Radiation Protection

RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BASIC PHYSI CS .................................................................................................................................... R SI Elements Atoms Ions .......................................................................................................................................... RS .............................................................................................................................................. RS RS I 1- 1

1- 1
Isotopes............................................................................................................................................ RS .................................................................................................................................................. Molecules
1-2
-2
........................................................................................................................................ RS1-2
Radionuclide s (radio-isotopes) ........................................................................................................ RS 1 -2 'J -ypes of radration ............................................................................................................................RS 1-3 Activity ............................................................................................................................................RS 1-5 Decay ..............................................................................................................................-- RS l -6 Ionisation ......................................................................................................................................... RS 1-6 ABSORPTION AND SCATIERJNG ..................................................................................... ........... RSlA RADIOGRAPIDC EQU1Pl\IIENT .............................................. ............................................................RS2 Gamma sources ............................................................................................................................... RS2-I X-ray sources...................................................................................................................................RS2-4 RADIATION UNITS ............................................................. ..................................... ............................ lS3 Activity ............................................................................................................................................RS3I Dose or exposure ......................................... .................................................................................... RS3- l Absorbed dose (kerma) ................................................................................................................... RS3-l Dose equivalent ............................................................................................................................... RS3- 1 Dose rate .......................................................................................................................................... RS3-2 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS....................................................................................................................... RS4 Overview ......................................................................................................................................... RS4-l Somatie effects ................................................................................................................................ RS4-l Genetic effects ................................................................................................................................. RS4 -2 Other definitions.............................................................................................................................. RS4-2 DOSE LIMITS ......................................................................................................................................... RSS RADIATION DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT .........................................................................RS6 Dose ratemeters ............................................................................................................................... RS6-I Personal dosemeters ........................................................................................................................ RS6-2 Pocket dosemeters (exposure meters) ............................................................................................. RS6-3 Audible alarms (pocket types)......................................................................................................... RS6-3 PROTECTION AGAJNST RADIATION.............................................................................................. RS7
Controlled and super-vised areas ...................................................................................................... RS7
The inverse squarc law .................................................................................................................... R S7-3 Shielding.......................................................................................................................................... RS7-4 HTV!TVT ........................................................................................................................................ RS7-5 CALCULATIONS FOR RADIATION PROTECfiON ......................................................... .......... RS7A TORAGE OF RADIATION SOURCES.............................................................................................. RS8 Gamma sources ............................................................. ................................................... _ _ _ RS8- l X-ray ma ch incs................................................................................................................................RS8- I TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES ................................................................ ........... RS9
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UNIT RSl BASIC PHYSICS

ELEMENTS
An element is a substance that cannot be separated into any other constituents. This statement is with reference to the chemical narure only.
10
There are over one hundred elements known to man and these have becn placed w1thin a table referred to as the p eriodic table; this places elements into groups and periods with reference to their chemical characteristics. Hydrogen (H) is the lightest element and is taken as the reference element . Hehum (He), neon (Ne), argon {Ar), krypton (Kr) and xenon (Xe) are grouped together because these are inert gases or gases that cannot react chemically with ot.her clements. The halogen group includes fluorine (F), chlorine (CI), bromin e (Br) and iodine (1); these are very active elements which readi ly combine with most of the other elcments in the table.
JO
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Elements range from hydrogen (H), with an atomic number of 1, to uranium (U) w ith an atomic number 92; between these are ali the element.s that make up everything on earth.
ATOMS
4o
An atom is the smallest part of an element that can have the element's properties. Ali atoms of the same element are similar in construction, however, atoms of different elements have different constructions . An atom is a very small particle which is made up from a number of sub-atomic particles grouped together. The size of the sub-atomic particles are smalt, with most of each atom consisting of free space. The sub-atomic particles in the centre (core or nucleus) of each atom contain the heavier particles consisting of protons which carry a positive charge., and neutrons which carry no charge. Protons and neutrons bave an unusual attraction for each other and tend to pair together.
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TI1e lighter particles, electrons, are said to be held in stable orbits around the nucleus by the attraction of the protons in the nucleus. These orbits are referred to as shells, e.g. K, L, M shells. There are other sub-atomic particles, e.g. the positron, which is of sin1ilar size and mass to the electron but with a positive charge.
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Sub-atomic particles
Protons are the heav iest particl es and are found i.n the nucleus. 27 positively chargcd and have a rest mass of 1.673 x to kg. They are
Ncutrons are similar in mass to a proton having a rest mass of 1.675 x 10"2 1 kg. rney have no charge, are neutra! and are found in the nucleus. Elcctrons are small, very light weight particles and have a rest mass of 11 9.109 x 10 Kg. They have a negative charge and orbit the nucleus in restricted shells according to the cules of quantum mechanics.
so
Atoms will have the same number of protons and electrons when the atom is in cquilibrium, i.e. when it is not an ion.
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Atomic numbe r
The atomic number or Z numbcr is the total number of protons in the nucleus and this dcfines the element, e.g. Il = 1;He = 2; C = 6; O = 8.
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' R : nc & r r o .s m
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPOINTMENTSIRESPONSIBILITIES .......................................................................................... RSIO
Radiation Protection Adviser (RPA) ............................................................................................. RS I O-l Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS) ......................................................................................... RS 10- 1 Classified Person .......................................................................................................................... RS 10-1 Qualified Person & ............................................................................................................................ RS 10-2
LOCAl,
Local
RULES
CONTINGENCY
PLANS.................................................................................... RSII
ru les .......................... ........................................................................................................... RS 1 1-1
Contingency plans ........................................................................... .......................................... RS 1 l- 1
PERSONAL DOSIMETRY .................................................................................................................. RS12

Classification ................................................................................................................................. RS 12-1 Medical surveillance .................................................. .................................................................. RS 12- 1 Dose assessments ....................................................................................................... ................... RS 12-2 The ALARP principle .......................... .........................................................................................RS 12-2 Exposure/overexposure investigat ions.................................... .................................................... .. RS 12-2 The Ionising Radiation (Outside Workers) Regulations............................................................... RS 12-3 Personal dosimetry records ........................................................................................................... RS 12-4
RADIATION SAFETY RELATED CONTACTS ...............................................................APPEN DIX A NORMATIVE DOCUMENTS ............................................................................................... APPENDIX B
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Every radionuclid e has a half life, this is the time it takes for the activity to drop to one half of its initial strength; this varies from a fraction of a second for some isotopes and to thousands of years for others.
10
Act1v11y IS n term which re1ates to the number of disintegrotions per 11nit

IIIIIC. A CII Vii)'
Natural occurring radionuclides

There are two ma in radionuclides which occur natura!ly: radon and rad ium. Radon bas a half life of 3.825 days and radium has a half life of 1,590 years. Radium 226 is no longer used for radiography because of the hazards presented by its alpha decay and ils gascous radioactive daughter radon. Bones are espectally susceptihle to rlam:ct ge: from radiation emitted from radium 226.
is mcnsuretf
in becqucrels (Bq) or Curies (C1). Radwm prorluces ratfon
gru.
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Artificia l radionuclides
Art1ficially produ ced radionuclides have replaced natural radionuclidcs for use in industrial radiography. T11ere are three methods of produ cing artificial radionuclides:
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1. 2. 3.
Neutron activation (neutron bombardment in a reactor). Fission produ ce separation. Charged particle bombardment (via high energy x-ray machine).
The most widely used radioisotopes are shown in the following table:
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Isotope Co60 Cs137 Irl92 Th170 Yt169 Se75
Halflife 5.27 years 30.1 years 74 .3days 129 days 31 days 118.5 days
Output @ 1m R/h/Ci 1.32 0.33 0.48 0.0025 0.13 0.203 J.tSv/h/GBq 357 89.2 130 0.68 34 54.86
Steel thickness 50 -200mm 25 - IOOmm 6 - 90 nun up to 12 mm up to 17 mm 2-70 mm
To convert R/h!Ci to pSvl/vGBq. d1vitfe by 37 then multrply by 10.000.
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Cobalt 60 (Co60) JS produ ced by bombard ing Co59 with neutrons in a reactor.
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Natural iridium occurs as two isotopes, lr19 1 and Tr193. bombarding Ir 191 with neutrons in a reactor.
l.r192 is produced by
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'Fission is the diSmtegrallon of n hcavy atomic nurleus illlo smaller. lightcrfr agments.
Caesium 137 is one of the most common products of nuclear fission and is generated in great abundance in ali nuclear reactors. The main difficulty is in separatin g this element from other fission products and the uranium fuel. Thulium 169 is one of the rare earth elements and because it is extremely difficult to produce, it is generally used as an oxide. Thallium 170 is produced from Th 169 by thennal neutron capture.
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TYPES OF RADIATION
Electromagnetic radiation
The electromagnetic spectrum o Ali wavcs in the electromagnetic spectrum travel in an undulating fashion . Quantum tht:ory states that these undulations are not continuou s wavcs bur consist of quanta. or packages of energy (photons) travelling in quick succession likc bullets fued from a machinc gun. Each packet of energy has a combination of wavelengths. A wavelength (i. = lambda} is the distance betwecn two adjacent crests of a wave. TI1e shortcr the wavelength, thc more penetrating the ray.
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UNIT RSI BASIC PHYSICS

Mass number
The mass number or A number essentially refers to the weight of an atom and is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Mass (A) number for He = 4, C = 12 and O == 16. Note that the mass number is not always twice the atomic number.
10
ISOTOPES
20
Elements that have the same number of protons but differcnt numbers of ncutrons are varieties of the same element and are called isotopes. 1Among the 3100 or so kno"l.vn 2
clemcnts thcrc arc somc 300 diffcrcnt isotopcs, c.g. H
1 ,
and H
are thrcc isotopes
ofhydrogen H/ = deuterium, H
3 1==
tritium .
13 14
12
Carbon also has three isotopes: C6 , C6 and C carbon 13 and carbon 14 respectively.
30
commonly referred to as carbon 12,
IONS
An ion is an electrically charged partide which may be positive (+ve) or negative (-ve).
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When particles or photons of energy (quanta) pass through matter, ali the energy is absorbed in exciting the atoms or molecules so that electrons are ejected producing electrica! imbalance. The ejected electrons (having negative charges) are negative ions, whilst the atoms losing electrons are positive ions due to their unpaired proton (s) in each nucleus. Ions are created when x-rays, gamma rays, alpha particles, beta particles or neutrons pass through matter. The process of producing ions is k.nOVI'll a ionisation.
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MOLECULES
60
When atoms bond together chemically in flXed whole number ratios, they forrn mo/ecules. The molecule may be of the same clement, e.g. H2 (H + H), or a combination of atoms of different elements; examples: 2H + O = H20 - water H + CI = HCI - hydrochloric acid
7 0
C + O = CO - carbon monoxide
c + 20 = co2 - carbon dioxide

Na + CI = NaCI - sodium chloride
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When molecules bond together, the resultant substance is known as a compozmd.
RADIONUCLIDES (RADIO-ISOTOPES)
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Radionuclides arc radioactive isotopes, i.e. the disintegrate by releasing sub-atomic particles, and also give off excess energy known as gamma radiation. Ali elements with atomic numbers higher than bismuth (atomic number 83) are radioactive and are elements which result from the decay of either uranium 235, uranium 238 or thorium 232.
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RSI-2
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The wavelength in the spectrum vary from the longest waves (radio waves) down to waves associated with cosmic radiation. X and gamma rays are much shorter wavelength than visible and ultraviolet light. Wavelengths are measured in nanometres (nm); 1 nm = 1o-9 m. The relationship between the wavelengths of visible light, UV light, x-rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays are roughly as shown in the following table: Electromagnetic radiation typc
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10
Vsible light ..Ultraviolet light X-rays (conventional tubes) Gamma rays Betatrons and linear accelerators Cosmic rays
Wavelength in om 700 -400 400 - 100 0.025 -0.003 0.015 - 0.001 0.001 -0.00004 < 0.000025
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The characteristics of x-rays and ganuna rays are similar and they have no mass or electrica] charge, they travel at the speed of light and their wavelengths and photon energy overlap. The main difference between x-rays and gamma rays is the method by which they are produced, i.e.the source of radiation . X-rays consist of a heterogeneous band of wavelcngths, i.e. a band of mixed wavelengths. The wavelengths of x-rays are govemed by the kinetic energy resul!ing from interactions between fast moving electrons and sub-atomic particles. In x-ray rnachines it is the potential difference (kV) between a cathode and an anode (target) that govems the velocity of electroos flowing and therefore the kinetic energy when a collision occurs. The circuitry of an x-ray machine also affects wavelength . Short wavelengtb x-rays are generated when the a.c. rnodified sine wave for potentia l is at its peak. the rnedium wavelength x-rays are tbe result of the bu ild up to tbe peak and the fali off after the peak. Long wavelengths are geoerated at tbe start and fmish of the half cycles.
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Radio-isotopes produce garnma rays consisting of discreet wavelengths and are constant for a given isotope. Properties of x-rays and gamma rays Both x-rays and ganuna rays have the following properties : a. b. c. d. e.
f.
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g.
h.
1.
The bave no effect on the buman senses. They have adverse effects on the body tissue and blood. They penetrate matter. They move in straight lines. They are part of tbe electromagnetic spectrum and therefore travcl at the speed of light (3 x 108 msl They obey the inverse square law. They ionise gases.
. They may be scattered.
j.
They effect photographic emulsion. They make certain materials fluoresce. k. They may be refract ed, diffracted and polarized.
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Corpuscular (particulate) radiation

Corpuscular rad iation is the flow of sub-atomjc particles. These particles may or may not havc an electrica! charge.
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This type of radiation is di fferent to x and gamma radiation by h aving mass and not travelling at the speed of light. There are three main types of corpuscular radiation: alpha, bela and neutron radiation. AJph a radia tion
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An alpha partide is a large sub-atomic particle consist ing of two protons ami two
neutrons (the nuc Ieus of a helium atom) and therefore has a positive charge. Alpha radiation travels comparatively slowly Ieaving the source al about 16,000 km.s' ( 10,000 miles/sec) but the particles soon slow down and only travcl a total distance of a few ccntimetres through the air. 30 Alpha particles ionise atoms by removing electrons as they pass through matter but they do not penetrate deeply and can be stopped by a sheet of paper and human skin. The ma in hazard is that they may enter the body through a cut in the skin or they may be ingested. Beta radiation
40
A beta partide is a very light high speed e1ectron or positron and therefore may possess a negative or positive charge. Beta particles travel faster than alpha particles_ They are small and lightweight and therefore do not have a high ionising potentia l cornpared with alpha radiation . They can travcl through 3 rneters of air or 1 mm of lead and are more penetraling than alpha particles but they can be stopped by a few rrullimetres of rnost solid or liqu id rna terials. If beta rays are errutted from a radioactive source, they are normally prevented from entering the surrounding air space by absorption by the mass of the radioact ive pellet or its surrounding capsule. Neut ron radiation
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Neutron radiation simply consists of flowing neutrons which ha ve no electrica!charge. Neutrons are produced from nuclear reactors, accelerators and certain radioa ctive isotopes, e.g. califomium 252, ali of which produ ce fas t neutrons. These neutrons normally have to be slowed down by using a moderator before they are used in radiograpby; these slower, lower energy, neutrons are called thermal neutrons
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Neutron radiation can penetrare many materia ls rnade from heavy elements wi th ease but it is absorbed by many lighter materials, particularly those containing hydrogen. Hydrogcn has an affmity for neutrons.
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ACTIVJTY
The activity of a radioactive source can be expressed in becquerels (RlJ) or cmies (Ci); the h1gher this value, the greater the intensity of gamma rays produced. The becquerel is the SI unit for activ ity and is equal to one radionuclide disintegration per second.
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The older unit, which is still widely used, is the cunc which is equal to 3.7 x 10'0 disintcgrations per second. 1 bccquerel "' 1 disintegration per secon d; 3.7 x 1010 becquerels = 1 curie; thereforc: 3.7 x 1010 disintcgrations per second = 1 curie.
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NOTES
&hll

For industrial radiography, it is usually more practica! to talk gi"gabecquerels (GBq): Giga = I09
10
m tenns of
1 gigabecquerel == 10"becquerels. 37 gigabecquerels
1 curie.
Ternbecquere/s m11 y be :ncountered. Tern - 1O"
20
Note: The activity of a radioactive tsotope does not relate to the penetrating power of the gamma rays produced ; penetrating power depends on the wavelength of the gamma rays produ ced and this depends on the specific rad10active element involved. For example, cobalt GO (Co60) !Jas a vtay high pc:nt:lrating power and may be used on steel compooents up to 200 mm tbick, because the gamma radiation emitted bas a very short wavelength.
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DECAY
Decay is the process of spontaneous transformati on of a radionuclide. A loss of activity will be the result of decay and most radionuclide will decay through disintegration . Radioactive materials decay by at least one of five primary modes:
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1. Emission of alpha particles (helium nucleus). 2. 3. 4. Emission of beta particles. Electron capture or positron emission . Emission of gamma rays {photoos).
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5. Spontaneous fission.
IONISATION
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Ionisation is simply the formation of ions which are positively or negatively cbarged particles. fonising radia/ion means gamma rays, x-rays or corpuscular radiations which are capable of produ cing ions either directly or indirectly. X-rays and gamma rays are photons (packets of energy) and since energy cannot be destroyed it is absorbed or converted when the photons collide with matter. Some of the energy may be absorbed by an orbiting electron which may be sufficient to remove it from its orbit around the nucleus. TI1e remainder of the energy may forma lower energy photon and the process is repeatcd until ali the energy is either absorbed or converted. Low energy photons will eventually decay into ultraviolet light, light and heat.
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Ionisation creates an unbalanced atom since at least one of the paired electrons has been removed leaving the atom with an extra unpaired proton ; the atom tben becomes known liS <1 positivc: ion. The ejected electron is a negative chargcd part icle and therefore is a negative ion. These electrons move with different velocitics and in diffcrent directions and some will collide with other atoms which will absorb some of the energy and produ ce low encrgy x-rays. Therefore, low energy secondary or scattered radiation will be produced .
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NO_TES
UNIT RSlA ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING

Compton scattering This is also called the Compton effect. In this process, a photon interacts witb a free or weakly bonded outer electron, part of the photon's energy is transferred to the t:lectron which is ejected. The photon emerges from the collision as scattered rad iation of reduced energy.
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Photons
20
,,
----0 ------
E je cte d electron (-)
.... Scattered radiation

30
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Pair production This effect occurs at very high radiation energies (above 1.02 MeV). When a high energy pboton collides with the nucleus of the atom, the energy of the photon is absorbed and produ ces an electron and a positron. Very soon after, the electron and the positron collide and both are destroyed but release two photons each with energies of O.S MeV.
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Collison and annihilation
Photons
> 1.02 MeV 70
Ejected positron (+
0
8
/
0 5 MeV """-- 0. 5MeV
-80
Ejected electmn (-)

Photons
9 0
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RSI A-2
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1\0TES
UNIT RSlA ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING

The intensity of ionising radiation is reduced by at least one of tbe followiog types of interaclion: a. Rayleigh scattering. b. Photoelectric effect. c. Compton effect. d. Pair production The extent of absorption and scattering is govemed by the encrgy of the pnmary radiation and the atomic number ofthe elemcnts makmg up the medium through which the radiation is travelling.
20
10
Scattered radiation may seriously effect the quality of a radiogr aphic imagc and ma y also increase tbe radiation dose levels in the working viscinity. Rayleigh scattering
In the process, photons are deflected by outer electrons but do not change in energy or release any electrons. The photon scattering is in the forward direction .
30
This process accounts for less than 20% of the total attenuation of a radiat ion beam. Rayleigh scattering is most relevant whcn dealing with low energies of radiation passing through materials consisting of elements with a high atomic number.
40
Photons
50
60
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Photoelectric effcct The photoelectri c cffect is an interaction between a photon and an orbiting electron which causes an electron to be ejected. The photon is consumed and the excess cnergy imparts kinetic eoergy to the electron. TI1is process applies to ionising radiation of relatively low energy, e.g. less than 100 keV in steel, and also to higber energy radiation up to about 2 MeV when passing
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through materia ls nntaining elcments ofhigh atomjc number.
Photons
90
V:
E jec!ed electron (-)
1()0
@)J
'-::
'
- -/
RSI A-1
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NOT S
UNIT RS2 RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPl\fENT
GAMMA SOURCES
10
Sealed sources
The source of gamma radiation, i.e. the radioisotope, which is rypically in d1sc or cylindrical form, is enclosed in a capsule somctimes referred to as a pili.
2 0
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The sources available range in size and configuration from 0.5 mm diarneter disc to a 4 mm x 4 mm cylinder. Example configurations are:
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Thin discs: typica lly up to 3.0 mm diameter x 1.0 mrn thick. These can be stacked together. Cylindrical:typically up to 4 mm in length.
Spherical: 0.6 - 3.0 mm diameter. The capsule is made from either 316 S12 grade stainless steel or titanium . Titanium is used for Ytl69 capsules and is an alternative to stainless steel for lr192 and Co60.
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Classification and types of exposure container

BS 5650 . 1978 :
Specification for apparatus for gamrna rodiography.
To comply with BS 5650 (ISO 3999), apparatus for gamma radiography is classfied according to the mobility of the exposure container.
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Class P- A porta ble exposure container designed to be carried by one mao alone. Class M - A mobile but not portable exposure container designed to be moved easily by a suitable meaos provided for the purpose. Class F - A fixed installed exposure container or one with mobility restricted to the confmes of a particular working area.
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An exposure container must be provid ed either witb ao integral lock or with hasps through which separate padlocks can be fitted. The locks must be eitber lockable without the key or an integral Iock from whicb the key cannot be removed when the container is in the working position . On ali exposure containers the radiation can only be exposed after an unlocking operation. There are a number of different designs for containers, the most common types are: Shutter type (Category f). Rotating type (Category f). Projection typc (Catcgory II).
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An exposurc llead "III be fi f ont! of collmJntor.
BS 5760 Categ01y 1 containers arc containers from wbich the sealed source is not removed for exposure. Categ01y Il containers are thosc from which the sealed source is projcctcd from the container via a proje ction sheath (guide tube) to an exposure head, they may operate electrically , mechanically or pneumati cally . Another type of container is the torch type. l11is type of contamcr should no longt!r bc uscd bccause of relatively high radiat ion doscs reccived by the user and the high risk of ovcrcxposure.
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Torch type
UNIT RS2 RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPl\IENT
BS 5650 does nof cover appnrnlus operaled by removing Ihe seoled source 10 (rom che exposure container by using a manual hand/ing device because ies use is prohib iled in cercain nationnl regulations.
The container bouses the source within a torch assembly and also a sbort bandle . The handle is fitted to the torch assembly, this is secured in the ma in container by a bayonet fixing. As the torch assembly is withdrawn from the container, a spring load plunger pushes part of the assembly down producing a shielding effect so as to produce a narrow beam of radiation.
handle
20
30
Torch type
40
Shutter type (Category 1 type to BS 5650)
50
shielding
material
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Shutter type
Rotating type (Category 1 type to BS 5650)

shielding material
8 0
rotates
9 0
L
](){)
_ __
Rotating type
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RS2-2

lliOTES
UNIT RS2 RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT

Projection type (Category
n type BS 5650)
10
This type is also known as a remote control or wind out type. The source is attached to a special connector called a pigtail ; the pigtail and source are moved along a guide tube by means of a cable until the source reaches the exposure head (which is fixed in the working position). The cable is driven along by means of a hand-cranked wind out mechanism, or it can be pneumatically or electrically controlled. The cable is retractcd to retum the source to its container at the end of the exposure. The projection type can be further classified as an S-type or straight-through type.
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handle
30
removable storage shipping plug assembly
40
-----shieldmg material sealed source Projection type
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Marking of exposure containers Each exposure container must bave a metal plate permanen tly fixed and indelibly marked by engraving, stamping or other means with the following inforrnation : 1. 1l1e basic ionising radiation symbol complying with BS 3510 (ISO 361). 2. RADIOACTIVE in Jcrters no less !han 10 mm in height.
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BS 3510: 1968 :
Specifica tionfor a basic symbolto denote the actual or potential presence of ionising radimion.
3. The maximum rating ofthe container for the type ofsource tobe used.
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4. BS 5650 (ISO 3999).

5. The manufacturer's type and serial number. Class M and F containers shall be marked with the mass of the container . Identification of the scaled source in the exposure container The user must ensure that the following inforrnation is displayed in a durable fom1, artached to the exposure container, usually in the form of a brass disc. 1. 2. 3. The chemical symbol and mass number of the radionuclid c. Activity and the date on whjch this activity was measured . Idcntification number of the sealed source.
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Source exchangers
Source exchange type contoiners or source exclrangers an: used to safely transfer sources to and from the cxposure containers so that the uscr can rcceive new sources and retum old sources to the supplier. There are a number of proprietary source exchangcrs availablc, thereforc thc specific manufa cturer's instructions must be rcad and understood beforc sourcc exchangcs arc attempted.
100
h\UI' 6 Ut0610l
RS2-3

NOTES
UNIT RS2 RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPl\iENT

Testing of isotope containers aud sealed sources
Tests carried out on isotope containers are undertaken by designers and manufacturers, i.e. not the user. The tests which are conducted are as follows:
10
Shielding efficiency. Vibration . Shock. Endurance . Kinking, crushmg and tensile. Drop.
7.0
IAEA =International Atomic Energy Agency .
30
Leak tests must be carried out on sealed sources (1999 IRR Regulations state at suitable intervals) in most cases every 26 months (IAEA are recorrunending 12 monthly testing). Test methods include the following: Wipe test A - The container is wiped with a swab or tissue moistened with methanol or water. The activity of the residue removed is measured . The acceptable limit is 185 Bq. Bubble test B - The container is immersed in water ora suitable liquid (ethanol) and the pressure reduced to 13 kPa. No bubbles to be observed.
40
Additional tests should be roade when damage occurs or when maintenance is carried out which could affect the integrity of the source . Records of lcakage tests must be kept for two years.
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Collimators
Collimators are usually used with garnma sources during exposures for safety reasons and sometimes to improve radiograph ic quality; see Unit RS7.
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X-RAY SOURCES
Geoeration of x-rays
X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons are stopped or slowed down (decelerated) on collision with matter.
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X-rays used in industrial radiography are produced from electrica! machines usually referred to as x-ray sets; the x-ray sets themselves being produced from within an x-ray tube or insert.
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100
An x-ray tube consists of an evacuatcd glass bulb, encompassing an anode (the positive electrode), and a cathode (the negat ive electrode). The cathode conta ins a filament within a curved reflector or focusing cup.
) kunC" .'<r. T P O'NI."iJI l. uuc: 6 l4.10-6idJ
RS2-4
Ruane & Il T P O'Nei/1 !'OOTES

When the filament is heated to a white hot state by a current flow of a few amperes, electrons are ernitted and are attracted towards the anode in a concentrated beam formed by tbe focusing cup. The beam strikes a target set into the anode which results in the release ofenergy; this energy consists ofapproximately 97-99% beat and 1-3% x-rays for convent iOna l x-ray tubes up to 300 kV. Because of the high amount of heat energy produ ced, the anode is made from copper to conduci away lhe beat. But, copper bas a low melting point, so to preveni the copper melting, a slip of met al with a higb melting poin t is recessed into the anode at the poin t which is stmck by the electron beam.
2 0
10
This slip of meta l also serves nnother purposc, because, the higher the atomic number of the element struck by electrons, the greater will bc the intensiry and energy of the x-rays produced . This slip of metal, or larget, is usually made of tungsten because of its high melting point of 3370C, and its high atomic number of74. The area on tbe larget which is struck by the electrons is called the foca!spot; this area shou ld be large enough to avoid local overheating, although from the radiographic image qualiry point of view, the foca! spot sbould be as srnall as possible to provide good definition (sharpness) on tbe radiograph. Additional cooling is required to cool the anode; gas, oii or water normally being employed for tbis purpose .
30
40
Tbe cooling system and the insert are contained together in an earthed , lead lined container, the complete unit commonly being referred lo as lhe x-ray tubehead. TI1e tubehead is controlled from the control panel.
Tbe x-ray equipment control panel

50 The three controls that govem a radiographic exposure using x-rays are the timer, the mA control and the kV control.
60
mA
Topowcr
70 Timer
To warni..ng rysum
To J raJ t ,J,e (20 m mitri,..u:m cabl lLn tlr}
80
ee
Timer The timer is usua lly calibrated in mioutes. The exposure time for an exposure is preset; when the equipment is activated, thc timer counts down from the pre-set value. The exposure time wi ll partially govem how much radiatton ts going to reach the film. Milliamps (mA) The mA controls the intensiry or quantity of x-rays. When the mA is increased, the currcnt flow through the filament is increased, wh ich causes the filament to get hottcr
90
100
"' Ru11n (' ..
.r o r.;t:in
l.'>:>ur: 6 U/Oh.f)\
RS2-S

. NOTES

resulting in an increase in the intensity of electrons released. The greater the intens ity of electrons striking the target, the greater the intensity ofthe x-rays produced .
10
The mA control on conventional x-ray equipment may only a!low for a maximum o f 6 to 12 mA to be used, the value being measured across the tube, i.e. between the cathode and the anode. The value requ ired for a specific exposure is usually pre-set on the panel, this value is usually at, or close to, the maximum mA possible with the equipment for the purpose of minimising exposure time. Kilovoltage (kV)
20
The kV govems the wavelengt h or quality of x-rays produced wh ich practically govems penetrating power. When the kV is increased, the speed of the electron flow from the cathode to the anode is increased. Therefore, when the electrons strike the target, the kinetic energy is increased, which results in a reduction of wavelength.
An increase in kV, i.e. a shortening of wavelength, bas an adverse affect on the contrast and definition of a radiographic image. Certain standard specificat ions, e.g. BS EN 1435 Radiography ofwelds, states the maximum kV values for this reason.
30
40
The kV meters on the control panels for conventional x-ray equipment are peak kV values measured across the tube, i.e. between the cathode and the anode. The maximum kV which can be used is primarily govemed by the tubehead ; typical maximum values are 200 kV, 250 kV and 300 kV. The value required for a specific exposure is usually pre-set on the panel.
Pipeline crawler equipment

Machines have been developed specifically for the radiographic examination of pipeline welds using either x-ray units or gamma sources. These machine s may have a power source attached to the radiation source, i.e. battery pack or generator, or they may be operated remotely via a cahle with the power source outside the pipeline. Because pipeline crawlers are used inside the pipeline, they are not visible from the outside of the pipeline, therefore, it is essential that suitable waming signals are given and are capable of alerting persons in the vicinity of the crawler.
60
50
Signals that operate automatically shou ld be linked by some method to the crawler, this is normally achieved by using sensors linked to warning lights which operate as soon as they detect ionising radiation. Crawlers available usually have an integrated audible pre-exposure alarm and an exposure alarm. A separate waming signal is sometimes integrated when the craw!er is in motion. The useful beam from crawlers should be restricted so that the beam width does not exceed 120 mm at the circumference of the pipe. Any control isotope used should not exceed 100 tSv .h- 1 at the accessible surface of the pipe when exposed.
70
Higb eoergy units

80
Radiography using x-ray energies of one million electron volts (1 MeY) or greater is considered to be in the high energy range. Electrostatic generators The Van de Graffe electrostatic generator consists of a rapidly moving insulated belt onto which is sprayed an electric charge which is carried to a hemispherical high voltage termina l. This produces a h igh voltage difference with respect to the lowcr end. Electrically charged particl es are made available for acceleration from a heated carhodc and injected into a very high vacuum tube and collimated to bombard special targcts and produce x-rays. ll1e target size is about 2.5 rnm.
90
100
!(":' Nurmt" & T P O"Nc..-111
RSZ-6
Ruane & Il

Electron linear accelerators Thesc are commonly referred to as linacs or simply linear accelerators. Linacs accelerate electrons down a guide by mean s of radio frequency (rf) voltages. Thc voltages are applied so that tbe electrons reach an accelcration point in the field at a precise time. The guide consists of a series of cavities which produ ce gaps when the rf power is applied. With phased power, the electrons are accelcrated along the guide to a target, the rays energy at the other side. The cnergy in electron volts increases with the length of lhe tube.
20
TP O'Neill
NO_ TES
10
The foca] spots can be as small as 0.1 nun. As an example, the 100 nun thick steel shell of a nuclear reactor ata power statioo in Wales was radiographed at a distance of 9 m using ultrafine grain film wilh a 20 minute exposure. Bach exposure covered 3 m of weld. Thc 4 MeV linac was mounted centrally on a rotating stand in lhe centre of the shell.
30
This 4 MeV was traosportable and could readily be moved wilh lifling equipment. The Betatron This machine is based on the same principle as the linac but tbe electron guide is a spiral. Tbis means that the pafu oflhe electroos can be iocreased over a smaller overall area.
40
Betatrons can be manufactured up to 300 MeV and an Il MeV can penetrate steel up to 300 nun thick, but is noi transportable. Portable :>t-ray betatrons are available with energy outputs up to 6 MeV.
50
60
70
80
9 0
100
Ru: uu: ... 1 l' O"N ll
RS2-7

NOTES
UNIT RS3 RADIATION UNITS
ACTIVITY
Applicable to gamma radiography.
10
Activity is the number of nuclear disintegrations per unit time taking place in a radioactive source, i.e.the rate at which transformations occur. SI unit: Bcquerel (Bq) One bequerel correspon ds to the decay of one radionuclide per second.
G Giga= 10
T
It is more practica! for industrial radiographers to talk in terms of Gigabecquerels

20
9 (GBq), l GBq = l0 Bq; or Terabecquerls, l TBq = 10 12
= Tera = 1011
Bq.
The old unit is the Curie (Ci); this unit is often encountered. 1 Curie= 37 GBq
1 Bq = 27 pCi
30
or or
1 Curie = 3.7 x 1010 Bq 1 Bq = 2.7 10_ ,, Ci
DOSE OR EXPOSURE
This is applicable to aU types of radiation and relates to the incidence of radiation on living or inanimate material by accident or intent.
The coulomb is rhe SI unit
SI unit: Coulomb/kilogram (Cikg)

40
of electric charge.
The old unit of exposure (stiH encountered) is the Rontgen (R). One rontgen is the quantity of X or gamma radiation that will ionise 1 cm of air to give one electrostatic unit under fixed conditions. More specifically, one rontgen is the quantity of x or gamma radiation such that the associated corpuscular emission per 0.001293 gram of air produces, in air, ions canying one electrostatic unit (e.s.u.) of electricity of either sign. 1 C/kg = 3876 R or
1 R = 2.58 x 10-4 Clkg
3
50
ABSORBED DOSE (KERMA)

60
This is the quantity of energy imparted is also known as kemw. SI un it: gray (Gy) 1 gray = 1 J/kg (1 joule of energy absorbed by 1 kg of matter).
p =micro = 10" m = mi/li = 10 J
It is more likely that industrial radiographers will talk in terms of rnicrograys (f.lGy) or milligrays (mGy).
7 0
The old unit is the rad (still encountered).

1 Gy = 100 rads
or
1 rad= 10 2 Gy (10 mGy)
DOSE EQUJVALENT
80 The dose equiva/ent is a quantity observed by multiplying the absorbed dose by a factor to allow for the different effectiveness of the various ionising radiations m causing harm to tissues, i.e. it is a value that relates to the biologica! effect of radiat ion.
SI unit: Sievert (Sv)

90
l sievert = 1 J/kg (1joule of energy absorbed by 1 kg of matter). One sievert (1 Sv) has the same biologica} effectiveness as one gray ( 1 Gy) of xradiation ; but it is noi the same for al! types of radiation, e.g. 1 Gy of thermal neutrons will give 3 Sv.
1 oo
It is more likely that industrial radiographers wil l talk in tenm of mcrosievens (fl.Sv) or mllsieverts (mSv) .
ri...' Rvaue & T P 0"!'\ :ill h.uu (, 2-t/M/03
RS3-1
Ruane & 11 TP O'Nei/1

NOTES
UNIT RSJ RADIATION UNITS

The old unit is the rem (still encountered) 1 Sv = 100 rcms
10
or
1 rem = 10 Sv (10 mSv)
Quality factors
The absorbed dose can be converted into sieverts by multiplying by the applicable quality factor (QF). The value of the QF depends on the type of radiation absorbed. More specifically, thc biologica!effect of an absorbed dose is govemed by lhe density of ion isation caused by the radiation.
20
Type of Radiation X, gamma and beta rays Thermal neutrons Alpha and fast neutrons
30
QF
1
3
10
Effective dose equivalent = grays x QF Gy x QF = Sv mGy x QF = mSv

4 0
Gy x QF = Sv Example What is the total effect dose equiva lenl if in one year a worker receives a garruna dose of 20 mGy, a thermal neutron dose of 5 mGy and a fast neutron dose of 1 mGy? absorbed dose x QF Total dose equivalent Gamma dose equivalent 20 X 1 20mSv
so
60
Thermal neutron dose equivalent
5x3 15mSv
Fast neutron dese equivalent
1 X J0
10 mSv
70
Total dose equivalent
45 mSv (0.045 Sv)
DOSERATE
80
Clkg, Gy and Sv are units expressing an amount of radiation which may have been received over any period of time. To control th e radia tion hazard it is necessary to know the rate at which the radiat ion is bein g received. Example
\/r//rsu!ver/5 per hour mny ,
lx: c prC":ued ns m::;\flrr or 90 mSv.h"1

nre n!Jsorbed do.fc rnte 11111)' olso bc referred tn ns the lu:rmn rntc.
If a man working in an area for 2 hours receives a dose equivaJent of 4 mSv, then the dose equivalent rate is 2 mSv per hour. Similarly wc can have exposure rates (C.kg. s.
1 1 )
and absorbed dose rates (mGy.h"\
100
.t; Rtunt & T f' or: rtU h..ut 6 J:..C/1)6/0,,
RS3-2

.:'liOTES
UNIT RS4 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OVERVIEW
The effects of radiation are divided into two classes: ( 1) somatie effeccs in which the damage appears in the irradiated person themselv es and (2) genelic effects which arise in the offspring of the irradiated person as a result of radiation damage to gene ceIls in the reproductive organs_ The fundamental effect of radiation on any lving organism is the destruction of cells. Many different kinds of celis exist in the body. Those forming bone, skin, rnuscle etc. are known as d!f!erential cells and have reached the stage where in an adult, they do not undergo further division. The process of division in wh ich more celis are produ ced is called mitosis and the daughter cells may be mitolic or differentiated. Mitotic cells are rnuch more sensitive to radiation then differentiated cells. The effect of radiation depends on whether the whole body is irradiated or only a pa rt ofthe body. Which pact ofthe body is irradiated also govems the effect.
30
nte employer is responsiblcfo r pr oviding 1O correct personnel prot ect iw: equipment and (or ensuring a is worn when required.
20
For a given dose, the effect of ionising radiation will be most noticeable if the whole body is irradiated and least if only a small volume of skin and muscle is involved. Because of the recovering process, the effects will also depend on the dose rate, i.e. the time over which a given dose is received. In general, the effect is less harmful if the dose is spread over a long time rather than received in a single acute exposure.
4 0
SOMA TIC EFFECTS
Blood
50
The blood cells are the fu-st to suffer the effects from absorbed 1omsmg radiation . lnitially the production of white blood ce lis in the bone marrow is slowed down and at slightly higher received doses the same happens to the red cells. Both these changes when sufficiently severe and prolonged can be lethal and are the fu-st detectable effects of ionising radiation. Therefore, taking a blood count of individuals who work with radiation is a conunon and effective test.
60
Skin
lfinstead ofthe whole body being irradiated, the dose were confmed to a small volume of limb, any reaction would be greatly reduced and confmed mainly to the skin.
70
If an acute dose of approximately 400 mSv were received there would be a reddening ofthe skin with perhaps loss ofhair, both ofwhich would be temporary (erythema). At greater doses the skin peels (desquemation). At larger doscs still the skin blisters (wel desquemation). Very large doses would produce buming of the skin which wou!d be very slow in healing and may develop into malignancy, e.g. cancer cells. TI1ese effects were fairly conunon with early x-ray experiments.
80
Eyes
The eyes are partcularly sensir ive ro ionising radiation. Cataract fonnation 1s the likely result of over exposure.
90
100
1 ftu2nt- & 1 P
O"Ndll
RS4-l
Ruane & /1 TP O'Nei/1

NOTES
UNIT RS4 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Probable effects of an acute radiation dose ou the whole body

10
Acute dose (mSv)
Probablc effcct No obvious injury. Poss1ble minor blood change. Vomiting and nausea for about 1 day in 5% to 10% ofpeople, fatigue but no serious injury . Radiation sickness in 50% ofpeople, pos sible_ injury. Radiation siclcness in ali, with 20% death s within 2 - 6 wecks. Over 50% deaths. Fatal.
o- 250
250 - 500 500- 1000
20
1000 - 2000 2000 - 4000 4000- 6000 > 6000
30
GENETIC EFFECTS
Very small doses of radiat ion whi lst not effecting the ability of a ce li to live and divide, may cause minor changes in the interna! arrangement of the cell. This can be of considerable importance when the cells are the reproductive cells.
4 0
The effects are to change the chromosomes or genes which are responsibl e for the characteristics of the individual. Radiation can alter the chromosomcs in such a way tbat aftcr cell division tbe daughter cclls will be the samc as the altcred parent cell; this is known as mutation . Normally mutations are a change for the worse and can be caused by very small amounts of radiation. The probability of such a change depends on the dose received and appears tobe in proportion to the total dose received . In general, the result of such mutarions is that the affected individual d1es at an early age or fails to reproduce. Most mutations are bom dead. It bas been estimated that the mutation rate would double if the population were exposed to a dose of about 500 mSv.
so
60
0THER DEFINITIONS
Acute irradiation
BS 4727 : Pnrt 5 : Group 01 1 Radiolog> nntl rndiolagicnl 0
pllysics terminology.
A term used to denote high levei irradiati on of a short durat ion A tem1used to denote low levei inadiation of a long duration, either continuous or intennittent. Effects whicb will not occur below a certain threshold level of dose. Above that threshold dose, the severity of the effect is directly related to the magnitude of thc dose received and the part of the body exposed. Usually the results of acute relatively high doses will appear within days or week s of exposurc. Effects whose probability of occurring (rather than severity) is regarded as a function of the absorbed dose withou t threshold. Effects whose seventy varics with that absorbed dose and for which :l threshol d may occur.
Chronic irradiation Deterministic effect
8 0
Stochastic effect
90
Non stochastic effect
100
RS4-2

OTES
UNIT RS6 RADIATION DETECTION AND 1\IEASUREl\lENT

Radiation may be detected and measured by various means. TI1e terms uscd which relate to devices used for radiation detection and measurement can be confusing and they are often misused. Tbe correct terms to use may be found in BS 4727 : Pan 5 : Group OI . There are essentially three types of radiation detector used by industTial radiographers:
1.
10
Radiat ion me/ers: these give the user measured quan t ities of rad1ation prcscnt and are normally used by radiographers to inform thcm of the exposure rate or absorbed dose rate.
20
2. Personal dosemeters : these are wom by 1111 radiographers and inform them of thc absorbed dose or dose equivalent received . 3. Personal audible alarniS: each radiographer may have an audible alarm which is placed in the pocket.
30
Warning assemblies, wh.ich may be visible ancVor audible , may also be used to infom1 persons in the nearby viscinity (and the radiogyaph ers themselves) that ionising radiation is being emitted and/or about to be emitted . These are not necessarily radiation detectors.
40
Dose rtllemeters should not be confused with dosemeters
DOSE RATEMETERS
A dose ratemeter measures the rate of radiation exposure, i.e. the amount of radiation being received per unit time and permits the evaluation of the absorbed dose rate. When dose ratemeters are being used, the action is often terrned monitoring and the dose ratemeter is often referred to as a monitor or survey meter.
50
Monitoring is defined as a conlinuing procedurefor the co/le<tion and ussessment of pertinent informatlan. includirog measuremcnts . for the purpo se of determining 60 tl:e effccllvcness of the plans and pr oceduresfor radiation prote ction.
The dose ratemeter informs tbe radiograph er how much radiation he/she is receiving. Radiographers need to know how much iooising radiation they are receiving at any particular time to comply with the ALARP requireme nt and to ensure that maximum instantaneous doses are not being exceeded. Dose ratemeters are also used : a. b. c. d. al the perimeter of controlled areas to give an assurance that the maximum permissble value is not being exceeded; to determine the extent of the supervised area and to monitor them; to ensure that radio-isotopes have been retumed into their containers; to check radio-isotope containers for leakage .
7 0
The results from radiaton monitoring of controlled areas must be recorded; the records shou ld be kept by the employer for 2 years. Dose ratemeters must be calibrated by a qualified pe rsrm when new, after rcpair. if a malfunction occurs, and al intervals not exceeding 12 months (*see note). Certificates of calibration must be issued and records should be kept by the employer for a minimum of 2 years. As a minimum, a meter must be used with each sourct: of radiation being used and it must bc switcbed on during exposure. Frequcnt checks are required to ensure that the dose ratemcter is working satisfactorily and must include a battery condition check, zeroing of thc needlc and response checks. Dose ratemeters consist of ionisation chambers and g1ve a visual readout usuall y calibrated in 1-1Sv.h1 and mSv.h . They must be capable of reading dose rates below 7.5 j.t Sv.h and above 2 mSv .h1.
lt is possible to jam a dose ratemeter if the dose levels bcing rec;e;: Jvcd are too h1gh for
Radiat ion meters uscd must
bc capable of registering al/

the tonising radiation types and energinpresent
80
Radwtion for Site Radiography (a book 011 the PCN estential reading list states 14 montlts. nu! 1999 Regulatil/ns state thm 12 montlrs may not bc prattu;fll ,pnge 85 of ACOP. parngnph 353).
90
100
the calibration, this can resu l! in a zero reading, thcrefore always set thc mstrument initially to detcct high lcvcls ofradiat1on aftcr carrying out a battery check.
l Ru:tiH' & 1
ro Ntill
1 -.. uc b l JIOl)
RS( - 1
Ruane & Il
T PO'Nei/1
OTES
UNIT RSS DOSE Lll\HTS

Any dose of ionising radia!ion received during radiograpruc work shou ld be considered excessive. A II doses should be kept as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP principle).
10
The only method of control 1s to have dose limits for specific periods ro limit the damage caused by radiation . Dose limits per calendar year Status Whole Body 20 mSv 6mSv
1 mSv
Skin Feet 500 mSv 150 mSv 50 mSv
Eye 150 mSv 50 mSv 15 mSv
,-.,(immum ngcfor a
ralnee lnvolved In
20
rodiogrnphy is 16.
Classified person Trainee under 18 years* Unclassified person
30
lnstantaneous dose lirnits

Classified person: 2 mSv.h when starting or terminating an exposure. Unclassified person :7.5 11Sv.h
1
Additional dose limits for women

40
Consecutive 3 month period- 13 mSv maximum. During the term ofpregnancy- 10 mSv maximum .
Action levels
50
60
1. Tbe IRR 1999 Regulations requires that where an accident or other occurrence t.akes place which is lkely to result in a person receiving more than three tenths of any dose limit (for classified persons this is > 6 mSv), the employer shall : a. For classified persoos, arrange for a dose assessment tobe made by the ADS irnmediately . b. For any other persons, arrange for the dose to be assessed by an appropriate means as soon as possible havi.ng taken advice from the RPA . 2. The approved dosimetry service must inform the cmployer and HSE as soon as a person's dose record exceeds 30 mSv in any one quarter. whatever the employer wants it tobe but must not be more than 15 mSv. When this limit is exceeded for the fust tirne in any calendar year, an immediate iovestigatioo must be carried out. This dose limit shall be written in the local rules. The action required with regard to over exposure is dependent on the employrnent medical adviser (EMA or AD), howev er there is no provision in the regulations where over exposure requires automatic suspension from work.
3. The employer must also set an investigation dose Jevel. This level may be
70
80
90
100
R.o nt & T P O"Nl" iH

1\... ur 6 24!06/U]
RS5-1
Ruane & 11
T P O'Nei/1
NOTES
UNIT RS6 RADIATION DETECTION AND 1\IEASUREMENT

Iooisation cbambers
A dose ratemeter contains an ionisation chamber which contains two electrodes. The power supply is usually a battery which is connected across thc clectrodes and an ammeter is connected in series to the battery. Ionisation takes place in the chamber when it is exposed to radiation. Individual ions are attracted to the electrode of opposite charge and upon reaching the electrode, become neutra! by attracting a charge from the battery . This flow of current required from the battery is measured on the ammeter which can be calibrated in mSv or J1Sv.
20
71zcre nre mnny typcs of ionisation chamber.
10
Iouisation cbambers have variable accuracies but are typically accurate tu 12%, except in areas of Iow intensity radiation because su fficient ionisation currcnt is not generated to indicate accurately on the meter. In these areas of low intensity geiger counters may be used.
30
Geiger couoters
Tbese instruments contain a Geiger-Mull er tube which is a gas filled ion isation chamber and operates as a high sensitivity radiation detecting device. The voltage difference between the tube anode and cathode and the gas within the tube, create an atmosphere wherein any single ionisation process is multiplied into many such events. Tbis phenomenon of a single ionisation event produ cing many ions in a fraction of a millisecond is known as gas multiplicat ion; sophisticated electronic amplification is therefore not required.
lbe resultant amplified pulse of electrica!energy can be used to detlect a meter,
40
illuminate a Jamp or sound an audible alann.

50
Geiger counters have an accuracy of typically 15% provided thcy are calibrated for the type of radiation in use. Filters may be required to distinguish different types of radiation . They are used in cases of gross contamination but are not intended to be used as accurate dose rate meters, because in high radiation intensity areas they can block out and the meter will indicate a false zero reading. If high radiation dose rates are anticipated, Geiger counters should not be used. Geiger counters measure ionising radiation in counts per second.
60
PERSONAL DOSEMETERS
7 0
Industrial radiographers, whilst working with ionising radiation, must always wear a personal dosemeter (film badge or thermo-luminescent dosemeter (TLD). A TLD or film badge is pinned to the outside of clothing between the chest and waist areas. The user must ensure it is wom the right way round (the plastic holders are normally labelledfront and back).
Clnssified persons must wcnr a T/..D orfilm badge by / nw
80
Personal dosemeters give information about the amount and type of radiation received over the period of tinle the dosemeter was wom.
Film badge dosemeter

90
The film badge consists of a photographic film contained in a plastic holder containing severa) metallic filtcrs and a plastic filter. The filters are used to deteTmine the type and energy of any radiation received. After a specified period of time which has been agreed with the approved dosimetry service (ADS}, the film is taken from the holder and sent to the ADS to be processed and assessed. A new film i s issued by the employer to replace the used film. Any ionising radiation which has been received wi ll affect the film emu lsion. When the film is processed the degree of density represents Lhe dose Jevcls received. The ADS recorcl<; this amount and also adds it to the individual's accumula/il e dose, th is infom1at ion is also sent to the employer.
100
.:i
RJJ:.t.nc & T t O"Null
RS6-2

OTES
UNIT RS7 PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION

e. f.
!O
Time switcbes. lnterlocks operated by light beams.
In ali cases where radiographic equipment is de-energ1sed {or sh1elded) by a safety system, it is essentia l that only intentiona) positive action is taken to re-energise the equ ipment. For example, if a door is opened and an interlock cu ts off an exposure by x-ray equipment, then recommencement of the exposure must not be possibJe Slmply by closing the door; it must only be achieved only by intent iona! action at the control panel.
20
The distance reqwred for o constant potential x-roy ut may be greater.
Using x-ray tubes oo site

A typica l procedure for erecting barriers for site radiography using a conventional xray tube up to 300 kV is as follows: 1. Erect the barriers with waming notices approximatcly 25 metres away from the source of radiarion. This distance is not specified in any Regulations but is a good practicat guide to give maximum confidence that the dose Jcvels at the barriers WJII be less tban 7.5 Sv.h'. The Inverse Square Law will not be reliable for xray beams due to their heterogeneou s spectra, however, if a radiation dose rate was known at a specific distance from the x-ray tubehead, the minimum distance for the barriers could be safely calculated by using the Inverse Law. Turn on the x-ray tubehead. Assumin g the tubehead bas been warmed up, increase the kV and mA settings until the maximu m values to be used ha ve been reached. Monitor the dose levels at the barriers to ensure they are not being exceedcd. 1f the levei is excessive then the x-ray tube must be tumed off and the barriers moved further back . Local shielding or collimation of the x-ray beam may be used if the distance to the barriers is not practica! to achieve without such measures.
30
Minimum cabie lengths 20 m upto 300/cV.
40
2.
3.
50
60
Waming signals which may be audible or visible or both, should be present so that anyone approaching the controlled area is made aware of the potential hazard. X-ray units used for site radiography have an integrated waming system. An audible waming (beii, sircn or buzzer) activates for about ten seconds to wam peoplc in the vicinity that ionising radiation is about to be emitted. The audible waming is usuaJly replaced by an orange flashing light when ionising radiation is being emitted. The waming notices used are usually placed just outside the controlled area and must contain the international symbol for ionising radiation - called a trefoil. Some of the notices must also give an explanatioo of the significance of the barriers and waming signals. Waming notices sbould be clearly visible to anyone approaching the controlled area. In general, nobody should be within the controlled area during a rad iographic exposure. When this cannot be avoided, e.g. by classified persons comrnencing or tenninating an exposure, then each person should not be exposed to an instantaneous 1 dose rate in excess of 2 mSv .h- .
70
80
Usiog gamma sources on site

Because the dose rate al 1 m from the source will be known (via tables), and because gamma beams are of fixed discrete wavelengths, the safe distance {minimum d1stance from the source to the barrier s) can be calculatcd using the Inverse Square Law. Collimation will almost certainly be used to restrict the radation beam, t11is will reduce the safe distance; shielding may also be introduced if it is required to reduce the distance somc more.
90
Commuoication
100
Everybody in close proxmity to a controlled arca must be madc aware of what the warning signals mdicate; suitable worded s1gns placed at strategiC positions should bc u scd as a mi nimum to convey thi s information.
RS7-2
Ruane & 11 T P O'Neill

NOTE S
UNIT RS6 RADIATION DETECTION ANO 1\tEASUREl\tENT

Tbermo-Iumioescent dosemeter (TLD)
The TLD consists of two teflon discs containing lithium nuoride set i.n an aluminium plate which is binary coded for identification purposes . This pl ate is contained within a plastic packet and placed in a holder simila r to a film badge but with no metallic filters. After a specified period of time whtch has been agreed with the ADS, the plastic packet containing the discs is sent to the ADS to be assessed. TI1e discs are placed in a special oven whicb causes the discs to give off light when the temperature is raised. The intensity of light is measured to determine the amount of radiation received. The ADS records this amount and also adds it to the i.ndividual's accumulative dose, this i.nformation is also sent to the employer. The TLD system of dose assessment is more easily automated compa red to the film badge system and TLD's are less sensitive to envirorunental i.nfluences such as heat or chemical fumes.
10
20
30
POCKET DOSEMETERS {EXPOSURE METERS)

Pocket dosemeters may be ofthe direct reading type or the indirect reading type. The quartzfibrescope (also know an a quartzfibre e/ectroscope or dosimeter) is a pen like device which measures the accumulative dose of ionising radiation received. A quartz fibre, whtch acts as a pointer, is deflected along a scale (usually calibrated in 11Sv) when ionising radiation is received, the pointer remains i.n th is positjon until more radiation is received. The reading can be taken by holding the instrument to a light source and looki.ng through the opposite end. At any time, the user can zero the readi.ng by placing the fibrescope into a socket on a proprietary device specifically usedforresett:ingpurposes. The use of quartz fibrescopes by classified personnel is not compulsory by law, but may be used by radiographers who wish to know the accumulative dose received wbilst wearing the instrument over a period of rime. Quartt fibrescopes are fragile and can give misleading readi.ngs if dropped or knocked.
40
50
60
AUDIBLE ALARMS (POCKET TYPE)

Radiation detectors of the audible type may be wom by radiographers (typically clipped to a pocket) and simply inform the user that helshe is receiving ionising radiation. These instruments do not tell the user how much radiation is being received and do oot permanently record the dose.
70
The use of audible alarms by classificd personnel is noi compulsory by l aw, but their use is strongly recommended when working with garruna sources.
80
90
100
h..u 6 Hf06.03
RS6-3
Ruane& 11 TP O'Nei/1
NOTES
18 days notice ro J/SE before using rad101ionfo r tltejir . <l time 10 7 days notice 10 HSE rnclo

CONTROLLED AND SUPERVJSED AREAS
From an industrial radiograpbers perspecrive, a controlled area is an area designated by the employer within which tbe radiography takes place. If there is a likelihood that a person 18 years of age or over wi ll exceed 3/1Oths of any relevant dose Iimit, then the area must be designated as a controlled area . Section 16 of the Ionising Radiations Regu lations 1999 givcs detail regarding the designation of controlled areas. Cabinets or walled enclosures are not necessarily designated as controlled areas if there is no likelibood of aoybody receiving more than 311Oths of any relevant dose Jimit Controlled areas for radiography wo rk in factories are normally walled enclosu res often referred to as radiographic cells or bays. For radiographjc work on site, barriers are often erected so that exposures may be made on components in situ. However, it is always preferable to transport test components to wallcd enclosures which havc been specifically designed for radiognphic work. As a second cboice, components should be transported to an area surrounded by barriers which has been designated as a controlled area and clearly identified as such. The purpose of the barriers/wall s is to preveni access by any non-cla ssified persons. AII controlled areas sbould be clearly identified by the use of waming signs and the instantaneous dose rate must not exceed 7.5 J.1Sv.h '1 outside the barrier/wall.
40
ume raduuion is used

thereafter Requests tu fiSE 10 waive tltis 7 day notice can be 20 mnde. t .e wilen less nouce is requtred.
Risk a:ssessment
tilon 5 workers.
if more
30
On site work, controlled areas must be completely surrounded by means of a banier, usually bunting or rope, erected at waist height. The barriers must be erected prior to any radiograpruc work comrnencing. A supervised area is designated as an area where any person is likely to be subjected to doses of ionising radiation above one third of the levels to be found in a controlled 1 area, i.e.2.5 ).1Sv.h Tbis area need not be enclosed by baniers or walls, unless written into a company's local rules, but it is stll subject to control by the radiographers .
50
Waroing signals and safety systems

46 Ci Co60 or 1U ot lm.
a lr/92 60
Waming signals, wruch may be audible or v isible or both, should be clear, unambiguous and situated so tbat any person within or approaching the controlled area is made aware of tbe impending danger or actual presence of radiation. Two wamings should be given, the first immediately prior to and the second during the radiographic exposure. There should be a difference and a clear distinction between these two warnings.
70
Waming signals must operate automatically for ali x-ray equipment and for sealed source equipment where the instantaneous dose rate is greater than 10 mSv.min at 1 m from the source. Exposures must not commence if the waming signals do not operate. Many fonns of safety systems are in use for walled enclosures for x-ray or gamma source work. llte main systems available incorporate the following:
80
100
Electrica! interlocks or microswitches: Thesc should be constructed and fitted so that they w ll fail-to-safety and ca onot bc casily overridden. This can often be acrueved by arranging that the equipment is cnerg1scd when the switch is relcased rather than wben it is depressed. Reliance must nevcr bc placed on an interlock or microswitch acting as the main on/off switch. b. Magnetically operated switcbes. c. Key operated swtches: These provide positive protection and at the same time cnable strict administrative control over the choice of authorised users. The operator holding the key has a positive safeguard against inadvcrtent exposure. Multiple key systems are available which cnsure that al! doors and other safety devices are checked and a key withdrawn from each and inserted into a maste r keyboard. Only when the master keyboard is filled can thc control key for energisation of the radiographic equ ipmcnt be obtained and used. d_ Mechanical safe guard s, e.g. automatic doors.
a.
.:> Ru3n
& T P O'N..:ill
RS7-t
T P O'Nei/1
NOTES
Ruane & Il
THE Il\TVERSE SQUARE LAW

10
Electromagnetic radiation, x-rays, gamma rays and light etc., obey the inverse squa re law which states that the intensity is inversely p roportional to the square of thc distancefrom the source. Therefore, the formula can be stated as follows:
20
where I =original intensity at DI.

30
1 2 = intensity at 02.
OI = original distance.
D2 = new distance. Providing that three of the four values are known, then the fourth value can be calculated. To find I 1 when 1 2, D 1 and 02 are known,use the following formula :
40
50
To fmd 1 2 when 11 , D 1 and D2 are known, use the following formula :
60
To find DI when 11 , 1 2 and D2 are knowo, use the follow ing fonnula:
70
To fmd 02 when D1, 11 and 1 2 are known , use the follow ing formula:
80
90
1()(}
RS7-J
Ruane & Il T P O'Nei/1 _ OTES
Calculating safe working distance using gamm a sou rces

10
From the inverse square law formula, 02 wiU be used to represent the safe working distance, therefore:
20
where 11
= intensity at 01 in J.!Sv_h source type)
or source strength (GBq) x output (depends on

1
1 2 = maximum pemtissible dose rate (7.5 .tSv .h. ).

30
To con vcrt R/h/Ci 10 pSvlh/GBq. divide by 0037.
01 = 1 mctre (because outputs are given at 1 m). 02 = Safe distance in metres.
Outputs or exposure ratefactors are usually obtained from a published table and will be given in J.!Svlh/GBq or Rlh/Ci.
40
Source Cobalt 60 Caesium 134 Caesium 137 Iridium 192 Ytterbuim 169 Thulium 170
Outpu t@ lm Rlh/Ci 1.32 0.&7 0.33 0.48 0.125 0.0025

j.tSv/h/G Bq
357 235
89
130 34 0.68
50
60
Note: Oespite using calculations to determine safe distances, it is still necessary to cbeck radiation levels at the perimeter with a dose rate meter as an extra precau tion.
Exposure time
An exposure dose can be reduced by restricting the time of an exposure.
70
lo order to obtain acceptable images, radiographers will ha ve calculated their exposure time for specific appl ications based on penetra ting power of the radiation and the intensity of radiat ion available. The exposure times for the specific application cannot normally be reduced any further unless peoetrating power and/or the radiation intensity is increased. If it is possible (or permissible) to do this, the radiation wtll be more hannful anyway. However, it is possible to minimise the time spent close to any source of radiation cinring xposures.
80
SHIELDING
90
Shielding may be uscd during radiograp hic cxposurcs in order to restrict or reduce exposure to ionising radiation . Shielding may be used on site or in opcn compounds to allow a reduction in barricr distance but it is prim aril y considered when dcsigning walled enclosures for radiograph ic work. Radographic enclosures are constructcd units which should prov1dc cffectvc shielding from ionising radiation. The protection is provided by the walls, doors etc. and their cffcctivcness will dcpend upon the choice of materials and whcther they are acting as primary or sccondary barriers.
lOO
f) ku:anr & rol'tlll

hsuor6 N/U(IJ{J )
RS7-4
Ruane& 11 T P O'Nei/1 NOTIS _

10

Prima ry barriers are designed to provide protection against the primary radiation beam. Secondary barriers are designed to provide protection against scattered radiation.
When erecting compounds it is sensible to use the cheapest buildin g material and th is is usually concrete. Besides plain concret e, heavy concrete made from bar ium sulphate is sometimes used. Lead concrete and concrete conta ining 50% iron are also available_ Shielding may be introduced local to the source of radiat ion and may simply consist of a sheet of lead which may be attached to a wooden board for hand ling reasons.
20
Sh.ielding matcrials arc choscn by taking into consideration their cost, weight, izc and shielding effectiveness which is largely dependent on the density of the material.
HVT/TVT
30
Shielding effectiveness is derived by taking into consideration the half value thickness or the tenth value thickness of a specific material, both of which are govemed by the wavelength(s) ofradiation being used. Half value thickness (HVT): the thickness of a material which will reduce the exposure rate to one half. Tenth value thickness (TVT): the thickness of a material which will reduce the exposure rate to one tenth. Lead Energy
40
Steel
Concrete
50
60
70
Collimation
so
Collimation is a forrn of shielding and provides a parallel, or near para llel, beam of radiation by blocking out unwan ted parts of the beam. The beam may be restricted for image quality reasons or safety reasons.
Collimators are usually made of lead, tungsten, or similar dense material and are used
to reduce the useji1l beam to the minimum size necessary for the requ ired cxposure.
A pano ramic tubehead may be converted ton dircctwnal tubehead by 90 nllnching a collmM or cnntnining 11 hoie allche
A collimator for a directionat x-ray tube may be attached to the window of the tubehead and in some cases may be adjusted like a pair of curta ins. A collimator for a panoramic x-ray tubehead consists of two bracelets, the positions of which may be adjusted to obtain the required useful beam. Collimators for gamma sources are normally prepositio ncd on or ncar thc componcnt to be radiographed, th en the sourcc is placed into thc collimator, e.g. via a wind out mechanism.
way nrounrl tlle

circumfer ence. tlws pr ovuiing shielding e,cry-,.. here exccpl in thc /ocntion of the halP..
!00
- Hu ::we /.:. 1 r O"J'IIr ill
RS7-5

NOTES
UNIT RS7A CALCULATIONS FOR RADIATION PROTECTIO

Example 1 What is the safe dstance (mjnimum distance for the barriers) for a 370 GBq lr l92 source?
10
a.
From the table, output for Jrl92 is 130 . Svlh/GBq a l m; therefore:
b.
?O
C.
Dz
0 2
J370
2
X
J30 7.5
12
d. 0 2
30 It is stil/ necessary to check radiation levcls at the pcrimeter with n dose rate
mete.r.
.J64t3
e. 02
80.1 m
Therefore, the barriers must be erected at least 80.1 m from the source unless shielding is introduced .
40
Example2
An x-ray unit set at 250 kV produces 6.2 mSv .h- at 1 m. How much concrete will be
1
required to reduce this to 7.5 JJSv.h" ? a. Convert rnSv.h" to J.1Sv.h' by multiplying by 1000:
50
1 1
6.2 mSv.h"1 x 1000 = 6200 )lSv.h- 1 b. Determine how many times greater the dose rate is at 1 m compared to 7.5 . Sv.h-1: 6200 f.1Sv.h"1 7.5 )lSv.h"1 c. 826.6 or 827 times greater.
60
Determine how many HVT's are required to bring the value down to Jcss than 1 1 (which represents a dose rate ofless than 7.5 . Sv.h " ): 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 j413.5 j2 06.75,103.38j51.69 j25 .84 112.92 j6.46 8 9 10 jJ.62 j0 .81
70
827
,3.23
Therefore, 1O HVT's would be required to reduce the dose rate to less than 7.5 J.!Sv.h-1.
80
d.
Detennine the total thickncss of concrete requ ired: 1 HVT of concrete at 250 kV = 28 mm (as dctcnnined from liVT chart). 1 1O x 28 mm = 280 mm of concrete to give a dose lower than 7.5 )lSv.h"
90
100
RS7A- J
Ruane & Il
T P O'Nei/1 OTES _
Ul\'IT RS7A CALCULATIONS FOR RADIATION PROTECTION

Example 3 An lrl92 source produces a dose meter reading which is 250 times greater than the maximum permitted dose rate. How much lead will bc required to reduce this to 7.5 J.!Sv.h-1 or less? a. Determine how many HVT's are requircd to bring the va lue down to less than 1 (which represents a dose rate of less than 7.5 !lSv.h- ):
1
20
10
2
162.5
6
j3 .9
7 , 1.95
8 j 0.97
250
jl25
[ 31.25 j 15.62 ,7.8 1
Therefore, 8 HVT's wou1d be required to reduce the dose rate to less than 7.5 J.!Sv.h- 1 b.
30
Determine the total thick.ness of Jead required : 1 HVT of lead for Ir l92 = 5.5 mm (as deterrnincd from HVT chart). 8 X 5.5 nun = 44 mm or lead to give a dose lower than 7.5 J.!SV.b- 1
Example4
4 0
An x-ray set operating at 250 kVp produces 18.5 mSv/rnNmin at 1 m. If the set operates at 10 mA, how much concrete would be required to reduce the dose to 7.5 f.lSv.b-1 or less? a. Convert mSv/mA/min to mSv/rnA/h by multiplying by 60: 60 x 18.5 mSv/mA/min - 11 10 mSv/rnA/h
so
b. Convert mSv/mA/b to mSv.h-1 by multiplying by mA being used (10): 10 mA x 1110 mSv/rnA/h = 11,100 mSv.h- 1 c.
6 0
Convert mSv.h-1 to f.lSv .h-1 by mu ltiplying by 1000: 1000 X 11,100 J.!SV.h- 1 = 11,100,000 f.lSv.h- 1
d. Determine ratio between value present at 1 m at 7.5 f.lSv.h-1:

11,100,000f.1Sv.h1
70
1 7.5J.!Sv.h
= 1,480,000 times greater.
e.
Determine how many HVT's will be required by using a scientific calcu lator: Type in 1480000 and press log (this gives 6.170...); press -;- (divide) then type in 2, press log and finally = (equ als). The answer you get sbould be 20.497..., which means 20.497 HVT's of concrete would bc required.
r r
80
f.
1 HVT of concrete at 250 kV = 28 mm (as determined from HVT chart). 20.497 x 28 nm1 = 574 mm of concrete to give a dose lower than 7.5 f.lSv.h- 1.
90
Note: A scientific calculator could ha ve been uscd in examples 3 and 4 to obtain more accurate results, although thc results obtaincd do err on the side of caution.
100
i'.: ftu:au t &: -r r O"Ndll
RS7A-2
Ruane & Il T P O'Nei/1 NOTES
UNIT RS7A CALCULATIO S FOR RADIATION PROTECTION

Example 5 An lr192 source with 8 Ci output is being used to radiogra ph welds on an open ended tank made from steel with dimensions as shown in the diagram. Calcu late thc safe distances from the externa!surfaces of the tank.
10
20
30
40
1. Source output calculation: a. Convert Ci to GBq. 8 Ci x 37 = 296 GBq.
so
b.
Calculate output at 1 m: From table output is 130 Sv/GBq for [rl92 at 1 m. 1 130 x 296 = 38480 J.tSv .h" .
2.
60
Work out safe working distance from open end: Source output
MPDR
70
C.
Dm
Jsl3o.666
&O
d. e. 3.
D m = 71.6 m from the source
Dm
from the end of the tank = 71.6 m - 2 m = 69.6 m
90
Work out safe distances from the two s1des of the tank with 26 mm wall th icknesses: a. HVT of stecl using lrl 92 is 13 mm (as dctennined from HVT table). Source 1 output al 1 m is 38,480 pSv.h" (already known from Step /). b. Determine how many HVT's arc present:
100
26 mm of stccl = 2 HVT's (1 JIVT = 13 mm).
' ku.: nC" 4.: T 5 oN('ilt lo.:suc 6 :.1 /0f.tO.l
RS7A-3
Ruane & Il T P O'Nei/1 OTES
UNITRS7A CALCULATIONSFORRADIATIONPROTECTION
c. Detenninc dose rate after 2 x HVT:

10
1 38,480 1 19,240
1 = 9620 J-1Sv.h" .
2 9620
d. Detennine the safe working distance:

20
Dm =
{OutPtrt
vMPDR:
30
Dm = Jl282.66 Dm
40
35.8 m from the source
Dm from the sides of the tank = 35.8 m - 1.5 m = 34.3 m 4. Work out safe distances from the closed end of the tank with 39 mm wall thickness: a. HVT of steel using Ir192 is 13 mm (as detennined from HVT table). Source 1 output at 1 m is 38,480 J!Sv.h- (already known from Step 1). b. Detemline how many HVT's are prescnt: 39 mrn of steel = 3 HVT's (1 HVT = 13 mm). c. Determine dose rate after 3 x HVT:
60
50
38,480 lt 9,240
= 4810 J-1Sv .h"
1
1 9620 1
4810
70
d. Determine the safc working distancc: Dm =
80
Dm = Dm
90
5 J641.33
Dm = 25.32 m from the source Dm from the closed end of the tank
= 25.32 m - 2 m = 23.32 m
100
f,.;
R u:an & T P o NtU
h'U(" (1 1.&/U6!0.l
RS7A-4
T P O'Nei/1
NOTES
Ruane & Il
UNIT RSS STORAGE OF RADIATION SOURCES
GAMMA SOURCES
10
The Ionising Radiations Regulations require ali radioactive substances to be kept in a suitabf e receptacle when not in use. When tbe suitability of a receptacle is being considered there are a number of factors wh ich need to be taken into consideration, including the environmental conditions, risk of damage, characterist ics of the source, e.g. the selfheating effect in high activity sources. The storc used for storing ganuna sources in their containers/receptacles must be dedicated for the storage of radioactive materials and ancillary irems. Flamm able or
20
explosive materials must not be put in the store.
Signs must be placed in a prominent position to warn persons in the vicinity that the store may contain radioactive substances. The signs must conform to the Safety Signs Regulations: 1980(SI 1980No. l471),BS3510 : 1968andBS5378: 1980. A suitable storc for radioactive substances should provide the following:
30
1. 2. 3.
40
Protection from the weather/environment. Resistance to fire. Shielding for non-classified persons with an instantaneous dose rate of less than 2.5 Sv.h' outside the storc. If this figure cannot be achieved then the area may have to be designated a controfled arca. Ventilation .
4.
5. Security. For site radiograpby, gamma sources shielded in their containers should be stored in an isotope storage pit (bomb pit) when not in use. This consists of a 450 mm to 600 rnm diameter pipe approxirnately one metre long set into the ground and fitted with a lockable lid, surrounded by an enclosure (fence or wall) with a lockable entrance and waming signs displayed.
50
60
X-RA y MACillNES
X-ray machines should be stored under lock and key when not in use for prolonged periods, e.g. ovemight. Keys for x-ray control panels should be held by a responsible person when the equipment is not in use.
70
80
90
100
-:0 H.unc & t 1 O"NtHl
lssuc 6 UJItto. Ol
RS8-I

OTES
The wherenbouts of source records shoulrf be updated 10 an n dai/) bosi.t.
UNIT RS9 TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

The requi rements for the transport of radioactive substances, includ ing sealed sources, are documcnted in Regulation 29 of IRR 1999. The SI document entitled The Radioactive Matertal (Road Transport)Regulations 2002 (SI 1093), as the t itle suggests,deals wilh transportation by road. The tcrm transport as dcfined by IR.R 1999 encompasses transpon by road, rai i, sea or air or any other form oftransportation through a public place, including by hand. The employer causing or perrnitting transportation of a radioactive substance is responsible , as far as is reasonably praclicable, for ensuring that the correct reccptac le (container) and labcll ing is used. Containers must be locked during transportation although a radiation monitor shou ld be switched on in case of leakage. The veh.icle must be equipped with firefight ing appliances in case of accident.
30
20
SI l093 requirem ents

Ali carriers involvcd in the transportation of radioactive goods must estabhsh a radiation protection progranune which : a. takes into account the rneasures to be taken in respect of the magmtude and likelihood of exposure. adopts a structured and systematic approach.
40
b.
Carriers must also review the radiation protection programmes at suitable intervals (not exceeding 3 years) and, where necessary, revtse these. This programme must be made available to the Secretary of State upon written requcst.
50
The carrier must also provide the public, who would be in the arca of the carriage, inforrnation regarding the carriage and emcrgency measu res envisaged to alter, protect and assist in an emergency. This should include the responsible authority for implementing emergency measures.
Leakages
Carriers must ensure that leakage level.s on the externa! surface do not exceed:
60
a. b.
4 Bq/cm2 for beta and garruna emitters. 0.4 Bq/cm2 for alpha eminers.
Packaging
70
Type A packaging is used for sources with an activity up to a specificd value (A 1 (special forrn) or A 2 value) which is govcmed by the type ofradioisotope. Type 8 or C packaging is used for sources with an activity above a specified valuc (A 1 or A 2 value), i.e. activities greater than tbose authorised for that package design, or a radio-nuclide or physical fonn differenl from those authorised for that package design.
80
Sealcd sources more than 5 mrn in size (known as special form radioactive material) are normally used in industrial radiography, therefore the A , values which apply are as follows for some commonly used radioisotopcs:
90
Cobalt 60 Cacsium 137 lridium 192 Selemium 75 Ynerbium 169
0.4 TBq 2TBq 1 TBq 3TBq 4TBq
Marking, labcllin g and placa rding

100
Schedule 6 details thc rcquirements for marki.ng , labelling and placarding. Pl ac;t rds display ing the word "RADJOACTI VE" (fig. 2-6 in Schcdulc 14) are rcquired to be
c- lhJ "r &. T P o N U

h)UC: '
l.fiOlvl)
RS9-I
Ruane & 11 T P O'Neill

SOTES
UNIT RS9 TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

placed on both sides and on the rear of any vehicle used for transportat ion of packaged rad10active substances which have been labelled 1 -WHITE, li-YELLOW or IIIYELLOW (if the vehicle has no lateral walls, the signs may be fixcd directly to the cargo providing they are visible). This labei depends on the dose rate measured at the surface and at 1 m. The category of the package depends on thc dose rates at thc surfacc of the pflckage and is detemlliled from Table IV of Schedule 1 whilst taking into considerat1on a Transport Index calculated in accordance wi th Schedule 5.
20
10
for industrial radiography using sealed sources, the Transport Index would normally be determined by mcasuring the dose rate 10 mSv.h ' at 1 m from the externa! surface of the packa ge then multiplying by 100. The vehicle used for transport must also bear a frreproof placard, securely posted in the cab of the vehicle and it must be v isible to the driver. The placard must con tain embossed or stamped lettering with the word "RADIOACTIVE" at least 12 mrn high along with additional information in lettering at least 5 mm high. The size of the placa rd should be at least 12 cm square and be in the following form:
30
This vehicle is carrying

40
RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL In case of accident get in touch at once with THE POLICE and [Particulars of owner/operator of the vehiclc]
50
Transport documents
60
A consignor who is transporting radioact ive material must possess detailed transport documents complying with applicable regulations. If transporting radioactive materia l by road, SI 1093 requires at least the following in formation in accordance with Schedule 20 and Schedule 2 1 : a. Reference to SI 1093 (2002). b. Name, address and telephone number of consignor. c. Name and address of consignee. d. The proper shipping name as specified in column 2 of Table VIII in Schedule 1). c. The United National Class Number "7". f. The words "RADIOACTIVE MATERJAL". g. The name or symbol of thc radionuclide(s). h. . A description of the physical and chemical form of the mater ial. 1 . The maximum activity in Bq. j. The category of the package, i.e.l-WHITE. Il-YELLOW or III -YELLOW . k. The Transport Index if the category of the package is Il-YELLOW or IH-YELLOW. 1. A declaration signed by the consignor that ali contents arc accurately dcscribed in the transport documentation. m. . Any actions that are requi.red by the carricr. n. . Emergency arrangements appropriate to thc consignment. o. The UN number assigned to the material (column 1 of Table VIII, Schedule 1). p. The identification mark of each competent approval certificate applicable
70
IAEA = lntunationnl Atomic Energy Ag ancy.
80
90
100
-. RM:IItic-& l"I"O"Nt.ili
lhut C. !< 'Ub/0)
RS9-2
Ruane & Il TP O'Nei/1 1\0TES
UNIT RSIO APPOINTl\IENTS/RESPONSIBILITIES
RADIATI ON PROTECI'ION ADVISER (RPA)

10
AII companies using ionising radiations must appoint an RPA. His appointment must be notified to the Health & Safety Executive (HSE) 28 days prior to commencement date. The HSE will approve thc appointment in writing. The RPA must be qualified to advise the company on ali aspects of radiation hazards, safcty and protection. The RPA is not necessarily an employee.
20
Large companies or organisations may require more than one RPA .
Qualifications
Qualifications and experience should include:
30
40
a. Theoretical trainiog on the properties of ionising radiation, hazards and thc control of these to minimise exposure to ionising rad iation. b. A detailed knowledge of ali statutory provisions and documentation including keeping up to date oo the use of ionising radiation. c. A detailed understanding of the working pracrices of the company which he/she represents and a genera l knowledge of other similar working practices . d. The ability to communicate and provide deta iled instructions (Local Rules) and sound advice on aU aspects of radiation safety.
Typical duties
a. Provision or approva l of Local Rules and safety related working instructions. b. Provision or approval of detailed contingency plans. c. lnvestigation of incidents involving high doses of radiation and overexposure. d. The selection or approval of radiation protection supervisors (RPS). e. May be involved with training and other duties involved with ionising radiation.
50
RADIATION PROTECTION SUPERVISOR (RPS)

60
RPS's are employees of the company appointed in writ ing. TI1ere should be one RPS to each area of working or altematively one RPS to oversee ali radiographic areas but he/she cannot be involved in taking any of the exposures. The name and contact details of the RPS shou ld be posted in suitable areas and is an essential part of the Local Rules. The employer cannot delegate responsibility for compliance with the regulations to the RPS. The person(s) appointed should have a good understanding of the regulations and the local rules and have the authority to enforce them.
70
80
CLASSIFIED PERSON
Prior to working with radiation the JRR 1999 require a person to become classified by the employer. Persons must be classified if they may be required to enter a conrrolled area and if there is any likelihood that they may receive a dose of radiation which exceeds 3/ 1Oths of any dose limit. A person is requ ired to bc classified if the ionising radiauon uscd is capable of producing an overdose within a few minutcs. Classified workers must be trained m the use of ionising radiation apparatus and ali associated ancillary equipment. Tbey sh ould also be convcrsant with the Local Rules. An employee once classified wi ll be classificd for 12 months.
90
1oo
To become classified the person must be ovcr 18 years of agc and must be certified fit to wor k w ith ionising radiations by eithcr an cmploymcn t med i cal advisor (EMA) or an appointed doctor (AD) and so recorded in thc hcalth rccords.
tJ Rua nc: & T P O'N tiU htuc 6! tf06JO)
HSI0-1
Ruane & Il T P O'Neil/ OTES
UNIT RSlO APPOI1'4'Tl\IENTS /RESPONSIBILITIES

QUALIFIED PERSONS
Qualified persoos are used for thc purpose of testjng monjtoring equipment ; they must be formally trained and have the required expenise and experience to test and calibrate monitoring equipment . Qualified persons are normally employed by equipment manufacturers or specialist calibration organisations. Their appointment must bc notified to the HSE in a similar manner as for the RPA .
20
1O
30
40
50
60
7 0
so
90
100
RSI0-2

1\0TES
/}{R /999 Ref 17 -Local worlcing prnc tices.
10
UNIT RSll LOCAL RULES & CONTINGENCY PLANS

LOCALRULES
Local Rules are radiographic safety rules, typica lly produ ced in bookJet forrn, which apply to specific work locations. An employer must prov ide local rules with a content and format which leaves the radiographers in no doubt regarding the operation of radiographic equ1pmcnt and emergency procedures (contingency plans). Local Rules may differ considerably from one work location to another, e.g. the equipment being used may be diffcrent and the contact details for emergencies may differ. Thc RPA will normally be responsible for the produ ction ofthcse Local Rules and the RPS(s) are responsible for ovcrsceing thcir implcmentation. A copy of the rules should be kcpt at a centra l point but copies must be circulated to the employees involved. Note : The employer carries the responsibility for compliance with the regulations ; this cannot be delegated to RPA's or RPS's.
Some orgn isntions try to 20 bc nil ancompnssing with tha contenl of the Local Rufe.. thuefore sometimes it is only nece.uory 10 tfistrib111 e the relevant paris of the Local Hules to enrployee.s. 30
Conten t of Local Ru les

40
1. Names and contact details, e.g. telephooe numbers, ofRPA and/or RPS.
2. 3. 4.
50
Description ofhow controlled area(s) and supervised area{s) are designated. Procedures for setting up barriers (site radiography). Operating instructions or reference to them.
5. Arrangerneots for keeping doses ALARP. 6. Copies of signs and notices. 7. Contingeocy plans and use of any emergency equipment. 8. Reportinglrecording arrangemeots for adverse incidents involving radiation. 9. Accounting arrangements for radioa ctive materials. 60 10. Transport arrangements for radioactive materials. I l. Storage arrangements for radioactive materials. 12. Procedures for equipment handov ers. 13. Qualificationltraining of staff using Local Rules.
10
14. Dosirnetry arrangements for staff. 15. Monitoring arrangements and records. 16. Co-operation between the client and other employers.
80
CONTINGENCY PLANS
Every employer should have written emergency procedures to cover the action to be taken when an incident occurs with a sealed source or x-ray equipment. These contingency plans should be prepared by an RPA or by using advice from an RPA . Consult.ation may also be necessary with thc cmcrgency services and the contractor or client.
90
Regulation 25 (w) Assessmenr of Hazards states that employees must be provided with information, instruction, tra ining and equipment lo restrict exposure to ionising radiations. A copy of the contingency plan for a specific location must be induded in the Local Rules.
100
Rehearsals of contingency plans are required at suitablc intervals by IRR 1999 12(2)c.
t) R u2n r & T
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lo> suc- (, !.4/06!0J
RSll -1
Ruane & 11 T P O'Nei/1 OTES

National Arrangements for lncidents lnvolving Radioactivily (NAIR) may be involved if radiation accidents involve members of the public only at the request of the police and only after the HSE and NRPB have proved tobe unavailable .
10
TI1e emergency arrangements which can be implemented by the police, i.c. NAIR, should noi fonn any part oflhc conringency plan. The contingency plan should include: 1. The names of persons authorised to implcment the contingency plans.
20
2.
The names of persons responsble for radiation safety (RPA and RPS(s)).
Typica1 areas which also need 1 0 be covered are: 1. Situations in which work will cease immediately . 2.
JO
Positioning of barriers and waming signs.

10
3. Names and telephone numbers of the peop1e who need immediately , i.c. RPS, RPA and clenls. 4. Search procedure for lost sources. 5. Recovery procedures.
be inforrned
40
6. Action requ ired for a source involved in a fue or transport accident. 7. Arrangements for dose assessment ofpersons involved in any accident. 8. Evacuation procedure. 9. Prepara6on of the incident report.
Example contingency plan

50
The following contingency plan could be used for locating and making safe a sealed source which has been lost in the nearby vicinity, e.g. one which bas become detached from a guide tube. The mnemonic device MAPTRACK may bc used: M Measures the radiation with a dose ratemeter to determine levcls. Access tobe restricted, barriers and warning signs ;md lights to bc positioned to keep dose levels to 7.5 -t Sv.h' or lcss. Patrol barners (only persons involved in source recovery tobe allowed through). Plan a course of action prior to entering a controlled area, i.e. long haodled tongs, bags oflead shot. Tell the responsible site representative, e.g. sen ior cngineer, of occurrence and course of action proposed . Inform police if public are at risk and advise them on action to be taken. Rcplace, ifpossible, a deta ched source. Work as a tcam, each person to receive a minimal exposure (refer to table for Suurc:e Recovcl)'). Anenuate the radiation if the source cannot be replaccd using any masking material available . Check dose rates. Caii for help frorn RPA ,RPS and, if required , NRPB.
60
p 70 T
HO
A
c
K
90
Keep the barriers in position until assistance arrives and the problem ts solved.
100
RSII -2
Ruane & 11 TPO'Nei/1

OTES

Emergency kit for gamma source recovery typically consists ofthe following : a. b. c. d. Survey meter. Personal audible alarm. Handling tongs- 1 m and 2 m. Tool kit - pliers, hacksaw, screwdrivers etc.. Torch . 4 to 5 bags of lead shot - 2 kg each. Tripod. Guide tube. Storage pot - if not proprietary, improvise with any lc:ad lined container.
10
c.
f. g. h. i.
20
The following table cnables dose assessments to be determined. Source Recovery- Maximum times for exposure Reference levelsfor 10 mSv to the hands at 1 mfrom a source
30
Source
Activity (curies}
1
5
40
Ir192
50
Co60
10 20 50 100 1 2 5 10 20 50 100
Dose rate at 1m mSv 4.8 9.6 24 48 96 240 480 13.2 26.4 66 132 264 660 1320
Time allowed (mios} 120 60 25 12 6

2
1
46 23 9 4.6 2.3 0.9 0.4
60
Actions (sealed sources)

The following actions are required depcnding upon the type of incident. Remembe r that the detailed procedures should be documented in the contingency plans.
70
Lost source - If lost in the nearby vicinity the MAPTRACK procedure rnay be used by a person authorised by the employer (document ed in the contingency plans), otherwise, inform the employer immediately. The employer is to organise the search and infom1 the HSE if it is not found within 24 hours. A report will be required under the Radioactive Substances Act 1993. Stolen sourcc or source lost in transit - Infom1 the employer ami police irnmed iately. The employer to inform the HSE if it s not fou nd within 24 hours. A report will be required under the Radioactive Substances Act 1993.
80
Contiogency plans for x-ray uoits

Contingency plans for x-ray units must be in a wrinen format similar to thosc for sealed sources. TI1ey should cover a siruation when the x -ray unit is accidcntally switched on or is damaged and cannot be switched off. TI1ere is also the possibi lity of x-ray crawlers used on pipe lines to go missing inside the pipeline' 'tne requirement to isolate a faulty x-ray unit until rectificd by a propcrly qualificd person should be stTessed. !f an mcident occurs, the x-ray unit should not bc moved (ifpracticable) unt1l dcta Jls of ils position ha ve becn rccorded for the purposes of dose assessmcnt s.
90
\ 00
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l niU' (,
UJt.1610 \
HSII-3
Ruane & Il TP O'Neil/

OTES

The following mnemonic device may be used for incidents with x-ray tubes:
SLAT
10
s
L
A
Switch off the machine (by cutting off the power supply if this cannot be achieved from the control panel). Leave everything in position until scen by 1he RPA or R.PS. Ask any persons who may have been exposed to x-rays to remain until qucstioned by RPA or RPS otherwise obtain names, addresses and telephone numbers. Tell and inform any person or authority who has any responsibilities in connection with the occurrence, i.e. RPA , RPS, Eng1ncers, Police, NRPB.
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TPO'Nei/1
. NOTES
UNIT RS12 PERSONAL DOSIMETRY
CLASSIFICATION
10
The lonising Radiations Regulation s require a person to be classijied if they are likely to exceed 3/1Oths of any relevant dose Iimit. Anybody \\ ho is requircd to work in a controllcd area will fali into lhis category. In deciding whether a person should be classified, consideration should be given to the circumstances when lhere is a chance of that person receiving a significant tlosc of radiation.
20
There are special requirements for female employees where a dose of more than 13 mSv to the abdomen in any consecutive period of 3 months would rcquiu:: consultation with the RPA to control the exposure and ensure this level is not rcached. A classified person should be trained in lhe use ofthe ionising radiation equipment and generators, be conversant with a writ1en system of work and be aware of the dangcrs.
30
A medica l is required prior to a person srarting work involving ionising radiation (known as a pre-employment medical); this is performed by an appointed doctor (AD) or employment medical advisor (EMA). An AD is a registered medica l prac titioner appointed in writing by tbe HSE for the purposes ofthe Regulations.
40
An EMA is appointed under Section 56 of the Heallh & Safety at Work etc. Act 1974.
MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE
Medical surveillance includes the following:
so
a.
b.
c. d.
Pre-employment medical examinations. Special medical examinations. Periodic reviews of health. Determination whether further dose limit conditions are appropnate.
60
AII classified persons must have a record of medical surveillance; this is called a health record. Heallh records must be kept for 50 years after the last cntry was made. A form which is available from HMSO (Form 2067) is normally used as the proforma for the health record and this specifies the information to be recorded and maintained for the purposes of the Regulat ions. Medical examinations, which include a blood test, are conducted by the AD or EMA . lf the results of the examination are satisfactory, tbe AD or EMA will then certify the
70
person fit for working with ionising radiation.

The employer s responsible for ensuring that ali of his radiat ion workers are subjecr to adequate medical surveillance. This includes ensuring that the AD or EMA at least reviews the health record of each employee at no more than 12 monthly intervals or more frequently if required by the AD or EMA; this is known as a periodic review. AD's and EMA's have been strongly advised by the HSE to conduci medicals for site radiographers at least on an annual hasis . Thc judgcmcnt of thc EMA and AD may, allcr cxamination of dosc rccord s and au interview with the classified person, requcst a fui! medical exammaton, medtcal tests and exceptionally chromosome aberration tests.
80
90
lf the persoo changes cmployment they are still classified providing that they have bcen certifiedfit within the precedin g 12 months and that a copy ofthc certfcahon ts kept in the new health record.
100
Ruanc- &. T P ox ill

b c 6 l.t1 0(.,..J
RS12-l

NOTES
DOSE ASSESSMENTS
10
An Approved Dosimetry Service (ADS) must carry out the examination of dosemeters and determine thc dose received by the wearer . ne approved systcm gives maximum confidence of accurate assessments to accepted national standards . The ADS supply the dosemcters, assess the dose rcceived of ali significant amounts of radiation, keeps the person's dose rccords and u1fonns the empl oyer of doses with summaries at least once every 3 months.
20
The ADS will also include any estimatcd doses madc by the HSE in the case where a dosemet<a is Iust or desrroyed or wherc they believe the dose received is incorrect. Oosemeters may be of different typcs depending upon the natur e of the work; !hcy may be whole body dose meters or specially designed dosemcters for doses to thc hands etc.. Dosemete rs used by radiographers are whole body dosemeters.
30
The employer is responsible for distribution and collection of dosemeters and for arrangements with the ADS regard ing assessments. The employer must keep a copy of thc summary of the dose record from the ADS for at least 2 years. Dosemeters are changed in relation to the dose likely to bc receaved. lntervals of l montb are normal but shorter or longer periods may apply, i.e. a 3 month interval would only be appropriate where small doses are being asscssed. The dosemeter should be worn al ali times at work when there is a risk of sgnificant occupational exposure; the whole body dosemeter is wom outside the cloth ing between waist and neck.
40
50
TIIE ALARP PRINCIPLE

ReguJation 6.1 states tbat every employer shall '...take al/ necessary steps ro restrict so far as reasonably practicable the extent that persons are exposed ro ionising radiation.'
60
The ideal is tbat the dose received, even by radiation workers, should be zero. When this is not pract icable, then the dose should be kept as low as i reasonably practicable (A LARP). It is possible to place a 50 rnm thick lead box around thc radiation source and the test item to totally restrict exposure but it is not practicabl e to do so
70
EXPOSURE/OVEREXPOSURE INVESTIGA TIONS

The IRR \999 Regula tions requires tbe employer to set a dose limit. Th1s limit may be whatever the employer wishes it tobe but must not be more than 15 mSv. lf this level is exceeded for the fust time in any calenda r year, then the cmployer shall carry out an investigation immedia tely. The dose level must be written into the Local Rules.
8 0
The investigation should be exhaustive and produce a detailed report containing known facts, probabiliti cs and possib! ties rclating to tc::<tsums for the high dose. Rccords of the investigation should be kept for 2 years. Wben an individua l receives radiat ion exceed ing any applicable dose limit, the individual is deemed to havc received an overexposure.
90
When the employer of radiation workers suspects that an overcxposurc has been received by any person, an immcdiate investigation must be undertaken to tktermine whether this is a possibility . l11is applies to smgle incident s and to situations wh cre an individual's accumulat ive dose ex.ceeds any appl icable dose Ii m it.
100
RSI2-2

OTES

Unless the investigation reveals beyond reasonable doubt that an overexposure has not occurred, the following must be informcd:
10
a. b. c.
The Health & Safety Executive. The employer of the pcrson who has received an overdose (or suspected to ha ve received an overdosc). The EMA or AD as applicablc.
A detailed investigation must then be instigated by the employer and the results sent to the aforementioned and to the person suspected of receiving the ovcrexposu re. 20 Exposures received during medical examinations are not considcred. Any person involved with an overexposu re can continue to work in accordance w ith any cond itions imposed by the EMA or AD.
JO
THE IONISING RADIATION (OUTSIDE WORKERS) REGULATIONS

The Ionising Radiation (Outside Workers) Regulations: 1993 SI No. 2379 supplement the IRR 1999 and are intended to strengthen the radiation protection arrangements for periparetic workers who work in aoother organisation's controlled area.
'Pertpate/lc means gomg 40 (rom place to place.
These Regulations provide an extension to the lRR 1999 for Outside Workers (peripatetic radiation workers) working in other EC member states. The main requirements of these regulations are as follows:
l. To exchange information between the outside worker's employer and the operator
(site occupier) of the work site with respect to controlled areas before work conunences.
50
2. For estimation of doses received by Outside Workers working on the operator's site to be roade. 3. For aU Outside Workers to holda Radia/ion Passbook
Radiation Passbook
60
This book contains personal details, estimated dose records, work locations and date of medical reviews. A representative of the company where the work is performed must enter and sign the dose assessment s. The passbook is a small book (usually yellow) with the title and serial numbcr on the front cover. Notes are included to assist with the entry of records.
70
Section 1 is completed by the ADS and includes the name, address, teleph one number and fax number of the company; this page also includes and the ADS deta ils. Section 2 contains the personal details of the pcrson to whom to book has becn issued. Scction 3 is completed to confliffi thc datcs of medical reviews and is completed by an authorised p erson of the site operator. Section 4 confirms cumulative dose assessments for the calendar year and is completed by an authorised person of the site operator. Section 5 records the estimated doses rcceived during activities n the operators' controlled area(s). This information is entercd by the authorised person of lhe Site operator.
80

90
100
I.:O u 6 Z.J.! U61G . l
RSJ2-3
Ruane & 11
T P O'Neill OTES
UNIT RSI2 PERSONAL DOSil\fETRY
PERSONAL DOSIMETRY RECORDS

1.
10
Dose records must be kept by an ADS for 50 years from the date of tht: last entry . It is the employer's responsibility to ensure that these records are kept.
2. Thc health record of each indiv1dual must be kept for at lcast 50 ycar s. It is the employer's responsibility to ensure that these record s are kcpt. 3.
20
Exposure invest igation records must be kept for at least 2 years by the employer.
4. A copy of any overexposure investigation records must be kept by the employ er for at least 50 years.
30
4 0
50
60
70
80
90
!()()
.) Ru..nt & 1 r O'Ndlt 1uu. b U.'ut..'\11
R S12-4
APPENDIX A RADIATION SAFETY RELATED CONTACTS

Health & Safcty Executive Level6 North Wing Rose Court 2 Southwark Bridge London
OTES
10
SEt 9HS
Tel: 0207 717 6848 Fax: 0207 7 17 6681
20
30
National Radiologica1 Protection Board Chilton Didcot Oxon OXII ORQ Tel: 01235 831600 Fax: 01235 833891
40
AEA Technology pic
528.10
Un it 1
Hatwell
Didcot
Oxfordshire OXII ORA

50
Tel: 01235 821111
60
ICRU Publications 791O Wooclmont Avenu e Suite 800 Bethesda MD 208 14-3095
USA
Tel: {301) 657 2652 Fax: (30 1) 907 8768
7 0
80
!JO
100
iit' H.u2nc & 1 r O"Ndll
A-l

NOTE S
APPENDIX 8 NORMATIVE DOCUMENTS

1. Legislation a. The Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999: SI 3232. b. The Ionising Radiations (Outside Workers) Regulations 1993 : SI 2379. c. The Radioactive Substances Act 1993. d. The Radioactive Material (Road Transport) (Great Britain) Regula tions 1 996 : SI 1350. e. Safety Signs Regulations : 1980: SI 1471. 2. Approved Codes of Practice a. Work with ionising radiation. Approved Code of Practice {ACOP). A Health & Safety Commission (HSC) publication. b. Dose Limitation- restriction of exposure. HSE Booklct L7. c. Prott:ction of outside workers against ionising radiations. HSE Book!ct L49.
10
20
30
3.
40
Other publications a. A framework for the restriction of occupationa l exposure to ionising radiation. H(G) 91. An HSE publication . b. Radiation safety for site radiography. Published by Engineering Construction Industry Association. ISBN O 903393 86 7. c. The Radiation Protection Advisor. Leaflet published in May and October each year by HSE. d. ICRU Reports.
50
6 0
4. British Standards a. BS 35 1O : 1968 (ISO 361-1975) : Basic symbol to denote the actua l or potential presence of ionising radiation. b. BS 4094 : (2 parts) : Recommendation for data on shielding from ionismg radiation . c. BS 4727 : Part 5 : Group 01 : 1985 : Radiology and radiological physics terminology . d. BS 5378 :(3 parts) :Safety signs and colours. e. BS 5650 : 1978 (ISO 3999-1977) :Apparatus for gamma radiography .
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Ruaa & T P O'Ntill
R-1

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RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION

Ruane & Il T P O'Neill

Ruane & 11 T P O'Nei/1

UNIT RSl BASIC PHYSICS

ru les .......................... ........................................................................................................... RS 1 1-1

Contingency plans ........................................................................... .......................................... RS 1 l- 1

PERSONAL DOSIMETRY .................................................................................................................. RS12

lRuar.t" S:. T P O"NdJI

Ruane & 1/ T P O'Nei/1

Ruane & Il T P O'Nei/1 OTES .

UNIT RSl BASIC PHYSICS

Act1v11y IS n term which re1ates to the number of disintegrotions per 11nit

Natural occurring radionuclides

in becqucrels (Bq) or Curies (C1). Radwm prorluces ratfon

Isotope Co60 Cs137 Irl92 Th170 Yt169 Se75

Steel thickness 50 -200mm 25 - IOOmm 6 - 90 nun up to 12 mm up to 17 mm 2-70 mm

To convert R/h!Ci to pSvl/vGBq. d1vitfe by 37 then multrply by 10.000.

Ruane & Il T P O'Neil/ NOTES

UNIT RSI BASIC PHYSICS

are thrcc isotopes

commonly referred to as carbon 12,

c + 20 = co2 - carbon dioxide

When molecules bond together, the resultant substance is known as a compozmd.

Ruane & 11 T P O'Nei/1 OTES

UNIT RSl BASIC PHYSICS

"'Ru:.n & T P O"NciU

UNIT RSl BASIC PHYSICS

Corpuscular (particulate) radiation

.... ;Ru:tn , T P O'f\ c1U h"ut 6 l..t/DGIO \

UNIT RSl BASIC PHYSICS

1 gigabecquerel == 10"becquerels. 37 gigabecquerels

Ternbecquere/s m11 y be :ncountered. Tern - 1O"

nc & T J" oN.,iU

Ruane & Il T P O'Neil/

UNIT RSlA ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING

E je cte d electron (-)

.... Scattered radiation

0 5 MeV """-- 0. 5MeV

Ejected electmn (-)

Ruane & Il T P O'Nei/1

UNIT RSlA ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING

through materia ls nntaining elcments ofhigh atomjc number.

E jec!ed electron (-)

Ruane & Il TP O'Nei/1

UNIT RS2 RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPl\fENT

Classification and types of exposure container

UNIT RS2 RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPl\IENT

Shutter type (Category 1 type to BS 5650)

Rotating type (Category 1 type to BS 5650)

.J Ku: ml(' & T l" O'Nt:iH

Ruane & Il T P O'Nei/1

UNIT RS2 RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT

-----shieldmg material sealed source Projection type

4. BS 5650 (ISO 3999).

Ruane & Il T P O'Nei/1

UNIT RS2 RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPl\iENT

IAEA =International Atomic Energy Agency .

) kunC" .'<r. T P O'NI."iJI l. uuc: 6 l4.10-6idJ

Ruane & Il T P O'Nei/1 !'OOTES

UNIT RS2 RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPl\IENT

Tbe x-ray equipment control panel

To J raJ t ,J,e (20 m mitri,..u:m cabl lLn tlr}

"' Ru11n (' ..

Ruane & 11 T P O'Nei/1