Waveform Analysis

1
Analysis of Non-Sinusoidal Waveforms

J . R. Lucas

DC and AC Waveforms
Up to the present, analysis has been carried out with
direct waveforms and sinusoidal alternating waveforms

Figure 1(a) direct waveform Figure 1(b) sinusoidal waveform
a(t) a(t)
a(t) = A
a(t) = A
m
sin(et+u)
t
t
Non-sinusoidal Waveforms J R Lucas May 2011 2
Other Waveforms

a(t)
t
a(t)
t
a(t)
t
a(t)
t
a(t)
t
a(t)
t
T
T
T
(a) (b)
(c)
(d) (e)
(f)
a(t)
t
a(t)
t
a(t)
t
(g)
(h) (i)
Figure 2

(a), (b), (c) and (d) are uni-directional, although not purely direct.
(e) and (f) are repetitive with zero mean value,
(c), (h) and (i) are repetitive waveforms with finite mean values.
(g) is alternating but non-repetitive and mean value is non-zero.
Basically two groups of waveforms
repetitive
non-repetitive (will be dealt with later)
Repetitive waveform
only one period T needs to be defined
can be broken up to a fundamental component
(corresponding to period T) and its harmonics.
uni-directional term (direct component) may exist.
Fourier Series
Named after the French mathematician who first
presented the series in 1822.
e
o
= 2t/T
f(t) = F
o
+ F
1
cos (e
o
t+u
1
) + F
2
cos (2e
o
t+u
2
)
+ F
3
cos (3e
o
t+u
3
) + F
4
cos (4e
o
t+u
4
)
+ F
5
cos (5e
o
t+u
5
) +
f(t) = A
o
/2 + A
1
cos e
o
t + A
2
cos 2e
o
t + A
3
cos 3e
o
t
+ A
4
cos 4e
o
t +
+ B
1
sin e
o
t + B
2
sin 2e
o
t + B
3
sin 3e
o
t +
) sin cos (
2
) (
1
t n B t n A
A
t f
o n
n
o n
o
e e + + =

=

Symmetry in Waveforms
Many periodic waveforms exhibit symmetry.
Use of symmetry helps reduce tedious calculations
(i) Even symmetry
(ii) Odd symmetry
(iii) Half-wave symmetry
Even Symmetry
Region before y-axis is mirror image of region after y-axis.
f(t) = f(-t)

a(t)
t
(a)
a(t)
t
(b)
a(t)
t
(c)
a(t)
t
(d)
a(t)
t
(e)
t
(f)
a(t)
Figure 3 Waveforms with Even symmetry
Simplest waveforms with even symmetry
cosine waveform figure 3 (a)
direct waveform figure 3 (b).
Even symmetry can exist in both periodic and non-
periodic waveforms.
Both direct terms as well as varying terms can exist in
such waveforms.
If waveform is defined for only t > 0,
the remainder is automatically known by symmetry.
Odd Symmetry
Region before y-axis is negative of mirror image of region
after y-axis.
f(t) = () f(t)

a(t)
t
(a)
a(t)
t
(b)
a(t)
t
(c)
a(t)
t
(d)
a(t)
t
(e)
t
(f)
a(t)
Figure 4 Waveforms with Odd symmetry
Simplest waveforms with odd symmetry
sine waveform figure 4 (a)
ramp waveform figure 4 (b).
Odd symmetry can exist in both periodic and non-
periodic waveforms.
However, only varying terms can exist in such
waveforms.
Direct terms cannot exist in odd waveforms.
If the waveform is defined for only t > 0,
the remainder is automatically known by symmetry.
Decomposition into odd and even functions
Waveforms in general need not be either odd or even.
They can be split into a combination of odd and even.
Let f(t) = f
odd
(t) + f
even
(t)
Then f(-t) = f
odd
(-t) + f
even
(-t) = f
odd
(t) + f
even
(t)
Addition and subtraction thus gives

| | )] ( ) ( ) (
2
1
t f t f t f
odd
=

and
| | )] ( ) ( ) (
2
1
t f t f t f
even
+ =

verifying the assumption.
Half-wave Symmetry
A function f(t) exhibits half-wave symmetry, when one
half of waveform is exactly equal to the negation of
previous or next half of waveform.
i.e.
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
T T
t f t f t f + = =

t
(a)
a(t)
t
(b)
a(t)
t
(c)
Figure 5 Waveforms with Half-wave symmetry
a(t)
The simplest form of Half-wave Symmetry is sinusoidal
waveform in figure 5(a).
Half-wave symmetry can only exist in periodic
waveforms.
Only varying terms can exist in such waveforms.
Direct terms cannot exist in half-wave symmetrical
waveforms.
If the waveform is defined for only one half cycle, not
necessarily starting from t=0, the remaining half of the
waveform is automatically known by symmetry.
Some useful Trigonometric Properties

0 . sin =
}
+T t
t
o
o
o
dt t e

0 . cos =
}
+T t
t
o
o
o
dt t e
with e
o
T = 2t

0 . sin =
}
+T t
t
o
o
o
dt t ne

0 . cos =
}
+T t
t
o
o
o
dt t ne

0 . cos . sin =
}
+T t
t
o o
o
o
dt t m t n e e
for all values of m and n

= =
= =
}
+
m n when
m n when 0
. sin . sin
2
T
T t
t
o o
o
o
dt t m t n e e

= =
= =
}
+
m n when
m n when 0
. cos . cos
2
T
T t
t
o o
o
o
dt t m t n e e

Evaluation of Coefficients A
n
and B
n
) sin cos (
2
) (
1
t n B t n A
A
t f
o n
n
o n
o
e e + + =

=

First term of Fourier Series is written as A
o
/2 rather than A
o
.

Zero belongs equally to positive half and negative half.
gives only A
o
for positive half
evaluated with same general expression for A
n
, n = 0.
A
o
/2

also corresponds to direct component of waveform.
3e
o
2e
o
e
o
0 e
o
2e
o
3e
o
e

3e
o

Negative half Positive half
}

} }
+

=
+ +
+ + =
T t
t
o n
n
o n
T t
t
o
T t
t
dt t n B t n A dt
A
dt t f
0
0
0
0
0
0
) sin cos (
2
) (
1
e e

using properties of trigonometric functions,
only first term can give a non zero integral.
i.e.
T
A
dt
A
dt t f
o
T t
t
o
T t
t
= + =
} }
+ +
2
0
2
) (
0
0
0
0

}
+
=
T t
t
o
o
o
dt t f
T
A ) (
2

or mean value =
}
+
=
T t
t
o
o
o
dt t f
T
A
) (
1
2 gives same result for A
o
.
To determine remaining values of A
n
,
multiply each term by cos me
o
t and integrate.
}

} }
+

=
+ +
+ + =
T t
t
o o n
n
o n
T t
t
o
o
T t
t
o
dt t m t n B t n A dt t m
A
dt t m t f
0
0
0
0
0
0
cos ) sin cos ( cos
2
cos ) (
1
e e e e e

using properties of trigonometric functions,
only cos ne
o
t term on right hand side of equation will give
a non zero integral, and that too only when m=n.

}
+
=
T t
t
o n
o
o
dt t n t f
T
A e cos ) (
2

Similarly

}
+
=
T t
t
o n
o
o
dt t n t f
T
B e sin ) (
2

Analysis of Symmetrical Waveforms
Even Symmetry

0 to T/2 corresponds to mirror image from T/2 to 0.
Consider period from T/2 to T/2 for integration.
Figure 6 Analysis of even waveform
f(t)
t
T
T/2
T/2

}
=
T
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
A
2
1
2
1
cos ) (
2
e

} }
+ =
2
0
0
2
cos ) (
2
cos ) (
2
T
o
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
dt t n t f
T
A e e

In first part of expression, t is replaced by t
} }
+ =
2
0
0
2
cos ) (
2
) ( ) ( cos ) (
2
T
o
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
dt t n t f
T
A e e

Since function is even,
f(t) = f(t), and cos(ne
o
t) = cos(ne
o
t).
Thus equation simplifies to
} }
+ =
2
0
0
2
cos ) (
2
) ( cos ) (
2
) (
T
o
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
dt t n t f
T
A e e

Interchanging upper and lower limits of first integral
removes negative sign in front of first integral.
Thus
}

=
2
0
cos ) (
2 2
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
A e

In a similar manner

} }
+ =
2
0
0
2
sin ) (
2
) ( ) ( sin ) (
2
T
o
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
dt t n t f
T
B e e

f(t) = f(t), and sin(ne
o
t) = sin(ne
o
t).
In this case the two integrals are equal in magnitude but
have opposite signs so that they cancel out on addition.
For waveforms with even symmetry
A
n
is calculated as twice integral over half cycle from zero.
B
n
= 0 for all values of n
Can only have cosine terms and a direct term.
=
+ =
1
cos
2
) (
n
o n
o
t n A
A
t f e

where
}
=
2
0
cos ) (
4
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
A e

Odd Symmetry
From 0 to T/2 corresponds to negated mirror image of
waveform from T/2 to 0.
Consider period from T/2 to T/2 for integration.
f(t) = f(t)
Figure 7 Analysis of odd waveform
f(t)
t
T
T/2
T/2

}
=
T
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
A
2
1
2
1
cos ) (
2
e

} }
+ =
2
0
0
2
cos ) (
2
cos ) (
2
T
o
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
dt t n t f
T
A e e

In first part of expression, t is replaced by t.
} }
+ =
2
0
0
2
cos ) (
2
) ( ) ( cos ) (
2
T
o
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
t d t n t f
T
A e e

0 cos ) (
2
cos ) (
2
) (
2
0
2
0
= + =
} }
T
o
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
dt t n t f
T
A e e

for all n for odd waveform
In a similar way,

}

=
2
0
sin ) (
2 2
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
B e

For waveforms with odd symmetry
A
n
= 0 for all values of n
B
n
is calculated as twice integral over half cycle from zero.
Can only have sine terms and no direct term
=
=
1
sin ) (
n
o n
t n B t f e

where
}
=
2
0
sin ) (
4
T
o n
dt t n t f
T
B e

Half-wave Symmetry
Half-cycle from
(t
o
+T/2) to (t
o
+T)
corresponds to
negated value of
previous half cycle
from t
o
to (t
o
+T/2).
}
+
=
T t
t
o n
o
o
dt t n t f
T
A e cos ) (
2
} }
+
+
+
+ =
T t
T
t
o
T
t
t
o n
o
o
o
o
dt t n t f
T
dt t n t f
T
A
2
2
cos ) (
2
cos ) (
2
e e

In second part of expression t is replaced by t T/2.
T
f(t)
t
Figure 8 Analysis of waveform with
half wave symmetry
} }
+ +
+ =
2 2
)
2
( )
2
( cos )
2
(
2
cos ) (
2
T
t
t
o
T
t
t
o n
o
o
o
o
T
t d
T
t n
T
t f
T
dt t n t f
T
A e e

f(t T/2) = f(t) for half-wave symmetry,
and since e
o
T = 2 t,
cos ne
o
(t T/2) = cos (ne
o
t nt)
has a value of ()cos ne
o
t when n is odd, and
has a value of cos ne
o
t when n is even.
Thus
}
+

=
2
cos ) (
2 2
T
t
t
o n
o
o
dt t n t f
T
A e
when n is odd
and A
n
= 0 when n is even

Similarly

}
+

=
2
sin ) (
2 2
T
t
t
o n
o
o
dt t n t f
T
B e
when n is odd
and B
n
= 0 when n is even
With half-wave symmetry,
even harmonics do not exist
for odd harmonics both coefficients A
n
and B
n
can be
obtained by taking double the integral over any half cycle.
Most practical waveforms have half-wave symmetry
due to natural causes.
Summary for waveforms with symmetrical properties
1. With even symmetry,
B
n
is 0 for all n,
A
n
is twice integral over half a cycle from zero.
2. With odd symmetry,
A
n
is 0 for all n,
B
n
is twice integral over half a cycle from zero.
3. With half-wave symmetry,
A
n
and B
n
are 0 for even n,
A
n
and B
n
are twice the integral over any half cycle
for odd n.
4. With half-wave symmetry and either even
symmetry or odd symmetry present,
A
n
and B
n
are 0 for even n,
four times integral over quarter cycle from time
zero, for odd n for A
n
or B
n

zero for the remaining coefficient B
n
or A
n
.
5. Note that in any waveform,
A
o
/2 corresponds to mean value of waveform;
a symmetrical property may sometimes be obtained
by subtracting mean value from waveform.
Piecewise Continuous waveforms
Most practical waveforms are
continuous and single valued
(i.e. having a single value at
any particular instant).
When sudden changes occur
(such as in switching), or in
square waveforms, near vertical lines could occur giving
multi-value instants.
As long as these multi-values occur over finite bounds,
the waveform is single-valued and continuous in pieces,
or said to be Piecewise continuous.
Analysis can be carried out using the Fourier Series for
both continuous or piecewise continuous waveforms.
Figure 9
Piecewise continuous waveform
Frequency Spectrum
a plot showing d.c., fundamental, and each of harmonics
(usually amplitude) against frequency.
values occur at distinct points (line spectrum)
In practical waveforms,
higher harmonics usually have lower amplitudes
for smooth waveforms, higher harmonics are negligible.
for piecewise continuous waveforms (such as square
waveform) harmonics do not decrease very rapidly.
Harmonic magnitude =
2 2
n n
B A +
for n
th
harmonic (positive value)
Harmonic phase angle =
|
.
|
\
|
n
n
A
B
1
tan
for n
th
harmonic
Example 1
Find the Fourier Series of
the piecewise continuous
rectangular waveform
shown in figure 10.
Solution
Period of waveform = 2T
Mean value of waveform = 0. A
o
/2 = 0
Waveform has even symmetry. B
n
= 0 for all n
Waveform has half-wave symmetry.
A
n
, B
n
= 0 for even n
a(t)
t
E
-E
0 T/2 3T/2 -T/2 -3T/2
Figure 10 Rectangular waveform
A
n
can be obtained, for odd values of n,
as 4 times integral over quarter cycle as follows.
}

=
4
2
0
cos ) (
2
2 4
T
o n
dt t n t a
T
A e
for odd n
2
sin
4
2
sin
4
sin
4
cos
4
0
2
2
0
t
t
e
e
e
e
e n
n
E T n
T n
E
t n E
T n
dt t n E
T
o
o
T
o
o
T
o
= = = =
}
i.e. A
1
= 4E/t,
A
3
= 4E/3t,
A
5
= 4E/5t,
A
7
= 4E/7t, ...........
a(t) =
(
+ + .......
7
7 cos
5
5 cos
3
3 cos
cos
4 t t t
t
E
o o o
o
e e e
e
t


Figure 11 shows synthesis of the rectangular waveform
using the Fourier components obtained.

Figure 11 Fourier Synthesis of Rectangular Waveform

The waveforms shown correspond to
(i) original waveform,
(ii) fundamental component only,
(iii) fundamental + third harmonic,
(iv) fundamental + third harmonic + fifth harmonic,
(v) fundamental, third, fifth and seventh harmonics.
It can be seen that with addition of each component, the
waveform approaches original waveform more closely,
however without an infinite number of components it
will never become exactly equal to original.
Frequency spectrum of waveform is shown in figure 12.

Now consider the same rectangular waveform but with
a few changes.
Figure 12 Line Spectrum
0 e
o
2e
o
3e
o
4e
o
5e
o
6e
o
7e
o
t
Amplitude
Example 2
Find the Fourier series
of the waveform shown
in figure 13.
Solution
Waveform does not
have any symmetrical properties, although it is virtually
same waveform as in example 1.
Period = 2T,
mean value = E/2
If E/2 is subtracted from the waveform b(t), half wave
symmetry is observed.
b(t)
t
2E
-E
0 2T/3 5T/3 -T/3 -5T/3
If waveform is shifted by T/6 to left, even symmetry is
observed.
Consider waveform
b
1
(t) = b(t T/6) + E/2,
shown in figure 14.
b
1
(t) differs from
waveform a(t) in
figure 10 in magnitude only (1.5 times).
Thus b
1
(t) can be obtained directly from earlier analysis.
b
1
(t) = 1.5a(t) =
(
+ + .......
7
7 cos
5
5 cos
3
3 cos
cos
6 t t t
t
E
o o o
o
e e e
e
t

where e
o
2T = 2t
b
1
(t)
t
3E/2
-3E/2
0 T/2 3T/2 -T/2 -3T/2
Figure 14 Modified waveform
b(t) = b
1
(t +T/6) + E/2, also e
o
T/6 = t/6
= (
(
+
+
+
+
+
+ + .......
7
)
6
7
7 cos(
5
)
6
5
5 cos(
3
)
2
3 cos(
)
6
cos(
6
2
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
t t t
t
E E o o o
o

If problem was worked from first principles the resultant would be
above answer.

Figure 15 shows the corresponding line spectrum.
Only differences from earlier are that amplitudes are 1.5 times
higher and a d.c. term is present.
0 e
o
2e
o
3e
o
4e
o
5e
o
6e
o
7e
o
t
Amplitude
Example 3
Find Fourier Series of
triangular waveform
shown in figure 16.

Solution
Period of waveform = 2T, e
o
.2T = 2t
Mean value = 0. A
o
/2

= 0
Has odd symmetry. A
n
= 0 for all n
Has half-wave symmetry. A
n
, B
n
= 0 for even n
}

=
4
2
0
sin
2
2
2 4
T
o n
dt t n t
T
E
T
B e
=
dt
n
t n
T
E
n
t n
t
T
E
T
o
o
T
o
o

}
2
0
2
2
0
2
cos 8 cos 8
e
e
e
e

for odd n
y(t)
t
E
-E
0 T/2 2T -T -2T
Figure 16 Triangular waveform
T
=
2 2 2
) (
0
2
(sin
8
2
cos
2
8
)
o
o
o
o
n
n
T
E
n
n
T
T
E
T T
e
e
e
e
+
=
2
) (
2
sin 8
2
cos 4
t
t
t
t
n
n E
n
n E
+

Substituting values
B
1
= 8E/t
2
, B
3
= 8E/(3t)
2
, B
5
= 8E/(5t)
2
, B
7
= 8E/(7t)
2
, .
y(t) =
(
+ + . ..........
7
7 sin
5
5 sin
3
3 sin
sin
8
2 2 2 2
t t t
t
E
o o o
o
e e e
e
t

Consider the derivative of the
original waveform y(t),
has waveform shown in figure
17. This corresponds to same
type of rectangular waveform in
example 1, except that the
amplitude is 2/T times higher.
a(t)
t
2E/T
-2E/T
0 T/2 3T/2 -T/2 -3T/2
Thus use integral of analysed original waveform to obtain y(t).
a(t) =
(
+ + .......
7
7 cos
5
5 cos
3
3 cos
cos
4 2 t t t
t
E
T
o o o
o
e e e
e
t
y(t)= } a(t) dt =
dt
t t t
t
E
T
o o o
o

(
+ +
}
.......
7
7 cos
5
5 cos
3
3 cos
cos
4 2 e e e
e
t

=
(
+ + .......
7
7 sin
5
5 sin
3
3 sin sin 4 2
2 2 2
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
t t t t E
T e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
t
which when simplified is identical to result obtained
using normal method.
Example 4
Find Fourier series of
the waveform shown
in figure 18.
Solution
Period = T, e
o
T = 2 t
Mean value = 0, A
o
/2 = 0
Has half-wave symmetry. even harmonics absent.

} } }
+ = =
2
4
4
0
2
0
cos )
4
(
4
cos
4
cos ) (
4
T
T
o
T
o
T
o n
dt t n t
T
E
E
T
dt t n E
T
dt t n t f
T
A e e e

=
}
+
(
2
4
4
2
4
0
sin
)
4
(
4 sin
)
4
(
4 sin 4
T
T
o
o
T
T
o
o
T
o
o
dt
n
t n
T
E
T n
t n
t
T
E
E
T n
t n
E
T e
e
e
e
e
e

a(t)
t
E
-E
0 T/4 3T/4 -T/4 -3T/4
Figure 18 Periodic waveform
=
4
2
2 2
2 4
) (
) cos ( 16 sin
) (
4 sin 4
T
T
o
o
o
T
o
o
T
o
n
t n
T
E
n
n
E
T n
n
E
T e
e
e
e
e
e
+ +
(

since e
o
T = 2 t, e
o
T/4 = t/2 and e
o
T/2 = t
2
) 2 (
)
2
cos cos (
16
2
sin
4
2
2
sin
4
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
+
+
=
n
n
n
E
n
n
E
n
n
E A
n
for odd n
Substituting different values of n, we have
A
1
=
2
4
0
2
t t
E E

= 1.0419E
A
3
= -0.1672E, A
5
= 0.1435E, A
7
= -0.08267E
Similarly, the B
n
terms for odd n are given as follows.
} } }
+ = =
2
4
4
0
2
0
sin )
4
(
4
sin
4
sin ) (
4
T
T
o
T
o
T
o n
dt t n t
T
E
E
T
dt t n E
T
dt t n t f
T
B e e e

=
}

+
(
2
4
4
2
4
0
) (
cos
)
4
(
4
) (
cos
)
4
(
4
) (
cos 4
T
T
o
o
T
T
o
o
T
o
o
dt
n
t n
T
E
T n
t n
t
T
E
E
T n
t n
E
T e
e
e
e
e
e

=
4
2
2 2
2 4
) (
sin ) ( 16 cos 4 ) cos 1 ( 4
T
T
o
o
o
T
o
o
T
o
n
t n
T
E
n
n
E
T n
n
E
T e
e
e
e
e
e
+ +
(

since e
o
T = 2 t, e
o
T/4 = t/2 and e
o
T/2 = t
2
) 2 (
)
2
sin sin (
16
2
cos
4
2
)
2
cos 1 (
4
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
+
+
=
n
n
n
E
n
n
E
n
n
E B
n
for odd n
Substituting different values of n,
B
1
= 0.4053E, B
3
= -0.04503E, B
5
= 0.0162E, B
7
= -0.00827
d.c. term = 0
amplitude 1 =
2 2
4053 . 0 0419 . 1 +
= 1.1180, amplitude 3 = 0.1731,
amplitude 5 = 0.1444, amplitude 7 = 0.08309, .

Figure 19 shows synthesised waveform (red) and its components up to
the 29
th
harmonic (odd harmonics only) along with the original
waveform (black).
Figure 20 shows line spectrum of waveform of first 7 harmonics.
Figure 19 Synthesised waveform
0 e
o
2e
o
3e
o
4e
o
5e
o
6e
o
7e
o
t
Amplitude
Example 5
Figure 21 shows a
waveform from a
power electronic
circuit.
Determine its Fourier
Series.
f(t) is defined as
follows for one cycle.
f(t) = 100 cos 314.16 t for 0.333 < t < 2.5 ms
f(t) = 86.6 cos (314.16 t 0.5236) for 2.5 < t < 3.0 ms

t (ms)
Figure 21 Power electronics waveform
-0.333 0 2.5 3.0 5.833
f(t)
Solution
Waveform does not have any symmetrical properties.
T = 0.003333 s, e
o
= 2t/T = 1885 rad/s

} }
+ =
003 . 0
0025 . 0
0025 . 0
000333 . 0
cos ) (
2
cos ) (
2
dt t n t f
T
dt t n t f
T
A
o o n
e e

} }
+ =
003 . 0
0025 . 0
0025 . 0
000333 . 0
cos ) 5236 . 0 16 . 314 cos( 6 . 86
2
cos 16 . 314 cos 100
2
dt t n t
T
dt t n t
T
o o
e e

}
}
+ + +
+ + =
003 . 0
0025 . 0
0025 . 0
000333 . 0
) 5236 . 0 16 . 314 cos( ) 5236 . 0 16 . 314 cos(
6 . 86
) 16 . 314 cos( ) 16 . 314 (cos(
100
dt t n t t n t
T
dt t n t t n t
T
o o
o o
e e
e e

003 . 0
0025 . 0
0025 . 0
000333 . 0
16 . 314
) 5236 . 0 16 . 314 sin(
16 . 314
) 5236 . 0 16 . 314 sin( 6 . 86
16 . 314
) 16 . 314 sin(
16 . 314
) 16 . 314 sin( 100
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
+
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
n
t n t
n
t n t
T
n
t n t
n
t n t
T
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e

003 . 0
0025 . 0
0025 . 0
000333 . 0
1885 16 . 314
) 1885 5236 . 0 16 . 314 sin(
1885 16 . 314
) 1885 5236 . 0 16 . 314 sin(
003333 . 0
6 . 86
1885 16 . 314
) 1885 16 . 314 sin(
1885 16 . 314
) 1885 16 . 314 sin(
003333 . 0
100
|
.
|
\
|

+
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
=
n
t n t
n
t n t
n
t n t
n
t n t

|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+

+
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+
+
+
=
1885 16 . 314
) 7125 . 4 5236 . 0 7854 . 0 sin(
1885 16 . 314
) 7125 . 4 5236 . 0 7854 . 0 sin(
1885 16 . 314
) 655 . 5 5236 . 0 9422 . 0 sin(
1885 16 . 314
) 655 . 5 5236 . 0 9422 . 0 sin(
10 98 . 25
1885 16 . 314
) 6277 . 0 1046 . 0 sin(
1885 16 . 314
) 6277 . 0 1046 . 0 sin(
1885 16 . 314
) 712 . 4 7854 . 0 sin(
1885 16 . 314
) 712 . 4 7854 . 0 sin(
10 30
3
3
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n

Thus A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, A
4
, A
5
, A
6
, . can be determined.
Similarly B
1
, B
2
, B
3
, B
4
, B
5
, B
6
, . can be determined.
Fourier Series of waveform can then be determined.
Remaining calculations are left to reader as an exercise.
Effective Value of a Periodic Waveform
is defined in terms of power dissipation and is hence the
same as the r.m.s. value of the waveform.

}
+
=
T to
to
effective
dt t a
T
A ) (
1
2

Since the periodic waveform may be defined as

=
=
+ + =
1 1
sin cos
2
) (
n
o n
n
o n
o
t n B t n A
A
t a e e

}

+

=
=
(
+ + =
T to
to
n
o n
n
o n
o
eff
dt t n B t n A
A
T
A
2
1 1
sin cos
2
1
e e

( ) ( )
}

+

=
=
(
(
+ + + |
.
|
\
|
=
T to
to
n
o n
n
o n
o
eff
dt terms product t n B t n A
A
T
A
1
2
1
2
2
sin cos
2
1
e e

Using trigonometric properties, only square terms will give non-zero integrals.
Product terms will all give zero integrals.

=
=
+ + |
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
+ + |
.
|
\
|
=
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
n
n
n
n o
n
n
n
n
o
eff
B A A T
B
T
A T
A
T
A

2
o
A
is d.c. term,

2
) (
2 2
n n
B A +
is r.m.s. value of n
th
harmonic
Effective value or r.m.s. value of a periodic waveform is
square root of sum of squares of r.m.s. components.
Calculation of Power and Power Factor associated
with Periodic Waveforms
v(t) = V
dc
+
=
+
1
) sin(
n
n n
t n V o e

and i(t) = I
dc
+
=
+
1
) sin(
n
n n
t n I | e

p(t) = v(t).i(t)
average power P is given by

| | | |
}

}
+
+
+ + + + =
=
T to
to
n n dc n n dc
T to
to
dt t n I I t n V V
T
dt t i t v
T
P
. ) sin( ) sin(
1
). ( ). (
1
| e o e

Using trigonometric properties, only similar terms from
v(t) and i(t) can give rise to non-zero integrals.
P = V
dc
.I
dc
+ E (1/2)V
n
I
n
cos(o
n
- |
n
)
= V
dc
.I
dc
+ E V
rms,n
I
rms,n
cos|
n

Total power is given as sum of the powers of the
individual harmonics including the fundamental and the
direct term.
Example 6
Determine effective values of voltage and current, total power
consumed, overall power factor and fundamental displacement
factor, if Fourier series of voltage (V) and current (A) are
v(t) = 5 + 8 sin(e t + t/6) + 2 sin3e t
i(t)=3+5sin(et+t/2)+1sin(2et- t/3)+1.414cos(3et+t/4)
Solution

2 2
2
2
2
2
8
5 |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ =
rms
V
= 7.681 V

2 2 2
2
2
414 . 1
2
1
2
5
3 |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ =
rms
I
= 4.796 A
P =53+(8/\2).(5/\2).cos(t/3)+0 + (2/\2).(1.414/\2).cos(t/2+ t/4)
= 15 + 10 1 = 24 W
Overall power factor
Overall power factor of a periodic waveform is defined
as ratio of active power to apparent power.
Overall power factor = power apparent
power active

Overall power factor = 24/(7.681 4.796) = 0.651
With non-sinusoidal waveforms, power factor is not
associated with lead or lag as these no longer have any
meaning.

Fundamental displacement factor
Fundamental displacement factor corresponds to power
factor of the fundamental.
It tells by how much the fundamental component of
current is displaced from the fundamental component of
voltage, and hence is also associated with the terms lead
and lag.
Fundamental displacement factor (FDF)
= cos |
1
= cos (t/2 - t/6) = cos t/3 = 0.5 lead
Note that the term lead is used as the original current is
leading the voltage by an angle t/3.

Analysis of Circuits in presence of Harmonics in Source
Due to presence of non-linear devices in the system,
voltages and currents get distorted from sinusoidal.
Thus it becomes necessary to analyse circuits in the
presence of distortion in source.
This can be done by using the Fourier Series of supply
voltage and the principle of superposition.
For each frequency component, circuit is analysed, as
for pure sinusoidal quantities, using normal complex
number analysis, and the results are summed up to give
the resultant waveform.

Example 7

Determine voltage across load R for supply voltage e(t)
applied to circuit shown in figure 22.
e(t) = 100 + 30 sin(300t + t/6) + 20 sin 900t
+ 15 sin (1500t - t/6) + 10 sin 2100t
e(t)
L = 50mH
r = 10 O
C = 100 F
R = 100 O
Figure 22 Circuit with distorted source
Solution
For the d.c. term,

10 100
100
100 +
=
dc
V
. V
dc
= 90.91 V
For any a.c. term,
if V
nm
is peak value of n
th
harmonic of output voltage,

) 1 )( (
) 1 (
) 1 (
//
//
2
2
CR j r L j R
R
CR j
R
r L j
CR j
R
R C r L
R C
E
V
nm
nm
e e
e
e
e
+ + +
=
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
=

) 100 10 100 300 1 )( 10 050 . 0 300 ( 100
100
6
+ + +
=

n j n j
E V
nm nm

) 3 1 )( 10 15 ( 100
100
n j n j
E V
nm nm
+ + +
=

n j n
E V
nm nm
45 45 110
100
2
+
=

for the fundamental
V
1m
=30100/(65+j45)=3000/79.06Z34.7
o
=37.95Z -34.7
o

V
3m
=20100/(-295+j135)=2000/324.42Z155.4
o
=6.16Z-155.4
o

V
5m
=15100/(-1015+j225)=1500/1039.64Z167.5
o
=1.44Z-167.5
o

V
7m
=10100/(-2095+j315) =1000/2118.5Z171.4
o
=0.47Z-171.4
o

v(t) = 90.91+37.95sin(300t+30
o
34.7
o
)+6.16sin(900t 155.4
o
)
+1.44 sin(1500t30
o
167.5
o
)+0.47sin (2100t 171.4
o
)
v(t) = 90.91 + 37.95 sin(300t 4.7
o
) + 6.16 sin (900t 155.4
o
)
+ 1.44 sin(1500t 197.5
o
) + 0.47 sin (2100t 171.4
o
)
Harmonic Analysis of Graphical Waveforms
Many waveforms, when obtained experimentally, are
known at discrete points and not as a function of time.
Fourier coefficients need to be obtained graphically.
When discrete data is available, approximations are made.
Integrals used are replaced by finite summations.
If period T = 2t/e is divided into N equal intervals At,

e
t
N N
T
t
2
= = A

}

= = =
= = A = =
N
p
p
N
p
p
T
N
p
p o
t f
N N
T
t f
T
t t f
T
dt t f
T
A
1 1
0
1
) (
2
). (
2
). (
2
). (
2

similarly

=
=
N
p
p p n
t n t f
N
A
1
cos ) (
2
e

=
=
N
p
p p n
t n t f
N
B
1
sin ) (
2
e

Values of cos ne t
p
and sin ne t
p
calculated at mid interval.

p
N
t
p
t
e
2
=

Example 8
Figure shows waveform
obtained from a graph
plotter which has been read
off at 24 discrete intervals
of time in one period.
Find fundamental and third-
harmonic of half-wave
symmetric waveform.
One half-cycle of waveform
is defined as discrete
ordinates as follows.
2t 360
o
24 divisions, 1 div= 15
o
= u
p 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
i(t
p
) 0 6.5 10.4 12.5 14.1 15.9 18.2 21.8 27.8 19.2 10 5 0
Figure 23 discrete waveform
i(t)
t
Solution
Waveform has half-wave symmetry no even harmonics
Integration (or summation) is done only over half a cycle.
It is seen that mean value of waveform is zero so that A
o
/2 = 0.
Consider numerical evaluation of individual coefficients.

= =
=
=
12
1
12
1
1
cos ) (
6
1
cos ) (
24
2 2
p
p
p
p p
p t i t t i A u e

= (1/6).[6.5 cos 15
o
+ 10.4 cos 30
o
+ 12.5 cos 45
o
+ 14.1 cos 60
o

+ 15.9 cos 75
o
+18.2 cos 90
o
+ 21.8 cos 105
o
+ 27.8 cos 120
o

+ 19.2 cos 135
o
+ 10 cos 150
o
+ 5 cos 165
o
+0 cos 180
o
]
= (1/6).(-11.32) = -1.89
=
=
12
1
1
sin ) (
6
1
p
p
p t i B u

= (1/6).[ 6.5 sin 15
o
+ 10.4 sin 30
o
+ 12.5 sin 45
o
+ 14.1 sin 60
o

+ 15.9 sin 75
o
+18.2 sin 90
o
+ 21.8 sin 105
o
+ 27.8 sin 120
o

+ 19.2 sin 135
o
+ 10 sin 150
o
+ 5 sin 165
o
+0 sin 180
o
]
= (1/6).(126.5) = 21.1
A
3
= (1/6).[6.5 cos 45
o
+ 10.4 cos 90
o
+ 12.5 cos 135
o
+ 14.1 cos 180
o

+ 15.9 cos 225
o
+18.2 cos 270
o
+ 21.8 cos 315
o
+ 27.8 cos 360
o

+ 19.2 cos 45
o
+ 10 cos 90
o
+ 5 cos 135
o
+0 cos 180
o
]
= (1/6).(23.67) = 3.94
B
3
= (1/6).[6.5 sin 45
o
+ 10.4 sin 90
o
+ 12.5 sin 135
o
+ 14.1 sin 180
o

+ 15.9 sin 225
o
+18.2 sin 270
o
+ 21.8 sin 315
o
+ 27.8 sin 360
o

+ 19.2 sin 45
o
+ 10 sin 90
o
+ 5 sin 135
o
+0 sin 180
o
]
= (1/6).(6.09) = 1.015
Determination of higher harmonics would not be accurate
unless more points are defined on waveform.
fundamental = 1.89 cos et + 21.1 sin et = 21.2 sin(et 5.1
o
)
third harmonic=3.94 cos 3et +1.01 sin 3et =4.07sin(3et +75.6
o
)
In practical waveforms higher harmonics are generally smaller
in amplitude.
If the fifth and higher harmonics are neglected,
i(t) = 21.2 sin(et 5.1
o
) + 4.07 sin(3et +75.6
o
)
Effective value =
2
07 . 4
2
2 . 21
2 2
+
= 15.26 A
Error caused would generally be only in the second decimal
place in the above example.
Complex form of the Fourier Series
It would have been noted that the only frequency terms
that were considered were positive frequency terms
going up to infinity but that time was not limited to
positive values.
Mathematically speaking, frequency can have negative
values, but as will be obvious, negative frequency terms
would have a corresponding positive frequency term
giving the same Fourier component.
In the complex form, negative frequency terms are also
defined.
Using the trigonometric expressions
e
ju
= cos u + j sin u and e

ju
= cos u j sin u
rewrite Fourier series.

) sin cos (
2
) (
1
t n B t n A
A
t f
o n
n
o n
o
e e + + =

=

|
|
.
|
\
|

+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =

j
e e
B
e e
A
A
t f
t jn t jn
n
n
t jn t jn
n
o
o o o o
2 2 2
) (
1
e e e e

This can be re-written in the following form
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
.
|
\
|

+
2 2 2
0
) (
1
n n
t jn
n
n n
t jn
o
jB A
e
jB A
e
j A
t f
o o
e e

It is to be noted that B
o
is always 0, so that the j0 with
A
o
may be written as jB
o
. Also e
j0
= 1
Thus defining
2
n n
n
jB A
C

=
,
we have
2
0
0
0
j A
C

=
and
2
n n
n
jB A
C

=

the term on right hand side outside summation can be
written as C
o
e
j0
and first term inside summation
becomes C
n
e
jne
t
.
Since
}
+
=
T t
t
o n
o
o
dt t n t f
T
A e cos ) (
2
,
}
+
=
T t
t
o n
o
o
dt t n t f
T
A ) ( cos ) (
2
e
= A
n

and
}
+
=
T t
t
o n
o
o
dt t n t f
T
B e sin ) (
2
,
}
+
=
T t
t
o n
o
o
dt t n t f
T
B ) ( sin ) (
2
e
= B
n

2 2
n n n n
n
jB A jB A
C
+
=

i.e. Second term inside summation becomes C
-n
e
-

jne
t
.
The three sets of terms in equation correspond to zero
term, positive terms and negative terms of frequency.
Thus Fourier Series may be written in complex form as

=
=
n
t jn
n
o
e C t f
e
) (

and Fourier coefficient C
n
can be calculated as follows.
2
n n
n
jB A
C

=

}
+
=
T t
t
o o
o
o
dt t n j t n t f
T
] sin [cos ) (
2
2
1
e e

}
+
=
T t
t
t jn
n
o
o
o
dt e t f
T
C
e
) (
1

The Fourier Series may be written in complex form as

=
=
n
t jn
n
o
e C t f
e
) (

where the Fourier coefficients C
n
are given by

}
+
=
T t
t
t jn
n
o
o
o
dt e t f
T
C
e
) (
1

In symmetrical form,
Fourier series is written with t
o
= T/2.
Fourier series is written for a periodic function with period T,
and discrete frequency components are obtained for the
waveform.
The fundamental frequency e
o
is related to the period T by the
expression e
o
= 2t/T.
Consider the following waveforms.

f(t)
t
(a)
T
f(t)
t
(b)
T
f(t)
t
(c)
Figure 1 Period of repetition gradually increased
1(a) period of repetition is quite small
1(b) period of repetition somewhat larger
1(c) period of repetition has been increased up to .
Any non-repetitive waveform may be considered as one
which has a period T , and the corresponding
fundamental frequency
0
2
A = = e
t
e
T
o
.
Fourier coefficients C
n
in symmetrical exponential series

0 ) (
1
2
2
A = =
}
C dt e t f
T
C
T
T
t jn
n
o
e

Frequencies involved are no longer discrete but continuous.
General frequency ne
o
corresponds to E Ae } de = e.
For non-repetitive functions, following can be written.
T
e
o
de
C
n
dC
ne
o
e

t
e
t
e
2 2
1 d
f
T
o
= =

Expression for complex Fourier Coefficient C
n
becomes

}
= dt e t f
d
dC
t j
. ). (
2
e
t
e

dividing both sides by de,

}
= = dt e t f
d
dC
F
t j
. ). (
2
1
) (
e
t e
e
Fourier Transform
The original function f(t) is now given as

}
=
= =
t j
n
t jn
n
e dC e C t f
o
e e
. ) (

from the definition, dC = F(e).de, so that

}

= e e
e
d e F t f
t j
. ). ( ) (
Fourier Inverse Transform
Fourier Transform expression and Fourier Inverse Transform
expression together are known as Fourier Transform Pair.
If we multiply the Fourier Transform by a constant and divide
the Inverse Transform also by the same constant, we would
again get a modified transform pair.
We could define a symmetrical transform pair by using a factor
of
t 2
.
Symmetric Fourier Transform

}
= = dt e t f
d
dC
F
t j
s
. ). (
2
1
2 ) (
e
t
e
t e

and corresponding Symmetric Inverse Transform is

}

= e e
t
e
d e F t f
t j
s
. ). (
2
1
) (

Fourier Transform is useful in analysing transients in electrical
circuits, especially where the elements are frequency
dependant.

With functions which are non-repetitive, and does not
decay till infinite time (such as sine waveform or cosine
waveform), Fourier Transform may not be obtained.
To avoid this problem, waveforms which do not decay
may be artificially decayed by an exponential factor to
allow integration.
Integrated result is then exponentially magnified to
correct for the initial decay introduced.
However, such exponential magnification can also
magnify numerical errors.
Laplace Transform is defined based on this artificial
decay.
Laplace Transform
In obtaining the Laplace Transform, any function f(t)
is initially decayed artificially by an exponential factor
e
-ot
, so that new function always becomes integrable.
However, the decay would correspond to an exponential
rise (rather than a decay) with negative time.
Laplace transform is thus defined only for causal
functions (functions that are caused and hence are of
zero value before time zero).

Laplace Transform of a time function f(t) is thus
defined as
L [f(t)] = F(s) =
}

0
) ( dt e t f
st

where s = o + j e is the Laplace operator
Laplace operator s is also a complex form of frequency.
Laplace Inverse Transform takes the form
f(t) =
}
+

j
j
st
ds e s F
j
o
o
t
) (
2
1

It is seen that the form of the transform has simplified
from that of the Fourier Transform, but not the inverse.
It is very rarely that the Inverse transform is calculated
in this manner.
It is generally obtained from a knowledge of transforms
of common functions, generally found in tabulated
form.
The Laplace Transform is very useful in circuit
transient analysis as it can convert differential equations
to linear algebraic equations.
Response of a linear Passive Bilateral Network

Response r(t) would be related to the input e(t) by an
ordinary linear differential equation.
r(t) = F(p) . e(t)
where p = d/dt = differential operator
Consider an exponential excitation function e
st
.
i.e. e(t) = e
st
r(t) = F(p) . e
st
= e
st
. F(s)
Linear
Passive
bilateral
Network
e(t) r(t)
Figure 2 Transfer Function
Thus for an exponential excitation, the system has a
transfer function r(t)/e(t) equal to F(s).
Any non-repetitive (or even repetitive) function may be
broken up into a series of exponentials.
Coefficients of these exponentials are given by the
Laplace Transform.
Thus for any other excitation e(t), if the Laplace
Transform E(s) is considered, it will be related to the
Laplace Transform R(s) of the response r(t) by the
transfer function F(s).
Thus for any causal excitation e(t),
R(s) = F(s) . E(s)
One of the advantages of the Laplace Transform is that
it converts ordinary differential equations in to algebraic
equations, so that the solution is fairly simple.
The inverse transform is then obtained to get the time
response.
Let us now consider the Laplace Transform of some
special causal functions.
Laplace Transform of Special Causal Functions
(a) Unit impulse function o(t)
Unit impulse has a value 0 at all values
of t other than at t = 0 where it has an
infinite magnitude. Integral of unit
impulse function over time is equal to 1.
L [o(t)] =
}

0
) ( dt e t
st
o
= 1
If unit impulse occurs at t = t
i
, rather than at t = 0, then
the function is o (t t
i
).
L [o(t t
i
)] =
i
st st
e dt e t t

=
}
0
i
) - ( o

o(t)

t
o(t-t
i
)

t
t
i
(b) Unit step function H(t)
Unit step has a value 0 for values of
t < 0 and a value of 1 for t > 0.
L [H(t)] =
s
dt e dt e t H
st st
1
1 ) (
0 0
= =
} }

If the unit step occurs at t = t
i
,
rather than at t = 0,
then the function is H(t t
i
).
L [H(t t
i
)] = s
e
dt e dt e t t H
i
i
st
t
st st

= =
} }
1 ) - (
0
i

1
t
H(t)
1
t
H(t-t
i
)
t
i

(c) Causal exponential function e
at
. H(t)
L [e
at
.H(t)]
=
a s
dt e dt e t H e
t a s st at
= =
} }

1
1 ) ( .
0
) (
0

1
e
at
.H(t)
t
(d) Causal Sinusoidal function sin(e t+|) .H(t)
L [sin(et+|).H(t)]
=
}
+
0
) ( ). sin( dt e t H t
st
| e

=
) ( ). sin(
0
s F dt e t
st
= +
}
| e

F(s) =
}
). +
0
0
) cos( sin( dt
s
e
t
s
e
t
st st
| e e | e

=
dt e t
s s
e
t
s s
st
st
+
+ +

}
) sin( ) cos(
sin
2
2
0
| e
e
| e
e |

t
=
) ( cos
sin
2
2
2
s F
s s s
+
e
|
e |

(s
2
+e
2
). F(s) = s . sin | + e . cos |
2 2
cos . sin .
) (
e
| e |
+
+
=
s
s
s F

with | = 0
o
and 90
o
the following are obtained.
L [sin et.H(t)] =
2 2
e
e
+ s
,
L [cos et.H(t)] =
2 2
e + s
s

(e) Laplace Transform of the causal derivative
dt
t f d ) (

L
} }

= =
0 0
) (
) ( ) (
t f d e dt e
t d
t f d
t d
t f d
st st

=
}

0
0
. ). ).( ( ) ( dt e s t f t f e
st st

= () f(0
-
) + s.
}
0
. ). ( dt e t f
st

L
) 0 ( ) ( .
) (

=
(
f s F s
t d
t f d

Note: Unlike in case of ordinary derivative, transform of
derivative also keeps information about initial condition
[i.e. f(0
-
)]
(f) Exponential multiplication of e
at
in the time domain
An exponential multiplication of e
at
in the time domain
corresponds to a shift of a in the s-domain.
L [e
at
. f(t)]
} }

= =
0
) (
0
0
. ). ( ) ( . ). ( dt e t f t f dt e t f e
t a s st at

= F(s-a)
(g) A shift in the time domain
A shift of a in time domain f(t a).H(t a), corresponds
to an exponential decay in the s-domain.
L [f(t-a).H(t-a)]
}
=
0
. ). ( ). ( dt e a t H a t f
st

}

=
a
a t s sa
a t d e a t H a t f e ) ( . ). ( ). (
) (

}

=
a
s sa
d e f e t t
t
. ). (

}

=
0
. ). ( t t
t
d e f e
s as
since f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
= e
-as
. F(s)
(h) For a periodic waveform f(t) with period T
L [f(t)]
}
=
0
. ). ( t d e t f
st

}

=
T
st
t d e t f
0
. ). (
+
}

T
T
st
t d e t f
2
. ). (
+
}

T
T
st
t d e t f
3
2
. ). (
+
using a change of variables, may be re-written as
L [f(t)]
}

=
T
st
t d e t f
0
. ). (
+
}

+
T
st
t d e T t f
0
. ). (
+
}

+
T
st
t d e T t f
0
. ). 2 (
+
Since the function is periodic,
f(t) = f(t+T) = f(t+2T) = ..
L [f(t)]
}

=
T
st
t d e t f
0
. ). (
+
}

T
st sT
t d e t f e
0
. ). (
+
}

T
st sT
t d e t f e
0
2
. ). (
+
= [1+ e
-sT
+ e
-2sT
+ e
-3sT
+ ].
}

T
st
t d e t f
0
. ). (

L [f(t)]
}

=
T
st
sT
t d e t f
e
0
. ). (
1
1

The transforms of other causal functions may be
similarly obtained.
Table of Laplace transforms for common causal functions

o(t) unit impulse 1

H(t) unit step
s
1

t ramp
2
1
s

0 t
0 t
0 t
e
-at
exponential decay
a s +
1

1- e
-at

) ( a s s
a
+

t .e
-at

2
) (
1
a s +

e
-a
-e
-bt
double exponential
) )( ( b s a s
a b
+ +

0 t
0 t
0 t
0 t

sin e t sine wave
2 2
e
e
+ s

sin (e t +|)
2 2
sin cos
e
| | e
+
+
s
s

cos e t cosine wave
2 2
e + s
s

0 t
0 t
0 t

rectangular pulse
s
e
sT
1

t
n
n
th
order ramp
1
!
+ n
s
n

sinh at hyperbolic sine
2 2
a s
a

cosh at hyperbolic cosine
2 2
a s
s

0 t
0 t
(n > 0)
a.f
1
(t)+ b.f
2
(t) addition a.F
1
(s)+ b.F
2
(s)

t d
t f d ) (
first derivative s F(s) f(0-)

n
n
t d
t f d ) (
n
th
derivative
n
j
n
j
j n n
t d
f d
s s F s
1
1
) 0 ( ) (

}

t
dt t f
0
) (
definite integral
) (
1
s F
s

t.f(t)
s d
s F d ) (

(-t)
n
.f(t)
n
n
s d
s F d ) (

e
-o t
.f(t) exponential multiplier F(s+o)

f(t-t) shift in time e
-st
.F(s)
periodic function
}
T
st
sT
dt e t f
e
0
)
. ). (
1 (
1

(period T)
Transient Analysis of Circuits using Laplace Transform

Electrical Circuits are usually governed by linear
differential equations.
Since derivatives and integrals get converted to
multiplications and divisions in the s-domain, solution
of circuit equations can be converted to solution of
algebraic equations.
First consider representation of the three basic circuit
components in Laplace Transform analysis.
(a) Resistive Element R
v(t) = R . i(t) V(s) = R . I(s)
) (
1
) ( t v
R
t i =

) (
1
) ( s V
R
s I =

Thus the resistor may be represented by an impedance
of value R even in the s-domain.
i(t)
v(t)
R
I(s)
V(s)
R
I(s)
V(s)
1
/
R

(b) I nductive Element L
v(t) = L .
t d
t i d ) (
V(s)= Ls. I(s) L.i(0
-
)
) 0 ( . ) (
1
) (

+ =
}
i dt t v
L
t i

s
i
s V
Ls
s I
) 0 (
) ( .
1
) (

+ =

Thus inductor may be represented by an impedance of value Ls
and either a series voltage source or a parallel current source.
These sources represent the initial energy stored in the inductor
at time t = 0. Thus the initial current i(0
-
) appears.
V(s) v(t)
i(t)
L
I(s)
L s
L .i(0
-
)
+
I(s)
V(s)
Ls
1

s
i ) 0 (

(c) Capacitive Element C
) 0 ( . ) (
1
) (

+ =
}
v dt t i
C
t v

s
v
s I
Cs
s V
) 0 (
) ( .
1
) (

+ =

i(t) = C .
t d
t v d ) (
I(s) = Cs.V(s) C.v(0
-
)
Capacitor may be represented by an impedance of value
Cs
1

and either a series voltage source or a parallel current source.
V(s)
i(t)
v(t)
C
I(s)
V(s)
Cs
1

+
s
v ) 0 (

C s I(s)
C.v(0
-
)
Transient Analysis
Using these circuits, and the transforms of source
voltages and/or currents, the system transients could be
obtained.
You would by now have realised that this method is
much less tedious than the solution of the differential
equations to find the transient solutions and then
substituting the initial and final conditions applicable.

Example 1
Find the Laplace transform of the following waveforms.
(a)

(b)
f(t) = E sin et for 0 < t < T/2
f(t) = 0 elsewhere
t 0
f(t)
T/2
E
t 0
f(t)
T 2T
2E
E
Solution
(a)
using first principles
L [f(t)]
}
=
0
. ). ( t d e t f
st
0 . ). ( . . . 2
2
0
+ + =
} }

T
T
st
T
st
t d e E t d e
T
t
E

T
T
st
T
st
T
st
s
e
E dt
s
e
T
E
s
e
T
t
E
2
0
0
. . .
1
. 2 . . 2
=

}
=
) .(
) (
.
2 . 2
2
0
2
sT sT
T
st sT
e e
s
E
s
e
T
E
s
e E

+

) .(
) (
) 1 (
.
2 . 2
2
2
sT sT
sT sT
e e
s
E
s
e
T
E
s
e E

+
=

| | | |
sT sT sT
e
T s
E
e e
s
E

+ = 1 .
2
3
2
2

Alternate solution
using splitting up into known forms (ramp, step, etc)
(this is not always possible)

Part of ramp from t = 0 to T can be considered as the
addition of a positive ramp at t=0, a negative ramp at
t = T and a negative step of magnitude 2E at time t = T.
t 0
f(t)
T 2T
2E
E
t 0
f(t)
T 2T
2E
E
Remaining part of waveform can be considered to be
made up of a negative step waveform of magnitude E at
t = T, and a positive step also of magnitude E at t = 2T.
Superposition of these waveforms gives the resultant
waveform.
These have Laplace transforms which will add up as
follows.
L [f(t)]
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
sT sT sT sT
e
s
E
e
s
E
e
s
E
e
s T
E
s T
E
2
2 2
. . .
2
.
1
.
2 1
.
2

| | | |
sT sT sT
e
T s
E
e e
s
E

+ = 1 .
2
3
2
2

Identical to result obtained from the normal method.
(b)

Consider working this problem by splitting waveform.
Can be considered as been built up of a causal sine wave
starting at t = 0, and a negative of sine wave starting at T/2.
Thus the transform of the waveform is given by
L [f(t)] =
2
2 2 2 2
.
sT
e
s
s
s
s

+
+ e e =
(

+

2
2 2
1
sT
e
s
s
e

t 0
f(t)
T/2
E
t 0
f(t)
T/2
E
Example 2
Determine the transient
voltage appearing across
capacitor when switch is
closed at time t = 0.
Capacitor C is initially
uncharged.
Solution
Transformed circuit is
shown. Capacitor has not
been associated with a source
as there is no initial charge
(or voltage) on the capacitor.
R
v
out

A sin et
C
R
Cs
1

2 2
.
e
e
+ s
A

V
out
(s)
Using potential divider action
RCs
Cs
R
Cs
s
A
s V
out
+
=
+
=
+
1
1
1
1
.
) (
2 2
e
e

2 2 2 2
.
.
.
1
) (
e
e
o
o
e
e
+ +
=
+ +
=
s s
A
s RCs
A
s V
out
, where o =
RC
1

This can be split into partial fractions as follows.
(
+ +
=
2 2 2 2
1 . .
) (
e
o
o o e
o e
s
s
s
A
s V
out

Using the tables, the inverse transform is then given as
(
+
+
=

t t e
A
s v
t
out
e
e
o
e
o e
o e
o
sin cos
. .
) (
2 2

Example 3
In the series LC circuit
shown, initially capacitor
is charged to a voltage V
o

and inductor does not
carry any current.
At time t = 0, a step voltage
of magnitude E is applied to
the series combination.
Determine the transient voltage across L.
I(s)

V(s)

s
V
0
Cs
1

s
E

Solution

Circuit is first transformed to Laplace domain.
Voltage-source form is selected for the capacitance
because the circuit is a series circuit and that form makes
calculations easier.
Since there is no initial current in the inductor, no source is
associated with the inductor.
i(t)
v(t)
E.H(t)

C
+
V
0

L
L s

I(s)

V(s)

s
V
0

Cs
1
s
E

Cs
Ls
s
V
s
E
s I
1
) (
0
+
=

Cs
Ls
s
V
s
E
Ls s I Ls s V
1
) ( . ) (
0
+
= =
LC
s
s
V E
LCs
V E
LCs
1
) (
1 2
0
2
0
+
=
+
=

Let
2
0
1
e =
LC
,
2 2
0
) ( ) (
o
s
s
V E s V
e +
=

t
LC
V E t v
1
cos ) ( ) (
0
=

Example 4
Figure shows a circuit which has reached steady state
with switch closed.
If the switch S is opened at time t=0, obtain an
expression for the ensuing current through the inductor.

S
R
1
= 10 O
E = 100 V
C = 10 F
R
2
= 10 O
L = 10 mH
Solution
From potential divider action, under steady state
conditions, half the supply voltage will drop across R
1

and half the voltage across R
2
.
voltage across capacitor initially is 100/2 = 50 V,
and inductor current is 100/20 = 5 A.
Transform the circuit to Laplace domain.

S
10
s
100

10
0.01s
s 10
10
6

I(s)
+

s
50

+

0.015
Note the directions of the two sources.
These correspond to directions of initial voltage across
capacitor and initial current through inductor.
Note also that since switch S is now opened at t = 0, only other
two branches will become part of circuit.
Thus I(s)
5 2 5
10 10 01 . 0
05 . 0 50
10
10 01 . 0
05 . 0
50
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
s s
s
s
s
s

7 2
10 1000
5 5000
+ +
+
=
s s
s

I(s)
2 2
5 . 3122 ) 500 (
5 5000
+ +
+
=
s
s
2 2 2 2
5 . 3122 ) 500 (
5 . 3122 8006 . 0
5 . 3122 ) 500 (
) 500 ( 5
+ +

+
+ +
+
=
s s
s

Find inverse transform from the standard expressions,
i(t) =
t e t e
t t
5 . 3122 sin 8006 . 0 5 . 3122 cos 5
500 500
+
A

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1

Analysis of Non-Sinusoidal Waveforms

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