1

ELEC209: ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND

POWER SYSTEMS
Revision
Dr Ali Al-Ataby
aliataby@liv.ac.uk
ELEC209: ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND
POWER SYSTEMS
Part I: Electrical Circuits
Various Flux Definitions
Note the flux
ell1
and
ell2
.
These terms represent flux that is produced in coils 1 (
ell1
) and 2
(
ell2
) which do not link coils 2 and 1 respectively. They can be seen
as leakage terms. They are assumed negligible for the purposes
of the analysis.

12
i
1
v
1
(t)
v
2
(t)
i
2
Coil 1
Coil 2
N
1
turns N
2
turns



ell1
ell2

21

1
2
3
Various Flux Definitions-Cond

11
is the flux produced in coil 1 by the current flowing in coil 1

11
=
ell1
+
21
(Leakage+Linkage)

22
is the flux produced in coil 2 by the current flowing in coil 2

22
=
ell2
+
12

21
is the flux linking coil 2 produced by coil 1

12
is the flux linking coil 1 produced by coil 2

1
- The total flux threading coil 1 is the sum of components due to i
1
and i
2
:

1
=
11
+
12
1 1 11 12 1 2
1 1 1 1 12
( )
d d d d di di
v N N L M
dt dt dt dt dt dt

= = = + =
4
self mutual
2
Coefficient of Coupling
The total flux
11
resulting from i
1
through N
1
turns
consists of leakage flux
ell1
and coupling flux
21.
The total flux
22
resulting ....
The coupling coefficient, k, is defined as the ratio of
linking flux to total flux. Also, the coupling is bilateral:
2 1 1 2
1 1 2 2
k


= =
5
Coefficient of Coupling-Contd
Coefficient of coupling k
A measure of the degree of coupling
Defined by:
If there is no coupling between the coils, M=k=0
There is equivalent to two simple, uncoupled coils.
Since M
21
<L
1
and M
12
<L
2
, we have:
If k is close to 1, the coils are said to be tightly coupled.
1 2
M
k
L L
=

2 1
2
L L M < << < 0 K 1
6
How?
General Equivalent Circuit
The equations:
represent a circuit that has two parts:
7
1 1 1 2
2 2 2 1
V j L I j MI
V j L I j MI


=
=
1 2
1 1
2 1
2 2
di di
v L M
dt dt
di di
v L M
dt dt
=
=
What we call it?
8
Dot Convention:
3
9
Examples:
Example 1: Writing KVL
Two magnetically coupled circuits with positive M:
i
1

L
1
L
2
+
_
v
1
+
_
v
2
i
2 M
2 2 2 1 2 2
V I R j MI j LI = + +
R
1
R
2

j L
1
j L
2
+
_
j M

1 V

+
_

2 V

1

I
2

I
R
1
R
2
1 2
1 1 1 1
d d
d d
i i
v I R L M
t t
= + +
1 2
2 2 2 2
d d
d d
i i
v I R M L
t t
= + +
1 1 1 1 1 2
V I R j LI j MI = + +
10
Example 3: Writing KVL-Series Adding

+
M
L
1
L
2

v
+

i
i
R
L
v
+

R
.
1 2
1 2
+
= (j j ) ( j j )
R
V V V V
IR L I MI L I MI
= +
+ + + +
& & & & &
1 2
2 R R L L L M = = + +
v
1
v
2
v
R
11
Equivalent
cct.
Example 4: Writing KVL-Series Opposing
1 2 1 2
2 R R R L L L M = + = +
i

v
2
+

M
R
1
R
2
L
1
L
2
v
1
+

v
+

i
R
L
v
+

.
1 2 1 2
2j j ( ) ( ) V MI L L I I R R = + + + +
& & &
12
4
Mutual Inductance Lab Measurement
If you do practical tests on the coils for series adding and
opposing you can calculate the mutual inductance if the self-
inductances are known.
4
A B
L L
M

=
1 2
2
B
L L L M = +
1 2
2
A
L L L M = + + Series adding
Series opposing
1 2 1 2
4 *
A B
L L
M
k
L L L L

= =
Mutual inductance
Coupling coefficient
13
Definition
The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of
which an electrical power is transformed from one alternating
current circuit to another with the desired change in voltage
and current, without any change in frequency.
14
Analogy,
Mech.
Eng.
Yet again: Two circuits magnetically coupled with
negative M, ignore leakage fluxes
Two coils with opposing fluxes (
21
-
12
) and N
1
N
2.
1 1 21 12
( ) [ ]
d
v t N
dt
=
1 1
2 2
( )
( )
v t N
v t N
=
Dividing the two equations:
This equation defines the ideal transformer.
2 2 21 12
( ) [ ]
d
v t N
dt
=

12
i
1
v
1
(t)
v
2
(t)
i
2
Coil 1
Coil 2
N
1
turns
N
2
turns



ell1
ell2

21
15
How?
How?
Ideal transformers
An ideal transformer is a useful approximation of a very
tightly coupled transformer, in which the coupling
coefficient is essentially unity (k=1).
In practice, there must always be some flux leakage, but a
close approximation to the ideal is obtained with the
following assumptions:
Assumption 1: The two coils are placed physically close to each other in
a common core.
Assumption 2: Both the primary and secondary inductive reactances
are extremely large in comparison with the terminating impedance.
Assumption 3: Coils are lossless (zero resistance).
These characteristics are closely approached by the most
well-designed iron-core transformers over a reasonable
range of frequencies for a reasonable range of terminal
impedances.
16
5
Ideal Transformers-Contd
For an ideal transformer, which is coupled with good
magnetic material so that the core permeability (the degree
of magnetisation) and winding conductivities are assumed
infinite, and it is therefore lossless) the time domain relations
are:
where both currents are entering the dots on the positive
terminal. represents the permeance of the magnetic circuit
carrying the mutual flux. An ideal condition is with infinite
permeance.
1
1 2 12 21 1 1 2 2
2
( ) ( ) ( )
N
v t v t N i N i
N
= = =
12 21
1 1 2 2
( ) 0 N i N i

= =

1 1 2 2
0 N i N i =
1 1
2 2
( )
( )
v t N
v t N
=
1 2
2 1
N i
N i
=
17
Ideal Transformers-Contd
Note that the two equations above can be combined to
show that:
v
1
i
1
= v
2
i
2
and p
1
= p
2
Instantaneous power absorbed by the primary winding
= Instantaneous power delivered by the secondary winding
An ideal transformer is tightly coupled (k 1)
1 1 2
2 2 1
N L M L
n
N L L M
= = = =
2
2 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
N N
L N
i N i

= = =
2 2 2
2 2
2
N
L N
i

= =
18
Turns ratio
,
Basic operations of transformers
If N
2
>N
1
, step up transformer because v
2
>v
1
.
If N
1
>N
2
, step down transformer because v
1
>v
2
.
If N
1
=N
2,
impedance matching and isolation transformers.
19
Z
in
/Z
L
=(N
1
/N
2
)
2
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
6
Merits of three phase systems
With same sizes, 3-phase generators and electrical motors have
high output power, simple in construction and better capacity
than single phase systems.
Transmission of electricity in three phases is more economical
(less conductor material).
Single phase instantaneous power is time-variant while total
instantaneous power of three phase is time-invariant.

21
Instantaneous expressions
) 120 cos( 2 ) (
o
B
= t U t u
) cos( 2 ) (
A
t U t u =
B
+

Y
u
B
A
+

X
u
A
C
+

Z
u
C
o
C
( ) 2 cos( 120 ) u t U t = +
22
t 0
u
A u
B
u
C
sin
waves
Phasor expression
o
C
o
B
o
A
120 240
120
0
= == = = == =
= == =
= == =



U U U
U U
U U
o
A

U
C
U
&
B
U
&
120
120
120
Phase Sequence: it refers to the order in
which three-phase voltage generated
A
B
C
Positive phase sequence (clockwise)
ABCA
23
Three-Phase System's Structure
24
Generation
Side
Load
Side
N
A
B
C
Lines
Three-Phase Generator Three-Phase Load
Optional
7
A

I
B

I
Y connection of source
The neutral point is known as the star point.
Phase voltage
Line voltage
Phase current = line current
N
A
B
C
B A

U CA

U
C

I
B
C
A
+

X
Y
Z
A

U
B

U
C

U
BC

U
Three-wire
systems
Four-wire
systems
. . .
, , A B C U U U
C B A
I I I
& & &
, ,
. . .
, , AB BC CA U U U
25
Relation between phase and line voltages
N A

U
BN

U
CN

U
BN
U
&

B A

U
30
o
30
o
30
o
BC

U
CA

U
o
3 30
AB A B
U U U U = =
o
3 90
BC B C
U U U U = =
o
3 150
CA C A
U U U U = =
o
C
o
B
o
A
120 240
120
0
= == = = == =
= == =
= == =



U U U
U U
U U
o
The phase relation of
three-phase voltages
and currents must be
clear.
26
A

I
B

I
C

I
A
B
C
A
X
+
B
C
Y
Z
B

U
C

U
A

U
BC

U
B A

U
CA

U
Delta connection of source
Line voltage = phase voltage
Phase voltage
Line voltage
Line current phase current
. . .
, , A B C U U U
C B A
I I I
& & &
, ,
. . .
, , AB BC CA U U U
27
bc

I
ca

I
ab

I
a
b
c
Z
Z Z
b
a
c
o
ca
o
bc
o
ab
120
120
0
= == =
= == =
= == =



I I
I I
I I
bc

I
ab

I
ca

I
ca
I
&
A

I
C

I
B

I
30
o
30
o
bc ca C

= == = I I I
ab bc B

= == = I I I
ca ab A

= == = I I I
o
ab 30 3 = == =

I
o
bc 30 3 = == =

I
o
ca 30 3 = == =

I
28
Relation between phase and line currents
A

I
B

I
C

I
8
Z
2
Y - Y
Balanced Y-Y connection
Example: Given a symmetric 3-phase source, line voltage is
38030Vsymmetric load Z
1
=Z
2
=Z
3
=Z10030.
Solve for line currents?
+
_
+
N n
Z
1
A

U
B

U
A

I
B

I
C

I
Z
3
C

U
29
Load
_
_
+
Balanced Y-Y connection
+
+
+
N n
Z
Z
Z
A

U
B

U
C

U
A

I
B

I
C

I
- -- -
- -- -
o
o
o
220 0
2.2 30
100 30
AN
A
U
I A
Z

= = =

&
&
V U So
V U Given
AN
AB
o
o
0 220
30 380
=
=
&
&
o o o
2.2 ( 30 120 ) 2.2 150
B
I A = =
&
o o o o
2.2 ( 150 120 360 ) 2.2 90
C
I A = + =
&
30
- -- -
+
N
n
AN
U
&
Z
A
I
&
o
C
o
B
o
A
120 240
120
0
= == = = == =
= == =
= == =



U U U
U U
U U
o
The characteristics of a balanced
three-phase voltage:
0
0
C B A
C B A
= == = + ++ + + ++ +
= == = + ++ + + ++ +

U U U
u u u
A

U
C
U
&
B
U
&
120
120
120
B A
U U
& &
+
Voltage at the neutral point
31
Balanced - connection
A

I
Z
Z Z
B

I
C

I
A
B
C
a
b
c
ab

I
bc

I
ca

I
+

BC

U
A C

U
B A

U
Example: Given a symmetric 3-phase circuit, line voltage 380 0V
Symmetric load, Z10030.
Solve for line currents?
32
9
Balanced - connection-Contd
o
o
o
380 0
3.8 30
100 30
AB
ab
U
I A
Z

= = =

&
&
V U If
AB
o
0 380 =
&
o
6.58 180
B
I A =
&
o o
6.58 ( 180 120 360) 6.58 60
C
I A = + =
&
Choose A phase to compute
- -- -
+
B
b
AB
U
&
Z
ab
I
&
A a
o o o
3 3.8 ( 30 30 ) 6.58 60
A
I A = =
&
33
Balanced Y- connection
A

I
B

I
C

I
A
B
C
+

BC

U
A C

U
B A

U
n
Z
Z
Z
-Y
A

I
+
_
+ +
N
Z
Z Z
A

U
B

U C

U
B

I
C

I
A
B
C
a
b
c
ab

I
bc

I
ca

I
Y-
34
Y- connected systems analysis
There are a number of methods for dealing with such systems.
One method is to change the sources form star connected to delta
connected.
Remember to add in the associated phase difference, this as the phase
and line voltage relationships as derived for the star connected system.
35
A
B
C
+

BC

U
A C

U
B A

U
+
_
+
_
_
+
N
A

U
B

U C

U
A
B
C
Y - connected systems-contd
The calculation proceeds as normal.
o
C
o
B
o
A
120 240
120
0
= == = = == =
= == =
= == =



U U U
U U
U U
o
o
3 30
AB A B
U U U U = =
o
3 90
BC B C
U U U U = =
o
3 150
CA C A
U U U U = =
Star Voltages
Delta Voltages
36
10
- Y connected systems analysis
Similarly change the delta connected sources to star. Then proceed as
usual.
o
3 0
AB
U U =
o
3 120
BC
U U =
o
3 120
CA
U U =
Delta Voltages Star Voltages
o
30
A
U U =
o
150
B
U U =
o
90
C
U U =
37
A
B
C
+

BC

U
A C

U
B A

U
+
_
+
_
_
+
N
A

U
B

U C

U
A
B
C
+
_
N N'
Z
a
Z
b
Z
c
AN

U
CN

U
BN

U
A
I
&
N N
I

&
C
I
&
B
I
&
c
CN
C
b
BN
B
a
AN
A
Z
U
I
Z
U
I
Z
U
I
&
&
&
&
&
&
= == = = == = = == =
0 + ++ + + ++ + = == = + ++ + + ++ + = == =

c
CN
b
BN
a
AN
C B A N N
Z
U
Z
U
Z
U
I I I I
& & &
& & & &
Unbalanced Y-Y 4 wire connection
0
a b c
n
Z Z Z
I

38
Unbalanced connected load
The specified line voltage will be across each phase.
Take three phases and put them into 3 independent single phase
systems with voltage 120 apart in phase.
+
_
+ +
Z
c
Z
b
Z
a
A

U
B

U C

U
A

I
B

I
C

I
A
B
C
a
b
c
ab

I
bc

I
ca

I
N
/
ab AB b
I U Z =
A ab ca
I I I = /
ca CA a
I U Z =
39
Unbalanced 3 wire Y connected load
This is a difficult case. Without the neutral conductor, the voltage at n
will vary.
The currents in the load sum to zero at n. Use this to calculate the
voltages and impedances.
+
_
N n'
Z
a
Z
b
Z
c
AN

U
CN

U
BN

U
A
B
C
40
11
C B A
P P P P + + =
Three-phase total power
When Loads are balanced
cos 3
p p
I U P =
cos 3
l l
I U P =
Three-phase power
41
How?
Three-phase power-Contd
The power per phase = V
p
I
p
cos
Thus TOTAL power (in a balanced) system
= 3V
p
I
p
cos
Delta Star
V
L
= V
p
, I
L
=3I
p
V
L
=3V
p
, I
L
= I
p
P
T
= 3V
L
I
L
cos P
T
= 3V
L
I
L
cos
Apparent power:
*
P = Real Power (W, kW, MW)
Q = Reactive Power (var, kvar, Mvar)
S = Complex power (VA, kVA, MVA)
P jQ S V I = + =
42
1
W
*
*
2
W
*
*
3 W
*
*
A
C
B
N
Load is Y and use three power meters to measure total power.
The total power is equal to the sum of three wattmeters.
At this
time,
each
voltage
loop
measures
the phase
voltage of
each
phase
Four-wire system power measurement with three
Wattmeters
loads
43
The total power is the algebraic sum of the meter
readings
C
B
u
C
i
B
i
A
i
AC
u
BC
u
A
B C
u
A
u
A
Z
B
Z
C
Z
2
W
*
*
1
W
*
*
Three-wire system power measurement with two
Wattmeters
44
12
Three-wire system power measurement with two
Wattmeters-Contd
( ) ( )
BC B AC A
C B B C A A
C C B B A A
u i u i
u u i u u i
i u i u i u p
+ =
+ =
+ + =
Note: three-phase total power is equal to the sum of
two meter readings.
Just a single meter reading has no meaning.
B A C
i i i =
45
CIRCUIT TRANSIENT
Transient
47
1
St
Order
C or L
2
nd
Order
C and L
DC AC DC AC
Revision-Characteristics of L and C
Element V/I Relation DC Steady-State
Resistor V(t) = R I(t) V = I R
Capacitor I(t) = C dV(t)/dt I=0; open
Inductor V(t) = L dI(t)/dt V=0; short


48
13
A First-Order RC Circuit
One capacitor.
The source and resistor may be equivalent to a circuit with many
resistors and sources.
R
C v
s
(t)
+

v
c
(t)
+
v
r
(t)
+

49
The Differential Equation(s)
KVL around the loop: v
r
(t) + v
c
(t) = v
s
(t)
R
C v
s
(t)
+

v
c
(t)
+
v
r
(t)
+

1
( ) ( ) ( )
t
s
Ri t i x dx v t
C

+ =

dt
t dv
C t i
dt
t di
RC
s
) (
) (
) (
= +
dt
t dv
RC t v
dt
t dv
RC
s
r
r
) (
) (
) (
= +
50
A First-Order RL Circuit
One inductor.
The source and resistor may be equivalent to a circuit with many
resistors and sources.
v(t)
i
s
(t)
R L
+

51
The Differential Equation(s)
KCL at the top node:
) ( ) (
1 ) (
t i dx x v
L R
t v
s
t
= +

v(t)
i
s
(t)
R L
+

dt
t di
L
dt
t dv
R
L
t v
s
) ( ) (
) ( = +
52
14
The Complementary Solution (transient)
The complementary solution has the following form:
Initial conditions determine the value of K.
/
) (
t t a
c
Ke Ke t v

= =
53
Time
constant
Transient Waveforms
The transient portion of the waveform is a decaying
exponential:
54
/
) (
t t a
c
Ke Ke t v

= =
Steady-State Response
The steady-state response depends on the source(s)
in the circuit.
Constant sources give DC (constant) steady-state
responses.
Sinusoidal sources give AC (sinusoidal) steady-state
responses.
55
For the circuit shown below:
a. Find the mathematical expressions for the transient behaviour of v
C
, i
C
, and
v
R
when the switch is moved to position 1. Plot the curves of v
C
, i
C
, and v
R
.
b. How much time must pass before it can be assumed, for all practical
purposes, that i
C
0 A and v
C
V volts?
Example 1
56
15
Solution:
a.
b. From the figures:
Example 1-Contd
57
After v
C
in Example 1 has reached its final value of 40 V, the switch is
thrown into position 2, as shown in the below Fig. Find the mathematical
expressions for the transient behaviour of v
C
, i
C
, and v
R
after the closing of
the switch. Plot their curves. Assume that t= 0 when the switch is moved
to position 2.
Example 2
58
Solution:
Example 2-Contd
59
Example 3
The capacitor of the below Fig. has an initial voltage of 4 V.
a. Find the mathematical expression for the voltage across the capacitor
once the switch is closed.
b. Find the mathematical expression for the current during the transient
period.
c. Sketch the waveform for each from initial value to final value.
60
16
Example 3-Contd
61
Solution:
a. Substituting the open-circuit equivalent for the capacitor will result in a final or
steady-state voltage v
C
of 24 V. The time constant is determined by:
And:
Example 3-Contd
62
b. Since the voltage across the capacitor is constant at 4 V prior to the closing of
the switch, the current (whose level is sensitive only to changes in voltage across
the capacitor) must have an initial value of 0 mA. At the instant the switch is
closed, the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously, so the
voltage across the resistive elements at this instant is the applied voltage less the
initial voltage across the capacitor. The resulting peak current is:
The current will then decay (with the same time constant as the voltage v
C
) to zero
because the capacitor is approaching its open circuit equivalence. The equation
for i
C
is therefore:
Example 3-Contd
63
c.
Example 4
For the circuit shown below:
a. Find the mathematical expression for the transient behaviour of the
voltage v
C
and the current i
C
following the closing of the switch
(position 1 at t=0 s).
b. Find the mathematical expression for the voltage v
C
and current i
C
as a function of time if the switch is thrown into position 2 at t=9 ms.
c. Draw the resultant waveforms of parts (a) and (b) on the same time
axis.
64
17
Example 4-Contd
65
a. Applying Thvenins theorem to the 0.2-mF capacitor, we obtain:
Example 4-Contd
66
Example 4-Contd
67
The resultant Thvenin equivalent circuit with the capacitor replaced is
shown in Fig.
For the current:
Example 4-Contd
68
b. Ans:
c.
Prove
18
Interpretation of
In general, you should note that an equation of the form:
means exponential growth (!). The time constant, , is the amount of
time necessary for an exponential to grow to 0.63 of its final value.
/
(1 )
t
y Y e

=
t
y
0
Y
t=
0.63Y
69
Charging
Interpretation of Contd
An equation of the form:
means exponential decay. The time constant, , is the amount of time
necessary for an exponential to decay to 36.7% of its initial value.
/ t
y Ye

=
t
y
0
Y
t=
0.37Y
70
Discharging
Example 1
Find the mathematical expressions for the transient behaviour of i
L
and v
L
for the circuit below after the closing of the switch. Sketch the resulting
curves.
71
Example 1-Contd
Solution:
72
19
Example 2
The inductor of the figure below has an initial current level of 4 mA in the
direction shown.
a. Find the mathematical expression for the current through the coil once the
switch is closed.
b. Find the mathematical expression for the voltage across the coil during the
same transient period.
c. Sketch the waveform for each from initial value to final value.
73
Example 2-Contd
Solution:
a. The final or steady state current is:
The time constant is:
Hence:
74
Energy transfer-LC
The energy stored in an inductor given the coil current i is:
The energy dissipated in a resistor R up to the instant t is:
This is easily calculated as the total energy supplied minus the
energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.
2
1
2
Li
2
0
t
i Rdt

75
How?
Energy transfer-RC
The charge on the capacitor at any instant:
Where Q=CV
0
is the initial charge on the capacitor. Energy stored in
the electrical field of the capacitor in t seconds is:
where V
c
is the voltage on the capacitor at time t.
The rate of charge of current is:
2
1
2
C
CV
1 1
0
t t
RC RC
q CV CV e Qe

= = =
1
( )
0 2 2
at t=0 |
t
C RC
t
di V di V
e
dt R C dt R C

=
= =
76
20
FIRST-ORDER TRANSIENT CIRCUITS
AC TRANSIENT
Inductive circuit switched to AC
Consider the following circuit:
Let the voltage source be:
The source is suddenly
switched to RL in series
at instant t=0, when V is
passing through the value
V
m
sin(t+).
And the voltage equation is:
V
m
sin(t+)=i i i i R+L di ii i/dt tt t
i
K(t=0)
V(t)
L
+

v
L
R
( ) sin( )
m
V t V t = +
78
Steady state current
The steady state current, i
s
, is found by normal circuit theory. The
impedance of the circuit above is:
Then the peak steady state current is:
The current lags behind the applied voltage by and the expression for
the instantaneous value of steady state i
s
is:
2 2 1
| | where | | ( ) , tan ( )
L
R j L Z Z R L
R

+ = = + =
2 2
=
| |
( )
m m
m
V V
I
Z
R L
=
+
2 2
( ) ( )
( )
m
s m
V
i sin t I sin t
R L

= + = +
+
79
Transient current
Derived from 1
st
order transient circuit:
Therefore, the instantaneous current is:
Looking at the initial conditions at t=0, i=0
Therefore,
( )
R
t
L
t
i Ae

=
( )
( )
R
t
L
s t m
i i i I sin t Ae

= + = + +
( ) 0
0
0 ( )
R
L
m
i I sin Ae

= = +
( )
( ) ( )
R
t
L
m m
i I sin t I sin e

= +
( )
m
A I sin =
80
Compare
with DC...
21
Effects of during switching
Note that the magnitude of the switching transient depends
upon the value of , that is, on the instant in the cycle at
which the contacts are closed. There are three cases that
need to be examined:
At t=0, the voltage is passing through zero and is positive going, i.e.
=0.
At t=0, the voltage is passing through V
m
sin (), i.e., =, (-=0.)
At t=0, the voltage is passing through V
m
sin(/2), i.e.
- = /2.
Why studying these three case...?
81
Case 1: =0
At t=0, the voltage is passing through zero and is positive going, i.e. =0.
The maximum instantaneous peak current i
Pk,
may be larger than the
normal peak current i
sPk
. (Must be checked vs. circuit parameters and the
its limit).
( )
( ) ( )
R
t
L
m m
i I sin t I sin e

=
( )
m
V V sin t =
( )
( ) ( )
R
t
L
m m
i I sin t I sin e

= +
82
Case 2: =
At t=0, the voltage is passing through V
m
sin(), i.e. = and -=0.
In this case A=0 and there is no switch transient (!), i
t
=0. This case
corresponds to when steady state current will itself be zero at t=0.
( )
m s
i I sin t i = =
83
Case 3: - = /2
At t=0, the voltage is passing through V
m
sin(/2), i.e.
- = /2.
The transient term in this case is:
Here the transient has its maximum possible value.
( ) ( )
m
( ) I
2
R R
t t
L L
t m
i I sin e e

= =
( )
m
( ) I
2
R
t
L
s t m
i i i I sin t e

= + =
84
22
Typical response figures
The figures for different - :
In summary (inductor):
=0, large current.
- =0, no transient !
- = = /2, the largest possible current.
85
Typical response figures-contd
86
Typical response figures-contd
87
Typical response figures-contd
88
23
Example
A 50Hz alternating voltage of peak value 300V is suddenly applied to a
circuit which has a resistance of 0.1 and an inductance of 3.18mH.
Determine the first peak value of the resultant current when the transient
term has a maximum value.
Solution:
Inductive reactance:
The circuit impedance:
Peak steady state current:
3
2 2 * 50 * 3.18 *10 1
L
X fL

= = =
0.1 1 1 84.3 Z j

= + =
m
I 300
| |
m
V
A
Z
= =
89
Example-contd
If v=300sin(t+), then the maximum transient will occur when - =
/2 , that is for this case when the phase angle (), of the current with
respect to the voltage is 84.3.
Therefore = /2=-5.7 (choosing the ve value)
Then
At t=0, i=0 then
( )
m
( ) I
2
R
t
L
s t m
i i i I sin t e

= + = +
(31.4)
300 ( )
2
t
i sin t Ae

= +
0 300 ( )
2
sin t A

= +
300 A =
90
Example-contd
So
The maximum possible value occurs at the first peak of steady
state current so that
(t- /2 )= /2 , that is when t=0.01 seconds for 50Hz. (Why?)
At this time,
The total current at this instant = 300+219=519A
(31.4)
300 ( ) 300
2
t
i sin t e

= +
0.314
300 219
t
i e A

= =
91
N.B. The circuit should be designed to cope with this current...
SECOND-ORDER TRANSIENT CIRCUITS
24
A 2
nd
Order RLC Circuit
The source and resistor may be equivalent to a circuit with many
resistors and sources.
The 2
nd
order circuits involve both electromagnetic and electrostatic
stored energies and are sometimes known as double-energy
transients.
All sudden changes in the circuit conditions involve the re-distribution
of two forms of stored energy.
R
C v
s
(t)
i (t)
L
+

93
The Differential Equation
KVL around the loop:
v
r
(t) + v
c
(t) + v
l
(t) = v
s
(t)
R
C v
s
(t)
+

v
c
(t)
+

v
r
(t)
L
+
v
l
(t)
i (t)
+

) ( ) (
1 ) (
) ( t v dx x i
C dt
t di
L t Ri
s
t
= + +

dt
t dv
L
t i
LC dt
t di
L
R
dt
t i d
s
) ( 1
) (
1 ) ( ) (
2
2
= + +
94
Zero Input Response of 2
nd
Order Circuits
Consider a series connected R, L, C circuit.
u
C
(0
-
)=U
0
, i(0
-
)=0 Given,
Find u
C
(t) , i(t) , u
L
(t) .
R
L
C
+ ++ +
- -- -
i
v
c
u
L
+ ++ +
- -- -
k(t=0)
0
R L c
v v v + + =
( ) 1 ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
t
di t di t q
Ri t L i x dx Ri t L
dt C dt C

+ + = + + =

i the instantaneous current

q the instantaneous charge on the capacitor. 95
The Solution of the 2
nd
order equation
As before, the complete solution of the differential equation will have two
parts: the steady state current i
s
and the transient current i
t
.
The steady state current is obtained by normal circuit theory.
While the transient is the solution of the 2
nd
order equation:
0
t t
t
di q
Ri L
dt C
+ + =
2
2
0
t t t
d i R di i
dt L dt LC
+ + =
96
25
The Solution of the 2
nd
order equation-
Contd
To solve the equation, an operational approach will be used
without considering the underpinning mathematics.
Let the operator p stand for and p
2
for
Then the previous equation becomes:
i.e.
d
dt
2
2
d
dt
2
0
t
t t
R i
p i pi
L LC
+ + =
2
2
0
t t t
d i R di i
dt L dt LC
+ + =
2
1
( ) 0
t
R
p p i
L LC
+ + =
97
Laplace
Transform!
The Solution of the 2
nd
order equation-
Contd
The expression in brackets may be factorised to:
So:
Where:
1 2
( )( ) 0 p m p m =
2
1,2
1
( )
2 2
R R
m
L L LC
= =
2
R
L
=
0
1

LC
=
2 2
0
=
98
?
Final solution
The solution to the previous differential equation is the sum of two
exponential functions with the above roots.
Or:
There are four conditions which arise from the previous equations and,
they depend upon the values of R, L and C.
1 2
m t m t
t
i Ae Be = +
( ) ( )
( )
t t t t t
t
i Ae Be e Ae Be
+
= + = +
2
1,2
1
( )
2 2
R R
m
L L LC
= =
99
Case 1: Overdamped case
For this condition
So that:
Where and are real positive numbers.
( )
t t t
t
i e Ae Be

= +
0
>
2 2
0
=
100
26
Case 2: critically damped case
For this condition
So that:
Where =0 and with real equal roots.
0
=
( )
t
t
i e A Bt

= +
Non-oscillation Discharging
2 2
0
=
101
How?
Case 3: Under damped case
For this condition
In this case is purely imaginary and m
1
and m
2
are
complex conjugates. A
1
, A
2
, , A
3
and are
constants.
0
<
| | | |
1 2
( )
t j t j t
t
i e Ae A e

= +
3
( )
t
t
i e A cos t

= +
[Eulers Theorem]
2 2
0
=
102
Case 4: lossless undamped
In this case:
R=0
0 =
2
0 0
j = =
0 0
1 2
( )
j t j t
t
i Ae A e

= +
1 0
2 0
m j
m j


= + = =
= = =
2 2
0
=
2
R
L
=
103
Case 4: lossless undamped-Contd
These are two phasors which look like:
Let A=A
1
+jA
2
and B=B
1
-jB
2
Add A+B=(A
1
+B
1
)+j(A
2
-B
2
)
Let A
1
+B
1
=C and A
2
-B
2
=D, so A+B=C+jD.
Therefore (A+B) in the polar form is:
Where:
2 2
C D +
1 2 2
m
tan ( ) and I
D
C D
C

= + =
t
i(t)=I
m
cos( t+ )
A
B
104
27
105
Steady-state current
An alternative method to Laplace transforms is to consider the previous
analysis. The steady state current from a supply connected to a simple R,
L, C circuit is:
Three cases exist for this steady state current.
is the point on wave when the switch is closed or a fault occurs as a
short circuit.
( ) sin
s m
i I t = +
2
2
where
1
m
m
v
I
R L
C

=
| |
+
|
\
0; ;
2

= = =
106
Transient current
The transient current from the analysis of 2
nd
order transient circuits is:
Four different cases when:
2 2
0 0
1
where ; ;
2
t t t
t
i e Ae Be
R
L LC



( = +

= = =
0 0 0
0; ; ; R = > = <
107
Full solution
The total current, therefore, in the circuit is:
The appropriate specific solutions can be chosen to suit the circuit
conditions. That is the point on wave switching or the occurrence of a
fault plus the type of circuit [low loss, lossless etc].
Once the specific solutions are chosen, then the analysis follows the same
pattern as previous, e.g. initial conditions, etc...
( ) sin
s t
t t t
m
i i i
i I t e Ae Be



= +
( = + + +

108
28
TWO-PORT NETWORKS
109
Network examples
transformer
n:1
filter circuit
R
C C
transmission line
transistor amplify circuit
110
Two-port network
When a circuit is connected to circuits or other networks with
two pairs of terminals , we called it a two-port circuit.
These two terminals form a port.
Linear elements and
controlled sources
i
1
i
2
i
2
i
1
u
1
+ ++ +

u
2
+ ++ +

' '
1 1 2 2
i i i i = =
Port 1
Port 2
111
Short circuit admittance parameters





+ ++ + = == =
+ ++ + = == =
2 22 1 21 2
2 12 1 11 1
U Y U Y I
U Y U Y I
& & &
& & &
Or
+
- -- -
+
- -- -
1

U
1

I 2

I
2

U
Linear element,
No Independent
source
V
1
and V2 are chosen as two
independent parameters.
11 12 1 1
21 22 2 2
( ( (
=
( ( (

Y Y I U
Y Y I U
& &
& &
112
29
How to get Y
To find Y, we perform the following two short circuit tests:
0
2
2
22
1
= == =
= == =
U
U
I
Y
&
&
&
0
1
1
11
2
= == =
= == =
U
U
I
Y
&
&
&
0
1
2
21
2
= == =
= == =
U
U
I
Y
&
&
&
0
2
1
12
1
= == =
= == =
U
U
I
Y
&
&
&
+
- -- -
1

U
1

I 2

I
Linear &
no source
+
- -- -
1

I 2

I
2

U
Linear &
no source
113
Example of a -network
Find the admittance parameters

Y
b
+

+

1

U
1

I 2

I
2

U Y
a
Y
c
b a 0
1
1
11
2
Y Y
U
I
Y
U
+ ++ + = == = = == =
= == =
&
&
&
b 0
1
2
21
2
Y
U
I
Y
U
= == = = == =
= == =
&
&
&
1
1
1
12 b 0
2
2
22 b c 0
2
=
=
= =
= = +
U
U
I
Y Y
U
I
Y Y Y
U
&
&
&
&
&
&
b 21 12
Y Y Y = == = = == =





+ ++ + = == =
+ ++ + = == =
2 22 1 21 2
2 12 1 11 1
U Y U Y I
U Y U Y I
& & &
& & &
114
Open circuit impedance parameters
1 11 1 12 2
2 21 1 22 2
U Z I Z I
U Z I Z I
= +

= +

Or
+
- -- -
+
- -- -
1

U
1

I 2

I
2

U
Linear element,
No Independent
source
I
1
and I2 are chosen as two
independent parameters.
1 11 12 1
2 21 22 2
U Z Z I
U Z Z I
( ( (
=
( ( (

115
How to get Z
To find Z, we perform the following two open circuit tests:
2 1
2 1
1 1
11 0 12 0
1 2
2 2
21 0 22 0
1 2
I I
I I
U U
Z Z
I I
U U
Z Z
I I
= =
= =
= =
= =
1 11 1 12 2
2 21 1 22 2
U Z I Z I
U Z I Z I
= +

= +

116
30
Example of a T-network
Find the impedance parameters
b a 0
1
1
11
2
Z Z
I
U
Z
I
+ ++ + = == = = == =
= == =
&
&
&
b 0
2
1
12
1
Z
I
U
Z
I
= == = = == =
= == =
&
&
&
b 0
1
2
21
2
Z
I
U
Z
I
= == = = == =
= == =
&
&
&
c b 0
2
2
22
1
Z Z
I
U
Z
I
+ ++ + = == = = == =
= == =
&
&
&
Z
b
+

+

1

U
1

I
2

I
2

U
Z
a
Z
c
1 11 1 12 2
2 21 1 22 2
U Z I Z I
U Z I Z I
= +
= +
& & &
& & &
117
Transfer parameters
+
- -- -
+
- -- -
1

U
1

I 2

I
2

U
Linear element, No
independent
source
1 11 2 12 2
1 21 2 22 2
U T U T I
I T U T I
=
=
& & &
& & &
(Watch for minus)
(

=
(

2
2
22 21
12 11
1
1
I
U

T T
T T
I
U
&
&
&
&
Its called parameter T matrix.
T T
T T
( (( (

( (( (



= == =
22 21
12 11
T
118
How to get the T matrix
2
1
11 0
2
I
U
T
U
=
=
&
&
&
2
1
12 0
2
U
U
T
I
=
=

&
&
&
2
1
21 0
2
I
I
T
U
=
=
&
&
&
2
1
22 0
2
U
I
T
I
=
=

&
&
&
Open circuit
parameter
Short circuit
parameter
2 22 2 21 1
2 12 2 11 1
I T U T I
I T U T U
& & &
& & &
=
=
119
Example of a transformer
Get parameter T
2 1
1
i
n
i = == =
then
( (( (
( (( (
( (( (

( (( (





= == =
n
n
1
0
0
T
i.e.
( (( (

( (( (




( (( (
( (( (
( (( (

( (( (





= == =
( (( (

( (( (



2
2
1
1

1
0
0
i
u
n
n
i
u
n:1
i
1
i
2
+

+

u
1
u
2
2 22 2 21 1
2 12 2 11 1
I T U T I
I T U T U
& & &
& & &
=
=
120
31
Combinations of two-port models
Series connection:
Parallel connection:
Cascade connection:
121
QUESTIONS, DISCUSSIONS AND FEEDBACK
THANK YOU.
122