f is continuous on Theorem2.29 If f is continuous at a and f f , then there exists a such that

Proof Leave the proof as exercise. Theorem2.30 If f is continuous at a and f Proof Leave the proof as exercise. Theorem2.31 Let D is a domain of f and a f is continuous at a if and only if Proof Leave the proof as exercise. Theorem2.32 If f is continuous on its domain then is continuous on its domain. it follows that then there exists a such that

Proof Assume that a is any number lying in open interval in the domain of And let Namely, f , when c lie in an open interval being the range of f

And for each So, let And if let y f

, we suppose that f and f

and f

lying in the interval

Then by the one-to-one nature of f and f

, it follows that

Hence, by letting -

, it follows that whenever y Whenever Whenever

Finally, we can conclude that This implies that Theorem2.33 Let f and g are continuous on an open interval containing a. If f There exists an open interval containing a such that g Then the graph of the function is given by F Has a vertical asymptote at a Proof When we have We have to show that And there exists b Now, for each A , Whenever a Whenever a Whenever a Whenever And choosing , then it follows that , and , then it follows that and such that g then, since . We consider the case for which f whenever a there exists , g and is continuous at a

in the interval,

Whenever a Therefore we have And the line x=a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of F Theorem2.34 The second important geometric property of the graph of a continuous function that we Will establish is that if a continuous function has a domain consisting of an interval, and If its graph contains points that are both above and below a line y=c, then, in fact, the Graph intersects the line y=c Suppose that the function f: f and f ; that is, f f is continuous. Let c be number strictly between or f f at which f

Then there is a point

in the open interval that make f

Proof to see in text book for advance calculus Example2.18 Let f Test that there is whether x Solution since f , so that make f , when x

is continuous on

and f

and f

By letting c=6 will obtain that 2 There exists From Therefore there is that makes f

according to the intermediate value theorem, be 3, 2

REMARK: 1 note that the intermediate value theorem tells us that at least one c exists, but It does not give us a method for finding c. Such theorems are called existence theorem. 2 if f f k f have different sign then at least one k exists k such that = then f has the maximum value : ,f =-3, f =5, there exist an

, such f and f

Such that f Theorem2.35

If f is the function having continuity on an interval And minimum value on the interval

that is to say, there exists an

That makes f f f

f where f

and there exists an and f

that makes

are called the maximum value and respectively

The minimum value of f on the interval Proof EXAMPLE2.19 Let f maximum ,x

find an

that make f

be the

Value and the minimum value of f respectively Solution as f is continuous on its entire domain So, there exist an value of f Respective, where and such that f and f that make f f be the maximum value and the minimum

EXERCISE2.7 1 Show that the following functions are continuous on its domain. 1f 4i 2g 5j 3h 6k

2 show that the following functions are continuous on its entire domain. 1f ; g

3h 4i

;4

3 Find the values of a and b that make f is continuous at 1 when F =

4 Find the values of a and b that make f is continuous at -2and 1 when f

5 Show that the following functions are continuous on the assigned interval. 1f ; 2g ;

2h

4i

by the definition of continuity , then either

6 Prove that if f is continuous and has no zero on f or f

7 Show that the Dirichlet function is discontinuous at every real numbers. 8 Definition Let f and g are functions having domain D Function Max Max and function Min Max and Min are defined by Min

Use the definition to prove that if f and g are continuous at a then Max and Min are also continuous at a as follows.

9 Let f is a function having domain D. We define the definition of a function , when x At a then D use the definition to prove that if f is continuous

is also continuous at a is true.

10 Prove that theorem2.33 in the case for which f 11 Show that the equation

, there are solutions APPENDIX

A: Partial fractions, In this part examines a procedure for decomposition a rational functions Into simpler rational function, we call this procedure the method of partial fractions. This technique Was introduced in 1702 by John Bernoulli instrumental In the early development of calculus, John Bernoulli was Professor at the University of Basel And taught many outstanding students, the most famous of whom was Leonhard Euler. To introduce the method of partial fractions, lets consider the factorization of the fractions in these terms, called Partial fractions, furthermore we have And moreover, , and , , where are a Swiss mathematician who was

The one benefit of the partial fractions is used to evaluate the integral. In form of rational functions recall from algebra that every polynomial with real coefficient

Can be factored into linear and irreducible quadratic factors, for instance, the polynomial, Factor, is a repeated linear facfor and Where is a linear

is an irreducible quadratic factor.

Using the factorization, we can write the partial fraction decomposition of the rational Expression, , where N is a polynomial of degree

Less than 5. We summarize the steps for partial fraction decomposition as follows. Decomposition of into partial fractions is an improper fraction then divide the denominator into the

1 Divide if improper: if numerator To obtain

, where the degree of

is less than the degree of

Then apply steps 2, 3 and 4 to the proper rational expression 2 Factor denominator: completely factor denominator into factors of the form of And , where is an irreducible. , the partial fraction decomposition

3 Linear factors: For each factor of the form Has to include the following sum of m fractions 4 Quadratic factors: For each factor of the form

, the partial fraction

Decomposition has to include the following sum of n factors

Linear factors: Algebraic technique for determining the constants in the numerators are Demonstrate in the following examples Example1A write the partial fraction decomposition for

Solution Since

We include on partial fraction for each factor and write , where A, B, C are to be determined. Multiplying this Equation by the least common denominator equation 1=A : as , Leads to the basic

Since this equation is to be true for all x, we can represent convenient values foe x to obtain an Equation in A, B and C. these values are the ones that make particular factors zero. To solve foe A, We let x=1 and obtain, 1=6A+0+0: represent x by 1 in basic equation, so A= To solve for B, We let x=-1 and obtain, 1=0-2B+0, so B= To solve for C, We let x=-2 and obtain, 1=0+0+3C, so C= Finally, we will have the decomposition is REMARK: The representations for x in example 1A were chosen for their convenience in Determining values for A, B and C, We choose x=1, -1 and -2 so as to eliminate the terms Representations whenever possible. Example 2A Write the partial fraction decomposition for, Solution Since And write = , leads to the basic equation = , we include a function for each power of x and and

Respectively. The goal is to make convenient

Multiplying by the lowest common denominator,

To solve for B and C, Let x=0 and -1 respectively, This obviate the A,B and term and the A, B and C term respectively and yields 1=0+B+0+0, then B=1 and 1=0+0+0+D, then D=1

We exhausted the most convenience choice for x so to find the value of A and D. we use Any other value for x along with the calculated value of B and D. thus, using x=-2, 1, B=1 Ana D=1, we have this linear equation system as follows. -A-C=-1 and 2A+C=-1, we solve this system, it follow that A=-2 and C=3 Finally, we have the decomposition is =

REMARK: Note that it is necessary to make as many representations for x as there are unknowns to be determined. For instance, In example 2A we made four representations to solve for B, D and A and C respectively.

Quadratic factors: when using the method of partial fractions with linear factors, a convenient Choice of x immediately yields a value for one of the coefficients. With quadratic factors A system of linear equations will typically have to be solve, regardless of the choice of x Example3A Write the partial fraction decomposition for Solution since We include one partial fraction for each factor and write

Multiplying by the least common denominator, +

, yield the basic equation.

To solve for A and B by letting x=0 and -1and obtain, A=1 and B=-1 At this points C and D are yet to be determined. We can find these remaining constants by Choosing other values for x and solving the resulting system of linear equation If x=-2, then, since A=1, B=-1, will obtain that D-2C=-3 If x=2, then will obtain that D+2C=1 Solving this system of two equations with two unknowns, we have D-2C=-3 and D+2C=1 , which yields D=-1, consequently, c=1 and it follows that

Finding the solution of the basic equation of the partial fraction decomposition by substituting Values of x that made the linear factors zero. This method works well. When the partial Fraction decomposition in values only linear factors. However, if decomposition concerns A quadratic factor, then an alternate procedure is often more convenient. Both Methods are outlined in the following summary. Guidelines for solving the basic equation Linear factors: 1 represents the roots of the distinct linear factors into the basic equation 2 For repeated linear factor use the coefficients determined in part 1 to rewrite the basic Equation, then represent other convenient values of x and solve for the remaining coefficients Quadratic factors: 1 Expand the basic equation 2 Collect terms according to powers of x 3 Equate the coefficients of like powers to obtain a system of linear equations concerning A, B, C,... And so on 4 Solve the system of linear equations. The following is an example that be used the second procedure for the basic equation. Example 4A Write the partial fraction decomposition of Solution we include one partial fraction for each power of = + , yields the basic equation and write.

Multiplying by the least common denominator, =

Expanding the basic equation and collecting like terms, we have =A Now, we can equate the coefficient of like terms on opposite side of the equation. A=2, B=1, B+C=2 AND B+D=2, by using the unknown values A=2 and B=1, we have.

1+C=2, then C=1 and 1+D=2, then D=1 Therefore, = + EXERCISE A WRITE the partial fraction decomposition of the following expression. 1 5 8 11 9 12 2 6 10 13 3 7 4

B: Indeterminate form and LH pitals Rule The forms are described that are indeterminate, because they do not guarantee

That a limit exists, nor do they indicate what is, if one does exist. When we encountered One of these indeterminate form, we attempted to rewrite the expression by using various Algebraic techniques, as illustrated by the following example 1 2 3 = = = = = = =2 = =0 =27

However, not all indeterminate forms can be evaluated by algebraic manipulation, these are Particularly true when both algebraic and transcendental or both transcendental and Transcendental functions are involved, for example the limit 1 , produces the indeterminate form , distributing this expression to obtain , merely produces another indeterminate form of course

We are not able to estimate this limit. Similar, we have 2 =

LH pitals Rule We can use a theorem called LH pitals Rule for finding two limits before. This theorem States that under certain conditions the limit of the quotient .This theorem is named , who

After the French mathematician Guillaume Francois Antoine De LH pital

Published the first calculus text in 1696.To prove this theorem, we use a more general result Called the extended Mean-Value Theorem, which states the following. If f and g are differentiable On an open interval and continuous on such that such that ,

Then there exists a point c in

We assign to study the proof in a general calculus text Theorem Let f and g be functions that are differentiable on an interval Possibly at c itself. If the limit of , then Provided the limit on the right or is infinite We assign to see the proof in a general calculus text. Remark: 1 the indeterminate form comes in four forms: , each of these containing c, except

as x approaches c produces the indeterminate form

Forms can be applied by LH pitals Rule 2 Students occasionally use LH pitals Rule incorrectly by applying the quotient rule To . Be sure you see that the rule concerns not the derivative of

EXAMPLE 1B Evaluate Solution since direct substitution result in the indeterminate form LH pitals Rule to obtain = = we apply =ln 2

REMARK: in writing the string of equations in example above, we actually do not Know that the first limit is equal to the second until we have shown that the second Limit exists, in other words, if the second limit had not existed, It would not have been Permissible to apply LH pital rule. Another form of LH pitals Rule states that if the limit of Produces the indeterminate form, , then = as x approaches

Provided the limit on the right exists. We illustrate this form of LH pitals Rule in these examples EXAMPLE 2B Evaluate Solution since direct substitution results in the indeterminate form Rule To obtain = = =o , we apply LH pitals

Occasionally, it is necessary to apply LH pitals Rule more than once to remove an indeterminate Form as shown in an example below. EXAMPLE 3B Evaluate Solution since direct substitution results in the indeterminate form , we apply LH pitals Rule To obtain = . This limit yields the indeterminate form , so we apply

LH pitals Rule again to obtain

= =

, similar we apply LH pitals Rule again to obtain =0

In addition to the form 0.

, there are other indeterminate forms such as

For instance, consider the following limits that lead to the indeterminate form 0. =0, =0, =3, =3, =2

Since each limit is different, it is clear that the form 0. That it does not determine the value

is indeterminate in the sense of the limit. The following

Example indicate method for evaluating these forms. Basically, we attempt to convert Each of these forms to those for which LH pitals Rule is applicable EXAMPLE 4B Evaluate Solution since direct substitution produces the indeterminate form 0. , we rewrite the Limit to the form 1 Form 2 Form , , as follows. = = and

By applying LH pitals Rule, we have 1 2 = = = =0 and

In the second case yields the indeterminate form . Moreover, since the quotient seems to be Getting more complicated, we abandon this approach and try the The indeterminate form form, as shown in the first.

arise from the limits of functions that have a variable

Base and variable exponent. When we encountered this type of function we used logarithmic Differentiable to find the derivative. We use a similar procedure when taking limits, as indicated In the next example. EXAMPLE 5B

Evaluate

, we proceed as follows.

Solution since direct substitution yields the indeterminate form We assume that the limit exists, and let y=

Now, taking the natural logarithm of both sides, we have = = , using the fact that logarithmic function is continuous, we write. = = = = Finally, since EXAMPLE 6B Evaluate Solution since direct substitution yields the indeterminate form We assume that the limit exists, and let So, : , we proceed as follows. =-1 , so we conclude that : Indeterminate form : Indeterminate form : Indeterminate form

, if and only if

Finally, since

, we conclude that

LH pitals Rule can also be applied to one- side limits, as demonstrated in next example. EXAMPLE 7B Evaluate Solution since direct substitution produces the indeterminate form : Indeterminate form , we proceed as follows.

: Take log of both sides : Continuity : Indeterminate form 0. : Indeterminate form : LH pitals Rule : Indeterminate form 0 : LH pitals Rule Now, since , and it follows that

EXAMPLE 8B Evaluate Solution Since direct substitution produces the indeterminate form , we proceed as follows.

So, Finally, since , it follows that

=0

EXAMPLE 9B Evaluate

Solution since substitution yields the indeterminate form

we try to rewrite the

Expression to produce a form to which we can apply LH pitals Rule. In this case, we Combine the two fractions to obtain : Indeterminate form We are able to apply LH pitals Rule to obtain =

This limit also yields the indeterminate form , so we apply LH pitals Rule again to obtain

Although the forms

are signified as indeterminate. But there are

Similar forms that you should recognize as indeterminate, such as , you are asked to verify two of these in next exercise.

In each of examples so far in this section, we have used LH pitals Rule to find a limit that exists. It is able to be also used to conclude that a limit is infinite, and this is demonstrate In the two last example. EXAMPLE 10B Evaluate Solution Since direct substitution produces the indeterminate form Therefore, we apply LH pitals Rule to obtain.

Now, since

we conclude that the limit of

as x

is also infinite.

As a final comment, we remind you that LH pitals Rule can be applied only to quotients Leading to the indeterminate . Please remember EXERCISE B 1 Evaluate the following limits, using LH pitals Rule 1 4 7 10 13 16 2 5 8 11 14 17 3 6 9 12 15 18 , m, n

19 22 25 2 Prove that if 3 Prove that if , , 23 26

20 24 27 and and

21 , where m, n

, then , then

=0 =

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