ABSTRACT

This paper has been inspired by Dr. Don Robothams work on volunteerism in Jamaica and notably its decline. Dr. Robotham in his presentation noted the apparent difficulty in defining volunteerism and how it would be envisioned in this period of

decline. This paper therefore seeks to conceptualise

THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO

volunteerism through the perspectives of communitarianism, liberalism and utilitarianism. In mitigating the decline, an approach at engineering volunteerism in the Caribbean is proposed through a usage of the approaches.

CONCEPTUALISING
VOLUNTEERISM
Mediating the decline through compromise

Carlos Applewhaite 620069334

GT64A Democracy 1

Introduction
As disillusionment of political systems progresses and citizens question the efficacy of representative democracy, the concept of participatory democracy will come to the fore. However, how willing are citizens to actively participate in their own affairs. What type of citizen is needed for entrenched local democracy and subsequently effective local government? In a homogenous society finding the ideal citizens for civic action will present little to no challenge. However the Caribbean presents itself as a society that has not once been seen as homogenous, it has in fact been theorised as plural, class stratified and creole societies. As a cultural tower of Babel, according to Rex Nettleford, the region has been influenced by a myriad of ideologies and belief systems that have become ingrained in the modern Caribbean-the African Ubuntu tradition, western liberal welfare and Indian panchayati. These varying traditions of community existence have co-existed to make the Caribbean a unique region. A concurrent theme from each of these traditions is that of volunteerism, which can be simply defined as a basic expression of human relationships. It is about peoples needs to participate in their society and to feel that they matter to others (UNV, 2011). The aspect of participation is key to understanding the role of volunteerism in effective local democracy and community development. However as the spread of free market capitalism continues globally, altering not only national agendas but also community formation, social scientists question whether there is a decline in volunteerism as Robotham notes the spirit of the times has changed and that the time in which we live, is inhospitable to volunteerism (Robotham, 1998). Buddan also notes that post World War II there were a plethora of changes in the socio cultural composition of the region, he

identifies 15 changes, notably the rampant individualism that have weakened family and community bonds and the traditional mechanisms of social control such as parenting, religion and collective values (Buddan, 2001, p. 52). This adds a historical dimension to the possible decline in volunteerism. So how does one retool volunteerism for this postmodern globalised world? It therefore becomes necessary to reconceptualise volunteerism in local democracy. The concept of volunteerism however, like any other in social sciences is difficult to define and conceptualise. Therefore to aid in this conceptualisation it is necessary to view it through differing theoretical frameworks in order to understand its role in community development, local government and local democracy. It is therefore the aim of this researcher to analyse volunteerism in these three areas through the lenses of liberalism, communitarianism and utilitarianism. Therefore answering what is volunteerism, and how does it impact community development, local democracy and local government in Jamaica? As community is also a concept with contending definitions for purposes of this paper, community will be conceptualised in two ways. The realist approach of the similarities and interactions of people in a given space. Along with the idealists way of identifying elements of shared patterns of thought, norms, values and meanings (Brown, 2006, p. 17) The paper will approach a brief history of community development and local government in the Caribbean. Along with an introduction of the theoretical approaches and how volunteerism is understood through each lens. As a region in search of its own space for development, and ideology, the preferred lens for applying volunteerism to the Jamaican perspective will be posited.

The place for volunteerism in local democracy, local government and community development
The aim of effective local government is invariably community development. Community development being the creation of improved social and economic conditions through emphasis on voluntary cooperation and self-help efforts of the communities. (Nikkhah & Redzuan, 2009, p. 170). As such, volunteerism presents itself as the foundation of community development. With local government in the Caribbean being associated strongly with community development, the level of voluntary activity is a key factor. Though not covered by specific legislation, the vision of Jamaicas Ministry of Local Government and Community Development (MGLCD) is promoting community involvement, family participation and self-reliance to eliminate the dependence on government welfare programmes1 This specific method of the MGLCD emphasises a bottom up approach to community development, where central government acts as a facilitator for the on the ground activities. In order for there to be grass roots activities, there must be some social capital and invariably active volunteerism. Robothams claims that volunteerism in Jamaica is in decline therefore makes the task of the MGLCD more challenging as it attempts to formalise local democracy through entrenched local government. The specific theory to defining volunteerism will therefore impact the approach of the MGLCD and any other local government agency in building social capital.

Taken from the vision of the Ministy of Local Government and Community Development. The full vision states We envision that the clients population be fully rehabilitated or in receipt of proper care and protection by: 1. Ensuring that service providers deliver maximum performance and assistance. 2. Ensuring the enforcement of family support/maintenance Laws and Policies governing the System. 3. Promoting community involvement, family participation and self-reliance to eliminate dependency on government welfare programmes. 4. Ensuring the provision of shelter care, protection and rehabilitation for all street people/homeless persons. http://www.localgovjamaica.gov.jm/bos.aspx?c=vision

The sequence of events is illustrated in figure 1 below. To further frame this relationship, it is necessary to trace the development of local government in line with local democracy and community development. Thus affording the opportunity to trace the apparent decline in social capital over time.

Volunteerism in Early Caribbean History

Volunteerism has existed in the Caribbean since the islands were colonised by the British, from the early 17th century and the introduction of Western Africans as labourers on slave plantations. The African sense of community which is evident in the Ubuntu tradition as (Letseka, 2012) notes motho ke motho ka botho (in Sotho languages) and umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu (in Nguni languages) which in English is translated as a human being is a human being because of other human beings. Despite the practice of separating slaves from different tribes and clans the sense of community remained. This sense of community as Robotham notes was greatly influenced by the religious beliefs which maintained a social order. For volunteerism to thrive in such a society where communal values and a notion of collective responsibility were so organic, helping neighbours and strangers was a natural way of life. Another great influence on the creole societies is also that of the Indian indentured labourer brought to the Caribbean post emancipation. Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago have the largest Indo-Caribbean populations with Trinidad being 35.43per cent East Indian descendants2, in Guyana this stands at 43.5per cent (the majority)3. These countries due to their size also have differing levels of local government which is relevant due to the system of panchayati,
Taken from the Trinidad and Tobago 2011 Population and Housing Census Demographic Report, pg. 15 http://www.cso.gov.tt/sites/default/files/content/images/census/TRINIDAD%20AND%20TOBAGO%202011%20D emographic%20Report.pdf 3 Taken from the 2002 Population and Housing Census Guyana National Report, http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/census.html
2

originating from Asia. There have in fact been recent calls for a return to this form of local government as a solution to the crime problem (Ramnarine, 2011). The above traditions have further been supplemented by the European welfare tradition, which was responsible for the work of many missionaries in the distribution of land post emancipation. The work of the Baptists such as Wiliam Knibb presented a confrontation to the exploitation practised by the colonial elite. This welfare tradition continued into the twentieth century in the development of a Caribbean civil society. Brief history of local government Out of these traditions of local democracy has been the development of local government. Presently six Caribbean territories The Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad- have elected local government. Barbuda, Nevis and Tobago are administered by local government authorities and Antigua, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines have informal non-elected local government systems. (Ragoonath, 2002). Local government is no new concept to the Caribbean, even for those territories who have no recognisable system currently. Barbados had been divided into 6 parishes by its Governor, Sir William Tufton in 1629. While Jamaica in 1644, Deputy Governor Sir Charles Lyttleton passed an Ordinance which created the first 7 parishes. The Anglican Church played an important role in the management of these parishes, as the vestry acted as the authority. The vestry constituted the parish rector, the church warden the local justices and elected members. The franchise was determined for example in Manchester in Jamaica by a salary of 160 or 10 slaves. These vestries managed the church maintenance and roads, along with minimal relief for the poor. (Singh, 1972, p. 3)

The main priority of this vestry system was the maintenance of roads, relief for the poor and any other community development was non-existent. Notably, community development was not a purpose of the early colonising mission, as it deterred from extraction of wealth. Post emancipation, local government became the most accessible form of political participation for small property holders. As stated earlier, with the help of missionaries many former slaves were able to acquire land and meet the requirement for the vestry elections. After more blacks reached the franchise requirement, the plantocracy instituted changes to stifle this development. The struggles for proper representation had thus begun in the Caribbean, which Robotham notes was one of the peak periods of volunteerism in Jamaica. The Baptists having worked on the Free Village movement had, served to undermine the plantation system in the larger islands. The plantocracy responded with the Ejectment Act and the Trespass act, which were imposed to tether the former slaves to menial contract work on the plantation (Singh, 1972, p. 12). The struggle for efficient representation and local democracy culminated in the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica in 1865 due to agitation from Magistrate George William Gordon and gross discontent of parishioners. The system of Crown Colony Government was subsequently established across the Caribbean. Local government continued to be oligarchical until following World War II when some reforms were made, notably the introduction of Universal Adult Suffrage. At this stage, the ambit of duties had grown. Nonetheless post-independence, local government evolved into a political football. The development of partisan politics served as a threat to the effectiveness of local government, as real decentralisation was not evident. The apparent fall in the relevance of local government can be connected to the posited decline in volunteerism, though for differing reasons. 6

Communitarianism as a tool for developing volunteerism Communitarianism has presented itself as one of the new alternative theories to challenge the dominance of the traditional behavioural theories, specifically that of the realist and liberals. The rationalistic world seen through the perspective of liberals has emphasised the importance of the individual. Human beings are perceived as self-obsessed, and self-maximising, with little interest in the success or failure of others. (Wagner, 1995) This overemphasis on the self contradicts any attempts at creating a common identity. What it does is reinforce the idea of community as a fictitious body composed of individuals. Wagner however has proposed a reconceptualization of the individual as person in community as opposed to homo economicus. This new type of citizen which is a willing participant in the community, has as its main interest or motive the development of the community. Robotham in his attempt to define volunteerism places strong emphasis on the motive of the individual, whether it be simply to participate in community life or to help others. This approach to defining volunteerism therefore is dependent on the altruistic nature of the individual. Altruism however as Robotham contends, is finite, individuals are normally incapable of acting under altruistic tendencies for a prolonged period of time. Nonetheless the communitarian approach of the person in the community negates this. The individuals motive will be governed by the will to help in the society. The liberal counter to this however is that altruism does not exist, the individual gives for the pleasure obtained from the act of giving. This then The person in community approach is a by-product of (Etzioni, 1988) and the I&We paradigm or the responsive community. Etzioni proposed a new moral dimension, which placed the individual as empathetic and responsive to the needs of others, as opposed to rational and

self-serving. Individuals are aware of the importance of the self, I, however this is not the final unit of analysis there is the collective, We. Thus communitarians seek to enforce the association of the individual and the community in the I&We. Etzioni according to (Watson, 1999) is the leader of the communitarianism movement. In order to adapt for the myopic and amoral shortcomings of the traditional neoclassical paradigm which used the rational choice theory to explain individual behaviour, Etzioni presented a new paradigm. The responsive community paradigm seeks to fall in between the authoritarian community and the sum of aggregates of self-maximising individuals. The authoritarian community being the hierarchical and structured environment that imposes values on individuals. (Etzioni, 1988) The new labour approach to communitarianism, though influenced by Etzioni was much broader in its scope, as it showed the multi-dimensional and multi-level nature of communitarianism. According to (Driver & Martell, 1997) the three levels-sociological, ethical and meta-ethical- represent a clear departure from the traditional focus on the individual. It further develops into a multi-dimensional approach-pluralist to conformist, more to less conditional, progressive or conservative, prescriptive or voluntary, moral or socioeconomic and individual or corporate. These dimensions serve to allow for the application of communitarianism in every form of society making the approach flexible. With this said, how then does one define and manufacture volunteerism based on communitarian principles. By taking into context the community as the unit of analysis and individual altruism, volunteerism in the communitarian sense is any act conducted by an individual with the purpose of assisting in the improvement of his or her community without coercion or tangible reward. 8

The weakness of communitarianism as a new approach however is its omission of the type of community it seeks to place the individual within, whether it be the geographical or the ideological. In later works Etzioni elaborates on how community ought to be viewed and emphasises the traditional homogenous community that has been eroded as a result of modernisation. However Watson in his critique of communitarianism is correct in noting its need for development as there are points of ambiguity. The application of this approach in public policy has profound implications as it attempts to reverse years of moral decline. It has in fact been used by New Labour in the United Kingdom as a response to the Thatcher years, where societal development was undermined for the advancement of the liberal free market economy. Neoclassical or Liberal approach The discussion has so far been critical of the liberal approach to analysing individual behaviour. However as a theory it has more than a modicum of support from a variety of thinkers. The individual as the unit of analysis is noted in the liberal philosophy as far back as Adam Smith (Smith) who notes after himself, the members of his own family, those who usually live in the same house with him, his parents, his children, his brothers and sisters, are naturally the objects of his warmest affections. They are naturally and usually the persons upon whose happiness or misery his conduct must have the greatest influence The individuals decision is fundamentally rooted in the self. However Smith according to (Butler, 2011) did make provisions for actions of self-sacrifice, which ought to be made in fundamentally beneficial purposes. These acts of self-sacrifice can be attributed to voluntary acts, which would normally fall outside the individuals objects of warmest affections. The liberal approach like that of the newer communitarianism was developed as a critique; of the authoritarian state form, governed by the church and the state. The social contract 9

had allowed society to emerge from the traditional form to one where liberties were sacrificed for social order, the problem however arose as leaders became invested with a sacrosanct authority. It espoused nine principles of liberty-civil, fiscal, personal, social, economic, domestic, local racial and national, international and political liberty. (Hobhouse) The liberalism espoused by Mill was greatly influenced by the utilitarian tradition and as such sought to pursue individual actions which produced happiness. This liberty however is limited as mans actions ought not to molest others. Liberalism like communitarianism in its opposition to an authoritarian society places the individual outside of the authoritarian sense of community, he who lets the world, or his own portion of it, choose his plan of life for him, has no need of any other faculty than the ape like function of imitation (Mill) Despite using the individual as the unit of analysis Mill notes that the theory is not one of selfishness, which only seeks to confine the individual to acts that concern his own well being it would be a great misunderstanding of this doctrine, to suppose that it is one of selfish indifference, which pretends that human beings have no interest in each others conduct in life (Mill, p. 142). What it does portend however is that it should always be the choice of the individual what actions he chooses to pursue. Within this context, the form of community development which (Nikkhah & Redzuan, 2009) noted as top down would be inapplicable to a liberal society. It would deny the individual the voluntary right to participate in community development, as government directed activity would impede the rights of the individual. Therefore, from the liberal perspective the only option for community development is one which is bottom up, where the individual makes the choice of whether he wants to participate and how he ought to participate.

10

Volunteerism therefore from the liberal approach brings to the fore the professional volunteers which Robotham alluded to. These individuals who volunteer as a self-sacrifice, but also are seeking the gratification and reward of the act of volunteerism. Today this is espoused in the numerous young people who, unable to obtain jobs volunteer for the experience, the ability to have work experience, to fill a curriculum vitae. Or for those who seek the popularity attached to volunteering-helping with a sports team or feeding the homeless. The act therefore becomes one of egoism. This egoism motive thus juxtaposes the altruist motive of the person in community ethos. (Eckstein, 2001) notes that compassion is inherent in the volunteerism practised in America, this compassion is focussed on the individual and does not allow for any lasting relationship with the individual being served. The traditional liberals according to Etzioni have come to regard the act of giving as one that is still utility maximising, as the individual does it for the pleasure. He notes those who seek to give gifts are said to receive reciprocal gifts, reputation, status approval or some other goods the doer desires (Etzioni, 1988) Conceptualising a definition for volunteerism based on liberalism, one must begin with the individual as a unit of analysis, who is capable of actions of self-sacrifice, as long as these actions are conducted of the individuals volition and not through coercion. Therefore volunteerism from a liberal approach can be posited as any self-sacrificing act conducted by an individual for the purpose of developing the community and serving the individuals interest without tangible reward. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism as the antecedent to the liberal philosophy interprets individual behaviour as contingent on pain and pleasure. Bentham is explicit in his account of the principle of utility as that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the 11

tendency it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question (Bentham). The motives of an individuals actions are determined by the outcome of these actions and whether they produce pleasure or pain. Bentham sees the community as the fictitious body, composed of the individual persons who are considered as constituting as it were, its members (Bentham). Any action taken for the community must therefore be contemplated within the interest of the individual. As long as the action adds to the sum total of individual pleasures or to the reduction of his pains, this can thus be taken by the community. It is on this point that the communitarians criticise the utilitarian approach. The utilitarian principle however simply seeks to protect the individual from experiencing pain, or that which is not pleasure. Utilitarianism as an approach to defining volunteerism is more appropriate in its recognition of the greatest happiness principle, which sees the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong (Burns, 2005). This phrase has been adapted by many and distorted, however its universalist appeal is not lost. Despite Benthams individualist notion of community, the greatest happiness principle is much more than an individualist approach, as Bentham applied it to the appropriate administration of government. Thus when one considers volunteerism and an act of volunteerism to result in the greatest happiness for the greatest number it is in fact a highly idealistic approach. This idealism does not find its place in the rational world that sees this as impossible. Nonetheless there is potential for developing utilitarianism as a political philosophy which influences public policy. It requires a top down approach as its main focus is on the administration of government and thus informs greatly the discussion on community development and local government. However in the bottom

12

up approach to community development which emphasises participation, the utilitarian principle becomes incongruous. Nonetheless an approach to the definition of volunteerism based on the utilitarian principles can be conceptualised. An act conducted by an individual for the purpose of helping another, so long as it causes the individual pleasure without receipt of some tangible reward. Application of the theories Given the definitions proffered under the differing theories, the applicable approach to the challenge facing local democracy in the Caribbean can be conceived. Robotham has noted the decline of volunteerism, as synonymous with the decline of the morals and values of society. He indicates that the diminution of the traditional morals in Jamaica would require a national initiative to reclaim this lost character of society. It has been the expression mission of many Caribbean governments to reengineer the idealist notion of community in respective countries. This is evident as there is a department or ministry of every Caribbean territory with a mandate of community development. As noted earlier, community development cannot occur without the participation of citizens. The discussion has shown how this participation must be voluntary and bottom up for there to be empowerment of citizens. However for local government to be effective, the voluntary spirit needs to be rekindled, it therefore becomes the role of the state to act as facilitator and engineer. The radical path of changing a societys value system would be to instigate a revolution and embark on a mission of developing national identity and community development. However this approach has great limitations in its overtly coercive action. Using the behavioural theories it 13

is evident that in engendering volunteerism it must recognise the liberties of the individual. Therefore any action, though adopted from the state must not be overtly coercive. Governments role in achieving the greatest happiness for the greatest number is paramount. Communitarianism alone presents a weakness in its ability to influence public policy, this was evident in the new labour version of communitarianism adopted in the United Kingdom which espoused some liberal principles. Therefore there must be some reconciliation in Caribbean society as states affected by the international decline of values through rapid urbanisation. The approach of manufacturing volunteerism therefore in communities, schools and public groups can therefore be conceived from the three definitions posited with great compromise. Volunteerism therefore must recognise that the individual seeks to maximise pleasure in all his actions, however as a person in community, actions conducted for the development of the entire group can be in the interest of the individual. Therefore the motives of an individuals actions are irrelevant as long as they are not disingenuous. The ideological battle between egoism and altruism is superfluous in achieving the goal of local democracy.

Conclusion The above discussion has highlighted the importance of volunteerism in the narrative of local democracy, local government and community development. Through a brief historical analysis, the experience of local government in the Caribbean pre independence has been

14

expounded. The theoretical approaches of communitarianism, liberalism and utilitarianism have been expanded, using the classical definitions to understand the approaches. Volunteerism has therefore been defined according to the communitarian approach as any act conducted by an individual with the purpose of assisting in the improvement of his or her community without coercion or tangible reward. According to the principles of liberalism as any self-sacrificing act conducted by an individual for the purpose of developing the community and serving the individuals interest without tangible reward. Finally the utilitarian approach garnered volunteerism as an act conducted by an individual for the purpose of helping another, so long as it causes the individual pleasure without receipt of some tangible reward. Tackling the decline of volunteerism therefore requires a compromise of all these approaches, as relegating any of them would render the attempt superfluous. Volunteerism as a form of civic participation in the 21st century, exposed to polemic views is an action by an individual in a community which requires some self-sacrifice to assist in the development of another so long as this action does not lead to an absence of pleasure.

Bibliography
Bentham, J. (n.d.). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Retrieved from Utilitarian Resources: http://www.utilitarianism.com/jeremy-bentham/index.html#one

15

Brown, D. (2006). The Historical and the Sociological Basis of the Concept of Community in the Caribbean Context. In Y. Breton (Ed.), Coastal Resource Management in the Wider Caribbean: Resilience, Adaptation and Community Diversity. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers. Buddan, R. (2001). Foundations of Caribbean Politics. Kingston: Arawak Publications . Burns, J. (2005). Happiness and Utility: Jeremy Bentham's Equation. Utilitas, 17(1), 46-61. Butler, E. (2011). The Condensed Wealth of Nations and the Incredibly Condensed Theory of Moral Sentiments. London: ASI Research Ltd. Driver, S., & Martell, L. (1997). New Labour's Communitarianism. Critical Social Policy, 17(52), 27-46. Eckstein, S. (2001). Community as Gift Giving: Collectivistic Roots of Volunteerism. American Sociological Review, 66(6), 829-851. Etzioni, A. (1988). The Moral Dimension; Towards a New Economics. Retrieved from Ebookoid.com. Hobhouse, L. T. (n.d.). Liberalism. Retrieved from Project Gutenberg: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28278/28278-h/28278-h.htm#Page_19 Letseka, M. (2012). In Defence of Ubuntu. Studies in Philosphy and Education, 31(1), 47-60. Mill, J. S. (n.d.). On Liberty. Retrieved from Project Gutenberg: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34901/34901-h/34901-h.htm#Page_103 Nikkhah, H. A., & Redzuan, M. (2009). Participation as a medium of empowerment in community development. European Journal of Social Sciences, 11(1), 17-176. Ragoonath, B. (2002). Challenges for Local Governemnt in the Caribbean. In S. Ryan, & A. M. Bissessar (Eds.), Governance in the Caribbean (pp. 74-88). St. Augustine: SALISES.

16

Ramnarine, K. (2011, February 6). Ravi Ji: Bring back Panchayat System. Retrieved from Trinidad Express: http://www.trinidadexpress.com/news/Ravi_Ji__Bring_back_Panchayat_system115416079.html Robotham, D. (1998). Vision and Voluntarism: Reviving Voluntarism in Jamaica. Grace Kennedy Foundation Lecture. Kingston. Singh, P. G. (1972). Local Democracy in the Commonwealth Caribbean. London: Longman Group Limited. Smith, A. (n.d.). The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Retrieved from Ibiblio - The Public's Library and Digital Marketplace: http://www.ibiblio.org/ml/libri/s/SmithA_MoralSentiments_p.pdf UNV. (2011). State of the World's Volunteerism Report. Bonn: United Nations Volunteers. Wagner, A. (1995). Communitarianism: A New Paradigm of Socioeconomic Analysis. Journal of SocioEconomics, 24(4), 593-605. Watson, B. C. (1999). Liberal Communitarianism as Political Theory. Perspectives on Political Science, 28(4), 211-217.

17