Advanced Computational Methods in Advanced Computational Methods in

Mechanics
(Phng php tnh nng cao trong C hc) (Phng php tnh nng cao trong C hc)
PGS.TS. Nguyn Xun Hng
University of Science University of Science
School of Math & Computer Science
Contents
2 Vectors and Tensors
1. Introduction
2. Vectors and Tensors
3. Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDE)
4. Introduction to Variational Principles
5. Overview of some advanced variational forms
6. Advanced numerical methods in deformable solids
7. Advanced numerical methods in plates and shells structures
8. Practical applications pp
References
1. Zienkewicz and Taylor, The finite element method, Vol.
1 2 3 (2000) 1,2,3 (2000).
2. J.N. Reddy, Principles of Continuum mechanics,
Cambridge university press (2010) Cambridge university press (2010)
3. Boo Cheong Khoo et al. Numerical Methods for Partial 3. Boo Cheong Khoo et al. Numerical Methods for Partial
Differential Equations, Lecture Notes, MIT (2008)
1. Introduction
Introduction
Applied
Theoretical
Computational
Mechanics
Theoretical
Computational
Experimental
Introduction
Nano/Micro
System
Continnum
Comput.
Mechanics
System
Continnum
Mechanics
Methodology
Introduction
Introduction
Nanomechanics the molecular and atomic levels
particle physics and chemistry.
Kch thc c 1/ 10
9
mt Kch thc c 1/ 10
9
mt
Mt nano ch nh bng 1/80.000 ng knh si tc
Introduction
Micromechanics the crystallo-graphic and granular levels
the design and fabrication of materials and micro-devices.
Mt t bo mu ln 2,5 micromt = 2,500 nanomt
110
6
m 110
6
m
110
3
mm 10.000
1 m =
Introduction
Continuum mechanics studies bodies at the macroscopic
level, using continuum models in which the microstructure , g
is homogenized by phenomenological averages
- Solids and Structures
- Fluids
- Multi-physics
Our interest in this course !
Marco
Scale in meter, , millimeter
Introduction
System : mechanical objects such as airplanes, buildings,
bridges, engines, cars, microchips,
Biomechanics objects such as a whale, amoeba, inner
ear, or pine tree. ear, or pine tree.
Ecological, astronomical and cosmological entities also
form systems form systems
Advanced numerical methods
Discretization Methodology:
Finite Difference (FDM)
Finite Element (FEM)
Finite Volume (FVM) Finite Volume (FVM)
Discontinuous Galerkin FEM
Boundary Element (BEM)
Spectral methods
Meshfree methods
Isogeometric analysis g y
Multiscale- FE analysis
Introduction
See Carlos Felippa, IFEM
Introduction
Approaches:
Displacement
Equilibrium
Approaches:
Equilibrium
Hybrid
Mixed
Pure equilibrium
Mixed/hybrid
r
g
y
Solution
Stiffness
Pure displacement
Mixed/hybrid e
n
e
r
Solution
formulation:
Flexibility
Mixed
Pure displacement
DOFs
Introduction
V i ti l i i l
Total potential energy
Total complementary energy
Variational principle
Total complementary energy
Hellinger-Reissner (HR)
Hybrid principles
V b k H W hi (VHW) Veubeke-Hu-Washizu (VHW)
Displacements (one field)
Approximate field:
Stresses (one field)
Displacements & stresses (two fields)
Displacements stresses strains Displacements, stresses, strains
(three fields)
Some applications
Truss bridge
model
Derived from COMSOL
Deformation under self weight
Some applications
3D truss
Plate structures
composite
pressure
vessels
Frame
vessels
Composite structures
Source: Apatech & Vinashin Vietnam
analysis of composite plate
0.5
y
2
q
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

z
/
h

a/h=10HSDT
a/h=4HSDT
a/h=10FSDT
a/h=4FSDT Supported
plate
x
z
h
a/2 a/2
a
/
2
a
/
2
0
90
90
0
h
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
N
o
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
h
i
a/2 a/2
o
x
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.5
Stress,
x
(a/2,b/2)

0.4
0.5
a/h=10HSDT
a/h=4HSDT
a/h=10FSDT
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.5
a/h=10HSDT
a/h=4HSDT
a/h=10FSDT
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
o
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

z
/
h
a/h=10FSDT
a/h=4FSDT
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
o
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

z
/
h
a/h=10HSDT
a/h=4HSDT
a/h=10FSDT
a/h=4FSDT 0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
o
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

z
/
h
a/h=4FSDT
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Stress,
y
(a/2,b/2)
N
o
m

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Stress,
xz
(0,b/2)
N
o
m

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Stress,
yz
(a/2,0)
N
o
m

o
y
t
xz
t
yz
Source: H. Nguyen-Xuan et al. (2012), MAMS, accepted
Sandwich plates
layer1 Temperature
decreases
800C to
layer2
layer3 Step 1
800C to
150C
Step 2
Axialstresso
x
Step 2
Temperature
decreases
150C to
20C
displacement
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
s

z
/
h

0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
o
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

z
a/h=20
a/h=10
a/h=4
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Stress, (a/2,b/2)
N
o
m

Stress,
x
(a/2,b/2)
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
s

z
/
h

0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
s

z
/
h

0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

z
/
h

0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
N
o
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

z
a/h=20
a/h=10
a/h=4
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
N
o
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

z
a/h=20
a/h=10
a/h=4
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
N
o
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

z
/
a/h=20
a/h=10
a/h=4
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
0.5
0.4
0.3
Stress,
y
(a/2,b/2)
N

0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
0.5
0.4
0.3
Stress,
xy
(0,b/2)
N

0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0.5
0.4
0.3
Stress,
xz
(0,b/2)
N

Stresses distributions in (0/core/0) supported sandwich composite plates
Source: H. Nguyen-Xuan et al. (2012), MAMS, accepted
Phase B
particles
with phase
Functional graded material
A matrix
Transition
zone
Phase A
particles
with phase
B matrix
Real structure: bamboo
Functionally graded material
Yin et al, Acta Mater (2004)
Some applications of FGM
Rocket thrust chamber
(science.nasa.gov)
Hybrid hip joint (www.
manufacturingcenter.com)
FGM electrode with
low CTE (www.toto.co.jp)
( ) ( ) ( ) P P P V P +
Material property
Tc=300C
Numerical computation
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 0.5 /
c m c m
n
c
P z P P V z P
V z z h
= +
= +
Tm=20C
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
z
/
h
n=5
n=10
d d
( ) 0
T
k z
| |
=
|
Thermal distribution through thickness
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
d
i
m
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
l
t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
n=3
n=1
n=0.5
( ) 0
d d
k z
z z
=
|
\ .
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
o
n
a
l
t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
z
/
h
n=0
n=0.1
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
N
o
n
-
d
n=0.1
n=0.3
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
t
i
o
n=0.1
n=0.3
n=0.5
n=1
n=3
n=5
n=10
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Eective modulus E
eff
Effective modulus of Al/Al
2
O
3
FGM
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0.5
0.4
Temperature
o
C

n=100
Source: H. Nguyen-Xuan et al. (2011), Composite & Structures, 93: 3019-3039
0.3
0.4
0.5
e
s
s
ceramic
0.5
1
2
-0.1
0.0
n
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
n
t
i
o
n
a
l

t
h
i
c
k
n
e2
metal
Axial stress
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
m
e
n
t
i
o
n
a
l

d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
ceramic
0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
0.1
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
Axial stress
through thickness
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
1
2
metal
Deflection
under mechanical load
-0.5
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Non-dimentional axial stress
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
Load parameter
0.2
0.3
ceramic
0.5
0.50
n=0 n=0 5 n=1 n=2
-0 1
0.0
0.1
t
i
o
n
a
l

d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
0.5
1
2
metal
0 35
0.40
0.45
s
t
r
e
s
s
n=0 n=0.5 n=1 n=2
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
t
Deflection under
thermal - mechanical load
0.25
0.30
0.35
C
e
n
t
r
a
l

s
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
-0.4
Load parameter
thermal - mechanical load
Source: H. Nguyen-Xuan et al. (2012), Thin-Walled Structures 54:118
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
0.20
Ratio L/t
2000
n=1 25
30
CCCC (uniform)
1000
1500
n
g

t
h
e
r
m
a
l

T
c
r
uniform
linear
non uniform
15
20
k
l
i
n
g

t
h
e
r
m
a
l
CCCC (uniform)
CCCC (non-uniform)
SSSS (uniform)
SSSS (non-uniform)
500
C
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

b
u
c
k
l
i
nnon-uniform
5
10
C
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

b
u
c
k
20 40 60 80 100
0
a/h
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
volume fraction exponent n
The critical buckling temperature The critical buckling temperature
Source: H. Nguyen-Xuan et al., Journal of Thermal stresses (submitted, 2012)
The first four buckling mode shapes of FG circular plate
Piezoelectric structure
Simulating the linear tilt angle of the reflected light through a
mirror of a MEMs device
Bimorph
MEMs device
Piezoelectric
20
25

Piezoelectric
structures
10
15
20
T
i
l
t

a
n
g
l
e

(
0
)
Tilt angle of
mirror in the
bimorph MEMs
device
5
10
PCM
T3
Q4
EST3
device
Source: Nguyen Xuan et al., SMS (2009)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0
Applied voltage (V)

EST3
0
1
10
-5
10 V
r
i
c

p
l
a
t
e

0V (s)
5V (s)
10V (s)
0V (a)
-3
-2
-1
0
5 V
5
/
4
5
]

p
i
e
z
o
e
l
e
c
t0V (a)
5V (a)
10V (a)
-6
-5
-4
3
0 V
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

[
p
/
-
4
5
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
10
10 V
c
t
r
i
c

p
l
a
e
t
e
0V (o=45
0
)
5V (o=45
0
)
10V(o=45
0
)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
D
e
f
y direction (x=a/2)
-3.5
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
5 V
o
/
o
]
a

p
i
e
z
o
e
l
e
c
0V (o=30
0
)
5V (o=30
0
)
10V(o=30
0
)
0V (o=15
0
)
5V (o=15
0
)
10V(o=15
0
)
Piezoelectric
plate
7 0
-6.5
-6.0
-5.5
-5.0
-4.5
-4.0
0 V
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

[
p
/
-
o
10V(o=15 )
p
Shape control
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
-7.5
-7.0
D
e
f
l
e
y direction (x=a/2)
Source: Phan et al., IJCM (2011), in press
Vibration Control of satellite arms
A scale model to test
active vibration control
schemes of satellite
arms (Bailey and arms (Bailey and
Hubbard, 1985),
(Lammering, 1991).
The accelerometer is
modeled by a tip mass
M.
Other applications: Vibration analysis
F ib ti f hi t Free vibration of a machine part
Source: Nguyen-Thanh, JCAM, 233 (2010) 2112-2135
Composite circular plates
Mode 2
M d 3
Mode 1
Mode 3
Mode 4
Mode 5 Mode 6
Buckling analysis
Plates under axial and
biaxial compression
Mode shape of buckling behavior
SSSS
SSFF
SSCC
SSSC
SSFC
SSFS
Source: H. Nguyen-Xuan et al. (2010), CMAME, Vol. 199 (9-12), 471-489
Static structures shell analysis
deformedconfiguration
ScordelisLoroof
Pi h d h i h
Pinchedcylinder
Pinchedhemisphere
Source: our publication in CMAME, Vol. 200,, p. 3410-3424, 2011
Pinched composite hemispherical shell with 18
hole
R = 10 in R = 10 in
h = 0.08 in
E
11
= 20.4610
6
psi
E
22
= 4.09210
6
psi
G = G = 2 5370410
6
psi G
12
= G
13
= 2.5370410 psi
G
23
= 1.2685210
6
psi

12
= 0.313
Inward deection Outward deection
Source: Vu Duy, Proceedings of Structural Engineering, 2010
Free vibration in macro/microtubes
Source: our publication in KSCE, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 347-361, 2011
Heterogeneous media
www.scorec.rpi.edu
Multiscale approach to homogenization problems
The steady state heat conduction of microprocessor made of a layered material
processor core
Heat distribution in a
microprocessor
in cellphones or
automotive electronics
Heatsink
( )
in , a u f
e e

- = W

1 1
Find ( )such that for all ( )
B ( ) :
D D
u H v H
u v a u vdx
e
e e e e
W W
=

Weak form: Strong form:

( )
( )
on ,
on .
D D
N N
u g
n a u g
e
e e

= W

= W

B ( , ) :
: ( )
N
N D
u v a u vdx
fvdx g vdx a g vdx l v
e e
W
W W W
=
= + - =

( )
{ }
1 1
where : ( ) : 0on
D D
H v H v W = W = W
( )
{ }
where : ( ) : 0on
D D
H v H v W W W
Micro solver: Under some constrains
(sample domain size, periodic or
Dirichlet boundary condition v.v), we y )
solve on each sampling domain .
Macro bilinear form:
l
h
K
v
d
l
K
d
Post processing:
1
( , ) ( ) .
l
l l
l
H
l
L
K
H H h h
K K
K
K T l
w
B v w a x v w dx
K
d d
d
e
d
=
=


Macro bilinear form:
10
4

deg=2
deg=3
deg=4
deg=5
slope=3.04
slope=2.81
slope=2.73
10
3
C
P
U
-
t
i
m
e
(
s
)
slope=3.11
10
1
10
2

10
3
10
2
slope=2.03
10
2
10
1
number of macro elements per dimension

Isogeometric approach
10
5
10
4

u
H

H
1
u
0

H
1
slope=3.09
10
5
10
4
10
3

L
2
2
slope=3.07
l 4 12
10
7
10
6

u
0

u
deg=2
deg=3
slope=5.36
slope=4.17
10
7
10
6

u
0

u
H

u
0

L
d 2
slope=4.98
slope=4.12
10
1
10
8
1/H
max
deg=4
deg=5
10
1
10
9
10
8
1/h
max
deg=2
deg=3
deg=4
deg=5
slope=6.26
Nguyen-Xuan and Hoang, J. Com Physics, submitted, 2012
Simulation of failure cracked structures
Plate is a rectangle of 4 8 ,
E
1
= 1e9, E
2
= 1e8, v
1
= v
2
=
The numerical simulations are
1
,
2
,
1 2
0.3 and = 1.
0.5
8
The numerical simulations are
performed for two cases, namely:
(1) hard inclusion (R = 0.1) and (2)
f i l i (R 10)
2
soft inclusion (R = 10)
matrix
E
R =
C k i it t i l
2
Inc
R
E
=
fiber
Crack in composite material
o
Finite Element Mesh Finite Element Mesh
Crack growth in g
composite
material
Enrichment of singular
field around crack, bi-
material interface
Crack path
8
Comparison of Crack Growth Paths in Presence of Soft and Hard Inclusion

Ref
XFEM (soft)
6
7
XFEM (soft)
Ref
XFEM (hard)
4
5
2
3
1
2
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
Simulation of failure crack in materials
Concrete
Collaboration with: Prof T. Rabczuk and from Dr M. Duflot et al
Simulation of crack growth in materials
Crack growth in concrete at mesoscale
Crack growth in polycrystals at mesoscale
Multi-delamination research:
Application: laminated composite
t t thi fil
Source: Nguyen Vinh et al, IMM (2012), 3(4):1-42
structures, thin films
Some other applications
Fuel Cell Bipolar Plate
The thermal and structural
analysis in a bipolar
plate in a proton exchange plate in a proton exchange
membrane fuel cell
Source: Comsol software
Some applications
Fuel Cell Bipolar Plate
Model
Source: Comsol software
Some applications
Fuel Cell Bipolar Plate
Temperature distribution in the plate
Source: Comsol software
Some applications
Pinched Hemispherical Shell structure
Model
Source: Comsol software
Some applications
Shell Diffusion
Model
Electric potential distribution across the
surface (V).
Source: Comsol software
Some applications
Power Transistor
Model geometry and position of transistor chip
The power transistor is mounted on the circuit board using
through-hole technology. The solder in the holes give mechanical
t d l t i t t b t th t d th support and electronic contact between the copper routes and the
transistor pins
Source: Comsol software
Some applications
Power Transistor
Temperature distribution
Source: Comsol software
Some applications
Radar Cross Section
The boat has a length of 14 m and is surrounded by air -the The boat has a length of 14 m and is surrounded by air the
cut plane lies above the water surface
Source: Comsol software
Some applications
The total field norm for a 30 degree angle of incidence.
The arrow represents the propagation direction of the
incident background field.
Source: Comsol software
2. Vectors and Tensors
Source: Thanks anonymous author contributed to this part
Vectors
zz
The Cartesian coordinates is considered !
A
z
A
y
A
y
x
A
x
A

x
Vector is denoted by A or
Magnitude
z
AA
z
y
A
y
y
A
x
Unit vector:
x
( )
2 2 2
A A A = + + A

A
=
A
e
A
( )
x y z
A A A = + + A
A
Vector Addition
x x x
y y y
A B C
A B C A B C
+ =
+ = + =

( )
y y y
z z z
A B C A B C
A B C
+ +
+ = A+B = C
Number axes
1
x x
x y

2
3
x y
x z

1, 2, 3
i i i
A B C i + = =
3
A B C + =
or simply:
i i i
A B C + =
This is Cartesian Tensor or indicial notation.
This is called 1
st
tensor Rank
A
Remark
A
(
1
2
vector
i
A
A A
(
(
=
(
(
A
3
A
(
(

Unless otherwise stated, any repeated indices within a
term require a sum on these indices from 1 to 3 or from
1 2 f di i l k 1 to 2 for two-dimensional work.
Examples:
1 1 2 2 3 3
11 22 33
i i
jj
AB A B A B A B
C C C C
= + +
= + +
11 22 33
3 1 2
jj
k
C C C C
f f f f
+ +
c c c c
= + +
1 2 2 k
x x x x
f
= + +
c c c c
c
, 1,1 2,2 3,3
k
k k
k
f
f f f f
x
c
= = + +
c
Examples:
i i j j k k
AB A B A B = =
j j
jj ii kk
C C C = =
, , , k k i i j j
f f f = =
Look at Gibbs notation
Unit vector in arbitrary direction:

A
=
A
e

are unit vectors in coordinate directions e e e
Unit vector in arbitrary direction:
A
e
A
( ) ( ) ( )
x y z
, , are unit vectors in coordinate directions. e e e

b d i h li i j k

are unit vectors using e e e
, , can be used in the literature. i j k
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3
, , are unit vectors using
numbered coordinate directions.
e e e

x y z
A A A A = + + j k
i

or
A A A A = + + e e e

x x y y z z
A A A A
or
= + + e e e
1 1 2 2 3 3

A A A A
or
= + + e e e

or
A A =

A e

1
n n
n
A A
=

A e
Matrix
(
This is called 2
nd
t R k
11 12 13
21 22 23
=
a a a
a a a
(
(
(
A
is a matrix, size 3x3
tensor Rank
31 32 33
a a a
(
(

is a matrix, size 3x3
11 12 1 1 1
a a a a
(
11 12 1 1 1
21 22 2 1 2
.....
....
n n
n n
a a a a
a a a a
A

(
(
(
(
A
11 21 1 1 1
= ... ... .... ... ...
.....
ij
m m m n m n
A
a a a a

(

(
(
(
A
1 2 1
....
m m mn mn
a a a a

(

is a matrix size 3x3
Tensor
is a matrix, size 3x3
Tensor
The unit matrix
1 0 0
= 0 1 0
(
(
(
I 0 1 0
0 0 1
(
(

I
Kronecker delta or the unit tensor:
1 if i j o = = 1 if i j
0 if i j
i j
i j
o
o
= =
= = j
i j
Symbolic notation for I o
Second unit
Symbolic notation for
i j
I o
tensor
11 12 13
1 0 0 o o o
( (
( (
11 12 13
21 22 23
0 1 0 o o o
( (
=
( (
31 32 33
0 0 1 o o o
( (
( (

Recall Summation Convention
1 1 2 2 3 3 ij i j j j
A A A A
A A
o o o o
o
= + +
ij i j
A A o =
Recall Summation Convention
11 22 33
3
ii
o o o o = + + =
11 22 33
3
and
ii
o o o o + +
ij jk ik
o o o =
Strain and Stress:
11 22 33
11 22 33
ii
ii
c c c c
o o o o
= + +
= + +
11 22 33 ii
Permutation constant
permutaion even in 3) - 2 - 1 (in k j, i, 1 e =
k j i
k i k j j i if
permutaion odd in 1) - 2 - 3 (in k j, i, 1 e
p ) ( j, ,
=
k j i
k j i
k i or k, j j, i if 0 e = = = =
k j i
Also called the alternating tensor or the
Levi-Civita density.
Permutation constant Alternative definition
1
( )( )( )
1
e
2
i j k
j k k i i j =
no sum on i,j, and k
i,j,k 1,2,3 =
1 2 3 i i i
o o o
1 2 2
e
i j k j j j
o o o
o o o
=
1 2 3
1 1 1
k k k
i j k
o o o
o o o
1 1 1
2 2 2
e
i j k
i j k i j k
o o o
o o o =
3 3 3 i j k
o o o
31 32 33
o o o
312 11 12 12
e o o o
o o o
=
21 22 23
0 0 1
o o o
312
e 1 0 0 1 = =
0 0 1
Determinants
11 12 13
a a a
A
21 22 23
31 32 33
ij
a a a a a
a a a
A = =
31 32 33
a a a
i i +

( 1)
i i
ij
i j
+
A A

, i j
Determinants
1 2 3
e
ijk i j k
a a a a =
1 2 3
e
ijk i j k
a a a a =
Vector Multiplication
Scalar Product (Dot Product)
Vector Product (Cross Product) Vector Product (Cross Product)
Tensor Product
Scalar Product
B

u
A

A
cos A B A B u =

Scalar Product

(1, 0, 0) = i

(0,1, 0) = j

(0, 0,1) = k zz

x y z
A A A = + + A i j k
A
z

k
A
1 i i

. 1 = j j
1 = k k

i
y
A
y
k
A
. 1 = i i
. 1 j j
. 1 = k k

. 0 = i j

. 0 = j k

. 0 = i k
x
A
x

. ( ).( )
= A
x y z x y z
A A A B B B
B A B A B
= + + + +
+ +
AB i j k i j k
= A
x x y y z z
B A B A B + +
We can rename unit vectors as:
1

(1, 0, 0) = e
2

(0,1, 0) = e
3

(0, 0,1) = e
Scalar Product
(scalar) A B =

3
x x y y z z
A B A B A B + + =
3
i i
AB =

1 i=
Scalar Product With
Summation Convention: Summation Convention:
i i
AB =
Vector Product
C = A B
( ) or C A B =

C
B
n

A
u
Vector Product
(vector) C A B =

sin C A B u =
n

sin
0
C A B u
u
=
s s

0

is unit vector to plane defined by , A B

u t s s
n

p y ,
B A A B

B A A B =
Vector Product
is area of parallelopiped C
with adjacent sides and A B
C
B
A
u
A
Example: Moment vector of load

( ) or M r F = = M r F

Translation
2
1
3
1
3
Quantities Transformed
Scalars
Vectors Vectors
Tensors
Scalar
A scalar is a quantity that does not change its
mathematical description from one mathematical description from one
coordinate system to another.
B = B' B = B
Vector
2
2'
V

1'
V
1
3
1
3
3'
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 1 3
cos , cos , cos , V V x x V x x V x x
' ' ' '
= + +
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 1 3
2 1 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 3
cos , cos , cos , V V x x V x x V x x
' ' ' '
= + +
' ' ' '
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 3 1 2 3 2 3 3 3
cos , cos , cos , V V x x V x x V x x
' ' ' '
= + +
i ij j
V a V
'
=
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
1 2 1 2
cos , cos ,
cos , cos ,
x x x x
x x x x
' '
=
' '
=
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
1 3 1 3
cos , cos ,
cos , cos ,
x x x x
x x x x
' '
=
' '
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
2 2 2 2
cos , cos ,
cos , cos ,
x x x x
x x x x
' '
=
' '
=
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 3 2 3
cos , cos ,
cos cos
x x x x
x x x x
' '
=
' '
=
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3 1 3 1
3 2 3 2
cos , cos ,
cos , cos ,
x x x x
x x x x
=
' '
=
( ) ( )
3 3 3 3
cos , cos , x x x x
' '
=
Transformation Matrix [A]
V a V
'
=
i ij j
V a V
V a V
=
'
=
i ji j
V a V =
Tensor Product
(tensor) or AB C =
A B=C
ij i j
C A B

=
ij i j
C
1 2 3 1 2 3
C A A A B B B =
( (

Second-Order Tensors
symmetric tensor
ij ji
C C = y
anti symmetric tensor
ij ji
ij ji
C C =
j j
Tensors Identity
Any tensor symmetric tensor = +
anti symmetric tensor
( ) ( )
1 1
ij ij ji ij ji
C C C C C = + +
( ) ( )
2 2
ij ij ji ij ji
C C C C C + +
Tensors Operations
addition A B C
A B C
+ =
+ =
ij ij ij
A B C + =
scalar multiplication B A | =
ij ij
B A | =
Tensor Fields
In elasticit the components of the tensors In elasticity the components of the tensors
depend on spatial location and on time.
Examples are the displacement vector (1
st
order) and stresses and strains (2
nd
order) order), and stresses and strains (2
nd
order).
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
, ,
ij ij k
T T x t T T x t = =
( ) ( )
, ,
i i j j
v v x t v v x t = =
Derivative
Take partial derivative w.r.t. time of a vector
fi ld field:
3 1 2
1 2 3

v v v c c c c
= + +
v
e e e
1 2 3
t t t t
+ +
c c c c
e e e
If vector depends only on time: If vector depends only on time:

k
dv dv
k
k
dt dt
= e
Unit Vectors in cylindrical coordinates
Cylindrical components:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

, , , , , ,

r r
v r z t v r z t
v r z t
u u
u u u u
u
= +
+
v e e
e
( )
, , ,
z z
v r z t u + e

r r
d + e e

du
du

d
u
u e

r
e
Take partial derivative w.r.t. time of a vector
field expressed in polar coordinates: field expressed in polar coordinates:

r r
r r
dv d d
v
dt dt dt
u
u
c
= +
c
e v
e

z
z
dv dv d
v
dt dt dt
u u
u
u
u
u
c
+ + +
c
e
e e

ce

r
u
u
c
=
c
e
e

r
u
u
c
=
c
e
e
u c
The gradient operator
A directed rate of change of a tensor field
w.r.t. the coordinate directions may be
obtained by the del operator.

c
V = e
c c c

k
k
x
V =
c
c c c
V = + +
e
e e e
( , , )
x y z
c c c
V =
c c c
k
Components of this operator:
x y z
x y z
V = + +
c c c
V
e e e
Scalar Field
( )
x |
( )
( )
gradient
k
x
grad
|
| | V =

x y z
x y z
| | |
|
c c c
V = + +
c c c
e e e
In polar coordinates:
1

| | | c c c 1

r z
r r z
u
| | |
|
u
c c c
V = + +
c c c
e e e
Gradient
Gradient vector is normal to surfaces of constant
. To get the rate of change in a particular
| c
g g p
direction:

n
n
|
|
c
= V
c
e
O
Plasticity field
O
f c
co c
Vector Fields
( )
k
x v
( )
k
grad V = v v

i j
c
V =
v
v e e
i j
i
x c
Divergence
divergence V = v
( )
trace
v
v
V = V
c
c c
v v
( )

j
i
i j j i j
i i i
v
v
v
x x x
c
c c
V = = =
c c c
v e e e e
u v w c c c
The fluid field
0
u v w
v
x y z
c c c
V = + + =
c c c
Polar Coordinates
| |
1

v v v
u u u
c c c
(
V = + + + +
(

v e e e e e e
| |
1
r z r r z z
r r z
v v v
r r z
v v v v
u u u
u
u
u
V + + + +
(
c c c

c c c
V = + + +
c c c
v e e e e e e
v
r r r z u c c c

r z
v v v
u
c c c
V = + + + v e e e e e e
1 1 1

r r r r z
r r z
r r z
r r r
v v v v v
u
u u
u u u u u u u
u u u
V = + + +
c c c
c c c
+ + +
c c c
v e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e

r r z
r z
z r z z z
r r r r r
v v v
z z z
u u u u u u u
u
u
u u u c c c
c c c
+ + +
c c c
e e e e e e
z z z c c c
Curl
e
k
ijk i
j
v
u
x
c
V = =
c
v u
e
j
mj
ijk im
T
T S S
x
c
V = =
c
j
x c
1 c c c
(
Polar Coordinates
1

r z
T
r r z
u
u
c c c
(
V = + +
(
c c c

e e e

[

r rr r r r r rz z
r r z z
T T T
T T T
u u
u u u uu u u u
+ +
+ + +
e e e e e e
e e e e e e

]
r r z z
z zr r z z z zz z
T T T
u u u uu u u u
u u
+ + + e e e e e e
Gradient and divergence theorems
Let F (x,y,z) and G(x,y,z) be functions of class C
1
(O).
( )d d d d F F F O V O I
} } }
( )d d d grad F F F
O O I
O = V O = I
} } }
n
(Gradient theorem)
( )d d d div
O O I
O V O = I
} } }
G G n G
(Di ergence theorem) (Divergence theorem)
where n=(n
x
, n
y
, n
z
) is the normal vector of the surface I.
Assume that F, G are scalar functions. We have
d d d G F F G FG
O O I
V O = V O+ I
} } }
n
2
d . d d
F
G F F G G
n
O O I
c
V O = V V O I
c
} } }
Curl theorem
d d
O I
V O = I
} }
F n F

O I
} }
Homework:
Find Gradient and divergence, Curl theorems
of F where F is the second order tensor of F, where F is the second order tensor
Example
1 2 0 1 5
2 1 3 2 1 and
( ( (
( ( (
= =
( ( (
K u = F 2 1 3 , 2 , 1
0 3 2 1 4
and = =
( ( (
( ( (

K u F
Find :
Det (K), Ku
KX = F
X such that:
Example
Assumed that the components of the stress dyadic (tng cp)
at a certain point of a continuous medium are given by
200 400 300
(
(
400 0 0 psi
300 0 100
(
=
(
(

o
Find the stress vector t and its normal and tangential components at
the point on the plane, (x
1
, x
2
) x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 2x
3
= constant, passing
through the point.
Example
Solution:
1

( 2 2 )
| V
= = + + n e e e Normal vector
1 2 3
( 2 2 )
3 |
= = + +
V
n e e e
1600
1

400 i
(
(
Normal vector
1

400 psi
3
100
(
= =
(
(

t n o Surface stress vector
Example
Thomas Edison Thomas Edison
(11/02/1847 -18/10/1931 )
"Ti khm ph ra 10.000 cht khng th s
dng lm dy tc bng n (tc sau 10.000 ln g y g (
tht bi trong vic ch to dy tc bng n)", "Tt
c nhng ngi tht bi u c mt im chung :
h kh h l h h th h h khng nhn ra rng lc h chm n thnh
cng chnh l lc h t b n lc cui cng ca
mnh" "S chun b ca hm nay quyt nh thng mnh , S chun b ca hm nay quyt nh thng
li ca ngy mai"
3 O i f P ti l Diff ti l 3. Overview of Partial Differential
Equations (PDEs)
Hc kin thc phi gii suy ngh suy ngh li suy ngh Hc kin thc phi gii suy ngh, suy ngh, li suy ngh
Einstein
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
Elliptic, Parabolic and Hyperbolic Equations
The conic equation
2 2
2 ax bxy cy dx ey f + + + + = q y y y f
2
0: Ellipse b ac <
2
0 P b l b
2
0 : Parabola b ac =
2
0: Hyperbola b ac > 0: Hyperbola b ac >
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
Elliptic, Parabolic and Hyperbolic Equations
2 2 2
2
u u u u u
a b c d e f
c c c c c
+ + + +
2 2
2 a b c d e f
x x y y x y
+ + + + =
c c c c c c
where a b c d e f can depend on variables x y
2
0 Laplace equation
1) 0: Elliptic b ac u u

< +

where a, b, c, d, e, f can depend on variables x,y
1) 0: Elliptic , ,
Poisson equation
xx yy
b ac u u
f
< + =

2
) b li i b
2
2) 0 : Parabolic , , Heat equation
xx t
b ac u u = =
2
3) 0 : Hyperbolic Wave equation b ac u u > 3) 0 : Hyperbolic , , Wave equation
xx tt
b ac u u > =
PDE Elliptic form
1. Poisson equation in one dimension (1D) (spring):
( ) 0
d du
k +
St d f
( ) 0 k q
dx dx
+ =
where u = u(x) is unknown, q = q(x), k> 0 are given functions
Steady form
-An elastic bar (k = EA) subjected to body force or the
Some real phenomena
( ) j y
distributed load (q)
- Steady-State Linear Heat Conduction: (k = the Steady State Linear Heat Conduction: (k the
thermal conductivity coefficient, q QA is
distribution heat production, u T - temperature)
- Steady potential flow: (k = -mass density, q is source field,
u | - potential function)
Quantities corresponding to the variables of the spring
Table 2 Table 2
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDE)
- Steady-State electric field: (k = c the dielectric material
coefficient, q fe is the source field, u u - electric , q f ,
potential field)
Homework: 1) Establish model and corresponding
differential equations of above physical models
2) E t bli h d l d di 2) Establish model and corresponding
differential equations of Magnetostatics, and
Saint-Venant torsion problem (see Chapter 2
in AFEMby Prof. Carlos A. Felippa)
Example 1D
Ex1: Derive the governing equation of a rod subjected to
the forces inside the member and at the ends
Solution: Due to the very small cross-sectional dimension
compared to its length, it is assumed that the stress is p g ,
uniform at any section and all other stresses are zero.
Example
Consider an element of length x
| | ( ) 0 A A f +A | | ( ) 0
x x x
A A xf x o o
+A
+A =
Leading
| | A A o o | |
( ) 0
x x x
A A
f x
x
o o
+A

+ =
A
or
( ) ( ) 0
d
A f x
dx
o + =
( ( ) ) ( ) 0
d du
EA x f x +
dx
Hookes law:
du
E E
d
o c = =
( ( ) ) ( ) 0 EA x f x
dx dx
+ =
Governing equation
dx
Governing equation
Example
( ( ) ) ( ) 0
d du
EA x f x
d d
+ = Governing equation
dx dx
(0) 0 u =
Boundary conditions:
(0) 0
0
s
u
P A F at x L o = =
where F
s
is the compressive force in the spring
Thermal conduction
Ex2: Derive the governing equation for heat conduction
through a wall
( ) ( ) q x A x ( ) ( ) q x x A x x +A +A
( )
x A
( ) s x
A: section area
s: heat source
h fl q: heat flux
Thermal conduction
Energy balance in volume of the wall

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 s x q x A x q x x A x x A + + A + A =

heat generated
heat flowin heat flowout

Rearrange g
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) q x x A x x q x A x
s
x
+ A + A
=
A
or
( ) d qA
s
dx
=
x A
According to Fouriers law
| |
dT
q k
dx
=
0
d dT
Ak s
dx dx
| |
+ =
|
\ .
Governing equation
Thermal conduction
Governing equation
0
d dT
Ak s
dx dx
| |
+ =
|
\ .
| |
0, on x l e
\ .
and the boundary condition
dT
q k q
dx
= =
at x = 0
t l
T T =
at x = l
Example
Homework :
A bridge is supported by several concrete piers, and
the geometry and loads of a typical pier are shown in the geometry and loads of a typical pier are shown in
the below figure. The load 20 10
3
N/m
2
represents
the weight of the bridge and an assumed distribution of
the traffic on the bridge. The concrete weighs
approximately = 25 10
3
N/m
3
and its modulus is
E = 28 10
9
N/m
2
.
Determine the axial displacement,
strain and stress in the pier using strain, and stress in the pier using
a one-dimensional model.
Example
Ex3: Consider the bending of a straight beam according
to the classical (EulerBernoulli) beam theory.
The beam is subjected to distributed axial force f (x)
and transverse load q(x). derive the equations
i th ilib i f th b governing the equilibrium of the beam.
Example
Solution:
Consider a typical element of length dx from the Consider a typical element of length dx from the
beam acted by area-integrated forces and moments
The stress resultants are computed as The stress resultants are computed as
, ,
xx xz xx
A A A
N dx V dx M zdx o o o = = =
} } }
Axial force
Shear force
Bending moment
Example
Equilibrium equations:
0: ( ) ( ) 0 F N N dN f x dx = + + + =

0: ( ) ( ) 0
( ) 0
x
F N N dN f x dx
dN
f x
d
= + + + =
+ =

( )
0: ( ) ( ) 0
z
f
dx
F V V dV q x dx = + + + =

( ) 0
dV
q x
dx
+ =
0: ( ) ( ) 0
y
M Vdx M M dM q x dxdx
dM
= + + + =

0
dM
V
dx
+ =
Example
Hence:
2
( ) 0
d M
q x + =
2
( ) 0 q x
dx
+ =
Oth i
f E l B lli h th i
( )
2 2
2
d w d w
d d
} }
Otherwise,
from EulerBernoulli hypothesis
( )
2
2 2
xx
A A
d w d w
M E zdx E z dA EI
dx dx
c = = =
} }
H bt i th E l B lli ti Hence, one obtains the EulerBernoulli equation
2 2
( ) 0 0
d d w
EI q x x L
| |
+ < <
|
2 2
- ( ) 0, 0 EI q x x L
dx dx
+ = < <
|
\ .
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
2. Poisson equation in two and three dimension (2D &
3D):
1D
( ) 0
u
k q
c c
+ =
( ) ( ) 0
u u
k k q
c c c c
+ + =
1D
2D
( ) 0 k q
x x
+
c c
( ) ( ) 0 k k q
x x y y
+ + =
c c c c
( ) ( ) ( )
u u u
k k k
c c c c c c
2D
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
u u u
k k k q
x x y y z z
c c c c c c
+ + + =
c c c c c c
3D
c c c
Generalized Poisson equation
( ) 0 k u q V V + =
where
( , , ),
x y z
c c c
V =
c c c
c c c
.( ) 0 k u q V V + =
( , , )
u u u
u
x y z
c c c
V =
c c c
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
3. Poissons equation reduces to Laplaces equation:
k i h h k is the constant + the source q = 0
2 2
2 2
c c
2 2
2 2
.( ) 0 or 0, where = k u u
x y
c c
V V = V = A V = +
c c
Having solutions is called harmonic functions, which
have been widely studied over the last times
Homework: 1) Establish partial differential equations of
above physical models in the case of vector function field u above physical models in the case of vector function field u
2) Find a general solution of Laplaces equation
Example
2
0 u V =
Laplaces equation:
Note: this equation no dependence on time, just on the
spatial variable x y It used to describe the steady state spatial variable x,y. It used to describe the steady state
situations such as:
Steady state temperature distributions y p
Steady state stress distribution
Steady state potential distribution (potential equation) Steady state potential distribution (potential equation)
Steady state flows, for example in a cylinder, around a
corner,
Example
Ex3: Let consider the temperature distribution in an
isolated wire with constant temperature T
1
and T
2
at two
end.
Solution: At the steady-state without heat source, the governing
equation in Ex2 is rewritten as: equation in Ex2 is rewritten as:
2
2
0
d T
k
d
=
with BC
1
0 T T at x
T T at x l
= =
2
dx
2
T T at x l = =
O l ti i
2 1
( )
T T
T x x T

= +
Our solution is 1
( ) T x x T
l
= +
It satisfies the governing equation and in 1D the steady-state It satisfies the governing equation and in 1D the steady state
solution is basically just straight line
Example
(0,b)
y
u=0
Ex3: Let consider this problem
in 2D. The heat equation with
( , )
u=0
u=0
in 2D. The heat equation with
two variables
0 u u u A = + =
(1)
(0,0) (a,0)
x
u=f(x)
, ,
0
xx yy
u u u A = + =
(1)
u f(x)
The prescribed value along edges
(0, ) 0 0 u y for y b = < <
In general, suppose that
(2)
( , ) 0 0
( , ) 0 0
u a y for y b
u x b for y a
= < <
= < < 1
( ) sin
n
n
n x
f x b
a
t

=
| |
=
|
\ .

(3)
(4)
( , 0) ( ) 0 u x f x for y a = < < (5)
Solution: separate solution into two independent variables
( , ) ( ) ( ) u x y X x Y y = ( , ) ( ) ( ) y y
0 " " 0 u X Y Y X A = + =

" " X Y
X Y
= =
" 0
" 0
X X
Y Y

+ =

(1)
(2)
X Y
0 Y Y =

Eq. (1) combine with BC

(2)
Eq. (2) combine with BC
sin
n
n x
X
t
=
( )
( )
( )
sinh
n b
n
y
a
Y
t
=
a
( )
sinh
n
n
b
a
t
Using linear combination the solution of u is
( )
) (
sinh
n b y t

| |
|

( )
( )
1 1
( , ) ( ,
sinh
sin )
sinh
a n x
n n n
a
b
n
a
n
n
u x y b u y b x
t
t

= =
| |
|
=
|
\ .
=

4
6
4
5
Apply for a=b=t
0
2
3
( )
1
4
( ) sin
n
f x nx
n

=
=

0
1
2
3
4
2
1
2
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
0
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
4. Convection diffusion- reaction equations:
u c
(*)
.( )
a
u
d k u u ru q
t
c
V V + V + =
c
|
If u=u(x t) is
( )
If u u(x,t) is ...
Temperature --Heat transfer
Pollutant concentration Coastal engineering
Probability distribution Statistical mechanics
......
The heat flow equation is parabolic (as is the convectiondiffusion equation)
(*)
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
If u Independent time and no source (q = 0), and no
ti ti diff i t ti ti
......
reaction, convection - diffusion stationary equations
.( ) in u k u V = V V O | ( ) |
This belongs to a class of elliptic problems
Heat transfer in a cooling fin
Example : No convection diffusion- no reaction
equations:
u c
q
.( )
a
u
d k u q
t
c
V V =
c
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
5 No convection term (Heat transfer equations):
0 u V U
5. No convection term (Heat transfer equations):
0 u V = U
u c
.( ) in
a
u
d k u q
t
c
= V V + O
c
f
a
d C = C is the heat capacity
k is thermal conductivity
This belongs to a class of parabolic problems
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDE)
6. Wave equations (No diffusion term) :
.( ) 0 k u V V =
in
u
d u q
c
+ V O | in
a
d u q
t
+ V = O
c
|
This belongs to a class of hyperbolic problems
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDE)
7 Eigenvalue problems (for simple k = constant ): 7. Eigenvalue problems (for simple k constant ):
2
0 in k u u V + = O Find (u,) such that
0 on u = I
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
8. Wave equation:
2
c
2
2
in
a
u
e k u q
t
c
A = O
c
9. Navier-Stokes equations (fluid mechanics)
[ ( ( ) ] ( )
T
p q
c
= V V + V + V + V =
u
u u u u F [ ( ( ) ] ( )
0
p
t
q = V V + V + V + V =
c
V =
u u u u F
u
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
10. Structural Mechanics:
View in 2D
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
Strain-Displacement
Relationship
u v w c c c
The symmetric strain
tensor
(
11 22 33
12
, ,
1
( )
x y z
xy
x y z
u v
c c c c c c

c c
= = =
c c c
c c
= = +
x xy xz
xy y yz
xz yz z
c c c
c c c
c c c
(
(
=
(
(

c
12
23
( )
2 2
1
( )
2 2
xy
yz
yz
y x
v w
z y
c c

c c
+
c c
c c
= = +
c c
xz yz z

x
o
(
(
x
c
(
(
13
2 2
1
( )
2 2
xz
xz
z y
u w
z x

c c
c c
c c
= = +
c c
y
z
xy
o
o
t
(
(
(
=
(
(
o
y
z
c
c

(
(
(
=
(
(
c
xy
yz
xz
t
t
(
(
(
(

Stress-Strain relationship
D o = c
xy
yz
xz

(
(
(
(

Vector form
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDE)
Isotropic material
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
v v v
v v v

(
(

(
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2
(1 )(1 2 )
E
v v v
v v v
v
(
(

(
=
(
D
2
(1 )(1 2 )
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2
1 2
v v
v
v
(
+
(

(
(
(

(
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2
v
(

The equilibrium equations
2
2
t

c
V
c
u
f = o +
Transient problem
(please write more detail this equation ???)
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
Plane Stress
Plane Strain
Axial
symmetry
The components of the
The components of the
Solving the equations for
stress tensor in z-direction
are assumed to be zero
strain tensor in z-direction
are assumed to be zero
Homework: Establish the relationship between stress and strain
the global displacement (u,
w) in the r and z directions
Homework: Establish the relationship between stress and strain
for three above cases ?
Overview of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs)
Boundary initial value problems

Boundary value problem

0 1
( ) = for
(0,1)
x
d du
k f
dx dx
< <

O =

0 1 0
(0) |
x
du
u u k g
dx
=
= =
2
0
+ for 0
d u
u f t T e = < <
Initial value problem
0
2
+ for 0
(0) (0)
u f t T
dt
du
u u v
e < <
= =
0 0
(0) (0) u u v
dt
= =
What are you looking for ?
Khi bn ngi cnh mt c gi ng yu hai gi dng Khi bn ngi cnh mt c gi ng yu, hai gi dng
nh hai pht. Khi bn ngi trn mt ci l nng la,
hai pht tng nh hai gi. l s tng i.
Albert Einstein