Preferred Citation: Gilman, Sander L., Helen King, Roy Porter, G. S.

Rousseau, and Elaine Showalter Hysteria Beyond Freud. Ber eley: !ni"ersity of California Press, #$%%& $%%&. htt':((ar .#dli).org(ar :($&*&*(ft*'&**&d&(

Hysteria Beyond Freud

Sander L. Gilman Helen King Roy Porter G. S. Rousseau Elaine Showalter
UNI ERSI!" #F $%LIF#RNI% PRESS

Berkeley Los Angeles Oxford

& '(() !he Regents o* the Uni+ersity o* $ali*ornia

Preferred Citation: Gilman, Sander L., Helen King, Roy Porter, G. S. Rousseau, and Elaine Showalter Hysteria Beyond Freud. Ber eley: !ni"ersity of California Press, #$%%& $%%&. htt':((ar .#dli).org(ar :($&*&*(ft*'&**&d&(

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IN!R#,U$!I#N!HE ,ES!INIES #F H"S!ERI%

Hysteria, it is often said, has disa''eared this #entury, its 'ro)lems sol"ed )y ,reud, or its in"estigation dis#redited )y the anti#s of Char#ot. -nd a##om'anying its alleged disa''earan#e there has )een a de#lining interest in its history among most historians. .et hysteria was e/traordinarily 'rominent in nineteenth0#entury medi#ine and #ulture.1$2 3t 'osed in dire#t and 'ersonal form the ey 4uestions of gender and mind()ody relations, and, as Henri Ellen)erger has shown in his Discovery of the Unconscious , it formed the s'ring)oard for the dis#o"ery of the un#ons#ious in 'sy#hoanalysis.152 3n this light, it is odd that only two full0length s#holarly sur"eys of its history ha"e )een 'u)lished within the last half #entury: 3l6a 7eith8s Hysteria: The History of a Disease 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%:;<, and Etienne =rillat8s Histoire de l'Hysterie 9Paris: Seghers, $%>:<. =here ha"e )een, of #ourse, other a''roa#hes, for e/am'le, in the wor of 'ra#ti#ing do#tors, amateur historians, and 'sy#hoanalyti# theorists.1&2 .et these two )oo s ha"e had a #urious la# of influen#e. 3n the late $%:*s, )road #ultural and #onte/tual a''roa#hes had not yet )een de"elo'ed within medi#al history, and there was little sense of the wider im'li#ations of 7eith8s newly 'u)lished and widely 'raised history. 7eith wrote as an internalist medi#al historian who #onstrued the history of hysteria in its realist

dimension only, without #asting an eye on its forms of re'resentation or its )road so#ial and #ultural su)tleties of #lass, gender 'oliti#s, and ideology.1?2 =rillat too too an internalist a''roa#h, meti#ulously #onsulting the history of a medi#al #ondition without #onsidering the #ultural, #onte/0 + "iii + tual, or dis#ursi"e resonan#es that ha"e #ome to 'reo##u'y humanists and historians in the last de#ade. 3n any #ase, )e#ause it was 'u)lished in ,ran#e, ne"er translated into English, and not widely 'u)li#i6ed, Histoire de l'Hysterie had little im'a#t on the anglo'hone a#ademi# #ommunity. @"er the last de#ade, s#holarshi' has, of #ourse, )een #hangingAenormously. Bedi#al history has mo"ed from a 'ositi"ist to a #riti#al 'hase and has )egun to shift from the s#ientifi# history of disease to the #ultural history of diseases and the study of illness as meta'hor.1;2 =he history of thera'euti#s now ta es more a##ount of the #om'le/ dynami#s of do#tor('atient relationshi's.1:2 =he mind()ody 'ro)lem is no longer regarded as a te#hni#al or logi#al 'ro)lem, fo#using on #anoni#al te/ts, for historians of 'hiloso'hy or 'hiloso'hers of mind to study. @ne #ould #laim without e/aggeration that in our time the so#ial #onstru#tion of both mind and )ody ha"e #ome into their own.1C2 -nd a)o"e all, feminist s#holarshi' has la"ished great attention u'on demystifying the gender and so#ial #ontrol en#oded in women8s diseases, es'e#ially the hysteria diagnosis, in the age of ,reud.1>2 Do less im'ortant, the role 'layed )y language and dis#ourse in the analysis of "irtually all medi#al #onditions, an#ient and modern, has )een magisterially enlarged and 'ro)lemati6ed, and re#ent dis#ourse theory has taught historians of all territories, medi#al and nonmedi#al, that the so#ial history of language #annot )e o"erloo ed when tra#ing the rise and fall of medi#al #onditions: 'lague, gout, dro'sy, #onsum'tion, #holera, influen6a, as well as the more 'sy#hosomati# #onditions.1%2 Bore s'e#ifi#ally, the fa#e of hysteria has itself altered, at least im'li#itly, in light of the wor of su#h 'sy#holinguists and 'sy#hoanalysts as Ea#4ues La#an, HFlGne Ci/ous, and Eulia Kriste"a.1$*2 Ea#h has 'ro"ided insight into the language0gender dimensions of #ontem'orary hysteria and its semioti# groundings. 3n their wor , word and image, do#tor and 'atient, s'ea er and listener, ha"e gathered new identities. Kriste"a has argued with 'arti#ular for#e that medi#al a''earan#es #an ne"er )e #onsidered entirely a'art from their linguisti# moorings, any more than from their gender0)ased dimensions. -nd as a de#ade of new interdis#i'linary resear#h has mar#hed forward during the $%>*s, the interfa#e of literature and medi#ine has )e#ome one of the most fre4uently 'layed0u'on themes in s#holarshi' on )oth sides of the -tlanti#.1$$2 =his )road mo"ement has also intensified e/'loration of the semioti# and linguisti# dimensions of re#ent, or at least relati"ely modern, hysteria. But e"en if the medi#al diagnosis of hysteria has languished, for + i/ + reasons this )oo attem'ts to e/'lore as an an#illary theme, the condition of hysteria as a state of mind has )een re"i"ed through the interse#tions of these newly de"elo'ing fields of in4uiry. HHysteria as a state of mindH es'e#ially des#ri)es thin ers of all ty'es, not Iust 'atients, who #on#ern themsel"es with the interse#tions of )odies and te/ts, and with medi#al #onditions and dis#ursi"e 'ra#ti#es. Hysteria has thus )een fragmented: e"eryone now seems to own a 'ie#e of it. 3ts gri' is not #onfined to one fieldJ its mono'oly not limited to medi#ine. Do longer, and 'erha's ne"er again, will it )e the narrow 'ro"in#e of medi#al do#tors or a handful of medi#al historians.

Hen#e the time seemed ri'e for a ree/amination and reassessment, not merely to #hroni#le hysteria8s fragmentation or to narrate the fraught and tangled inter'lay )etween Char#ot and -ugustine, ,reud and Kora, )ut to des#ri)e the entire #areer of the disease entity, or at least the 'ro)lemati# la)el and #urious #ategory: its long0term rise and alleged fall, its in"ention, #onstru#tion, de"elo'ment, as#enden#y, o)soles#en#e, and now relati"ely sudden disa''earan#e.1$52 3t seemed to us 'arti#ularly germane as these transformations o##urred in the $%>*s to demonstrate that ,reud was not the beginning of anything new in the history and #on#e'tion of the #ondition )ut rather the end of a long wa"e. =hough we are in no sense whate"er #om'iling a #om'lete history of hysteria, we wanted to e/tend our ga6e to #o"er Euro'ean #i"ili6ation o"er three thousand years, while simultaneously #on#luding our narrati"e with the laun#hing of 'sy#hoanalysis from the )ase of medical hysteria as it was #onstrued in the late nineteenth #entury. =he 7iennese founder of 'sy#hoanalysis was not the ing'in of a new 'ro"in#e of hysteria Ahowe"er the #ondition or the #ategory was definedA )ut the thin er )est a)le to marshal the resour#es of an already ri#h ingdom that had seen itself rise and fall many times in the 'ast.1$&2 3n the 'o'ular imagination hysteria )egins and "irtually ends with ,reud, his ante#edents and se4uels a##orded relati"ely minor #onse4uen#eJ mu#h #ultural history is #on#e'tuali6ed and written out as if all 'sy#hiatri# thought )efore the $>%*s #onsisted of footnotes leading u' to the wor of the oneAand only oneAgreat transformer, Sigmund ,reud.1$?2 Professional historians of s#ien#e and medi#ine often lin hysteria to a Hme#hani#al re"olutionH and Hner"ous re"olutionH that transformed the fa#e of modern s#ien#e, )ut e"en they remain un#ertain how the s#ientifi# re"olution im'inged u'on the de"elo'ment of hysteria.1$;2 Le )elie"e this #orre#ti"e should )e laun#hed as a historical dis#ussion as well as a #ase study in the relations of realism and re'resentation to this )affling human #ondition. Le are sensiti"e to the differen#es )e0 +/+ tween so0#alled Hreal hysteri#s,H who still 'resent themsel"es as 'atients in #lini#s and waiting rooms, and the wide re'ertoire of meta'hors that has atta#hed to the #ondition o"er the #enturies, Iust as other meta'hors ha"e atta#hed to #onsum'tion, #an#er, and now -3KS. @ur treatment wea"es the real and the re'resentati"e, es'e#ially when we laun#h into far0ranging dis#ussions of the so#ial history of hysteria. Le want to re'la#e e/isting notions with more a##urate, less mythologi6ed, and less heroi# ones a)out Sigmund ,reud. -lthough this )oo is a fi"e0hander, it has )een our aim from the start to 'rodu#e not a #olle#tion of dis'arate essays )ut a #onse#uti"e and #oherent syno'ti# inter'retation, tra#ing the story forward from anti4uity into the 'resent #entury. =he fi"e of us hold different ideologi#al "iew'oints and #ome from different dis#i'lines and nationalitiesJ allegian#e to the "arious theoreti#al )ents of our dis#i'lines 'rom'ts us to differ from one another more than we agree. But we are also )ound )y the shared "iews that, first, now is the time to re#onsider hysteriaJ se#ond, our differen#es will )ring a ty'e of )alan#e to the e"ol"ing dis#ourses 9)y whi#h we mean all ty'es of writing )y hysteri#s and their do#tors, as well as writings )y nonmedi#al figures< of hysteria that will stand the readerAthe imagined, ideal reader of this )oo Ain good stead. ,inally, we are united )y our #ommon interest in the linguisti# and semioti# as'e#ts of medi#ine at large, and )y the internal #ontradi#tions, silen#es, and ga's we find in this remar a)le dis#ourse of hysteria.1$:2 Le saw )oth histori#al and #riti#al elements as essential to the )oo . 3n our #on#e'tuali6ation there had to )e #o'iously do#umented se#tions on the histori#al de"elo'ment of hysteria: one dealing with the an#ient world, a se#ond lo#ated in the 'eriod from the Euro'ean dis#o"ery of the an#ient medi#al te/ts

in a''ro/imately the fourteenth #entury 9when Hi''o#rates and Galen were )eing translated into Latin and read anew< to the end of the Enlightenment 9#onstrued as Hthe long eighteenth #enturyH<. Lhate"er small o"erla' might e/ist on the )oundaries of these first two 'arts 9around the fourteenth and fifteenth #enturies<, )oth se#tions were ne#essary for our re"isionism and for thorough analysis of the de"elo'ment of hysteria o"er eighteen hundred years. But after #hronologi#al sur"eys guiding the reader from the -thenian world to the high Euro'ean Enlightenment, Hysteria Beyond Freud intentionally "eers into another mode. ,rom this 'oint forward there was no need to #hart and 'lot hysteria as the first two histori#al se#tions do. 3nstead, we re4uired dis#ussions of three seminal )ut )y no means e/hausti"e to'i#s. -ll of us reali6e that we ha"e )een #oa/ing out the re'resentations of hysteria, rhetori#ally sear#hing for its meta'hors and + /i + metonymies, "isually following its i#onogra'hi# relations and imageryAall this out of a )elief in the signifi#an#e of the #ultural re'resentations of illness within so#iety. =his is not to say that we dis#ard realist medi#al analysis, em'iri#al #ause and effe#t, the 'atient in thera'y, diagnosis and #ure, mu#h less the genuine neuro#hemi#al and te#hnologi#al ad"an#es that diminish human suffering and in#rease longe"ity. But the fi"e of us are ne"ertheless 'ersuaded that realism and re'resentation, ideology and gender, ha"e )een held too far a'art in the dis#ussions a)out human )odies and their so0#alled 'athologi#al statesJ we are also united in the )elief that medi#al material adds a "alua)le dimension to the understanding of the #reation of so#ial #ategories in all these different e'o#hs.1$C2 =he )oundary )etween the histori#al first se#tion 9King and Rousseau< and the themati# se#ond one 9Porter, Showalter, Gilman< mar s the turning 'oint in the )oo 8s ar#hite#ture. @ne #ondition of this shift is the new "ersion of histori#ism King and Rousseau wish to im'ose. =his is not the new, u''er0#ase Histori#ismAif there is one su#h "ersionA)ut a more #onte/tuali6ed and, in Helen King8s #ase, more s#ru'ulous 'hilologi#al e/amination measured against the reigning #ultural trends of the an#ient world.1$>2 King e/amines the early history of hysteria in anti4uity, more 're#isely e/'laining why Classi#al hysteria is in reality )ut a mare8s nest, a s'urious entity in"ented )y later 'hysi#ians in the Biddle -ges and Renaissan#e and legitimated after the e"ent )y medi#al historians. 1$%2 =his "iew o"erthrows 7eith8s and will no dou)t distur) medi#al historians who #onsider the older "iews gos'el. But King also demonstrates why the category is so dou)tful and su''orts her argument with the "er)al and histori#al do#umentation of a #lassi#ist with her 'arti#ular Ioint training and e/'ertise in an#ient history and anthro'ology. -fter King8s re"isionism it may well )e that studies of Hi''o#rates will ne"er again )e the same. Certainly no one will e"er again )e a)le to reiterate the now dis#redited notion that Hi''o#rates is the father, the dis#o"erer, the in"entor of a Lestern hysteria that has endured with #onstan#y o"er the #ourse of many #enturies. George Rousseau e/'lores the legitimation of these later do#tors and medi#al historians andA#ru#ially Athe im'li#ations of this dire legitimating for Renaissan#e and Enlightenment #ulture. Rousseau8s tas is to #hart the fate of hysteria as the )ody8s anatomi#al model gradually mo"es away from a one0 to two0se/ model, and as Cartesian and Dewtonian s#ien#e swee's through Euro'e.15*2 3n this sense he, too, ne#essarily im'oses the mold of realism on his re"isionary histori#al tas . But as Lestern #ulture was transformed in the se"enteenth and eighteenth + /ii +

#enturies under the weight of s#ien#e, se#ularism, and e#onomi# and 'oliti#al reform, as the #ults of #ertainty, 'rogress, and o'timism gradually re'la#ed those of un#ertainty, 'essimism, e"en gloom0and0 doom, hysteria found itself at the #enter of a de)ate a)out melan#holy and the ner"es, and a)out gender, se/, and the fa)ri# of human #ulture far e/#eeding its own lo#al, anatomi#, and medi#al domain. -nd in this sense it was hysteria #onstrued as a category Aalmost a 'hiloso'hi#al #ategoryA rather than as a medi#al diagnosis or set of thera'ies.15$2 But as #ertain tenets of Enlightenment #ulture gained strength, es'e#ially the relian#e on reason, o)ser"ation, logi#, 'redi#ta)ility, se#ularism, and the waning of a faith in su'erstition and magi#, hysteria #ontinued to find itself rein"igorated and regenerated.1552 - self0renewing dis#ourse, it was #a'a)le of transforming itself )oth as diagnosed disease, medi#al #ategory, andAlinguisti#allyAas a #riti4ue of male0female relations. Rousseau shows that hysteria8s uni4ueness lies s'e#ifi#ally in these a#ts of transformation, es'e#ially under the tea#hings of Kr. =homas Sydenham, the so0#alled HEnglish Hi''o#ratesH and medi#al asso#iate of Eohn Lo# e, the do#tor0'hiloso'her. Sydenham, a##ording to Rousseau, is the una# nowledged hero of hysteria: the first do#tor to see )eyond its iron#lad gender )oundaries, the first to a''ly the illness to men, the first to ga6e into its 'sy#hogeni# origins. Sydenham alone made the uni4ue transformati"e 'ower of hysteria his first 'rin#i'le: on this fundamental )elief he )uilt e"erything else in his theoreti#al medi#al s#heme.15&2 Kes'ite the similarity of histori#al a''roa#hes ta en )y King and Rousseau, a #ounter'oint e/ists )etween their #ha'ters, and then again )etween these #ha'ters and the rest of Hysteria Beyond Freud . .et for our dis#ussion of hysteria after $>** it seemed )est to ma e themati# di"isions along #learly defined lines. -fter tra"ersing the nineteenth0#entury )order, it was no longer ne#essary to 'ro"ide a full Hhistory of hysteriaH e/#e't to glan#e at areas that had )een underde"elo'ed or mis#onstrued. ,or this 'eriod e/tending from a''ro/imately $>** to the o"erla's of Char#ot and ,reud, mountains of writing ha"e, of #ourse, already a##umulated. =he 'hysiologi#al as'e#ts of hysteria #ir#a $>** had )een de"elo'ed )y all sorts of medi#al #ommentators in the 'eriod and during the ne/t two generations of do#tors 9i.e., )etween $C>* and $>?*<.15?2 Georges Kidi0Hu)erman, a #ontem'orary medi#al historian in ,ran#e, dis#ussed its diagnosis and a''earan#e in the light of "isual images and artisti# re'resentationsJ15;2 Lolfgang Lederer, its se/ual im'li#ations in Gynophobia ou la eur des Femmes . 15:2 -nd a "erita)le host of s#holars dealing with Char#ot and Breuer had written a)out nineteenth0 #entury hysteria. But the 'hiloso'hi#al, e'istemologi#al, ethi#al, and e"en more #ru0 + /iii + #ial literary, so#ial, and 'i#torial traditions had not )een well0studied. Dor had hysteria )een #onstrued as a Hdis#ourse,H or as o"erla''ing dis#ourses, in the )rilliant way that #riti#s su#h as Hayden Lhite and other hermeneuti#al theorists ha"e loo ed at histori#al 'asts, as 'arta ing of the same attri)utes as all other dis#ourses: rhetori#, meta'hor, "oi#e, s'ea er, s'ee#h a#t, and the im'lied 'ower relations "is0 M0"is ra#e, gender, and se/ esta)lished within the dis#ourse.15C2 ,urthermore, these 're"ious students of hysteria had not understood what more #ulturally oriented s#holars )egan to see in the $%>*s: that the de"elo'ing meta#riti4ue of hysteria had ins#ri)ed all sorts of 'ower relations as well as de"elo'ed a su)#riti4ue of gender arrangements that often mas4ueraded as a 'ure, o)Ie#ti"e, realisti#, and s#ientifi#ally "alidated dis#ourse of hysteria.15>2 =hese are de"elo'ments still awaiting due am'lifi#ation. =hey are among the ones we see to re"ise and am'lify here. =oward this s'e#ifi# goal Elaine Showalter, author of The Female !alady 9$%>C< and re#ently of "e#ual $narchy 9$%%$<, e/amines hysteria o"er the last two #enturies as an e/'ression of the ins#ri'tion of gender relations within medi#al dis#ourse. =hroughout its history, hysteria has )een 'rimarily #onstru#ted as a female malady, )ut it has also )een a disorder of men. -''lying feminist methods and

insights to the sym'toms and studies of male hysteria, Showalter shows that issues of gender are as signifi#ant in mas#uline e/'erien#e as in the history of women. Dot only the treatment, )ut also the historiogra'hy of hysteria, has )een influen#ed )y the traditional gender roles assigned to the thera'ist and the hysteri#. Lhen feminists o##u'y the roles of do#tor, 'sy#hoanalyst, or historian, the narrati"es of hysteria #hange.15%2 3f medi#al dis#ourse has assumed a whole set of gender relations in the last two #enturies, the dis#ourse of hysteria has )een the #hief site of de)ate o"er matters related to se/ and gender relations. =his lo#ali6ation within hysteria is the theme of Roy Porter8s #ha'ter. 3t is a 'oint that seems a##essi)le )ut is nottier and more elusi"e than it at first a''ears. 3t is not at all sur'rising that the old Cartesian mind()ody dualism should ha"e endured as long as it has, nor that mind and )ody should ha"e 'layed su#h a magisterial role, as Rousseau shows, in the #ommentary on Enlightenment re"elations 9and, as often, o)fus#ations< on hysteria.1&*2 But Porter 'ro#eeds further than this 'oint: he shows how the old mind()ody 4uestions )e#ame atta#hed to the self0definition of medi#ine itself as a s'here of e/#lusi"e #ogniti"e e/'ertise. -t the )eginning of the 'eriod that forms the )a# dro' of his themati# studyAa''ro/imately $>**Amedi#ine still ho"ered in self0#ons#ious dou)t as a domain + /i" + of nowledge. -t the )eginning of the 'eriod, do#tors and the 'aramedi#al world had )egun to 'rofessionali6e and gather in institutional and organi6ational ways that would #ontinue throughout the nineteenth #enturyJ a #entury later, medi#ine8s #laims were )older. Bedi#ine now #laimed to )e more a rational science than an ine/a#t art: shorn of its older magi#al and irrational tenden#ies, it was now the sister su)Ie#t of 'hiloso'hy, s#ien#e of the #ogniti"e. .et in medi#ine this a''li#ation had to )e grounded within a s'e#ifi# dis#ourse that was already #ontro"ersial. Lhere to lo#ate the site of hysteria in a safe medi#al dis#ourse in whi#h there was neither fier#e de)ate nor 'rofessional di"ergen#eN 3n manias, for e/am'le, or gout 9now mori)und after three #enturies of tireless writing and s'e#ulation<N Better to 'la#e it in an already controversial 6one, as Porter shows us in his #ha'ter, and let hysteria )e fought a)out within the already )loody )attlefields of Regen#y and 7i#torian 'hiloso'hi#al dis#ussions of mind and )ody.1&$2 ,rom the #om'le/ relation of #lini#al medi#ine and 'hiloso'hy, an an#illary 4uestion 'resents itself: the matter of s'e#ulati"e thought in relation to realism, and medi#ine in relation to re'resentation.1&52 3f medi#ine had )e#ome #ogniti"e )y the nineteenth #entury, it #ould #laim to )e e#clusively so )e#ause its models of re'resentation were then so monolithi#ally realisti#. Set the #hronologi#al dials earlier, to $>?* or $>:*, for e/am'le, and one glim'ses an England or ,ran#e in whi#h the medi#al do#tors are "irtually certain that medi#ine is a ra'idly ad"an#ing s#ien#e in whi#h mu#h more was nown to them than had e"er )een a"aila)le in the history of man ind, and that soon e"en more would )e dis#o"ered. - s#ien#e as 'ositi"isti# and 'rogressi"e as mid0nineteenth0#entury medi#ine worried little a)out the re'resentationalAmeta'hori#, imagisti#, artisti#A"ersions of its wisdom. .et 'arado/i#ally and almost as a #ounter'oint to this #ertainty a)out the nowledge of all 9e"en in theories of hysteria< was the #on#omitant sense that medi#ine still had an arduous road to hoe )efore it would )e a rigorous s#ien#e li e mathemati#s, 'hysi#s, or astronomy. Bost of those who "iewed medi#ine as an art were usually willing to #on#ede a large 'ortion of am)iguity to the medi#al situation, medi#al 'redi#ament, the s#enario, #ase history, toute la chose medicale in the hysteria diagnosis. Bore s'e#ifi#ally for our 'ur'oses, if hysteria had signifi#ant re'resentational dimensions, how had it )een 'i#tured in artN 3n what sets and #onstellations of imagesN -nd how had its "i#tims )e#ome figures in drawings and other mediaN

=his is the 4uestion Sander Gilman 'ursues in his illustrated #ha'ter. Gi"en his 're"ious wor on the i#onogra'hy of disease,1&&2 it is not sur'rising that he has set hysteria in a wide #onte/t, "iewing its sufferers + /" + as one instan#e among many of the stigmati6ation of the 'athologi#al. Beginning with the late eighteenth #entury, many ty'es had )een stigmati6edAnot merely hysteri#s, )ut di"erse Hlunati#sH o"er the )road s'e#trum of ra#e, religion, and gender. Sodomites as well as herma'hroditesJ the mad as well as the moodyJ Eews as well as )la# sJ and many other so#ial 'ariahs as wellAall were differentiated and e"entually stigmati6ed. Stigma, indeed, was an ingrained ha)it of the hegemoni# thought of the nineteenth #entury, a region of the imagination well understood )y thin ers as di"erse as 7i#o, Kier egaard, and Diet6s#he.1&?2 But the stimati6ing of the hysteri# was something else: more 'ronoun#ed if also more elusi"e. =he la)el hysteric )e#ame a ey en#odement of differen#e and danger, not Iust in res'e#t to nu)ile girls or frustrated widows, )ut in the larger e"aluation of #ultural, national, and ra#ial #hara#teristi#s at a time when nationalism was on the as#enden#y. =hus the e#le#ti# re'resentations of hysteria, as e/'lored in this )oo , loo inward to a de"elo'ing mi#ro historyAof do#tor('atient 'airings in the #lini#al setting, 'laying their games of 'ower, #ontrol, and li)erationAwhile simultaneously loo ing outward, treating hysteria as a language for assimilating yet 'athologi6ing the un nown, the una##e'ta)le, the un#ontrolla)le. =he hysteria diagnosis has long )een the frail and unsu##essful attem't to frame the fearful symmetry of one of the most 'otent tigers of the mind. .et the )east, so to s'ea , is e"en larger than this. @n#e it )e#omes #lear to what degree the 'athology of the un nown )e#ame en#oded in the hysteria diagnosis it also )e#omes e"ident that the #ategory hysteria must ne"er )e far from the historian8s imagination. @therwise, all human relations, not merely the 'airings mentioned, ta e on attri)utes of Hhysteri#al dis#ourse,H in one medium or another. =he reader will noti#e a multitude of la#unae in this )oo Aomissions of more ty'es than one. ,or e/am'le, it will )e o)ser"ed that no 'rofessional 'sy#hoanalyst has )een in#luded among the authors, and that 'sy#hoanalysis and a''roa#hes fundamentally 'sy#hoanalyti#al are not in#luded. =he omission is )y design: whereas none of us has any 'arti#ular a"ersion to 'sy#hoanalysis as a thera'y or method, our #olle#ti"e strategy was to 'ro"ide a histori#al and re'resentational a''roa#h that led u' to, not follo%ed from , ,reud.1&;2 Le attem'ted to ga6e at our "arious forms of re'resentation with the eyes of historians of 'sy#hology or 'sy#hiatry rather than as s#holars li"ing in the aftermath of the ,reudian re"olution, and e"en less as s#holars 'ersuaded of the #laims of 'sy#hoanalysis itself. Le ha"e also said relati"ely little a)out religion and religious e/'eri0 + /"i + en#e. =here #an )e no dou)t of its im'ortan#e in the medie"al world and )eyond. But no matter how #entral religion was during the early 'eriod, this is not a )oo a)out the interfa#e of religion and medi#ine, or of hysteria and 'ossession, su)Ie#ts that no dou)t merit more attention than they ha"e re#ei"ed )ut whi#h #annot )e fully treated here. =he theme of 'ossessionAwhether or not leading to hysteri#al sym'tomsAhas itself )een the su)Ie#t of re#ent s#holarshi', as Rousseau notes, none of whi#h we ho'ed to in#lude in any detail in our e#le#ti# a''roa#h. Possession is su#h a large #an"as to sur"ey that to fo#us on it would ha"e fatally di"erted us from the real fo#us of this )oo .

@ur e#le#ti#ism may also )e faulted for omission of any thorough, or systematic , treatment of the re#ent fortunes of hysteria in the wor of La#an, Kriste"a, and other de#onstru#tionists and 'oststru#turalists. =he re'ly is that here, too, as in the #ase of ,reud, we ha"e tried to see things 'rimarily from a pre 0La#anian 'oint of "iew. Le are sensiti"e to La#an8s #on#e't of the @ther and to the wor of the La#anian analysts at l8E#ole de la Cause ,reudienne. But surely a 're0Kriste"a angle of "ision will not e/onerate us, any more than it will 'lease our #riti#s to now that we ha"e not tried to de#onstru#t hysteria.1&:2 Referen#es to these figures do a''ear in our te/t as early as Rousseau8s #ha'ter, whi#h e/'lores a theory of Hfemale num)nessH in relation to hysteria 'artly deri"ed from the wor s of the ,ren#h writer Barguerite Kuras. But Elaine Showalter8s #ha'ter ma es )etter use of these figures, e"en if they do not 'lay a #entral role in her #on#e'tion of what is to )e 'ri"ileged a)out hysteria. - thorough illumination of the linguisti# re'resentations of hysteria )y other s#holars would enri#h our dis#ussions. -lthough this )oo de"otes itself to the history and re'resentations of hysteria, it has not unearthed the hidden meta'hors of hysteria. - whole )oo #ould ha"e )een written, and we ho'e it will )e, merely on these meta'hors of #ontrol, 'athologi6ation, stigmati6ation, #astigation. -n e/am'le drawn from the field of meta'hors of in#or'oration is Korothy Kilgour8s From &ommunion to &annibalism: !etaphors of 'ncorporation .1&C2 Hysteria has gi"en rise to meta'hors worthy of study in their own right, in mu#h the way that Susan Sontag has identified those in the domain of illness and -3KS. Le ho'e others will )uild on our wor and tra#e the e"olution of these languages of hysteria. =he )i)liogra'hy of hysteria is )y now a de"elo'ed 'ro"in#e in itself. =he 're"ious histories ne"er 'ro"ided their readers with a 'ro'er )i)liogra'hi#al essay or the e4ui"alent, delineating the enormous amount of writing de"oted to this su)Ie#t. 3ndeed, so mu#h has a##umulated that it would re4uire an e/'ert and systemati# )i)liogra'her to 'erform the tas . @nly Bar Bi#ale has underta en any of this wor , and his writing + /"ii + on the su)Ie#t is e/em'lary and in the )i)liogra'hi#al area se#ond to none.1&>2 Bi#ale has studied male hysteria in 'arti#ular and demonstrated its traIe#tory from the Gree s to the 'resent. Lhether or not we a# nowledge it e/'li#itly in the following #ha'ters, all fi"e of us ha"e 'rofited from his studies and from his 'resentation at the Lell#ome 3nstitute in $%%* 9see 'aragra'h that #on#ludes this introdu#tion<. =his then is not a full0s#ale history of hysteria, 'ro#eeding in linear time, ea#h #ha'ter sur"eying a 'eriod or histori#al unit. Dor is it an attem't to rewrite 7eith under #ontem'orary #ir#umstan#es where the new ideologies and #riti#al methodologies 're"ail, nor will it sur"i"e a stri#t and rigid 'ost0 ,ou#aldian a''li#ation. =he age of ,ou#ault has 'assed, and with it the sense that mere re'resentation a'art from histori#al #onte/ts is suffi#ientJ in its wa e a new #ommitment has arisen to histori#al rigor and a##ounta)le e'istemologi#al threshold.1&%2 =his is es'e#ially true in su#h fields as the history of 'sy#hiatry and in dis#ussions of the dis#ourses on madness, wherein s#holars #an )e radi#ally Hhistori#alH without writing 'ro'er Hhistories of madness.H -ll fi"e of us are admittedly the #hildren of ,ou#ault in ways e/tending )eyond our a)ility to "er)ali6e them, es'e#ially insofar as we #on#ur that in our #ontem'orary world, 'ower, authority, and marginali6ation are mirrored in the o"erla's of hysteria, madness, and 'sy#hoanalysis. -nd we were also fortunate, as we 'ondered an#ient and modern hysteria, to 'rofit )y the fruits of ,ou#ault8s la)ors in his multi"olumed histories of se/uality. But we write here neither as #on"erted ,ou#aldians nor as 'rimarily histori#al re"isionists intent u'on #orre#ting a falli)le re#ord. 3f our first two #ha'ters a''ear to do Iust that, the reasonAas we ha"e already indi#atedAarises out of our )elief that something fundamental in the histori#al tradition had to

)e #orre#ted )efore we #ould 'ro#eed to our themati# analyses. Bany )oo s #ould )e and will )e written a)out hysteria. Le )elie"e our grou'ings are ri#her for some of the reasons gi"en a)o"e. Do readers, or 'otential authors of su#h )oo s, #an #lose the #o"ers of this )oo without 4uestioning the disa''earan#e of hysteria after so many #enturies, or without )eing 'ersuaded )y our #entral theme: that ,reud inherited a tradition surrounding hysteria. ,reud #ame to hysteria at the end of a three0thousand0year0old lineage: he was not its 'rogenitorAa truth more easily stated than a''lied and a histori#al fa#t often forgotten. Early "ersions of these essays were 'resented at a #onferen#e held at the Lell#ome 3nstitute for the History of Bedi#ine in London in -'ril $%%*. Le are grateful to the Lell#ome =rustees for ma ing funds a"ail0 + /"iii + a)le for this meeting, and to Ste"e Em)erton and ,rieda Houser for the smooth running of this fruitful o##asion. George Rousseau is grateful to Leila Brownfield and Linda Benefield for their indness in a##om'lishing "arious of the tas s asso#iated with the 'rodu#tion of a )oo of this si6e. Le owe 'arti#ular than s to Lilliam S#hu')a#h and Ka"id Brady of the Lell#ome 3nstitute for their efforts in o)taining and organi6ing the many illustrations so ne#essary to Sander Gilman8s #ha'ter. Le are e4ually grateful to our editor at the !ni"ersity of California Press, Eli6a)eth Knoll, for her en#ouragement throughout this 'roIe#t. G. S. R@!SSE-! R@. P@R=ER +$+

P%R! IHIS!#RI$%L
+&+

#ne#n.e u/on a !e0t1 Hysteria *rom Hi//o.rates

Helen King

La2els and #rigins1 a Name 3ithout a ,isease4

3n the )eginning was Hi''o#rates, the ,ather of Bedi#ine, who freed the emerging s#ien#e from the

#hains of su'erstition, introdu#ed em'iri#al o)ser"ation and the )edside manner, and )oth identified and named Hhysteria.H So runs the esta)lished wisdom on the Hi''o#rati# origins of )oth medi#al s#ien#e in general and of the diagnosis of hysteria in 'arti#ular. .et re#ent wor on Hi''o#rati# medi#ine has #alled into 4uestion mu#h of this tradition. @n#e it was an a##e'ta)le s#holarly 'ursuit to de)ate the in#lusion of 'arti#ular treatises in the #anon of H=he Genuine Lor s of Hi''o#ratesH: now it is widely a##e'ted that not a single te/t of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us #an )e attri)uted with any #ertainty to the ,ather of Bedi#ine.1$2 3n 'la#e of a #anon of HGenuine Lor s,H we ha"e a di"erse set of multi0 author te/ts. @n#e the Hi''o#rati# do#tor was seen as a model of medi#al eti4uette and morality: now he #an )e restored to his own histori#al and #ultural #onte/t, where he )e#omes only one of the numerous )rands of healer #om'eting for #lients in the an#ient world, unafraid to im'ro"e his #han#es of em'loyment )y the use of ta#ti#s 4uestiona)le )y later standards.152 Lith the im'ro"ed "isi)ility made 'ossi)le )y the new Hi''o#rati# studies, the time has surely #ome to ree/amine the te/ts so #onfidently la)eled )y the nineteenth0#entury Kr. Ro)) as HHi''o#rates on HysteriaH1&2 and to re"iew the relationshi' )etween the te/t of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us, its inter'reters o"er time, and the dis#ussions of hysteria. Sin#e the Hi''o#rati# te/ts are so often 4uotedAand mis4uotedAin +?+ #ontem'orary de)ates on the status of the diagnosis hysteria, su#h a study will not only #ontri)ute to the growing )ody of wor on Hi''o#rati# medi#ine and its 'la#e in an#ient so#iety )ut also ine"ita)ly feed into these de)ates. Eliot Slater, 4uestioning the "alue of the diagnosis in our own times, has argued that Hthe Iustifi#ation for a##e'ting 8hysteria8 as a syndrome is )ased entirely on tradition and la# s e"idential su''ort.H1?2 =his tradition goes )a# to the alleged origin of the diagnosis of hysteria in the Hi''o#rati# #or'us, and it is only )y re#laiming the rele"ant te/ts from their use in the tradition that we #an understand and 4uestion the diagnosis in later #enturies. 3f a fresh reading of the an#ient te/ts shows that their use )y the tradition is unwarranted, this will ha"e im'ortant im'li#ations for the history of hysteria in general. Re#ent wor on hysteria in the Hi''o#rati# #or'us )y medi#al historians, 'sy#hologists, and 'hysi#ians is, almost without e/#e'tion, )ased on the history of hysteria 'u)lished in $%:; )y 3l6a 7eith. @n the name itself she wrote, 3n the Egy'tian 'a'yri the distur)an#es resulting from the mo"ement of the wom) were des#ri)ed, )ut had not yet )een gi"en a s'e#ifi# a''ellation. =his ste' was ta en in the Hi''o#rati# writings where the #onne#tion of the uterus 9hystera < with the disease resulting from its distur)an#e is first e/'ressed )y the term Hhysteria.H 3t a''ears in the thirty0fifth a'horism, whi#h reads: HLhen a woman suffers from hysteria . . .H1;2 Sin#e the 'u)li#ation of 7eith8s )oo , these 'oints ha"e a#hie"ed #anoni#al status. ,or e/am'le, R. -. Loodruff states that Hthe name, hysteria, has )een in use sin#e the time of Hi''o#ratesHJ P. B. Bart and K. H. S#ully refer )a# to Hthe time of Hi''o#rates, who #oined the nameHJ and S. B. Gu6e #ites 7eith as his only sour#e for the HinformationH that Hdisorders diagnosed as hysteria ha"e )een en#ountered for a)out 5,;** yearsH and furthermore that, Has e"eryone nows, the term hysteria originated in Gree anti4uity.H1:2 =hese a''arently #onfident assertions #o"er not only the origin of the word Hhysteria,H )ut also the "ery essen#e of an#ient Gree gyne#ology. R. Satow, a 'sy#hothera'ist and so#iologist, asserts that H8hysteria8 has )een a la)el used for a 'ot'ourri of female ailments and non0ailments ali e sin#e anti4uity. . . . =he Gree s and Romans #alled almost all female #om'laints hysteria and )elie"ed the #ause of all these female maladies to )e a wandering uterus. . . . 3n "arious Hi''o#rati# te/ts the

term hysteria is a''lied to a large "ariety of female #om'laints.H1C2 Lhat He"eryone nowsH is, howe"er, not ne#essarily true. =he earth is not flat, although on#e He"eryone newH that it was. E"en lea"ing aside +;+ the attem't to use Egy'tian e"iden#e, whi#h has already )een widely 4uestioned,1>2 7eith8s #laims for Gree medi#ine are seriously flawed. -s only one re#ent writer on hysteria, E. =rillat,1%2 has re#ogni6ed, the H"arious Hi''o#rati# te/tsH a''lying the term HhysteriaH to many different #om'laints sim'ly do not e/istJ moreo"er, to suggest that Hi''o#rati# gyne#ology is a)out #alling almost e"erything HhysteriaH is a gross o"er0sim'lifi#ation. - total re"ision of our understanding of the tradition is thus long o"erdue. Let us return to the te/t #laimed )y 7eith as the inaugural moment of hysteria, Hthe thirty0fifth a'horism.H 3t is a signifi#ant #hoi#e, sin#e the $phorisms is one of the most widely translated and )est0 nown wor s of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us, )elie"ed for many #enturies to ha"e )een written )y Hi''o#rates himself as a distillation of the wisdom of a lifetime8s #lini#al e/'erien#e, and thus ta en to )e one of the most genuine wor s.1$*2 3mmediately, howe"er, we en#ounter a diffi#ultyJ there is no Hthirty0fifth a'horism.H -. Rousselle1$$2 has #riti#i6ed 7eith for reading )a# #ontem'orary ideas into anti4uity, )ut the 'ro)lem is greater than this would suggestJ 7eith 'uts too great a trust in 'oor se#ondary sour#es. Lhat she is referring to here is, in fa#t, $phorisms ;.&; 9L?.;??<, whi#h does not use the term HhysteriaH at allJ instead, using the 'lural form hysteri(a , it )egins Gynai(i hypo hysteri(on enochloumenei , and it may )e translated as: H3n a woman suffering from hysteri(a , or ha"ing a diffi#ult la)or, a snee6e is a good thing.H Lhat are these hysteri(a , and what is so good a)out a snee6eN Su#h 4uestions 'lunge us dire#tly into the heart of the hysteria de)ate. 3t is tem'ting to translate hysteri(a as Hhysteri#s,H )ut an a''arently familiar word does not ne#essarily #on"ey the meaning we would most naturally e/'e#t. Galen of Pergamum noted the diffi#ulties of translating this a'horism 9K $C).>5?0>5;<. Hysteri(a , he wrote in his #ommentary on the $phorisms , #ould refer to all diseases of the wom)1$52 or to only a 'arti#ular #ondition #alled hysteri(e pni# 9)est translated Hsuffo#ation of the wom)H<, des#ri)ed )y a num)er of 'ost0Hi''o#rati# writers and whi#h will )e dis#ussed at length )elow, or to 'ro)lems with the after)irth, also nown as ta hystera . He fa"ors setting the a'horism in the #onte/t of hysteri(e pni# , for the following reasons. ,irst, hysteri(a #annot refer to the after)irth, )e#ause hystera and hysteri(a are not the same word. Se#ond, it #annot refer to all diseases of the wom), )e#ause Hi''o#rates says that it is hel'ed )y snee6ing. Clearly, not all diseases of the wom) are hel'ed )y snee6ing and, sin#e Hi''o#rates #annot )e wrong, Galen #on#ludes that the 'assage must refer to hysteri(e pni# . =here is, howe"er, no reason why we must follow Galen8s line of ar0 +:+ gument sin#e, des'ite his o)Ie#tions, there is nothing to 're"ent translating the 'hrase as HLhen a woman suffers from diseases of the wom).H =he argument that not all su#h diseases are hel'ed )y snee6ing does not ne#essarily a''ly to 're0Galeni# medi#ine. - snee6e e/'els "arious inds of matter that may #ause disorders, and thus has "alue in many situationsJ in a s'e#ifi#ally gyne#ologi#al #onte/t, su)stan#es su#h as mustard, )la# or white helle)ore, and #astoreum were widely re#ommended in the an#ient world to 'romote menstruation or the e/'ulsion of the after)irth.1$&2 Sin#e retained menses were thought to )e the #ause of many female disorders, the e/'ulsi"e "alue of a snee6e #ould often )e

)enefi#ial. 3t is in a 'assage of Pliny the Elder, written a #entury )efore Galen, that the sternutatory 'owers of mustard a''ear in the narrower #onte/t of Hsuffo#ation of the wom).H Bi/ed with "inegar, mustard was thought to rouse women suffering from an e'ile'ti# fit or H"ul"arum #on"ersione suffo#atas,H1$?2 translated in the Loe) edition as Hfainting with 'rola'susH )ut more literally meaning Hsuffo#ated )y the turning of their wom)s.H =his may suggest another "alue of the snee6e, whi#h was seen as )eing of 'arti#ular im'ortan#e in Hsuffo#ation.H Bany an#ient writers dis#uss the diffi#ulty of nowing whether a sufferer from the #ondition they #all Hsuffo#ation of the wom)H is, in fa#t, ali"e or dead. Pliny himself gi"es the #ase of a woman who lay as if dead for se"en days with H#on"ersio "ul"ae,H turning of the wom).1$;2 3n su#h #ases, it was ne#essary to test for life )y holding a feather or a 'ie#e of wool at the nostrils. - snee6e was wel#omed as e"iden#e of the 'resen#e of life. Snee6ing, due to its e/'ulsi"e 'owers, #an thus )e Ha good thingH for many disorders affe#ting women, )ut )y the first #entury -.K ., when Pliny was writing, it had #ome to )e seen as 'arti#ularly "alua)le in Hsuffo#ation of the wom)H )e#ause it #ould re#all to life a 'atient lying as if dead. 3t is thus 'ossi)le that it had the first meaning in $phorisms , )ut that this had )een o"erlaid with the se#ond )y the time of Pliny. Galen, writing a hundred years or so after Pliny, 'ut together the )road #onte/t of the $phorisms 'assage and the more s'e#ifi# #onte/t of PlinyJ the e/am'le thus ma es us aware of the 'ossi)le #hanging inter'retations of a te/t o"er time. Regardless of how we #hoose to translate the 'assage, it should a)o"e all )e noted that this is not what 7eith #alled Ha s'e#ifi# a''ellationH: a disease la)el. 7eith admits that the form hysteri(os , Hfrom the wom),H H#onne#ted with the wom),H or, when a''lied to a woman, Hlia)le to disorders of the wom),H is Hmore fre4uently used,H1$:2 )ut she does not a# nowledge that it is in fa#t used e/#lusi"ely, and moreo"er that the $phorisms e/am'le is only a further #ase of this general ty'e. +C+ 3t is not diffi#ult to find the sour#e for this 'arti#ular mis#on#e'tion on the 'art of 7eith. =he idea that it is in the Hi''o#rati# #or'us that hysteria is not only des#ri)ed )ut also gi"en its name #an )e tra#ed )a# )eyond her to the Emile LittrF edition of $>&%0:$, the gyne#ologi#al "olumes of whi#hA num)ered C and >Aa''eared in $>;$0;&. ,or the 'resent 'ur'ose, a study of these must #on#entrate on the additional ,ren#h material su''lied )y LittrF. =his a''ears in two forms. ,irst, for many of the Hi''o#rati# te/ts he 'ro"ides se#tion headings for ea#h #ha'terJ these ha"e no analogue in the Gree manus#ri'ts. =his a''lies to the three "olumes of the Gynai(eia , nown in English as Diseases of )omen ,1$C2 where se"eral 'assages are headed HHystFrie.H Se#ond, additional material a''ears in the translation itself, where LittrF uses the medi#al #ategories of his own time. =he mis'la#ed #onfiden#e of the title used )y Ro)) in his arti#le HHi''o#rates on HysteriaH1$>2 is )ased on translating LittrF into English while simultaneously in#or'orating distin#tions made only in the headings.1$%2 -s Rousselle has re#ently suggested, these owe far more to nineteenth0#entury de)ates and theory than to the Hi''o#rati# te/ts they are su''osed to summari6e.15*2 Eust as -dams aimed to ma e the Hi''o#rati# te/ts that he sele#ted as H=he Genuine Lor s of Hi''o#ratesH intelligi)le to Hany well0edu#ated mem)er of the 1medi#al2 'rofession at the 'resent day,H15$2 so LittrF Hread Hi''o#rates in his own image and in the image of the medi#ine of his time,H1552 with the e/'li#it intention of using Hi''o#rati# wisdom to im'ro"e the medi#al 'ra#ti#e of his own day. H!ntil the nineteenth #entury, medi#ine nourished itself on Hi''o#ratesAor at least on that whi#h it )elie"ed it #ould find in Hi''o#rates.H15&2 =he se#tion headings written )y LittrF go further than merely la)eling #ertain se#tions HHystFrie.H 3n

addition to this, LittrF distinguishes )etween imagined mo"ement of the wom), whi#h he #lassifies as hysteria, and real mo"ement, whi#h he des#ri)es as dis'la#ement. He thus ma es su#h #omments as, H=his se#tion a''ears to )e a #onfusion of imaginary with real mo"ements of the wom)HJ H=his a''ears to )e some dis'la#ement of the wom) rather than hysteriaHJ and H=he fa#t remains that there is #onfusion )etween imaginary and real dis'la#ements.H15?2 He )elie"es that the Hi''o#rati# te/ts do not ma e suffi#iently #lear the distin#tion he see s, in #ontrast to 7eith, whoAagain, wronglyA#laims that Hthe Hi''o#rati# 'hysi#ian was aware of the im'ortan#e of a #areful differentiation )etween hysteri#al sym'toms and those of organi# disease.H15;2 =he writers of these an#ient te/ts ma e no su#h distin#tion. =hey des#ri)e what is, for them, a real and organi# #ondition: the mo"ement of the wom) 9hystera < to other 'arts of the )ody. Sin#e it is LittrF, rather than any Hi''o#rati# 'hysi#ian, who is interested in the distin#0 +>+ tion, it may )e sus'e#ted that 7eith is )asing her remar s on the Littrean se#tion headings rather than on the Gree te/t. =he origin and 'ro#ess of transmission of the error in translation should now )e 'lain. LittrF read the Hi''o#rati# #or'us in the #onte/t of the mid0nineteenth #entury, in whi#h hysteria was a re#ogni6ed #ondition of de)ated etiologyJ he e/'e#ted to find hysteria in the te/t, duly found it, and drew it out in the headings he wrote for the "arious se#tions. Ro)) translated into English the 'assages headed )y LittrF as HHysteria,H and su)se4uent readers of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us ha"e a##e'ted the #ategories im'osed )y LittrF on his material. =a ing only the $phorisms 'assage, LittrF translates HChe6 une femme atta4uFe d8hystFrie. . .H while ,ran#is -dams gi"es HSnee6ing o##urring in a woman with hysteri#s,H and E. Chadwi# and L. D. Bann ha"e HLhen a woman is affli#ted with hysteria.H 3n gi"ing HLhen a woman suffers from hysteria. . .H 7eith is following the widely a"aila)le Loe) translation.15:2 =hus the diagnosis of hysteria is one made not )y the an#ient authors of the te/ts, )ut rather )y the nineteenth0#entury translator of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us. -t this 'oint it would )e 'ossi)le to argue that this is of only minor im'ortan#eJ granted, the tradition is wrong to #laim that the Gree s in"ented the name and thus the diagnosti# #ategory of hysteria, )ut if the Hi''o#rati# te/ts nonetheless #ontain the first #lini#al des#ri'tions of hysteria, should we mu#h #on#ern oursel"es with the origin of the nameN -s a result it )e#omes ne#essary at this 'oint to )egin to #onsider what we are to understand )y Hhysteria.H Lhen a translator reads the diagnosis into a te/t, this would seem to suggest the )elief that there is a fi/ed entity #alled hysteria, #onstant o"er time and 'la#e, so that we #an say with Chariot that HL8hystFrie a touIours e/istF, en tous lieu/ et en tous tem's,H15C2 and with K. L. -)se that Hin fa#t, east and west, hysteria #ontinues una)ated in "arious guises.H15>2 3f we )elie"e this, it will )e of relati"ely little signifi#an#e that the name HhysteriaH is not Hi''o#rati#. - #on#e't may e/ist e"en if it is not namedJ as G. Lewis 'oints out, the an#ient He)rews had no word for what the Romans were to #all le# talio , the law of retri)ution in ind, )ut they did say H-n eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.H15%2 ,urther general 4uestions a)out hysteria will also need to )e addressed. 3s it a disease li e any other, and thus a fit su)Ie#t for medi#al study and treatmentN 3s it a disease at allN1&*2 3f hysteria is #onstant, found throughout history, worldwide, we #an )egin to tal a)out whether or not Hi''o#rati# medi#ine re#ogni6ed it, regardless of whether the Hi''o#rati#s named it, Iust as we #an tal a)out whether tu)er#ulosis, e'ile'sy, and gonorrhea were re#ogni6ed. ,urthermore, if it is histori#ally #onstant, a )ody of te/t of the length of +%+

the Hi''o#rati# medi#al #or'us should, statisti#ally, #ontain some #ases of it. -ny de#ision that it is #onstant therefore 'reIudges the 4uestion of whether or not it e/isted in Hi''o#rati# times: )y definition, it must ha"e done, and our tas is only to find the se#tions in the te/ts whi#h 'ro"ide a more or less a##urate mat#h with our #hosen #lini#al 'i#ture. =his tas , howe"er, is #om'li#ated )y the )elief that hysteria, li e #hlorosis, is a disorder that a''arently disa''eared in our own #enturyJ as =rillat says, HL8hystFrie est morte, #8est entendu.H1&$2 =his #ould lead us to a''ly more stringent #riteria to the Hi''o#rati# te/ts, to #on#lude that hysteria was not 'resent in #lassi#al Gree#e, and thus to re"ise our "iews on the signifi#an#e of its a''arent disa''earan#e from the medi#al s#ene. =here are howe"er two main o)sta#les standing in the way of a de#ision to treat hysteria as a histori#al #onstant. =he first is that, unli e tu)er#ulosis, e'ile'sy, and gonorrhea, hysteria is in no way a #learly defined disease entity for whi#h most medi#al 'ra#titioners in our so#iety would draw u' the same list of sym'tomsJ the se#ond, that an integral 'art of the definition of hysteria often #onsists in its su''osed a)ility to mimi# sym'toms of other diseases. Contem'orary medi#al writers on hysteria fall into two main grou's. @ne grou' a##e'ts that hysteria is Ha "alid, inde'endent syndromeH1&52 and, in a''lying this la)el, ma es use of the Perley0Gu6e #riteria, whi#h list o"er fifty sym'toms in ten areasJ e/hi)iting twenty0fi"e sym'toms in nine out of ten areas 4ualifies as hysteria, in the a)sen#e of any other diagnosis.1&&2 @ne area is entirely #on#erned with menstrual diffi#ultiesJ1&?2 sin#e menstrual su''ression is )y far the most #ommon sym'tom in Hi''o#rati# gyne#ologyAfor reasons that relate to the )elief that amenorrhea indi#ates the 'resen#e of a dangerous reser"oir of unshed )lood1&;2 Ait should not )e sur'rising that retros'e#ti"e diagnosis of hysteria in the Hi''o#rati# te/ts is #ommon. =he se#ond grou'8s 'osition is #on"eniently summari6ed )y Slater8s 9$%:;< le#ture HKiagnosis of 8hysteria.8H1&:2 =he single 4uotation mar s around HhysteriaH say it all. Slater 'i# s u' the Perley0Gu6e 'oint that the la)el hysteria is a''lied Hin the a)sen#e of any other diagnosisH and #on#ludes that the diagnosis merely indi#ates the Ha)sen#e of rele"ant 'hysi#al findingsHJ it is Ha disguise for ignoran#e and a fertile sour#e of #lini#al error . . . not only a delusion )ut also a snareH and Ha way of a"oiding a #onfrontation with our own ignoran#e.H1&C2 Edward Shorter suggests that diagnoses su#h as hysteria ha"e often #o"ered an undete#ted uterine infe#tion.1&>2 C. K. Barsden, too, 'oints out that a high 'er#entage of 'atients diagnosed as ha"ing hysteria turn out to ha"e an underlying organi# disease and #on#ludes + $* + that Hthere #an )e little dou)t that the term 8hysteri#al8 is often a''lied as a diagnosis to something that the 'hysi#ian does not understand.H1&%2 Slater therefore argues that Hthe Iustifi#ation for a##e'ting 8hysteria8 as a syndrome is )ased entirely on tradition and la# s e"idential su''ort.H1?*2 ,. Lalshe8s res'onse to Slater, signifi#antly using the same title )ut omitting the 4uotation mar s around the word Hhysteria,H defends Hthe #on#e't of hysteria as a nosologi#al entity in its own right.H1?$2 =he de)ate in medi#al #ir#les #ontinues, and Slater8s #ontri)ution is dis#ussed at length in -le# Roy8s 9$%>5< #olle#tion of essays, Hysteria .1?52 R. Bayou gi"es a fair summary of the medi#al situation when he writes that there is at 'resent Hno agreement a)out diagnosti# #riteriaH for hysteria.1?&2 =he se#ond diffi#ulty en#ountered in regarding hysteria as something #onstant is that, if anything is a widely a##e'ted 'art of the definition, it is the suggestion that it #an mimi# the sym'toms of any other disease.1??2 3n this #ase, how #an hysteria itself )e a disease, and what is to 're"ent it from ta ing su#h radi#ally different forms in different e'o#hs as to )e almost unre#ogni6a)le as the same #onditionN =he #orollary is also trueJ as Shorter 'uts it, He"ery organi# disease imagina)le . . . has at one time or

another )een #lassified as hysteria.H1?;2 Koes a #ondition with su#h indistin#t and shifting )orders e/ist in any meaningful senseN -s =rillat 'uts it, hysteria is Hune maladie 4ui n8en est 'as une, tout en l8Ftant . . .H1?:2 Dineteenth0#entury medi#al literature suggests that hysteria #an manifest itself in a highly dramati# formJ in the ideal ty'e of Char#ot8s Hgrande hystFrie,H "iolent mus#ular #ontra#tions #ulminating in the ar#hed 'osture 9arc*en*cercle <, 'aralysis, loss of "oi#e, retention of urine, anesthesia, and )lindness. 3n a re#ent study of admissions for hysteria to the Edin)urgh Royal 3nfirmary in the late eighteenth #entury, howe"er, G. B. Risse found that only a minority of alleged "i#tims had fits of this indJ most women sufferers had loss of a''etite or other digesti"e 'ro)lems, menstrual diffi#ulties, and fainting s'ells, sym'toms suggesti"e of many organi# diagnoses.1?C2 .et one relati"ely #onstant feature of the diagnosis of hysteria in modern times is that it im'lies that the 'hysi#al sym'toms so la)eled, whether dramati# or not, ha"e no re#ogni6ed organi# #ause. 3t should now )e #lear why hysteria has )een des#ri)ed as Hthat most unsatisfa#tory of 'sy#hiatri# syndromes.H1?>2 Barsden8s re#ent dis#ussion shows the widest 'ossi)le e/tent of the definition of Hhysteria.H HPhysi#ians use the term to des#ri)e the sym'tom 9#on"ersion disorder or disasso#iation state<, the illness 9somati6ation disorder or Bri4uet8s syndrome<, the 'ersonality 9histrioni#<, a form of an/iety 9'ho)i# an/iety after ,reud<, an e'idemi# out)rea 9mass hysteria< and irritating 'atients 9if female they are hysteri#alJ if male they + $$ + are 'sy#ho'aths<.H1?%2 =he irritation felt )y do#tors toward hysteria 'atients is elo4uently e/'ressed in the words of a do#tor writing in $%*>, a time when the #ontra#ture or Hdrawing u'H of a lim) was a #ommon sym'tom: H-s 7an#e #ut off the 'laster #ast from a $?0year0old girl whose leg had 8drawn u'8 a year 're"iously, she #ried, 83t is going to draw u'J it is going to draw u',8 at whi#h 7an#e said se"erely, 83f it does draw u', 3 will )rea your dOOOOd little ne# .8H1;*2 @ther #ontem'orary writers argue for a restri#tion of the definition of hysteria, e/#luding the syndrome and the 'ersonality ty'e and using hysteria only for a uni"ersal human rea#tion, #om'ara)le to an/iety or de'ression.1;$2 Shorter8s suggestions may )e hel'ful here, insofar as they 'ermit a degree of uni"ersality, while in#or'orating "ariation among #ultures. He a##e'ts that H8hysteria,8 it a''ears, is a real 'sy#hiatri# disease, in addition to )eing an e'ithet with whi#h men ha"e stigmati6ed women a#ross the ages.H Howe"er, he goes on, Hthe 'resentation of 8hysteri#al8 sym'toms tends to )e molded )y the surrounding #ultureH to a greater degree than that of, for e/am'le, the sym'toms of s#hi6o'hrenia. maIor 4uestion to as therefore #on#erns the so#ial #onstru#tion of the disease: Lhy is it that, from a wide re'ertoire of the 'ossi)le, H#ertain sym'toms are sele#ted in #ertain e'o#hsHN1;52 3 will return to this im'ortant 4uestion, in relation to the Hi''o#rati# te/ts.

,e*initions1 the !e0tual !radition

=hus the 4uestions raised )y hysteria are not only legion )ut often dire#tly #ontradi#tory. 3s hysteria another word for ignoran#e, or the 'erfe#tly ada'ta)le mimi#N 3s it a dramati# 'erforman#e or a minor gyne#ologi#al distur)an#eN 3s it #aused )y the wom) or has it no organi# #auseN 3s it a wide0ranging #ategory, a Hnon0"er)al language,H1;&2 or something uni"ersal )ut "ery s'e#ifi#N Beneath these 4uestions lies the maIor one for anyone trying to write a)out the history of hysteria: that is, what definition should )e used for the 'ur'oses of the 'resent wor N E. B. D. Boss ta es what may a''ear to )e an attra#ti"e o'tion when ta# ling this 'ro)lemJ he writes, H3n this 'a'er the word 8hysteri#8 is used in the manner of the 'eriod of the writings referred to.H1;?2 -s 3 ha"e already shown, howe"er, in the

an#ient 'eriod the word HhysteriaH is not used at allJ hysteri(os , Hhysteri#,H is used, )ut with the "ery s'e#ifi# meanings H#oming from the wom)H(Hsuffering due to the wom).H @ne way around this 'ro)lem would )e to restri#t the 'resent study to those se#tions of the #or'us traditionally seen as des#ri'tions of hysteriaJ for e/am'le, those so la)eled )y LittrF. -s 3 ha"e already shown, the diffi0 + $5 + #ulty here is that LittrF im'oses his own distin#tion )etween HrealH and HimaginaryH mo"ements of the wom), a distin#tion alien to the an#ient Gree writers. -n alternati"e would )e to study all se#tions of the #or'us in whi#h the wom) is des#ri)ed as mo"ing to another 'art of the )ody, )ut this only reiterates the 'oint that later writers use hysteria for sym'toms with no organi# #ause, whereas the Hi''o#rati#s regard wom) mo"ement as something entirely organi#. =he diffi#ulties of de#iding what #onstitutes hysteria for the 'ur'oses of a histori#al study are )y no means uni4ueJ indeed, they are dire#tly #om'ara)le to those en#ountered )y E. Ga))ay in his dis#ussion of the disease #on#e't Hasthma.H Ga))ay as s how far we H#an rely on 'resent0day nowledge of asthma to analyse histori#ally the so#ial nature of medi#al nowledgeH1;;2 and #on#ludes that we #annot assume that all writers in the 'ast who used the term were referring to the same thing. Lith hysteria, of #ourse, the 'ro)lems are greater, )e#ause our sour#es are not e"en using a #ommon name. Ga))ay raises the 4uestion whether a dia#hroni# study of a disease #on#e't in"estigates a #onstant natural entity, or a "ast range of different #on#e'ts,1;:2 and shows how this 4uestion all too easily leads the historian to the stage of Hhistori#al 'aralysis.H1;C2 Li e Bedusa8s head, the 4uestion, Lhat e/a#tly are we studyingN turns the onloo er to stone. -lthough it has this malign 'ower, the 4uestion must at least )e addressed, e"en in a negati"e way. =o #larify: in the 'resent wor 3 am dis#ussing neither all te/ts in whi#h the writers name the #ondition they des#ri)e hysteria, nor all te/ts mentioning a 'arti#ular #om)ination of sym'toms that 3 #hoose to la)el hysteria. 3nstead, 3 ha"e #hosen here to #on#entrate on a set of early te/ts #on"entionally lin ed )y su)se4uent writers: a finite series of te/ts, ea#h drawing on an in#reasingly fi/ed grou' of those written )y earlier writers, yet ea#h simultaneouslyAto some e/tent in#or'orating the ideas of its own age. 3 am thus studying hysteria from the 'ers'e#ti"e of a de"elo'ing tradition of reading the Hi''o#rati# #or'us, a te/tual tradition that #ulminates in LittrF. 3n order to illuminate the growth of this tradition, 3 will also draw on te/ts 'rodu#ed outside it in order to 'ro"ide the ne#essary #onte/t for its origin and de"elo'ment. Before turning to a more detailed study of the Hi''o#rati# te/ts #on"entionally used as e"iden#e for hysteria in an#ient Gree#e, it is worth #onsidering what im'li#ations the use of the la)el HhysteriaH may ha"e, for LittrF and other writers. =he Gree adIe#ti"e hysteri(os means Hfrom the wom)HJ as su#h, it is a 'urely 'hysi#al des#ri'tion of #ause, showing the 'art of the )ody from whi#h other sym'toms emanate. 3n a woman, as another Hi''o#rati# + $& + te/t 'uts it, Hthe wom) is the origin of all diseases,H1;>2 so it would )e fair to say that, in Hi''o#rati# gyne#ology, all diseases are hysteri#al. But this word #annot ha"e the same nuan#es for us as for an an#ient author. LittrF uses hysteria in a rather different way. 3n his Dictionnaire de la langue fran+aise 9$>:&0CC< he defines hysteria as follows: HHystFrie: maladie ner"euse 4ui se manifeste 'ar a##Fs et 4ui est

#hara#terisFe 'ar des #on"ulsions, la sensation d8une )oule 4ui remont de la matri#e dans la gorge et la suffo#ationH 9Hysteria: ner"ous disorder that manifests itself in the form of a fit and is #hara#teri6ed )y #on"ulsions, )y the sensation of a )all rising from the wom) into the throat, and )y suffo#ation<. =o understand LittrF8s 'osition, we must first understand the de)ate within whi#h he is situating himself. Boss has tra#ed the etiology of hysteria u' to the se"enteenth #entury.1;%2 He argues that, )efore a)out $:**, the Hhysteri# affe#tionH was, as the name im'lies, attri)uted to the wom). 3n the early se"enteenth #entury hysteria was lin ed not only to the male #ondition nown as hy'o#hondria, in whi#h the s'leen was thought to gi"e off "a'ors, )ut also to melan#holy, found in )oth se/es. Ro)ert Burton saw hy'o#hondria and hysteria as forms of melan#holyJ Sydenham )elie"ed that )oth se/es #ould suffer from hysteria, )ut that in women it was the most #ommon #ondition ne/t to fe"er.1:*2 =hus there was a shift in Hthe limits of hysteria, as it united with hy'o#hondria and anne/ed 'arts of melan#holy8s #rum)ling em'ire.H1:$2 -t the same time the #ause of hysteria #ame to )e seen as )eing the )rain, or the whole 'erson. 3n the eighteenth #entury, hysteria was in#reasingly #lassified as a neurosisJ the e/#ess )lood naturally 'resent in the female )ody led to in#reased ner"ous irrita)ility, es'e#ially under the influen#e of too mu#h meat, #offee, or tea and insuffi#ient e/er#ise.1:52 -t this time, H-##ording to the #on"entional medi#al wisdom, hysteria was a #hroni#, 4uintessentially feminine, disease resulting from the 'e#uliar #onstitution and 'hysiology of women.H1:&2 =he only #ertain way to ma e sure one8s fragile ner"es were not further wea ened was to #onform to the H're"ailing so#ial and )iologi#al notions of womanhood.H1:?2 By the mid0nineteenth #entury, when LittrF was writing, some do#tors )elie"ed that the #ause of hysteria was a 'hysi#al disorder of the wom)J others did not.1:;2 ,or most writers of this 'eriod, howe"er they may ha"e en"isaged the me#hanism of its 'rodu#tion, hysteria ne"ertheless Hwas rooted in the "ery nature of )eing female.H1::2 Pierre Bri4uet reIe#ted the idea that the wom) was res'onsi)le, 'referring the e/'lanation of a Hneurosis of the )rainH in someone of the Hhysteri#al ty'eHJ in other words, the hysteri#al 'ersonality was a ne#essary 'art of the de"elo'ment of the disorder.1:C2 3n some histori#al 'eriods the im'li#ations of the la)el hysteria are + $? + thus that the disease originates in the wom), while in others the im'li#ations are "ery different, hinting that there is no organi# origin for the sym'toms. LittrF8s di#tionary ma es his own 'osition #learJ he follows writers su#h as B. C. Brodie, who in a le#ture 'u)lished in $>&C wrote that Hhysteria. . . )elongs not to the uterus, )ut to the ner"ous system.H1:>2

Hi//o.rati. Hysteria1 the 3om2 and Its ,estinations

,or the Hi''o#rati# writers, howe"er, the te/ts that ha"e )een used in the #onstru#tion of hysteria des#ri)ed something resulting from a firmly organi# #ause, the mo"ement of the wom). 3t is to the role of the wom) that we must now turn. =he Hi''o#rati# te/ts suggest that mo"ement of the wom) is #aused )y menstrual su''ression, e/haustion, insuffi#ient food, se/ual a)stinen#e, and dryness or lightness of the wom), and that it #an )e #ured )y marriage and(or 'regnan#y, s#ent thera'y, irritant 'essaries, and "arious her)al #on#o#tions administered )y mouth, )y nose, or dire#t to the "ul"a. Sin#e the wom) is )elie"ed #a'a)le of mo"ement around mu#h of the )ody, these te/ts attri)ute a wide range of sym'toms to wom) mo"ement. 3n sear#hing for Hi''o#rati# hysteria, we #ould therefore narrow down the field )y identifying some #om)ination of sym'toms whi#h so #losely resem)les the 'i#ture of hysteria in later histori#al 'eriods that the 'ro)lem of the a)sen#e of a disease la)el might )e dismissed. =he 4uestion raised )y this a''roa#h is, of #ourse, whi#h histori#al 'eriod8s image of

hysteria we should ta e as our ideal ty'e against whi#h the Hi''o#rati# te/ts are to )e measuredA hysteri(e pni# in the early Roman Em'ireN or the hysteria of the mid0nineteenth #enturyN -nother, more 'rodu#ti"e, way of a''roa#hing the 'ro)lem is to start from the o''osite end, as ing whi#h se#tions of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us ha"e traditionally )een used as e"iden#e that hysteria was found in #lassi#al Gree#e. Ro))8s HHi''o#rates on HysteriaH1:%2 translates the $phorisms 'assage and fi"e #ha'ters of the gyne#ologi#al treatises: ,ature of )oman , #ha'ter >CJ Diseases of )omen )oo $, #ha'ter C, and )oo 5, #ha'ters $5&0$5;. He also gi"es )rief summaries of Diseases of )omen )oo 5, #ha'ters $5:0$5C. 3t is signifi#ant that these #ha'ters are among the "ery small grou' of Hi''o#rati# te/ts used in re#ent dis#ussions of hysteria, the other maIor #ha'ter most #ommonly )rought into the de)ate )eing Diseases of )omen $.&5.1C*2 Ro)) also #ites the a''endi/ to -egimen in $cute Diseases , whi#h distinguishes )etween pni# Aa )reathing diffi#ulty usually translated as Hsuffo#ationHA#aused )y the wom) and that #aused )y s'asm + $; + or #on"ulsions: if the 'atient feels 'ressure from the fingers, it is from the wom)J if not, it is a #on"ulsion.1C$2 Howe"er, #lose study of the a)o"e 'assages from Diseases of )omen and ,ature of )oman , so often the only e/am'les of Hi''o#rati# hysteria gi"en in #ontem'orary dis#ussions, re"eals that they ha"e in #ommon only a referen#e to the wom) mo"ing to another 'art of the )ody, and the sym'tom of pni# . =he affinity )etween these is not, howe"er, #onstant. ,or e/am'le, the wom) may mo"e in the a)sen#e of pni# , as in Diseases of )omen 5.$5C 9L >.5C505C?<J this se#tion is headed HHystFrieH )y LittrF. 3t is also worth noting that su#h features of nineteenthAand twentieth0#entury hysteria as grinding the teeth, loss of "oi#e, #old e/tremities, and lim) 'ains or 'aralysis do feature in the Hi''o#rati# te/ts, often in the #om'any of mo"ement of the wom) and suffo#ation, )ut may )e found in the a)sen#e of either or )oth and may )e attri)uted to a named organi# #auseJ for e/am'le, in Diseases of )omen 5.$$* 9L >.5&?05&>< they arise from a red flu/. =he diffi#ulties of finding a 'assage in the Hi''o#rati# te/ts to ser"e as a 'aradigm for Hi''o#rati# hysteria are in#reased when we loo at LittrF8s #lassifi#ations and at the te/ts themsel"es. =hus, of the si/ te/ts used )y Ro)),1C52 only four are in fa#t headed HHystFrieH )y LittrF: one #ha'ter from ,ature of )oman , >C 9L C.?*><, and three from Diseases of )omen , 5.$5&0$5; 9L >.5::05C*<. Dot only do they gi"e largely different #om)inations of sym'toms and 'res#ri)e different remedies, )ut in none of them does e"en the adIe#ti"e hysteri(os , Hfrom the wom),H a''ear. =his last 'oint is of 'arti#ular interest. Sin#e the noun is not used in this 'eriod, it is entirely irrele"ant for B. R. Lef owit6, in a dis#ussion of fourth0#entury medi#ine, to #laim that Hthe term hysteria means 8wom)iness8.H1C&2 Bay)e it doesJ )ut sin#e it is not used, this is of little im'ortan#e. @ne also sear#hes for it in "ain in the later gyne#ologi#al writers of anti4uity, su#h as Soranus and -retaeus of Ca''ado#ia, in whose wor there does e/ist a #ondition thought to originate in the wom) and to #ause sym'toms of suffo#ation, tooth grinding, loss of "oi#e, and so on, )ut whi#h is #alled not hysteria )ut hysteri(e pni# , Hsuffo#ation #aused )y the wom).H =he #lassi# des#ri'tion of the sym'toms that #ame to )e #olle#ted under this la)el is Soranus8s Gynecology &.5:05%J se#tion 5.$$ of -retaeus is also headed H@n hysteri(e pni# H 9CBG "ol. 5, PP. &50&?< )ut, unli e Soranus, he lists the remedies in a se'arate se#tion, :.$*, H=reatment of hysteri(e pni# H 9CBG "ol. 5, ''. $&%0$?$<.1C?2 =he theories of -retaeus and Soranus will )e dis#ussed in detail )elow. Howe"er, it is worth dis#ussing why neither the #ategory of hysteria nor that of hysteri(e pni# has a 'la#e in Hi''o#rati# medi#ine. Dot

+ $: + only does pni# e/ist as a sym'tom in the Hi''o#rati# gyne#ologi#al te/ts, and hysteri(os as an adIe#ti"e, )ut one of the se#tions used )y Ro)) and many othersADiseases of )omen $.C 9L >.&5<A e"en introdu#es the des#ri'tion with H3f pni# suddenly o##urs.H De"ertheless, in these te/ts the two are not e/'li#itly )rought together. Lhy should this )e soN @ne of the reasons why neither hysteria nor hysteri(e pni# is a Hi''o#rati# #ategory is sim'ly that Hi''o#rati# gyne#ology does not wor )y fitting #olle#tions of sym'toms into 'ree/isting #ategories. Le #an learn a great deal from studying the ways in whi#h the Hi''o#rati# writers #hoose to des#ri)e and to name disease. 3n many #ases, an#ient gyne#ology distinguishes and se'arates different #om)inations of sym'toms a##ording to #ause and treatment, rather than su)suming many sym'toms under a single disease la)el that H#o"ers o"er all the #lini#al detailHJ1C;2 it em'hasi6es des#ri'tion of sym'toms rather than diagnosis.1C:2 -ny attem't to im'ose the diagnosis of hysteria on the Hi''o#rati# te/ts may therefore ris distorting their a''roa#h to illness. 3ndeed, loo ing at the Hi''o#rati# #or'us in general, not all Hi''o#rati# te/ts name the diseases they des#ri)e. 7. Ki Benedetto distinguishes four ways of 'resenting a disease in these te/ts: as Hanother disorder,H as HifH or HwhenH followed )y one or more sym'toms, as HifH or HwhenH followed )y the name of a disease, or )y gi"ing the name of the disorder at the "ery )eginning of the se#tion. He suggests that these different ways of 'resenting disease refle#t a #ulture in whi#h the relationshi' )etween do#tor and disease is defined in more than one way. =he Hif sym'tom /, thera'y yH form is the most an#ient, found also in -ssyrian and Ba)ylonian medi#ine, )ut in Hi''o#rati# medi#ine it is slightly modified )e#ause the 'atient and the disease are se'arated and the 'ossi)ility admitted that different 'atients may suffer in slightly different ways from what is ne"ertheless the same disease. =urning this last 'oint on its head, the Hi''o#rati# writers thus ha"e the notion of a disease as something unitary whi#h, due not only to the differen#es )etween 'atients in age, se/, tem'erament, and #oloring, )ut also to "ariations in #limate and season, may ne"ertheless manifest itself in a "ariety of ways. @ne disease: different sym'toms, a##ording to other fa#tors affe#ting its 'resentation.1CC2 Lhen the Hi''o#rati# te/ts gi"e a s'e#ifi# name to a disorder, it may )e ta en from the affe#ted 'artJ from the way in whi#h the disorder 'resents itselfJ from the s'e#ifi# sensation #ausedJ or from something that ha''ens in the #ourse of the disease.1C>2 -lthough there is no name gi"en to the disorder, or disorders, in the te/ts usually seen as HHi''o#rati# hysteria,H their o'ening words are rele"ant here. =hese fall into two + $C + #ategories. Some start )y des#ri)ing the mo"ement of the wom): HLhen the wom) turns to the headH in Diseases of )omen 5.$5& 9L >.5::<. @thers start with the sym'toms of pni# , suffo#ation: the o'ening of Diseases of )omen $.&5 9L >.C:< translates as H3f pni# suddenly sei6es a 'regnant woman.H =he later name hysteria #omes from the 'art )elie"ed to )e affe#ted: the wom). Howe"er, in the Hi''o#rati# te/ts )eing #onsidered here, the fo#us is either on the 'art that #auses the sym'toms or on the sym'tom that seems to ha"e a #entral 'osition: pni# . 3 will shortly return to the s'e#ifi# signifi#an#e of this sensation in #lassi#al medi#ine. =he te/ts traditionally used as e/am'les of hysteria in the Hi''o#rati# #or'us e/hi)it se"eral features that ma e it diffi#ult to merge them into one 'i#ture. 3 now 'ro'ose to dis#uss those most #ommonly used )y later #ommentators in order of their a''earan#e in the gyne#ologi#al treatises, and to set them within the #onte/t of the imagery asso#iated with HwomanH in an#ient Gree#e. =he first des#ri'tion of interest is the se#ond #ha'ter of Diseases of )omen )oo $ 9L >.$?055<, a

dis#ussion of menstrual su''ression in a #hildless woman. Benstrual su''ression is of #entral im'ortan#e in Hi''o#rati# gyne#ology,1C%2 due to a 'hysiology of the female outlined in the 're"ious #ha'ter, Diseases of )omen $.$ 9L >. $*0$?<. Regular menstrual )leeding is seen as essential to female healthAafter maturity, outside 'regnan#y, and )efore the Hdrying outH of the meno'auseA)e#ause of the 4uality of female flesh. 3n women who ha"e gi"en )irth, the )ody is H)ro en downH and its internal #hannels o'ened )y #hild)irth and the lo#hia. - woman who has not gi"en )irth will suffer more 'ain if the flow of her menstrual )lood is o)stru#tedJ )e#ause her )ody is more resistant, firmer, and more Hthi# ly0'a# ed,H there is less o'en s'a#e into whi#h the )lood #an tra"el. =he writer of this #ha'ter goes on to say that a woman8s flesh is softer and of a looser te/ture than that of a man, and draws an analogy )etween female flesh and shee's in, and )etween male flesh and a rug. 3f a flee#e and a rug of e4ual weight are 'la#ed o"er water or in a dam' 'la#e for two days and nights, the flee#e will )e found to ha"e )e#ome mu#h hea"ier than the rug. =his is )e#ause shee's in has a greater #a'a#ity to a)sor) water: a #a'a#ity shared with female flesh.1>*2 -ristotle8s #hara#teri6ation of woman as Ha deformed maleH and Ha mutilated maleH is well nown, as is its 'ersisten#e in Lestern #ulture.1>$2 Howe"er, -ristotle8s )iology may )e seen as only one manifestation of the #lassi#al Gree )elief that women are )oth fundamentally different from, and inferior to, men. 3n the se"enth #entury B.C ., the 'oet Hesiod e/'ressed this )elief in #hronologi#al termsJ women, the genos gynai(on + $> + or Hra#e of women,H were #reated later than men. Before Peus sent the first woman and mother of the Hra#e,H Pandora, as one stage in the se4uen#e of gift and #ounter0gift )etween gods and men, men li"ed li e the gods. =he arri"al of Pandora and her daughters #reates the need for se/ual re'rodu#tion and agri#ultural la)or, sin#e women are "ora#ious #onsumers of all that a man #an 'rodu#e.1>52 3n the Timaeus , Plato too 'resents women as a late addition to the human ra#eJ in the se#ond generation of humanity, men who a#ted in a #owardly or unIust way in the first are re)orn as women.1>&2 Kefining the female in terms of the male is one way of e/'ressing differen#eJ #hronology is another. @ther images of male(female relations e/'ress it in other ways )ut show similar 'ersisten#e: the agri#ultural meta'hor, in whi#h man 'loughs the field that is woman and sows the seed in her 'assi"e )ody, or the war(#hild)irth o''osition, in whi#h man sheds the )lood of others to defend the #ity in war, while woman )leeds from her own )ody and re'lenishes the #ity8s sto# of men.1>?2 By lo#ating female differen#e at the le"el of the flesh, Hi''o#rati# medi#ine in#or'orates the ideas of fundamental differen#e, se/uality, and )loodshed into its image of woman. =he dire#t #onse4uen#e of the differen#e )etween the flesh of the two se/es is that women a)sor) more fluid from the digesti"e 'ro#ess, needing menstruation to remo"e the e/#ess from their )odies. -s a result, in the Hi''o#rati# te/ts women are often des#ri)ed as HwetterH than men. Lomen are loose0 te/tured and soft to the tou#h, thus )y their "ery nature retaining moisture, and this retention is e"en 'resented as the e/'lanation for women ha"ing )reasts.1>;2 - further fa#tor mentioned in Diseases of )omen $.$ is their way of life. - man does more strenuous and tiring wor , whi#h dries out any e/#ess moisture he may ha"e a##umulatedJ women li"e sedentary li"es, lea"ing menstruation as the only way of 'urging them of the e/#ess fluid )uilding u' in their )odies. 3t is in the #onte/t of these )eliefs a)out the female )ody that Diseases of )omen $.5 should )e read. 3n #ertain #ir#umstan#es, e"en in the wet )ody of a woman, the wom) may )e de'ri"ed of suffi#ient moisture. =he #hildless woman, due to the la# of s'a#es in her )ody in whi#h moisture #an )e stored, is at 'arti#ular ris , a)o"e all if she a)stains from the HmoisteningH a#ti"ity of se/ual inter#ourse. 3n

su#h a woman, the Hdry and lightH wom) may suddenly Hturn aroundH1>:2 and mo"e u' in sear#h of moisture. Benstruation sto's, and if it does not o##ur for three months there will )e pni# from time to time, intermittent fe"er, shi"ering, and 'ain in the lim)s. 3f there is no )leeding )y the fourth month, these sym'toms will worsen and will )e Ioined )y those of thi# urine, + $% + a swollen a)domen, grinding the teeth, loss of a''etite, and diffi#ulty in slee'ing. 3n the fifth month all sym'toms will )e worseJ if the #ondition 'ersists into the si/th month with no menstrual loss, it will ha"e )e#ome in#ura)le, and the woman will suffer the additional sym'toms of "omiting 'hlegm, e/treme thirst, dis#omfort if tou#hed, gurgling sounds from the )lood in the wom) whi#h is una)le to #ome out, loss of "oi#e or diffi#ulty in ma ing herself understood, and irregular )reathing. ,inally the a)domen, legs, and feet will swell: death is imminent. =he disorder des#ri)ed in Diseases of )omen $.C is similar, although it does not follow this month0)y0 month 'attern, )ut the e/'lanation for the sym'toms is different, sin#e the #entral 'oint seems to )e that they de'end on the lo#ation to whi#h the dry wom) mo"es. =he affe#ted grou' is des#ri)ed as women not ha"ing inter#ourse, )ut older rather than younger women )e#ause their wom)s are lighter in weight. Elsewhere in these te/ts it is e/'lained that the younger the woman, the more )lood there is 'resent in her )ody.1>C2 3f a woman8s "essels are em'tier than usual and she is more tired, the wom), dried out )y fatigue, turns around and Hthrows itselfH on the li"er )e#ause this organ is full of moisture. =his #auses sudden pni# , )y interru'ting the route of the )reath through the )elly. Kuring this pni# , the whites of the eyes are turned u', the woman is #old, and her #om'le/ion is li"idJ she grinds her teeth and has e/#ess sali"a, li e a sufferer from Hera#les8 disease, another name for the #ondition that the Hi''o#rati#s usually #alled the sa#red disease and whi#h we would 'ro)a)ly #all e'ile'sy. Sometimes 'hlegm will run down from the head, #ausing the wom) to lea"e the li"er and return to its 'ro'er 'la#e, and the pni# will sto' )e#ause the wom) is now full of fluid and hea"y. 3f the wom) stays on the li"er or in the area of the hy'o#hondria for a long time, howe"er, the sufferer will )e #ho edJ if it mo"es to the mouth of the )ladder, it will #ause stranguryJ or it may go to the lim)s or side. Diseases of )omen $.&5 9L >.C:< gi"es an almost identi#al etiology for pni# and a "ery similar 'i#ture of sym'toms, )ut it #on#erns the #ondition in a 'regnant woman. Dot only fatigue )ut also insuffi#ient food #an #ause the wom) to mo"eJ the wom) itself is des#ri)ed as )eing o"erheated as well as dry. -s in $.C, 'hlegmAdes#ri)ed as #oldAmay run down from the head and #ause the wom) to return to its 'ro'er 'ositionJ if the wom) does not return 4ui# ly, there is danger to the fetus. =he alleged hysteria te/ts in Diseases of )omen 5.$5&ff. are mu#h shorter than those so far dis#ussed and gi"e little information on the women most li ely to )e affe#ted or on the me#hanisms )y whi#h the + 5* + sym'toms are 'rodu#ed. 3nstead, they start )y naming the lo#ation to whi#h the wom) has mo"ed 9without saying why it has tra"eled there<, then gi"e a short list of Hsigns,H and finally outline the treatment. Diseases of )omen 5.$5& 9L >.5::< o'ens: HLhen the wom) mo"es to the head and the pni# sto's there, the head is hea"y.H =he signs are that the 'atient says she has 'ain in the #hannels in the nose and under the eyes: there is lethargy and foaming at the mouth. =he first treatment is to wash her with warm waterJ if this does not wor , #old water or #ooled )oiled laurel or myrtle water should )e 'ut on the head, and the head anointed with rose oil. Sweet smelling fumigations should )e a''lied )elow, foul smelling su)stan#es to the nostrilsJ she should eat #a))age and drin #a))age water.

Diseases of )omen 5.$5? 9L >.5::05:>< has an identi#al format and #on#erns mo"ement to the heartJ Diseases of )omen 5.$5; 9L >. 5:>05C*< and 5.$5: 9L >.5C*05C5< #on#ern mo"ement to the hy'o#hondria, for whi#h drin s of #astoreum and flea)ane1>>2 are among the re#ommended remedies. -s is usual in these te/ts, a range of different su)stan#es is gi"en, 'erha's in order to aid the do#tor in #atering for a range of a)ilities to 'ay, or to allow for seasonal diffi#ulties in o)taining the su)stan#es. 3n general, in addition to 'essaries, washing, )andages around the )ody to ee' the wom) in 'la#e,1>%2 oiling, and drin s, these te/ts ma e mu#h use of fumigation, a fre4uent remedy for gyne#ologi#al #onditions. =he most detailed des#ri'tion of fumigation o##urs in a te/t that is not traditionally used )y later writers on hysteria: Diseases of )omen 5.$&& 9L >.5>?05>:<. =his #o"ers a forty0day 'rogram of 'essaries and fumigations for a #ondition in whi#h the wom) mo"es to the hi' Ioint, the mouth of the wom) is #losed and tilted, and the menstrual )lood, una)le to lea"e )y its usual route, mo"es instead to the )reasts. 3t is worth translating in full not only )e#ause of the details of the fumigation 'ro#ess, re#ommended to return the wom) to its 'la#e and o'en it so that the menstrual )lood #an #ome outA 'art of the treatment for hysteri#al suffo#ation for many #enturiesA)ut also )e#ause it is only one of many #ha'ters that #ould )e used to show the e/isten#e of wom) mo"ement te/ts, the details of whi#h the hysteria tradition #hooses to ignore. Contri)uting to its negle#t )y the hysteria tradition is the fa#t that LittrF diagnoses it not as hysteria )ut as H@)li4uitF latFrale de"enant #hroni4ueH leading to menstrual su''ression, swollen )reasts, and, e"entually, )reast #an#er. =he des#ri'tion of fumigation reads as follows. + 5$ + ,irst gi"e a fumigation to the wom). =a e an earthenware 'ot with two0si/ths #a'a#ity, 'ut on it a dish, and fit them together so that no air #an get in. =hen 'ier#e the )ottom of the dish and ma e a hole. Put in the hole a reed, a)out a #u)it long. =he reed must )e 'ro'erly inserted in the dish so that no "a'or es#a'es. Lhen you ha"e 're'ared this, 'la#e the dish on the 'ot and 'laster it round with #lay. Lhen you ha"e done these things, dig a hole in the ground, two feet dee', large enough to ma e room for the 'ot. =hen )urn firewood, until you ha"e made the hole red0hot. Lhen it is red0hot, ta e out the wood and the )iggest and hottest 'ie#es of #har#oal, )ut lea"e the ashes and em)ers in the hole. Lhen the 'ot is heated u' and "a'or rises, if the "a'or is "ery hot, hold )a# J if not, she is to sit on the end of the reed, and 'ass it into the mouth 1of the wom)2, then fumigate. 3f it #ools, throw on red0hot #har#oal, ta ing #are that the fumigation is not too fiery. 3f, )y adding the #har#oal, the fumigation )e#omes more fiery than it should )e, ta e away the #har#oal. @ne should #onstru#t the fumigation in fine, still weather, so she is not #old: she should )e #o"ered with garments. 3n the 'ot you should 'ut dry garli#, and 'our in water so that it rises two digits a)o"e, and soa it well, and 'our in seal oil too. Heat this. =he fumigation must go on for a long time. -fter the fumigation, if she is a)le, she should wash her whole )ody as she 'leases, the lower )a# and )elow the na"el in 'arti#ular. Gi"e for dinner )arley #a e or wheat )read, and )oiled garli#. @n the ne/t day, if she is wea from the fumigation, intermit that day: if not, go )a# to the fumigation. Lhile she is )eing fumigated, if she is a)le to e/amine it, order her to tou#h the mouth 1of the wom)2. =he fumigation itself inflates the wom), ma es it more u'right and o'ens it. 3t is )e#ause it is li e this, and #an do su#h things, that you should use a fumigation.1%*2 @n the #onstituents of this fumigation, it is noteworthy that elsewhere in this treatise seal oil is des#ri)ed as the )est su)stan#e to use in a fumigation for mo"ement of the wom) to the hy'o#hondria.

1%$2 Garli#, li e #astoreum and flea)ane, features )e#ause of its strong smell. 3n des#ri'tions of thera'y for wom) mo"ement, the olfa#tory 4ualities of su)stan#es often a##ount for their use. =he 'attern is usually that fragrant su)stan#es are a''lied to the "ul"a, in order to attra#t the wom) )a# , while foul0 smelling su)stan#es are 'la#ed under the nostrils to dri"e the wom) away from the u''er 'arts of the )ody.1%52 3n addition0and in a''arent #ontradi#tionAfragrant oils may )e ru))ed on the head and strong0smelling su)stan#es drun , often in wine. LittrF8s diagnosis a'art, there seems little reason why the wom) mo"ement des#ri)ed in 5.$&& should ha"e )een omitted from the #onstru#tion of the hysteria tradition. =hat se#tion demonstrates the 're"alen#e + 55 + of the #om)ination of wom) mo"ement and menstrual su''ression throughout Diseases of )omen . Returning to the alleged hysteria te/ts, Diseases of )omen 5.$5C 9L >.5C5< is another des#ri'tion of mo"ement of the wom) to the li"er, whi#h defines the affe#ted grou' in a way different from that of the writer of $.C. Lhere $.C saw the most li ely sufferer as an older woman not ha"ing inter#ourse, 5.$5C suggests mo"ement to the li"er is more #ommon in older unmarried women and young widows, es'e#ially the #hildless and the sterile, )e#ause these women la# the )enefi#ial 'urging of #hild)irth and the lo#hia. Here the argument is more reminis#ent of $.5. Se#tion 5.$5> 9L >.5C:< dis#usses mo"ement to the hy'o#hondria, for whi#h a fumigation followed )y inter#ourse is re#ommended, and 5.$5% 9L >.5C:< #o"ers mo"ement to the ri)s, whi#h #an #ause a #ough, 'ain in the side, and what feels li e a )all in the side. Se#tion 5.$&* 9L >.5C>< #on#erns mo"ement to the hi's or flan s, and 5.$&$ 9L >.5C>< mo"ement to the middle of the waist, in whi#h the drawing u' of the lim)s is mentioned as a sym'tom. - further set of te/ts #on#erning wom) mo"ement may )e found at 5.5**ff.J two signifi#ant 'oints for the later history of hysteria o##ur in 5.5*$ 9L >.&>?<, where it is re#ommended that the 'atient8s groin and inner thighs should )e ru))ed with aromati#s to #ure mo"ement of the wom) to the dia'hragm, and 5.5*& 9L >.&>><, where we read, HLhen the wom) #auses pni# , light a lam' and snuff it out under the nostrilsH and, later in the same #ha'ter, H=a e a lam', throw on it a little oil, light it, and when it is e/tinguished hold it near the nostrils.H =he first thera'y is used in a famous 'assage of Galen, whi#h will )e dis#ussed )elow: the se#ond, also found in one of the te/ts used in the hysteria tradition, ,ature of )oman >C 9L C.?*><,1%&2 o##urs in many later dis#ussions of hysteria. 3t #an )e seen that the Hi''o#rati# te/ts do indeed wor )y des#ri)ing sym'toms rather than gi"ing a single disease name to these #ha'ters, and that where they grou' sym'toms and thera'ies together they do so a##ording to the 'art of the )ody to whi#h the wom) is )elie"ed to ha"e mo"ed. @f these thera'ies, the re#ommendation of marriage('regnan#y o##urs only in the dis#ussion of wom) mo"ement to the hy'o#hondria in Diseases of )omen 5.$5> 9L. >.5C:<, whi#h ends )y saying that, after fumigation, the 'atient should slee' with her hus)and: Hrelease from this disease, when she is 'regnant.H De"ertheless, it is this treatment for wom) mo"ement that has re#ei"ed most attention in the se#ondary literature, a)o"e all in the wor of the 'sy#hoanalyst and #lassi#ist Bennett Simon, in his !ind and !adness in $ncient Greece . =his in#ludes a #ha'ter titled HHysteria and So#ial 3ssues,H whi#h o'ens with the familiar error: + 5& + HHysteria, the disease of the 8wandering uterus,8 was gi"en its name )y the Gree s.H1%?2 Simon8s o"erall

a''roa#h to hysteria #om)ines that of 3. B. Lewis8s study of s'irit 'ossession, tran#e, and shamanism, whi#h 'resents the 'ossessed state as an indire#t mode of 'rotest used )y 'owerless and 'eri'heral se#tors of so#iety,1%;2 with a ,reudian model. -##ording to what Simon #alls a H'sy#hodynami# understanding of hysteria,H Ha hysteri#al sym'tom, for a Gree woman, 'ermitted a safe e/'ression of #ertain unmet needs,H as a result of whi#h e/'ression the do#tor would inter"ene on the woman8s )ehalf as the Hwished0for good father.H1%:2 =o summari6e the H#ulturally san#tioned dum) showH1%C2 that Simon en"isages, an unmarried or widowed woman is su''osed to feel se/ually frustrated and to e/'ress this frustration )y hysteria: the do#tor then legitimates her wish )y announ#ing that the #ure #onsists in letting her ha"e what she wants, sin#e it is 're#isely marriage and #hild)irth that will ma e her healthy again. =his a''roa#h is inade4uate )e#ause it shows little understanding of the institutional 'osition of women, the ideal of marriage as uni"ersal, the ideal age at first marriage of fourteen for girls, and so on.1%>2 3t also fails to #ome to terms with the fa#t that, in most of the te/ts la)eled HHystFrieH )y LittrF, the marital status of the sufferer is not gi"en1%%2 or she is e/'li#itly des#ri)ed as married.1$**2 3n his dis#ussion Simon #ites only one Hi''o#rati# 'assage, Diseases of )omen 5.$;$ 9L >.&5:<, in whi#h the woman 'atient is said to suffer in the same way as those who are stru# with the sa#red disease. 3n another 'assage on this last disease, Simon re"eals that, li e 7eith, he has not studied the Gree te/t of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us in suffi#ient detail. -fter a )rief dis#ussion of the Hmadness of Hera#les,H whi#h Hwas #onsidered )y some to )e a #ase of e'ile'sy,H1$*$2 Simon states, H=o my nowledge, the Hi''o#rati# #or'us #ontains no mention of the mythi#al #hara#ters who went mad and were 'ortrayed so "i"idly on the -thenian stage and in "ase 'ainting.H Howe"er, as 3 ha"e mentioned a)o"e, in Diseases of )omen $.C 9L >.&5< the writer states that women with the #ondition he des#ri)es resem)le sufferers from HHera#les8 diseaseHJ hypo tes hera(leies nousou , whi#h LittrF translates Hau/ F'ile'ti4ues.H =he #hara#ters of myth, who had influen#ed the fol names of diseases, are thus 'resent e"en in the Hi''o#rati# #or'us. 3t is, furthermore, ina''ro'riate to des#ri)e hysteria as a Hsafe e/'ressionH of a woman8s needs when loss of "oi#e, grinding the teeth, and Hmo"ement of the wom) to the li"er,H far from )eing a safe way of attra#ting attention, may )e the signal for the Hi''o#rati# do#tor to tie )andages around the 'atient8s waist, 'la#e foul0smelling su)stan#es under her nose, insert )eetle 'essaries, inIe#t hot oil into the wom), or + 5? + shower her with #old water. -s e/amination of the te/ts has already shown, and #ontrary to what Simon im'lies, marriage and #hild)irth are rarely the 'res#ri)ed remedies for this #om)ination of sym'toms, 1$*52 and it is also unusual for the remedy to #onsist of something that #ould )e seen as a form of indire#t se/ual gratifi#ationJ for e/am'le, fragrant ointments to )e ru))ed on the "ul"a1$*&2 or the "aginal insertion of o)Ie#ts s'e#ifi#ally des#ri)ed as resem)ling the male se/ual organ.1$*?2 ,inally, it is ina''ro'riate to use Simon8s H'sy#hodynami# modelH when in Hi''o#rati# medi#ine there is no line drawn )etween 'sy#hologi#al and organi# illness.1$*;2 - similar a''roa#h to that of Simon is ta en )y Rousselle, who states that HGree women had no legal right to ma e any de#ision regarding their own marriage: they #ould not as a man to marry them, or e"en de#ide that they wanted to )e married or to a##e't an offer of marriage, so it is 'erha's not sur'rising that their im'otent anger should ta e the form of a disease in whi#h their wom) was literally suffo#ating them.H1$*:2 K. Goure"it#h tra#es the disa''earan#e of Hthe hysteri#al "irgin from medi#al literatureH )etween the Hi''o#rati#s and the medi#ine of the Roman Em'ireJ she attri)utes this disa''earan#e to institutional #hange sin#e, if the age at first marriage falls e"en further, fewer girls

will remain to )e#ome hysteri#al.1$*C2 Howe"er, su#h a''roa#hes are rooted in our own so#iety8s "iews on what is normal for a woman, on the nature of hysteria, and on the relationshi' )etween medi#ine and se/uality. .et for the writers of the Hi''o#rati# te/tsAand 'ro)a)ly for the 'atients they treatAinter#ourse and 'regnan#y rightly )elong to the domain of the 'harma#o'oeia, due to their dramati# and )enefi#ial 'hysi#al effe#ts. Dot only does inter#ourse moisten the wom), thus dis#ouraging it from mo"ing elsewhere in the )ody to see moisture, )ut it also agitates the )ody and thus fa#ilitates the 'assage of )lood within it. ,urthermore, #hild)irth )rea s down the flesh throughout the )ody and, )y ma ing e/tra s'a#es within whi#h e/#ess )lood #an rest, redu#es the 'ain #aused )y the mo"ement of )lood )etween 'arts of the )ody. 3t #auses #om'lete 'urgation 9(atharsis < of e/#ess )lood and may thus #ure many women whose 'ro)lems originate in menstruation. Sin#e all disorders of women ultimately result from their soft and s'ongy flesh and e/#ess )lood, all disorders of women may )e #ured )y inter#ourse and(or #hild)irth, to whi#h marriage and 'regnan#y are the ne#essary 're#ursors. =here is thus nothing s'e#ial a)out the 'res#ri'tion of these in #ases of mo"ement of the wom). Hi''o#rati# medi#ine thus gi"es a 'harma#ologi#al inter'retation to + 5; + what we may )e tem'ted to see as the so#ial 'ro#esses of marriage and motherhood. Le should, of #ourse, ne"er forget that the Gree word for mature woman, gyne , also means Hwife.H Lom) mo"ement, howe"er, #alls u' a )attery of other thera'ies, many of whi#h0li e the fumigation des#ri)ed a)o"eAma e use of foulAand sweet0smelling su)stan#es. =hese thera'ies lie )ehind the assertion fre4uently made in later writersA)ut not in su#h authors as Soranus and GalenAthat the Hi''o#rati# wom) was thought to )e an inde'endent li"ing )eing, fleeing from foul smells )ut mo"ing to see out more 'leasant odors. Le must now de#ide whether any su#h )elief is ne#essarily im'lied )y the use of s#ent thera'y. Su#h thera'y relies on the idea of #onne#tions e/isting )etween 'arts of the )ody, and in 'arti#ular in the gyne#ologi#al te/ts on the 'resen#e of a hodos or HwayH from the nostrils and mouth to the "agina. 1$*>2 =his is ne"er anatomi#ally des#ri)ed )ut is im'li#it in many thera'ies used. ,or e/am'le, a test to determine whether a woman #an #on#ei"e in"ol"es 'utting a #lo"e of garli# or another strongly s#ented su)stan#e at one end of the hodos and dis#o"ering whether the s#ent rea#hes the o''osite end. 3f so, there is no o)stru#tion 'resent, and the woman #an #on#ei"e.1$*%2 Kisorders of the wom) #an also )e treated )y using the hodos . - summary of treatments of the wom) in Diseases of )omen 5.$&C mentions the to' and the )ottom of this tu)e as a''ro'riate sites for the administration of medi#ation. 1$$*2 3f the wom) has mo"ed u'ward, foul0smelling su)stan#es are held at the nose, 'leasant0smelling su)stan#es to the "ul"a, so that the wom) is simultaneously re'elled from a)o"e and attra#ted down to its #orre#t 'la#e.1$$$2 3f the wom) mo"es down, or starts to #ome out of the )ody through the "ul"a, foul smells are 'la#ed there and sweet smells at the nostrils to draw it u' again.1$$52 =here is no e/'li#it dis#ussion of the me#hanism )y whi#h su#h thera'y is su''osed to wor .

Plato and %retaeus1 the 3ild 3om24

3t is signifi#ant for later medi#ine that these des#ri'tions of s#ent thera'y also #ontain no suggestion that the wom) is animateJ that is, that it is a li"ing )eing with a desire for sweet smells and a re"ulsion for foul smells. =his )rings us to a further im'ortant 'assage, Plato8s Timaeus %$a0d, a des#ri'tion of the wom) as animal, whi#h has )een highly influential in the history of hysteria. =he wom) is seen )y =imaeus of Lo#ri as a li"ing #reature desiring union, whi#h, if it remains unfruitful 9a(arpos < )eyond

its 'ro'er season, tra"els around the )ody )lo# ing 'assages, o)stru#ting )reathing, and #ausing diseases. C. B. =ur)ayne says HPlato8s a##ount + 5: + follows that of Hi''o#rates who, in his "ic(nesses of )omen , #oined the word 8hysteria8 and as#ri)ed hysteria to the wandering wom).H1$$&2 -s one would e/'e#t, 7eith is #ited in a footnote.1$$?2 ,urthermore, this lin )etween wom) and animal is ta en )y ,. Kudlien to )e the assum'tion )ehind the Hwell nown an#ient #on#e'tH of uterine suffo#ation.1$$;2 Plato li"ed from a)out ?%> to &?C B.C . and was thus writing at the same time as the authors of Diseases of )omen , or a few years after. 3s it therefore "alid to merge his theories with theirs and #on#lude that the Hi''o#rati# s#ent thera'y ne#essarily im'lies the )elief that the wom) is animate, Ha li"ing thing inside another li"ing thing,H as the se#ond0#entury -.K . medi#al writer -retaeus later wroteN1$$:2 =he diffi#ulty with this a''roa#h is that there are #lear differen#es )etween the gyne#ology of Timaeus and that of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us, and there is am'le e"iden#e that the idea of the wom) )eingAor )eing li eAan animal was dis'uted e"en in anti4uity. 3ts )est0 nown e/'ression, a'art from the 'assage in Timaeus , is in -retaeus, who states that mo"ement of the wom) mostly affe#ts younger women, whose way of life and Iudgment are Hsomewhat wanderingH so that their wom) is Hro"ingH 9rhembodes <. @lder women ha"e a Hmore sta)leH way of life, Iudgment, and wom). =his in itself "aries from the Hi''o#rati# theories, whi#h tend to lin mo"ement of the wom) with older women, whose wom)s are lighter.1$$C2 3t is in this se#tion too that -retaeus des#ri)es the wom) as ho(oion ti .oon en .ooi , usually translated as Hli e some animal inside an animalH )ut whi#h #ould )e less emoti"ely rendered Hli e a li"ing thing inside another li"ing thing.H 3t has )een suggested that the words of -retaeus are )ased on a re#olle#tion of ha"ing read Timaeus at s#hool:1$$>2 as may )e seen from the wor of Soranus, also writing in the se#ond0#entury -.K ., this was #ertainly a "ery outdated idea in se#ond0#entury medi#ine. Soranus e/'li#itly reIe#ts the #laim of Hsome 'eo'leH that the wom) is an animal, although he admits that in some ways it )eha"es as if it were, for e/am'le, in res'onding to #ooling and loosening drugs. He reinter'rets the su##ess of thera'y in"ol"ing sweetAor foul0smelling su)stan#es to attra#t or re'el the wom), saying that these wor not )e#ause the wom) is li e a wild animal emerging to see 'leasant s#ents and fleeing from foul ones, )ut )e#ause the s#ents #ause rela/ation or #onstri#tion.1$$%2 Galen, writing shortly after Soranus, dis#usses and reIe#ts what he regards not as Hi''o#rates8 )ut as Plato8s theory of the wom) as a li"ing #reature in /n the $ffected arts :.;. -fter 4uoting from Timaeus he writes, H=hese were Plato8s words. But some 1'hysi#ians2 added that, when the uterus during its irregular mo"ement through the )ody tou#hes the dia'hragm, it in0 + 5C + terferes with the res'iratory 1mo"ements2. @thers deny that the uterus wanders around li e an animal. Lhen it is dried u' )y the su''ression of menstrual flow, it e/tends 4ui# ly to the "is#era, )eing an/ious to attra#t moisture. But when it ma es #onta#t with the dia'hragm during its as#ent, it su''resses the res'iration of the organism.H1$5*2 3t is thus #lear from Soranus and Galen that, at least )y the se#ond #entury -.K ., medi#al o'inion was s'lit on whether wom) mo"ement ne#essarily entailed assigning the status of Hli"ing thingH or Hwild animalH to the wom). 3t may further )e 4uestioned whether Plato8s a##ountAor, 'erha's, the Lo#rian8s a##ount, sin#e it is )y no means #ertain that the 'assage re'resents Plato8s own "iews1$5$2 Ais in any

way following the Hi''o#rati# Diseases of )omen , as =ur)ayne argues. 3n general, Timaeus shows a strong humoral theory of disease in whi#h the four humors are lin ed to the four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. =he use of humoral theory in the Diseases of )omen is minimal, 'erha's )e#ause the female )ody is so hea"ily dominated )y )lood. =he des#ri'tion of the wom) and of #on#e'tion in Timaeus should )e read in the #onte/t 'ro"ided )y the 're#eding se#tions on the human )ody, whi#h show that analogies in whi#h #ertain 'arts of the )ody are #om'ared to li"ing #reatures are #ommon in Timaeus . =hat 'art of the soul whi#h is #on#erned with )odily desires is tied u' in the )ody Hli e a wild #reatureHJ1$552 a disease is des#ri)ed as )eing li e a .oon , in that it has a natural s'an of life.1$5&2 -t the start of the se#ond generation of man ind, all those who ha"e 'ro"ed #owardly or unIust in the first )e#ome womenJ it is at this 'oint that the gods 'ut into all human )eings a .oon that desires se/ual union. 3n males, the 'enis has a diso)edient and selfwilled nature, Hli e a .oon H and, li e the sa"age 'art of the soul, it does not o)ey reason, the logos . 1$5?2 Lhen the wom) is des#ri)ed, all that is different is that it is no longer 'ut )eside the .oon in a simile, )ut a''ears in a meta'hori# relationshi'J not Hli e a li"ing thing,H )ut Ha li"ing thing desiring to )ear #hildren.H1$5;2 3n )oth #ases what is signifi#ant is that the organ mo"es inde'endently of the will, in an un#ontrolled way. Sin#e Plato(=imaeus has already mi/ed a''arently nonfigurati"e uses of .oon 9the gods 'ut a li"ing #reature in all humans< with o)"ious similes 9the 'enis is li e a .oon <, it would )e unwise to ma e too mu#h of the way in whi#h the wom) is des#ri)ed. 3t should also )e noted that animal analogies are used elsewhere for the organs. Dot only woman is thought to ha"e a .oon inside her, sin#e Plato himself li ens the 'enis to an animal, and in -ristotle it is the heart that is li e an animal, this in turn )eing li ened to the genitals in a further analogy.1$5:2 3n men, the .oon empsychon that ma es the 'enis )eha"e Hli e an ani0 + 5> + malH is in the seed, whi#h #omes from the s'inal marrow.1$5C2 =he theory of the origin of the semen is #onsistent with Hi''o#rati# anatomy, whi#h tra#es its 'ath u' the s'inal #ord, )ehind the ears and to the head.1$5>2 3n the des#ri'tion of the #orres'onding 'art in woman, the wom), there are howe"er some o)"ious differen#es from Hi''o#rati# theories. =imaeus says that in #oitus minute in"isi)le and sha'eless .oa are sown in the wom), where they will grow to maturity. -'art from the "ery general sowing analogy, this does not #orres'ond to anything in the #or'usJ indeed, in the Hi''o#rati# Generation : and >, )oth male and female #ontri)ute seed, the se/ of the #hild )eing determined )y the strongest seed.1$5%2 -retaeus8s analogy is thus not #hara#teristi# of the medi#ine of his time )ut, on the #ontrary, stands out as an ana#hronism: Plato8s 9or =imaeus8s< medi#ine, while sharing some anatomi#al features with Hi''o#rati# theories, demonstrates many indi"idual 'oints. Galen and Soranus mention the )elief that the wom) is not Iust li(e an animal, )ut is an animal, yet Galen as#ri)es this only to Plato. ,rom the list of treatments of whi#h he disa''ro"es, Soranus a''arently thin s that the use of s#ents in thera'y tends to im'ly the )elief that the wom) is an animal. Howe"er, the #entral role of s#ent thera'y in disorders of the wom) in the Hi''o#rati# te/ts does not mean that the Hi''o#rati# writers would ine"ita)ly ha"e regarded the wom) as an inde'endent animate 'art of the )odyJ as Soranus8s own e/'lanation of why s#ent thera'y wor s shows, it would )e 'ossi)le to use this te#hni4ue within an entirely different #on#e'tual framewor , o'enly reIe#ting the animate wom) theory. 3 would also 4uestion whether we would )e so ready to read into Hi''o#rati# medi#ine ideas of the wom) as an animal, were it not for the influen#e of the imagery of Timaeus on -retaeus and on other writers to the e/tent that Galen finds it ne#essary to refute the theory. @ur own medi#al theories 'lay a

'art in this: )e#ause it is self0e"ident to us that the wom) not only is not a li"ing #reature, )ut also #annot mo"e around the )ody, any suggestion that it does so mo"e is startling, demands e/'lanation, and may )e gi"en more weight than it deser"es.

Sti*ling and Su**o.ation1 the ,e+elo/ment o* the !e0tual !radition

3n my dis#ussion of the ways in whi#h the Hi''o#rati#s #lassify disease, 3 ha"e em'hasi6ed that the disease la)el hysteria, far from )eing a''lied in these te/ts for the first time, is a mu#h later in"ention. =he de"elo'ing hysteria tradition uses only a sele#tion of the Hi''o#rati# te/ts on wom) + 5% + mo"ementJ within this sele#tion, it ignores the disagreement on su#h matters as the most sus#e'ti)le #ategory of woman, and the "ariation in sym'toms a##ording to the 'art of the )ody that the wom) rea#hes in its 4uest for moisture. 3t also ta es and merges distin#ti"e images and thera'ies from these te/ts, regardless of their relati"e im'ortan#e in Hi''o#rati# medi#ine. 3n the te/ts used to su''ort this de"elo'ing tradition, the sym'tom that stands out, and that is indeed sometimes used to introdu#e the Hi''o#rati# disease des#ri'tion, is pni# , usually translated as suffo#ation. 3t is now ne#essary to #onsider the signifi#an#e of this sym'tom in some detail. 3f we are to ta e seriously Shorter8s suggestions that Hthe 'resentation of 8hysteri#al8 sym'toms tends to )e molded )y the surrounding #ultureH and that we should therefore )e as ing why H#ertain sym'toms are sele#ted in #ertain e'o#hs,H1$&*2 we need to reIe#t our fas#ination with wom) mo"ementAwhi#h was, after all, seen as un'ro)lemati# )y #lassi#al Gree writersAand instead e/'lore the im'li#ations of pni# in the "ery s'e#ifi# #onte/t of #lassi#al Gree medi#ine. 3n his re#ent history of hysteria, =rillat 'oses a "ery 'ertinent 4uestion: is it the wom) or the woman who suffo#ates in these te/tsN1$&$2 He suggests that this is not #lear from the Hi''o#rati# te/tsJ howe"er, unli e the LittrF translation, the Gree te/t is often relati"ely straightforward on this issue, due 'artly to the #on"ention )y whi#h Hi''o#rati# writers often used 'lural terms for the wom). =his ena)les us to see that, although in some #ases it is the woman who suffers from the pni# ,1$&52 it is generally the %omb that is HstifledHJ for e/am'le, HLhen the wom) 9sing.< stiflesHJ H3f the wom) 9'lural< arri"es at the heart and stifles 9'lural<.H1$&&2 3 am 'ro'osing the translation HstiflesH rather than Hsuffo#atesH for reasons that will shortly )e#ome #lear. 3n order to gras' the im'li#ations of pni# , the stifled wom) that in turn stifles the woman, it is ne#essary to return to the 4uestion of what the Hi''o#rati# writersAand the #ulture within whi#h they 'ra#ti#edAunderstood to )e the nature of woman. HDot only was the #ause of hysteria rooted in the "ery nature of )eing female, )ut also in the )elief that that nature was 'rone to disorderH: thus L. Bit#hinson, in a re#ent arti#le on nineteenth0#entury Canadian medi#ine.1$&?2 =his interest in nature ta es on a different #oloring in the ey hysteria te/t of the early se"enteenth #entury, Edward Eorden on Hthe suffo#ation of the mother,H whi#h was written to show that this disorder should not )e Him'uted to the Ki"ellH )ut rather has Hits true naturall #auses.H1$&;2 3n Eorden8s sense, nature is also fundamental to the Hi''o#rati# te/ts. @ne of the a#hie"ements of Hi''o#rati# medi#ine whi#h it is #ommon0 + &* + 'la#e to admire is its mo"ement away from e/'laining disease as divine in originAthe result of

dis'leasing a deity, as in the o'ening of the 'liad , or of failing to fulfill a ritual o)ligationAin fa"or of natural e/'lanations.1$&:2 =he Hi''o#rati# te/t usually 4uoted in this #onte/t is /n the "acred Disease , in whi#h the alarming sym'toms of e'ile'sy are shown to ha"e a natural e/'lanation, ma ing it no more and no less sa#red than any other disease. 3n the Hi''o#rati# Diseases of )omen 5.$;$1$&C2 an e/'li#it #om'arison is drawn )etween a grou' of sym'toms #lassified )y LittrF as hysteria and the sa#red disease. 3t would )e wrong to #on#lude from this that medi#al writers in the an#ient world had #orre#tly understood the similarity )etween the me#hanisms )y whi#h these two disorders, as we define them, are 'rodu#edJ what is im'ortant is the suggestion that there is a natural e/'lanation not only for the sym'toms 'rodu#ed )y wom) mo"ement )ut also for that mo"ement itself.1$&>2 ,or the history of medi#ine, it does not matter that the HnaturalH e/'lanations gi"enAthe mo"ement of the wom) around the )ody, the #onstitution of the femaleAare ones in whi#h we do not )elie"eJ what is im'ortant is that nature, not the gods, is thought to )e res'onsi)le. =here is howe"er a further as'e#t of the 'rodu#tion of the sym'toms whi#h e/'lains why they naturally affe#t only womenJ women, )y nature, ha"e wom)s, and Hthe wom)HAim'lying )oth Hnot the godsH and Hno other 'art of the )odyHAHis the origin of all diseasesH a##ording to the Hi''o#rati# te/t laces in !an .1$&%2 Benstruation is, as the se#ond0#entury -.K . writer Soranus 'uts it, Hthe first fun#tionH of the wom), 1$?*2 and the writer of the Hi''o#rati# te/t ,ature of the &hild des#ri)es as Hsim'ly a fa#t of her original #onstitutionH the naturally wetter and more s'ongy flesh of the female whi#h ma es a woman 'rodu#e e/#ess )lood.1$?$2 =his )lood mo"es to the wom) e"ery month 'rior to lea"ing the )ody in that flow that is, among other names, #alled he physis , Hnature,H1$?52 or ta (ata physin , Hthe natural things.H1$?&2 ,or the Hi''o#rati# writers, then, menstruation and nature are synonymsJ all diseases of women #ome from the wom) and thus from the nature of female flesh, the wet and s'ongy te/ture of whi#h #auses the a##umulation of large amounts of )lood, ma ing menstruation ne#essary to female health. -s Generation ? 'uts it, Hif the menses do not flow, the )odies of women )e#ome si# .H1$??2 =he sym'tom of pni# arises from the nature of woman. =here is some disagreement in the an#ient medi#al writers as to whether women are )y nature hot or #old. ,or -ristotle, whose ideas on this 'oint were histori#ally more influential than those of the Hi''o#rati#s, women are #old, too #old to #on#o#t )lood into semen.1$?;2 Kiffi#ulties arise with this + &$ + 'osition )e#ause, in humoral 'athology, )lood is hot and wet. 3f women ha"e more )lood than men, surely they should )e hotter than menN 3n the de)ate gi"en )y Plutar#h in !oralia ,1$?:2 a do#tor ta es u' 're#isely this 'osition in order to argue that women are the hotter se/J this is also the argument used to 'ro"e women8s hot natures )y HParmenides and others,H a##ording to -ristotle,1$?C2 and a related argument a''ears in the Hi''o#rati# Diseases of )omen $.$,1$?>2 whi#h says that Hthe woman has hotter )lood, and )e#ause of this she is hotter than the man.H 3t is howe"er 'ossi)le to argue that women are #old, des'ite their e/#ess )lood. @ther s'ea ers in the Plutar#h 'assage #laim that menstrual )lood is not normal, HhotH )lood, )ut a #old and #orru't form. =he Hi''o#rati# writer of -egimen $.&? does not go this farJ he a##e'ts that menstrual )lood is hot )ut argues that, sin#e they 'urge the hot e"ery month, women end u' )eing #oldQ1$?%2 =here is also a third o'tionJ the wom), due to the way in whi#h its role in #on#e'tion and gestation is imagined, #an )e #lassed as hot, whether or not the menstrual )lood or the woman herself is #onsidered #old. -ristotle, for whom women are #old, #an thus retain the traditional analogy )y whi#h the wom) is #om'ared to an o"en.1$;*2 =his analogy a''ears in a wide range of ty'es of sour#e material. By

#ommitting ne#ro'hilia, the tyrant Periander of Corinth wasAin the words of the historian Herodotus AH'utting his loa"es into a #old o"en.H1$;$2 3n the Dream Boo( of -rtemidorus, an im'ortant sour#e for an#ient imagery, a hearth 9hestia < and a )a ing0o"en 9(libanos < #an re'resent women, )e#ause they re#ei"e things that 'rodu#e life. Kreaming of seeing fire in a hearth means that your wife will )e#ome 'regnant.1$;52 3n the Hi''o#rati# te/ts Generation and ,ature of the &hild there are se"eral o##asions in whi#h the wom) is des#ri)ed in terms of the heat it generates, in one of whi#h the em)ryo is #om'ared to )read )a ing in an o"en. 3nter#ourse heats the )lood and thus 'rodu#es heat in the whole )ody, and the de"elo'ment of the seed in the wom) is due to its )eing in Ha warm en"ironment.H1$;&2 Lhether women are #lassified as hot or #old, they ha"e within them an o"en to heat the seed. How should this influen#e our understanding of pni#0 =he sensations of suffo#ation and stifling are not ne#essarily identi#al. Suffo#ation im'lies an o)sta#le 're"enting )reathingJ in this it resem)les strangulation )ut, whereas the former suggests to us something o"er the mouth and nose, the latter suggests something around the ne# . Stifling additionally im'lies heat, whi#h is why it is to )e 'referred as a translation of pni# . @"erla' is of #ourse 'ossi)le, sin#e 'ressure around the ne# or o"er the mouth may also #ause a feeling of heat. Gree words related to pni# , + &5 + su#h as pnigos and pnigmos , mean stifling heat, while a pnigeus is an o"en. Su''ort for the im'ortan#e of heat in pni# in the 'eriod of the Hi''o#rati# te/ts may )e gained from -risto'hanes8 'lay Frogs , in whi#h the god Kionysus as s the hero Hera#les for a way to Hades whi#h is neither too hot nor too #old. Hera#les suggests H)y ro'e and stoolHAthat is, to hang oneself. Kionysus re'lies, HDo, that8s stifling.H1$;?2 Hera#les goes on to suggest hemlo# , whi#h is reIe#ted as Htoo #old.H =he use of a hot(#old o''osition again asso#iates pni# with heat. 3t is thus )e#ause the Hi''o#rati# writers ha"e a)sor)ed the traditional and 'owerful image of wom) as o"en that they asso#iate its mo"ement with the 'rodu#tion of e/#ess heat. =his suggests a further as'e#t of the #ommon re#ommendation of 'regnan#y as the )est #ure for many disorders of the wom)J if nothing is #oo ing in a woman8s o"en, its heat will o"erwhelm her in some way unless something is done to use u' that heat. =he underlying image of wom) as o"en in these te/ts #ould a##ount for other sym'toms. Lomen with pni# feel #old at their e/tremities, 'erha's )e#ause all their )ody heat mo"es toward the wom). 3n the #ultural #onte/t of Hi''o#rati# medi#ine, pni# thus im'lies something more than Hdiffi#ulty in )reathing.H 3t 'oints us to something fundamental to that #ulture8s image of the female, as an o"en in whi#h the seed is #oo ed. =he su''osed mo"ement of that o"en to other 'arts of the )ody in sear#h of moisture to dam'en down the fire #an therefore )e seen as #ausing heat in the affe#ted 'artJ the wom) itself is stifled, and this #an )e transmitted to the woman sufferer. Being a woman, for the Gree s of this 'eriod, means ha"ing an o"en inside youJ an o"en that is a naturalAand so#ially a##e'ta)leA target when a 'hysi#al #ause is sought for dramati# somati# manifestations.1$;;2 3 ha"e already demonstrated the "ariations within the Hi''o#rati# #or'us on su#h 4uestions as the heat or #oolness of the woman and the most li ely #ategory to suffer from wom) mo"ement. =here is one Hi''o#rati# 'assage in whi#h pni# is e/'li#itly lin ed to 'hysi#al o)stru#tion of )reath. =his is Diseases of )omen $.C, in whi#h the wom), dried out )y fatigue, mo"es to the li"er )e#ause this organ is full of moisture. =he result is sudden pni# , due to what is des#ri)ed as the interru'tion of the route of the )reath through the )elly. 3t is this etiology, rather than the general image of woman, or wom), as hot, whi#h is ta en u' )y later writers see ing to a##ount for pni# . Howe"er, due to their general

)eliefs a)out the role of )reath, heat still 'lays a 'art in su#h theories. 3n later #lassi#al medi#ine pni# a''arently )e#omes sim'ly o)stru#tion of res'irationJ howe"er, nothing in the history of medi#ine is really sim'le. =he im'li#ations of the shift in terminology re4uire further e/'lo0 + && + ration of the #on#e'tual uni"erse of these writers, sin#e res'iration itself does not ha"e the meaning we would most naturally assume. =he diffi#ulty of using words su#h as res'iration, "eins, arteries, and 'ulse is that we regularly em'loy them within an anatomy and 'hysiology #om'letely different from those of an#ient writers. ,urthermore, theories of )reathing, nutrition, and )lood mo"ement were themsel"es #hanged many times )efore Lilliam Har"ey, and not ne#essarily as 'art of a linear 'ro#ess of e/'eriment and dis#o"ery. =o translate the Hi''o#rati# phlebs 9#hannel< as H"einH is to im'ly it is different from another sort of #hannel that is an Hartery.H =he distin#tion )etween arteries and "eins was 'ro)a)ly first made )y Pra/agoras of Cos in the late fourth #entury B.C ., not in the #onte/t of an emerging theory of the #ir#ulation of the )lood around the )ody, )ut instead )e#ause he )elie"ed )lood and 'neuma tra"eled through different systems.1$;:2 Res'iration is an e/#ellent e/am'le of these diffi#ulties, whi#h also allows us to loo at the 'resentation of hysteria in one of the immediately 'ost0Hi''o#rati# writers most rele"ant for the hysteria tradition: the fourth0#entury B.C . 'hiloso'her Hera#leides of Pontus 9#a. &%*0&$* B.C .<. -lthough we may use res'iration to mean )reathing in general, )ehind the word ine"ita)ly lies our nowledge of the 'ro#ess )y whi#h o/ygen is ta en in and #ar)on dio/ide gi"en out. 3f we translate the title of a treatise )y Galen, De usu respirationis , as H@n the use of res'iration,H it may )e diffi#ult for us to a''re#iate the im'li#ations of the term within the s#ien#e of the se#ond #entury -.K . and )efore. - theory on#e widely held howe"er is that of s in0)reathing, dis#ussed from )efore the time of Hi''o#rates to that of Galen. 3n the mid0fifth #entury B.C ., the 'hiloso'her Em'edo#les 'ro'osed that all li"ing things )reathe through the 'ores of their s in.1$;C2 Plato 'reser"es a "ersion of s in0)reathing that also a##ounts for the mo"ement of )lood in the )odyJ air enters through the s in to re'la#e that e/haled through the nose and mouth, while also entering through the nose and mouth to re'la#e that e/haled through the s in. =he resulting mo"ement, rather than the heart, is thought to )e res'onsi)le for sending )lood to those 'arts of the )ody re4uiring its nutriment.1$;>2 Lhen Galen uses words for res'iration, he in#ludes within it s in0)reathing. -ristotle suggests that the fun#tion of res'iration is to #ool the innate heat generated in the )ody )y foodJ Galen goes further, arguing that )reathing o##urs Hfor the sa e of the innate heatH and, elsewhere, that Hthe use of )reathing is the #onser"ation of the innate heat.H1$;%2 By this he means that )reathing regulates the innate heat either )y fanning it or )y #ooling it. + &? + S in0)reathing and innate heat 'lay an im'ortant role in Galen8s theory of Hhysteri#al suffo#ation,H es'e#ially in relation to a story that )e#omes 'art of the hysteria tradition: the a''arently dead woman whose re"i"al is des#ri)ed in a lost wor )y Hera#leides of Pontus. 3n his dis#ussion of the most se"ere form of hysteri#al suffo#ation in /n the $ffected arts :.; Galen refers to this story as follows: ,or 1Hera#leides2 says that that woman who had neither )reath nor 'ulse #ould only )e distinguished from a #or'se in one way: that is, that she had a little warmth around the

middle 'art of her )ody.1$:*2 -fter Hera#leides, Galen says, do#tors de"elo'ed tests for the 'resen#e of life: wool held at the nose, or a "essel of water on the na"el. 3n the later tradition a dee' #on#ern remains o"er the a)ility of hysteria to mimi# deathA'arti#ularly sin#e one of the sym'toms is su''osed to )e the a)sen#e of any 'ulseA and stories are told of women mista en for dead who re"i"e on the edge of the gra"e.1$:$2 -lthough $pnous is lost, the story of the woman is re'eated in se"eral other writers of anti4uity. =he #losest to Galen in )oth wording and time is Kiogenes Laertius, a writer of the third #entury -.K ., who states that the woman8s )ody was apnoun (ai asphy(ton , Hwithout )reath or 'ulse,H for thirty days. -s well as this last detail, Kiogenes Laertius adds further information a)out the #ir#umstan#es, and this is du'li#ated in other writers.1$:52 =he story told )y Hera#leides a''arently #on#erns Em'edo#les, who told his friend Pausanias how he had reali6ed the woman was not dead from o)ser"ing the innate heat. Clearly she was a)le to )reathe through her s in, and e"entually re#o"ered, mu#h to the ama6ement of the onloo ers who attri)uted this to a mira#le 'erformed )y Em'edo#les. =his story was "ery 'o'ular in the si/teenth #enturyJ one medi#al writer of that 'eriod who used it was Pieter "an ,oreest. 3nstead of following Kiogenes Laertius, who said that the woman was without )reath or 'ulse for thirty days, he uses the "ersion gi"en 'rior to Galen, )y Pliny in the first #entury -.K .1$:&2 =his sets the story within a dis#ussion of souls that lea"e the )ody and return to it, whi#h is in turn followed )y a##ounts of 'eo'le who re#o"ered from a''arent death. Pliny writes, H=his to'i# is the su)Ie#t of a )oo )y Hera#leides, well nown in Gree#e, a)out a woman who was se"en days without )reath )ut was #alled )a# to life.H 7an ,oreest re'eats the Hse"en daysH as well as Pliny8s remar that Hthe female se/ seems 'arti#ularly lia)le to this disease, sin#e it is su)Ie#t to turning of the wom).H1$:?2 3n his scholia on this se#tion, "an ,oreest follows Galen8s theory on the innate heat, whi#h is also used to a##ount for the #oldness of the e/tremities. He then states that learned authorities + &; + all agree that 'atients with this #ondition should not )e )uried until the third day.1$:;2 Lhy should he gi"e the third, rather than using se"en or thirtyN Perha's the solution is to )e found in the use of the story in early Christian writing. @rigen 9#a. -.K . $>;0#a. -.K . 5;?< refers un)elie"ers to it in the #onte/t of Christ8s resurre#tion from the dead: although @rigen does not say how long the woman in the story in Hera#leides lay dead, the figure of three days may #ome from this analogy.1$::2 Galen was thus not the only an#ient writer to asso#iate the story with a #ondition of the wom)J howe"er, where Pliny merely says that women are more li ely to suffer in this way )e#ause their wom)s mo"e, Galen gi"es a full etiology a##e'ting the theories of innate heat and s in0)reathing.

Galen and His In*luen.e1 3inners and Losers in the !e0tual !radition
=hus far, this #ha'ter has #o"ered the Hi''o#rati# origins of the hysteria tradition in detail, while also mentioning the distin#ti"e #ontri)utions of a small grou' of other writers: nota)ly Plato and the se#ond0 #entury -.K . medi#al writers -retaeus, Soranus, and Galen. 3t is howe"er im'ortant to #onsider the 4uestion of the signifi#ant 'eriod )etween the fifth(fourth #entury B.C ., when the Hi''o#rati# te/ts used here were )eing written, and the se#ond #entury -.K . =his is not an easy 4uestion to address. ,or the 'eriod immediately after the Hi''o#rati#s, literary medi#al sour#es are s'arse. Lor s #ited in later writers ha"e not sur"i"edJ we often read the e/tant fragments through the hostile eyes of an o''onent, so that it is diffi#ult not only to tra#e and date signifi#ant #hanges, )ut e"en to now what e/a#tly was written. Hera#leides of Pontus 9&%*0&$* B.C .<, whose lost wor $pnous Amentioned )y Pliny, Galen, and

Kiogenes Laertius among othersAhas already )een dis#ussed, is the only fourth0#entury writer other than Plato who is in#or'orated into the hysteria tradition. @ther writers of the 'eriod are )riefly introdu#ed to the tradition, only to )e reIe#ted. =hus, for e/am'le, Soranus des#ri)es and #riti#i6es the thera'y used for hysteri#al pni# )y Kio#les of Carystos, who also wor ed in the fourth #entury B.C .J he H'in#hes the nostrils, )ut o'ens the mouth and a''lies a sternutati"eJ moreo"er, with the hand he 'resses the uterus toward the lower 'arts )y 'ressing u'on the hy'o#hondria# regionJ and a''lies warm fomentations to the legs.H1$:C2 3n the third #entury B.C . im'ortant ad"an#es in anatomy were made in asso#iation with the medi#al s#hool of -le/andriaJ the wor of He0 + &: + ro'hilus of Chal#edon in 'arti#ular is said to ha"e in#luded disse#tion of animal and human su)Ie#ts, neither of whi#h was 'ra#ti#ed )y the Hi''o#rati#s. ,or the history of hysteria, e"en more im'ortant than the fa#t that Hero'hilus is #redited with )eing the first to identify the ,allo'ian tu)es and o"aries is the attri)ution to him of the first des#ri'tion of the ligaments 9whi#h he #alled mem)ranes< an#horing the wom) in the a)dominal #a"ity, a dis#o"ery whi#h, in a 'ositi"ist s#ien#e, would ha"e 'ro"ed false the theory that the wom) is #a'a)le of mo"ement around the )ody.1$:>2 Do dis#ussion )y Hero'hilus of suffo#ation #aused )y the wom) sur"i"es. His follower Bantias, who li"ed from around $:; to %* B.C ., wrote on 'harma#ology, and one of the two sur"i"ing fragments of his wor with a gyne#ologi#al theme #on#erns hysteri#al suffo#ation. =his fragment too is transmitted in the wor of Soranus, who tells us that Bantias re#ommended 'laying flutes and drums when an atta# was imminent, and gi"ing #astoreum and )itumen with wine when an atta# was o"er. 3t is interesting that the dis#o"ery of the Hmem)ranesH does not a''ear to ha"e signifi#antly #hanged the thera'y.1$:%2 - further sour#e for the 'eriod from the third to the first #enturies B.C . #onsists of the sur"i"ing 'a'yrus fragments from Gre#o0Roman Egy't, gi"ing re#i'es, some of whi#h may )e identified as originating in the Hi''o#rati# #or'us. @ne "ery an#ient #olle#tion of re#i'es, largely )ased on Diseases of )omen and dating to the third or se#ond #entury B.C ., mentions Hsuffo#ation from the wom)H )ut re#ommends dried otters8 idneys in sweet wineAthe only time this re#i'e o##urs in Gree literature. 1$C*2 - further re#i'e is gi"en for a #ough after the suffo#ation. -nother 'a'yrus dated to around 5:*0 5&* B.C . is too fragmentary for any re#onstru#tion of the re#i'e, )ut it #on#erns a Hhysteri#al womanH 9gyne hysteri(e <J in the following line it is 'ossi)le to read the word pnigmos .1$C$2 - 'a'yrus from the early first #entury B.C . is e"en less legi)le, )ut the editor8s re#onstru#tion in#ludes the words hysteri(ai and hysteri(ais .1$C52 Pa'yri therefore show that Hi''o#rati# re#i'es and "ariations on them #ontinued to #ir#ulate in the an#ient worldJ ta en with the fragment of Bantias, they gi"e further su''ort to the 'ro'osal that the disease #ategory hysteri(e pni# e/isted as a diagnosis in the se#ond #entury B.C . =he ne/t signifi#ant literary sour#e #omes from the Roman world: Celsus, writing in the early first #entury -.K . Boo ? of his wor is arranged a##ording to the 'arts of the )ody, and in#ludes a #ha'ter on diseases of the wom).1$C&2 =his )egins with a des#ri'tion of an unnamed )ut "iolent 9vehemens < illness that #omes from the wom), an organ Celsus regarded as se#ond only to the stoma#h in its influen#e on the rest of + &C +

the )ody. =he #ondition he des#ri)es ta es away the )reath, so that the woman falls down as if she had e'ile'syJ howe"er, unli e in e'ile'sy, the eyes are not Hturned,H there is no frothing at the mouth, and the sinews are not stret#hed. 3nstead, the 'atient slee's. Some women suffer from this throughout their li"es. Celsus does not in"estigate the etiology of the #ondition, )ut he gi"es re#ommendations for treatment: "enese#tion, #u''ing0glasses, an e/tinguished lam' wi# or other strong0smelling material held to the nostrils, #old water 'oured o"er the 'atient, hot wet 'oulti#es, and massage of the hi's and nees. =o 're"ent further atta# s he re#ommends that the woman should a)stain from wine for a year, )e massaged regularly, and 'ut mustard on her lower a)domen daily so that the s in reddens. He adds some suggestions for emollients, drin s 9in#luding #astoreum<, 'urges, and fumigations. Some of this material is familiarJ the #old water, lam' wi# , and #astoreum, for e/am'le, are no different from the Hi''o#rati# re#ommendations, nor is the #on#ern to distinguish the #ondition from e'ile'sy. @ther suggestions are newJ in 'arti#ular, "enese#tion, although used in the Hi''o#rati# #or'us, has not 're"iously )een dis#ussed in asso#iation with this #ondition. -s P. Brain has re#ently shown, although Galen gi"es the im'ression that "enese#tion was a #ommon thera'y in the Hi''o#rati# te/ts, it is in fa#t found only a)out se"enty times in the entire #or'us, and Diseases of )omen #ontri)utes only one e/am'le.1$C?2 3n Soranus it is re#ommended for hysteri#al suffo#ation, while for Galen it is the remedy of #hoi#e for menstrual su''ression.1$C;2 3n the se#ond #entury -.K . three medi#al des#ri'tions of hysteri#al suffo#ation were 'rodu#ed, of differing im'ortan#e to the growth of the hysteria tradition. By far the most influential in su)se4uent #enturies was the wor of Galen of Pergamum, although his trium'h was not #om'lete until after the ele"enth #entury -.K ., when the translation of -ra)i# te/ts into Latin returned Galeni# theory to the Lest. !ntil that time, although -ra)i# 'hysi#ians were hea"ily influen#ed )y Galenism, the many short gyne#ologi#al treatises 'rodu#ed in the Lest were largely )ased on Soranus8s Gynecology . Howe"er, this wor was also disseminated in the East, through the By6antine en#y#lo'edists who used Soranus for their gyne#ologi#al summaries. 3ts su)se4uent fortunes ha"e )een influen#ed )y the fa#t that, although writers su#h as the si/th0#entury -etius used it e/tensi"ely, it sur"i"es in Iust one manus#ri't: the late fifteenth0#entury Paris BD gr. 5$;& 9Paris, Bi)liothF4ue Dational, Gree manus#ri't num)er 5$;&<, only dis#o"ered and identified )y Kiet6 in $>&*. =he se#ond0#entury writer most hea"ily influen#ed )y Hi''o#rati# sour#es was howe"er neither Galen nor Soranus, )ut -retaeus of Ca'0 + &> + 'ado#ia, who had #onsidera)ly less im'a#t than either of the others on the later history of hysteria. Deither Soranus nor -retaeus was translated into -ra)i#J nor, howe"er, were the Hi''o#rati# Diseases of )omen and ,ature of )oman , so that the -ra)i# des#ri'tions of uterine suffo#ation deri"e from the Galeni# "ersion and its later inter'reters: @ri)asius, -etius of -mida, and Paul of -egina. =he trium'h of Hi''o#rates o"er Galen was delayed until the a"aila)ility of 'rinted Latin editions of the Hi''o#rati# te/ts in the late si/teenth #entury.1$C:2 3 now 'ro'ose to loo in turn at the te/ts of -retaeus, Soranus, and Galen, esta)lishing their #ontri)ution to the tradition, )efore turning to their use in late anti4uity and )eyond. -s has )een dis#ussed a)o"e, the des#ri'tion of hysteri(e pni# in -retaeus8s /f the &auses and "ymptoms of $cute Diseases is today )est nown for its des#ri'tion of the wom) as )eing Hli e an animal inside an animal,H less emoti"ely rendered as Hli e one li"ing thing inside another.H Li e the Hi''o#rati# writers, -retaeus not only )elie"es that the wom) #an mo"e within the )ody )ut also ad"o#ates s#ent thera'y, in whi#h foul odors su#h as 'it#h, )urned hair, an e/tinguished lam', or #astoreum are a''lied to the nose and fragrant su)stan#es ru))ed into the e/ternal genitaliaJ unli e them, howe"er, he nows of the mem)ranes an#horing the wom) in 'la#e.1$CC2 =o us, the #hildren of

the Hs#ientifi# method,H these 'oints may seem #ontradi#tory, )ut -retaeus manages to #om)ine them. He des#ri)es the wom)AHthe seat of womanhood itselfHAas )eing Hall )ut ali"e,H mo"ing of its own "olition u'ward to the thora/, or to left or right within the lower a)domen. 3t is when it mo"es u'ward and remains there for a long time, 'ressing "iolently on the intestines, that the 'atient e/'erien#es pni# , des#ri)ed as )eing li e e'ile'sy1$C>2 without the s'asms. Pressure is 'ut on the li"er, dia'hragm, lungs, and heart, #ausing loss of )reath and "oi#e, while the #arotid arteries are s4uee6ed as a result of Hsym'athyH with the heart, #ausing a hea"y head, loss of sensation, and dee' slee'. -retaeus then mentions a similar #ondition, #hara#teri6ed )y pni# and loss of "oi#e, whi#h does not arise from the wom)J the two differ in that only in #ases arising in the wom) will s#ent thera'y hel', and only in these #ases do the lim)s mo"e. Lhen the wom) mo"es u' the )ody there will )e Hhesitation in doing her tas s, e/haustion, loss of #ontrol of the nees, di66iness, and her lim)s are wea enedJ heada#he, hea"iness of the headJ and the woman feels 'ain in the #hannels at either side of her nose.H1$C%2 =he 'ulse will )e wea and irregular, the )reathing im'er#e'ti)le, and death follows suddenlyJ it is diffi#ult to )elie"e that it has o##urred, sin#e the 'atient + &% + has su#h a lifeli e a''earan#e. Re#o"ery, too, ha''ens suddenlyJ the wom) rises u' "ery easily, and Iust as easily returns to its 'la#e. Here -retaeus uses another image, as "i"id as that of the Hli"ing thing inside another li"ing thingH: the wom) sails high in the water li e a tree trun floating, )ut it is 'ulled )a# )y its mem)ranes, of whi#h those Ioining the ne# of the wom) to the loins are 'arti#ularly #a'a)le of distending and #ontra#ting in a way that is li ened to the sails of a shi'.1$>*2 =he #ondition is more li ely to affe#t young women, sin#e their way of life and understanding are Hwandering,H less firmly )ased. -retaeus thus #om)ines wom) mo"ement with an#horing mem)ranes, while #ontinuing the e/'loration of a num)er of ey themes in the hysteria traditionJ for e/am'le, the diffi#ulty in telling whether a sufferer from this #ondition is dead or ali"e, and the resem)lan#e to e'ile'sy. -lthough mu#h of the thera'euti# material is Hi''o#rati#, in 'arti#ular the use of s#ent thera'y, fumigation, and snee6ing, 1$>$2 he follows Celsus rather than the Hi''o#rati#s in re#ommending "enese#tion from the an le, while adding that one should 'ull out hairs from the 'atient in order to rouse her.1$>52 He introdu#es the idea of Hsym'athyH in order to e/'lain how the highest 'arts of the )ody #an )e affe#ted )y the wom)J although the mem)ranes 're"ent it from tra"eling that far, the wom) #an ne"ertheless e/ert an influen#e on these 'arts. =he sur"i"al of su#h Hi''o#rati# ideas in the late anti4ue and medie"al worlds will )e dis#ussed later. Howe"er, as 3 ha"e already mentioned, the main influen#e on late anti4uity #ame from Soranus, the Hi''o#rati#s )eing read largely through the eyes of Galen until the mid0si/teenth #entury and )eyond. 1$>&2 Se#tions of Soranus8s wor were translated from Gree into Latin )y Caelius -urelianus in the fifth #entury, andAmore im'ortant in terms of his later influen#eA)y Bus#io in the si/th #entury, thus ma ing his ideas a"aila)le in the Latin0s'ea ing Lest. -s for the Gree East, Soranus was the main sour#e for the gyne#ologi#al se#tions of the en#y#lo'edias of -etius of -mida in the mid0si/th #entury and Paul of -egina in the se"enth #entury, )e#oming in the East Hla )i)le de la gynF#ologie et de l8o)stFtri4ue Ius4u8M la Renaissan#e.H1$>?2 Lhat did Soranus #ontri)ute to the te/tual reser"oir drawn on )y the hysteria traditionN =he ideas of Soranus, in #ontrast to those of -retaeus, are set in the #onte/t of the theories of the HmethodistH medi#al se#t. =his arose in the first #entury -.K . in res'onse to the dogmatist and

em'iri#ist 'ositions. =he fundamental differen#e )etween the latter two se#ts lay in their )eliefs #on#erning the )est way of a#4uiring nowledge. Lhere the dogmatists, des'ite some differen#es of o'inion, agreed on the use of o)ser0 + ?* + "ation, disse#tion, and e/'eriments in order to s'e#ulate on the Hhidden #ausesH of diseases, the em'iri#ists )elie"ed that no form of resear#h #ould e"er lead to an understanding of nature, and thus that the only route to nowledge was through the a##umulated e/'erien#e of 'ast #ases, whi#h the 'ra#titioner #ould #om)ine with his own e/'erien#e in order to #hoose the #orre#t thera'y. Lhere the dogmatist was interested in #auses, the em'iri#ist loo ed for #ures. Bethodism, in #ontrast to these se#ts, was )ased on a stri#t di"ision of #auses of sym'toms into three #onditions of the )ody: status la#us , in whi#h the )ody or affe#ted 'art is la/ and wet, leading for e/am'le to a flu/J status strictus , a #onstri#ted and dry state, of whi#h amenorrhea was seen as a #ase in 'ointJ and status mi#tus , a #om)ination in whi#h some 'arts of the )ody are #onstri#ted and others la/. =reatment #hara#teristi#ally )egan with a three0day fast, then )uilt u' the 'atient through diet and e/er#ise, )efore mo"ing on to aggressi"e treatments su#h as "omiting, sha ing, or snee6ing.1$>;2 Lhile Soranus is ne"er a sla"e to the Hmethod,H1$>:2 it is methodist theory that leads him to reIe#t some #ommon'la#es of Hi''o#rati# medi#ine. ,or e/am'le, there is no 'la#e in the method for Hi''o#rati# ideas of the su'eriority of right o"er left. Dor does Soranus a##e't the theory that the female )ody is 4ualitati"ely different from the male in terms of the 'orosity of its fleshJ women are the same as men, e/#e't that they ha"e some different organs, )ut e"en these organs are made of the same su)stan#e and su)Ie#t to the same #onditions. -s a result of this reasoning, there is no 'la#e in Soranus8s gyne#ology for the Hi''o#rati# theory that menstruation is essential to female health as a means of 'urging the e/#ess )lood that naturally a##umulates due to the wet and s'ongy #onsisten#y of female flesh. @n the #ontrary, Soranus goes so far as to say that menstruation is )ad for a woman8s health, e/#e't insofar as it is ne#essary to #on#e'tion. 3nter#ourse is harmful, and 'ermanent "irginity is )est for )oth men and women. Pregnan#y, thought )y earlier writers to relie"e #ertain gyne#ologi#al disorders, is in fa#t )ad for womenJ it leads to e/haustion and 'remature old age. Soranus also reIe#ts the Hi''o#rati# idea that the wom) mo"es to other 'arts of the )ody. =he wom) #annot mo"eJ although he reIe#ts disse#tion in 'rin#i'le, he 4uotes Hero'hilus of Chal#edon8s resear#h as 'roof that it is held in 'la#e )y mem)ranes.1$>C2 Soranus ne"ertheless a##e'ts that there is a #ondition in whi#h the maIor sym'tom is pni# , )ut he attri)utes it to inflammation of the mem)ranes around the wom) #ausing a status strictus .1$>>2 3n 'arti#ular he reIe#ts any idea that the wom) is an animalJ it Hdoes not issue forth li e a wild animal from the lair, + ?$ + delighted )y fragrant odors and fleeing )ad odors,H1$>%2 and he attri)utes this misunderstanding to its a)ility to res'ond to #ertain agents )y stri#ture or rela/ation. 3n treating the #ondition, he #om'letely reIe#ts the usual list of su)stan#es em'loyed in s#ent thera'y 9they #ause tor'or and u'set the stoma#h<, together with snee6ing 9too "iolent< and inter#ourseJ se/ual inter#ourse #annot #ure disease, sin#e it has su#h )ad effe#ts on e"en a healthy )ody. 7enese#tion is a##e'ta)le, howe"er, after the 'atient has )een warmed and ru))ed with oli"e oil in order to rela/ her. =he #ondition e/ists in )oth an a#ute and a #hroni# form, and treatment should ta e a##ount of this.1$%*2 Lhile the gyne#ologi#al theories of Soranus #ontinued to #ir#ulate widely in )oth East and Lest

through their use )y the en#y#lo'edists, the dominant influen#e on medi#ine as a whole in the Gree East was not Soranus )ut Galen. Lhere suffo#ation of the wom) is #on#erned, Galen8s des#ri'tions e#li'sed those of SoranusJ writing as late as $%&C, P. Kie'gen des#ri)es Galen8s 'i#ture of the hysteri#al atta# as still )eing re#ogni6a)le.1$%$2 3n his treatise /n the $ffected arts , Galen himself #alls the #ondition either hysteri(e pni# or apnoia hysteri(e , Ha)sen#e of )reath #aused )y the wom).H -retaeus had managed to #om)ine the an#horing mem)ranes with mo"ement of the wom), while Soranus reIe#ted wom) mo"ement and attri)uted the sym'toms to inflammation of the mem)ranesJ Galen8s new etiology was, howe"er, to 'ro"e the most influential in the history of hysteria. He a##e'ts that the wom) is indeed the origin of the #ondition, )ut in 'la#e of mo"ement to another 'art of the )ody, or inflammation, he )lames retention of su)stan#es within the wom). =he disorder manifests itself in a num)er of different formsAsometimes through lying motionless with an almost im'er#e'ti)le 'ulse, sometimes through wea ness while the 'atient remains #ons#ious, and sometimes through #ontra#ture of the lim)s.1$%52 - mu#h04uoted se#tion of /n the $ffected arts reads: H3 myself ha"e seen many hysteri(ai women, as they #all themsel"es and as the iatrinai #all them.H1$%&2'atrinai , literally Hfemale healers,H may also )e translated as midwi"es. Hysteri(ai is usually translated as Hhysteri#alH )ut, in "iew of what has already )een said a)out an#ient medi#al terminology, it would )e more a##urately translated as Hsuffering from the wom).H 3n a re#ent arti#le, =rillat atta#hes great signifi#an#e to this 'assage. -s has already )een mentioned, =rillat re#ogni6es that the word hysteria ne"er a''ears in the Hi''o#rati# #or'usJ howe"er, on the )asis of this 'assage of Galen, he asserts that it is in Galen8s wor H4u8a''arait le mot d8hystFrie,H al)eit in adIe#ti"al form.1$%?2 @f #ourse, this is not 'arti#ularly + ?5 + signifi#ant sin#e, as 3 ha"e already shown, the adIe#ti"e hysteri(os also a''ears in the Hi''o#rati# #or'us. Howe"er, =rillat goes on to use the Galeni# 'assage as the )asis for his statement, HHi''o#rate ado'te la thForie 'o'ulaire et reIette le nom. Galien reIette la thForie mais ado'te le nomH 9Hi''o#rates ado'ts the 'o'ular theory and reIe#ts the name. Galen reIe#ts the theory )ut ado'ts the name<. =his raises many 4uestions. =here is little e"iden#e for the theory of the wandering wom) in #lassi#al Gree H'o'ular thoughtH a'art from Plato8s Timaeus , and Plato is hardly the Gree e4ui"alent of the man on the Cla'ham omni)us. 3n the Roman Em'ire of Galen, there may )e )etter grounds for )elie"ing that women des#ri)ed themsel"es as hysterica . - rele"ant 'assage from outside the medi#al #or'us is Bartial, 1pigrams $$.C$, where Leda tells her aged hus)and she is hysterica as a de"i#e to ma e him summon young do#tors to #arry out what was then thought to )e the standard treatment, se/ual inter#ourse. Boreo"er, #an we a##e't that it is Galen who Hado'te le nomHN Le ha"e already seen that the e"iden#e of 'a'yri from the third and se#ond #enturies B.C ., ta en with the fragment of Bantias 'reser"ed in Soranus, suggests on the #ontrary that the #ategory hysteri(e pni# e/isted at least four hundred years )efore Galen. 3ndeed, elsewhere Galen distan#es himself not only from the word hysteri(os Areferring to Hthe so0#alled hysteri#al sym'tomsHA)ut also from pni# , saying that apnoia , a)sen#e of )reath, is a more a''ro'riate term.1$%;2 =he 'assage from Bartial is also of interest in that Galen tooAunli e SoranusAregards se/ual inter#ourse as )enefi#ial for sufferers, and in his new etiology of the #ondition this thera'y, mentioned in the Hi''o#rati# #or'us )ut only as one of many re#ommendations for suffo#ation #aused )y the wom), is gi"en a #entral role. He #onsiders that those most "ulnera)le to the disorder are Hwidows, and 'arti#ularly those who 're"iously menstruated regularly, had )een 'regnant and were eager to ha"e inter#ourse, )ut were now de'ri"ed of all this.H1$%:2 =his 'assage is interesting, not only )e#ause it

omits the #hildless, seen as 'arti#ularly sus#e'ti)le in se"eral Hi''o#rati# te/ts, )ut also )e#ause it 'oints Galen toward the #ause of the 'ro)lem. He does not a##e't the Hi''o#rati# etiology of wom) mo"ement in sear#h of moisture, sin#e disse#tion 'ro"es that it #annot o##urJ the wom) may seem to mo"e, )ut Hit does not mo"e from one 'la#e to another li e a wandering animal, )ut is 'ulled u' )y the tensionH of the mem)ranes holding it in 'la#e.1$%C2 Lhy do these mem)ranes )e#ome tenseN He suggests that it is )e#ause they are filled with menstrual )lood, una)le to mo"e into the wom) either )e#ause of its thi# ness or )e#ause the orifi#es through whi#h the + ?& + )lood 'asses into the wom) are #losed. =hus one #ause of the #ondition is menstrual retention. =his is not howe"er the origin of the most se"ere form of hysteri(e pni# . Galen )elie"es that women too #ontri)ute HseedHJ this is not an entirely new idea, sin#e some Hi''o#rati# writers )elie"ed in its e/isten#e. ,or Galen, female seed does not ele"ate the female to an e4ual 'osition with the male, sin#e it is naturally inferior to male seed.1$%>2 Seed too #an )e retained in the wom), where it 'resents far more of a threat to health than retained menses.1$%%2 Galen goes on to #om'are the effe#t of su#h retained su)stan#es to that of the )ite or sting of a 'oisonous #reatureJ small amounts #ause dramati# and 'ossi)ly fatal sym'toms.15**2 Retained seed #an rot, #ausing no/ious humors to affe#t the rest of the )ody through Hsym'athyHJ for Galen, as for -retaeus, this is how the )reathing #an )e affe#ted without the wom) mo"ing to 'ut 'hysi#al 'ressure on the dia'hragm. 3t is an infinitely mallea)le #on#e't that #an #laim Hi''o#rati# #redentials: /n 2oints 9;C< des#ri)es the H)rotherly #onne#tionsH that e/ist )etween 'arts of the )ody, 'ermitting, among other things, the wanderings of the wom).15*$2 =hus, where the Hi''o#rati#s attri)uted different grou's of sym'toms to the different organs to whi#h the wom) #ould mo"e, Galen suggests that the )asi# #ause is retained matter, different sym'toms owing most to the nature of this matterJ for e/am'le, )la# )ile leads to des'onden#y.15*52 Boni#a Green has 'ointed out that it is of 'arti#ular interest that, des'ite his reIe#tion of the )elief that the wom) is a wandering animal, Galen ne"ertheless manages to retain the use of the full s#ent thera'y. /n the !ethod of Healing3 to Glaucon in#ludes a )rief referen#e to its use in treating a HrisingH wom), while in another treatise Galen lists su)stan#esAin#luding #astoreum and )urned hairAto )e 'la#ed at the nose of a woman with this #ondition.15*&2 3n a 'assage from /n the $ffected arts ta en u' )y the hysteria tradition, Galen des#ri)es the #ase of a woman who had )een a widow for a long time and who was told )y a midwife that her sym'toms were due to her wom) )eing Hdrawn u'.H =he woman a''lied to her e/ternal genitalia Hthe #ustomary remediesH 9details of whi#h are not gi"en here< for this #ondition and 'assed a 4uantity of thi# seedJ the suggestion a''ears to )e that ru))ing in the traditional s#ented ointments #auses orgasm, and thus releases the retained matter.15*?2 ,or Galen, )oth menstrual )lood and seed must )e e"a#uated, otherwise they will )e#ome to/i# and 'oison the )odyJ s#ent thera'y #ontinues, )ut its rationale #hanges. =he third #entury -.K . is, in many ways, a hiatus in the de"elo'ment of the hysteria tradition. @ne sour#e that should )e #onsidered here is a 'a'yrus from Gre#o0Roman Egy't, whi#h has )een dated to the third + ?? + or 'ossi)ly the fourth #entury -.K . 3n a #olle#tion of magi#al s'ells, one is in#luded to )e used in #ases of Hthe rising u' of the wom).H 3t #alls u'on the wom) to Hreturn again to your seat, and that you do not

turn into the right 'art of the ri)s, or into the left 'art of the ri)s, and that you do not gnaw into the heart li e a dog, )ut remain indeed in your own intended and 'ro'er 'la#e.H15*;2 =his fas#inating sour#e shows that the idea of a mo)ile and animate wom) #ontinued to flourish in the #onte/t of 'o'ular )eliefJ the referen#e to it gnawing Hli e a dogH should 'erha's )e read in the #onte/t of Gre#o0 Roman ideas #on#erning the insatia)le se/ual a''etites of dogsAand womenAtogether with the #onne#tion )etween (uon , meaning dog, and (uein , meaning to )e 'regnant. 3n this s'ell we are not "ery far from the wom) of Plato8s Timaeus , running through the )ody when its desire to #on#ei"e is thwarted.15*:2 3n the late fourth #entury -.K ., a further literary sour#e is of interest )e#ause it ma es e/'li#it the identifi#ation of the Gree hysteri(e pni# and the Latin suffocatio . =his is the Boo( of !edicines of Bar#ellus Em'iri#us, whi#h gi"es remedies for the disorder in a se#tion on a#ute and #hroni# #onditions of the head. 3t identifies only two sym'tomsAse"ere head 'ains and suffo#ationAwhi#h, if originating in the wom), Hthe Gree s #all hysteri(g pni# .H =he #ondition is #onsidered #om'ara)le to e'ile'sy, fren6y, and di66iness, e/#e't in its organ of origin.15*C2

Further $ontri2utions to the !radition !he Gree5 East

Returning to the set of #onne#ted te/ts whi#h ma es u' the hysteria tradition, the By6antine em'ire 'reser"ed many medi#al ideas of anti4uity through the wor of en#y#lo'edists su#h as @ri)asius, -etius, and Paul of -egina.15*>2 Su#h writers, often dismissed as Hthe medi#al refrigerators of anti4uityH wor ing in Hune F'o4ue de stagnation,H were ne"ertheless more than #om'ilers whose la)ors ha"e 'reser"ed for us the wor of earlier writersJ Hnot dum) #o'yists,H they sele#ted and 'ara'hrased, added and #ut material, a##ording to the s'e#ifi# needs of their audien#e.15*%2 -lthough they may add little new to our 'i#ture, they are of interest )e#ause they #om)ine the elements of Soranus8s and Galen8s a##ounts in different ways. =hus, for e/am'le, it will )e seen that )oth -etius and Paul use Soranus, )utAli e GalenA)ring )a# the s#ent thera'y that he had reIe#ted. Both use Galen8s ideas of retained matter that must )e e/'elled, while -etius re'eats the story of the widow. 3t is also in the wor of these en#y#lo'edists that #ertain remedies for the #ondition )e#ome standardi6ed, while it is through them that many of the ideas of earlier writers rea#hed 3slami# medi#ine. + ?; + 3n the u''er e#helons of the By6antine world, nowledge of #lassi#al literature was regarded as the mar of an edu#ated man. Bedi#al edu#ation too was largely te/tual, traditional, and #lassi#al. Le now of "ery few tea#hing #enters in the fifth to se"enth #enturies -.K .J those students who neither #ame from a medi#al family nor were a''renti#ed to a 'hysi#ian were o)liged to rely largely on te/ts for their instru#tion in )oth theory and 'ra#ti#e.15$*2 -le/andria again )e#ame an im'ortant medi#al #enter from the late fourth #entury -.K .J the medi#al student there would read a)out ele"en Hi''o#rati# treatisesAin#luding the Hi''o#rati# $phorisms and Diseases of )omen Aand fifteen or si/teen te/ts from the Galeni# #or'us. =he Hi''o#rati# te/ts were, howe"er, read through a HGaleni# filter.H15$$2 -le/andria is asso#iated with the se"enth0#entury en#y#lo'edist Paul of -egina, whose wor was itself )ased to a large e/tent on the fourth0#entury, se"enty0"olume wor of @ri)asius. 3t is easy to underestimate the wor of @ri)asius, Paul, and their su##essors. D. G. Lilson summari6es: H7ery little #an )e said of any 'ositi"e a#hie"ement of -le/andrian medi#ine. Paul admits o'enly in his introdu#tion that he #ontri)utes 'ra#ti#ally no original

material of his own.H Howe"er, he goes on to 'oint out that Paul8s wor #ir#ulated widely,15$52 and it is im'ortant to see whi#h 'arts of the hysteria tradition were strengthened )y the #hoi#es made )y su#h writers. @ri)asius8s #om'ilation, deri"ed from the wor of Galen, Soranus, and a num)er of lost wor s, was itself summari6ed in two editions of nine and four )oo s res'e#ti"ely. His des#ri'tion of the anatomy of the wom) and other female se/ual organs, e/'li#itly ta en from Soranus, sur"i"es in the se"enty0 "olume "ersion of his wor .15$&2 ,or his dis#ussion of hysteri(e pni# , whi#h sur"i"es in the nine0 "olume "ynopsis , @ri)asius uses the lost wor of Philumenos of -le/andria,15$?2 whi#h re#ommends )andaging the e/tremities, ru))ing the lower lim)s, and s#ent thera'yJ foul odors at the nostrils, and sweet oils inIe#ted into the wom). Shouting at the 'atient and 'ro"o ing snee6ing are also a##e'ta)le, with )leeding on#e she is #ons#ious. Castoreum is also highly re#ommendedJ e"en on its own, it may 'rodu#e a #ure. 3n an earlier #ha'ter @ri)asius gi"es further remedies for pni# , in#luding the )y now familiar list of foul0smelling su)stan#es, namely )itumen, #astoreum, gum resin, 'it#h, #edar resin, e/tinguished lam' wi# s, )urned hair, rue, asafetida, onion, and garli#.15$;2 =his #losely resem)les the list of su)stan#es Soranus #riti#i6ed earlier writers for usingJ and, of #ourse, Soranus also disagreed with the use of loud noises to rouse the 'atient. =hus, des'ite following Soranus8s anatomy of the wom), @ri)asius ta es his remedies from the traditions Soranus des'ised. + ?: + =he #a'ital of the By6antine em'ire, Constantino'le, was another medi#al #enter. @ri)asius wor ed there in the fourth #entury, and it was later to )e asso#iated with -etius of -midaAwhose si/teen0 "olume #om'ilation, made in the si/th #entury, was )ased on @ri)asius and othersAand with -le/ander of =ralles, whose twel"e0"olume Therapeutica was 'ro)a)ly written a few de#ades after -etius.15$:2 =he wor of @ri)asius, -etius, and Paul was later transmitted through the #olle#tion of medi#al nowledge #om'iled )y =heo'hanes Donnos in the tenth #entury. Donnos wor ed as 'art of a deli)erate 'rogram to stimulate learning, initiated )y the em'eror Constantine Por'hyrogenitus, who was #on#erned with en#ouraging edu#ation and himself wrote se"eral )oo s and 'oems.15$C2 -etius )ased his des#ri'tion of hysteri(e pni# on Galen8s /n the $ffected arts , merging this with the Philumenos material 'reser"ed )y @ri)asius.15$>2 He a##e'ts that the wom), whi#h only seems to mo"e, #auses the #ondition, the higher organs )eing affe#ted through Hsym'athy.H !sing the Galeni# model of the )ody, he des#ri)es how s'asms rea#h the heart "ia the arteries, the )rain through the s'inal marrow, and the li"er through the "eins.15$%2 -s a means of dis#o"ering whether or not the 'atient li"es, he re'eats a test gi"en in Galen, )y whi#h either a woolen thread was 'la#ed at the nostrils, or a )owl of water on the na"el.155*2 Howe"er, e"en if no mo"ement o##urred in the wool or the water, he warnedAagain, following GalenAthat it was 'ossi)le that life remained. He sees the disorder as seasonalJ it ha''ens mostly in winter and autumn, es'e#ially in young women who use drugs to 're"ent #on#e'tion.155$2 =his a''ears to )e a s'e#ial #on#ern of -etius, although it re#alls Plato8s image of the wom) de'ri"ed of the offs'ring it desires, running wild through the )ody. ,or -etius, as for Galen, the #ause of the sym'toms is the de#ay in the wom) of seed or other material, whi#h #ools: the #oldness is then 'assed on to the )rain and heart.15552 He #uts out the story from Hera#leides, )ut re'eatsAindeed, #laims as his own eyewitness a##ount155&2 AGalen8s story of the widow who felt H'ain and 'leasure at the same timeH )efore e/'elling the #orru't seedJ here, howe"er, a little more detail is gi"en )y -etius, so that we are e/'li#itly told that the remedies used #onsisted in sweet ointments ru))ed into the genitalia, something that is re#ommended again later in this 'assage.155?2 Li e Philumenos and @ri)asius, -etius re#ommends shouting at the 'atient and re'eats word for word the ad"i#e of Philumenos0@ri)asius that H#astoreum alone often #ures.H155;2 =he status of s#ent thera'y is

reinfor#ed, e"en in#reased. =he des#ri'tion of hysteri(e pni# gi"en )y Paul of -egina155:2 in the + ?C + se"enth #entury follows -etius #losely, )ut states that the wom) itself Hrises u'H155C2 to affe#t )y sym'athy the #arotid arteries, heart, and mem)ranes. =he 'atient loses her senses and her 'ower of s'ee#h, the lim)s )eing Hdrawn together.H =he #auseAas in GalenAis the wom) )eing full of seed or of some other su)stan#e that )e#omes rotten.155>2 Bost sufferers die suddenly during the s'asmsJ the 'ulse )e#omes fre4uent and irregular, and as'hy/ia then follows. Breathing, at first faint, is #ut off. =he #ondition is most 're"alent in winter and autumn, and most affe#ts the las#i"ious, andAin almost the e/a#t words of -etiusAthose who use drugs to 're"ent #on#e'tion.155%2 Kuring the atta# the e/tremities should )e )andaged and the 'atient ru))ed all o"er. ,oul0smelling su)stan#esAin#luding stale urineAshould )e 'la#ed at the nostrils, and #u''ing and anal su''ositories used. Sweet0smelling su)stan#es should )e em'loyed in order to draw the wom) )a# to its 'ro'er 'la#e. =o rouse the 'atient, one should shout at her roughly and indu#e snee6ing with #astoreum, soa'wort, and 'e''er. 15&*2 Li e Soranus and @ri)asius, Paul se'arates treatment for the fits, or paro#ysmoi , from treatment for the whole )odyJ the latter )egins with "enese#tion15&$2 and goes on to 'urging, e/er#ise, and )aths. -lthough the tenden#y in the East was toward the #om'ilation of en#y#lo'edias, one inde'endent Gree te/t, 'ro)a)ly from the si/th #entury, sur"i"es in a ninth0#entury manus#ri't. =his is the Boo( of !etrodora , a 'ra#ti#al treatise in many ways reminis#ent of Hi''o#rati# medi#ine. 3t in#ludes some remedies for hysteri(e pni# , whi#h ma e use of the traditional foul0 and sweet0smelling su)stan#es, namely #astoreum, rue with honey, and 'ig8s dung with rose water.15&52 =hus in By6antine medi#ine a #om'osite 'i#ture of hysteri(e pni# was )uilt u', in#or'orating the Galeni# )elief in retained su)stan#es 'oisoning the )ody, Soranus8s an#horing mem)ranes, Hi''o#rati# s#ent thera'y, "enese#tion as in Celsus, and a )elief in the "alue of snee6ing, deri"ed from the Hi''o#rati# $phorisms and Galen8s #ommentary on them, whi#h will )e dis#ussed in detail )elow. -lthough the main authorities, Soranus and Galen, had "igorously denied that the wom) #ould mo"e, this idea #ame #lose to )eing reinstated )y Paul of -egina. -etius 'reser"ed the Galeni# tests to determine whether the 'atient still li"ed, while writers with otherwise di"ergent "iews agreed on the thera'euti# "alue of #astoreum.

!he Latin 3est

3n the Lest, meanwhile, the 'i#ture was in some ways "ery different. -lthough the $phorisms #ir#ulated widely, few of the wor s of #lassi#al + ?> + medi#ine sur"i"ed, es'e#ially after nowledge of Gree de#lined during the fifth and si/th #enturies. -lthough in northern 3taly some By6antine #ommentaries and en#y#lo'edias were ada'ted into Latin during the si/th #enturyAamong them, the wor of @ri)asiusAmost HnewH medi#al te/ts were short wor s )ased on Soranus.15&&2 =he late fourth0 or early fifth0#entury15&?2 Latin "ersion of Soranus )y Caelius -urelianus sur"i"ed into the Biddle -ges, while the fifth0 or si/th0#entury "ersion )y Bus#io #ir#ulated more widely. Bus#io 'lays down Soranus8s atta# on the idea that the wom) mo"es around the )ody, going so far as to add to Soranus8s introdu#tion to the #ondition a new 'hrase #laiming that the wom) rises u' toward the #hest.15&;2 =hus the "ersions of Soranus that #ir#ulated in the Lest

in#luded wom) mo"ement from an early date. Se"eral of the te/ts 'rodu#ed in the Lest originated in -fri#a, among them the wor s of Caelius -urelianus and Bus#io. Predating these is the late fourth #entury 1uporiston of =heodorus Pris#ianus, a 'u'il of 7indi#ianus, whose own Gynaecia was a te/t on 'arts of the )ody and their de"elo'ment in the wom). @riginally written in Gree , the 1uporiston was translated )y =heodorus Pris#ianus himself into Latin.15&:2 =his "ersion #ontains a se#tion entitled De praefocatione matricis , whi#h follows the #onstri#tion(rela/ation a''roa#h of Soranus, omits wom) mo"ement, )ut in#ludes s#ent thera'y. 3n -.K . ??C another -fri#an writer, Cassius ,eli/, too a different a''roa#h, 'u)lishing an en#y#lo'edia allegedly )ased on Gree medi#al writers of the logi#al, or dogmati#, se#t, )ut in fa#t owing mu#h to Soranus as translated )y Caelius -urelianusJ this #ontains a "ery Hi''o#rati# des#ri'tion of hysteri#al suffo#ation, in#or'orating wom) mo"ement as well as s#ent thera'y.15&C2 @ther Latin te/ts of this 'eriod sur"i"e and are 'ro)a)ly more re'resentati"e than the -fri#an wor s of medi#ine in the Lest after the fall of Rome. - dialogue allegedly )etween Soranus and a midwife, a''arently designed as a midwi"es8 #ate#hism, is 'reser"ed in a ninth0#entury manus#ri't )ut may date to the si/th #enturyJ this is the 4iber ad "oteris .15&>2 -nother short te/t from this 'eriod is the Gynaecia )y 'seudo0Cleo'atra.15&%2 3t mentions a #ondition #alled suppressiones vulvae , the main sym'tom of whi#h is diffi#ulty in s'ea ing and whi#h thus may )e identified with hysteri(e pni# J howe"er, wom) mo"ement is not mentioned, nor is s#ent thera'y ad"ised. =he an#ient Hi''o#rati# theories were not, howe"er, entirely lost to the Lest. Between the fifth and se"enth #enturies -.K . many Hi''o#rati# te/ts were translated into Latin at Ra"enna, among them $phorisms and Diseases of )omen 9$.$, $.C0&>, and e/tra#ts from 5<.15?*2 Se"eral te/ts on wom) mo"ement and suffo#ation are in#luded in su#h translations.15?$2 + ?% + -lso translated was Galen8s /n the !ethod of Healing3 to Glaucon , with its referen#e to s#ent thera'y for a mo"ing wom)J the Ra"enna #ommentator #onsiders that, )y using s#ent thera'y, Galen is a''arently endorsing the wandering wom) theory.15?52 3t is, howe"er, as misleading to regard the wor of the s#holars of Ra"enna only as translation as to dismiss the By6antine writers as mere #om'ilers. 3t is im'ortant to understand the 'ur'oses for whi#h they used these te/ts, sin#e these in turn influen#ed the translation. =hese 'ur'oses fall under two headings: 'ra#ti#e and instru#tion. Hi''o#rati# medi#ine was seen a)o"e all as )eing of immediate rele"an#e for medi#al 'ra#ti#eJ the Ra"enna te/ts are thus not a#ademi# editions, )ut manuals. -s a result the more theoreti#al or s'e#ulati"e Hi''o#rati# te/ts were negle#ted, while those sele#ted for translation were ada'ted a##ording to the different moral and histori#al #onte/t within whi#h they were now to )e used.15?&2 =he se#ond, #losely related as'e#t instru#tion led to the re#asting of some te/ts in new formats in whi#h e/tra#ts were set out in 4uestion0and0answer form, as dialogues li e the 4iber ad "oteris , as #alendars, as "isual re'resentations, or as letters. =he letter format, dire#t and 'ersonal, was "ery 'o'ular, an e/am'le )eing the 1pistula ad !aecenatem , the 4etter to !aecenas . -lso nown as the De natura generis humani , this #om'rises e/tra#ts from the Hi''o#rati# Diseases of )omen 9$< and from 7indi#ianus. =he 1pistula ad !aecenatem is found in the ninth0#entury manus#ri'ts Paris BD Lat. C*5C and Paris BD Lat. $$5$%, and in these manus#ri'ts it in#ludes two 'assages of Diseases of )omen used in the hysteria tradition: $.C, on mo"ement of the wom) to the li"er, and $.&5, on mo"ement of the wom) in a 'regnant woman.15??2 =he late eighth #entury(early ninth #entury manus#ri't Leningrad Lat. ,.".73.& is a hand)oo in#luding Latin translations of se#tions from Diseases of )omen , one of whi#h is our 5. $5C, a further des#ri'tion of the mo"ement of the wom) to

the li"er. 3n the re#i'es gi"en for #ures, su)stitutions are made in the 'harma#o'oeia a##ording to what was a"aila)le in the 'eriod.15?;2

!he %ra2 3orld

-nother route of transmission of Hi''o#rati# ideas to the Lest was through the -ra) world. =he most o)"ious #onta#t )etween medi#al systems too 'la#e after the -ra)s too -le/andria in -.K . :?5, 'ossi)ly while Paul of -egina was thereJ the medi#al s#hool at -le/andria #ontinued to e/ist until around -.K . C$%, 'ro)a)ly still using Gree as its language of instru#tion.15?:2 =he great age of translation )egan in the ninth #enturyJ Gree manus#ri'ts were ta en as )ooty in #on4uest, and + ;* + those translating them into -ra)i#Asometimes through the medium of Syria#AenIoyed royal 'atronage. ,rom this time onward, "ersions of Hi''o#rati# te/ts, )ased on se"eral manus#ri'ts, were 'rodu#edJ the most famous early translator was Hunain i)n 3sha4 al083)adiA nown to the Lest as EohannitiusAthe Christian son of a druggist, who was also res'onsi)le for translating wor s )y Galen, @ri)asius, and Paul of -egina. Hunain also listed all the wor s of Galen that had )een translated into -ra)i# or Syria# )y a)out -.K . >**J these in#luded su#h ey wor s in the hysteria tradition as /n the $ffected arts3 /n Difficulty in Breathing , and the #ommentary on the $phorisms , from whi#h the Hi''o#rati# $phorisms themsel"es were e/#er'ted and then transmitted se'arately.15?C2 =here thus e/ists a stri ing #ontrast )etween East and Lest in the ninth #enturyJ as R. E. Kurling 'uts it, HLhereas Euro'ean nowledge of Galen was limited to a few Galeni# wor s, and those either unim'ortant or #learly s'urious, -ra)i# translations of almost all his writings were made.H Something similar o##urs with regard to mu#h of the Hi''o#rati# #or'usJ in #ontrast to the Latin Lest, where em'hasis was 'la#ed on translating those te/ts of immediate 'ra#ti#al "alue, the -ra)i# translators did not negle#t the more theoreti#al and s'e#ulati"e treatises, so that the H-ra)i# Hi''o#ratesH is more #om'lete than the HLatin Hi''o#rates.H15?>2 =his does not, howe"er, a''ly to Hi''o#rati# gyne#ologyJ neither Diseases of )omen nor ,ature of )oman was translated into -ra)i#, although two By6antine #ommentaries on Diseases of )omen $.$0$$ were in #ir#ulation in the -ra) world )efore the ele"enth #entury, together with By6antine medi#al en#y#lo'edias.15?%2 =he main means )y whi#h Gre#o0Roman ideas were transmitted was through the #om'ilation of new en#y#lo'edi# wor s. =he Firda%s al hi(ma 9Paradise of Lisdom< of 8-li i)n Ra))an at0=a)ari 9>$*0 >:$< was #om'leted in >;* and in#ludes a''ro/imately $5* 4uotations from the Hi''o#rati# #or'us, and a large amount of Galeni# material, together with e/tra#ts from other Gree and 3slami# writers su#h as -ristotle and Hunain.15;*2 -t0=a)ari )elie"es that the essential wetness of woman leads to menstrual lossJ retained moisture sin s to the lowest 'art of the )ody and then #omes out, HIust as in a tree the e/#ess moisture #omes out as gum.H15;$2 3n his se#tion on uterine disorders, he in#ludes suffo#ation of the wom). He writes, HSometimes, through damming0u' of menstrual )lood and la# of se/ual inter#ourse, "a'ours de"elo'.H He e/'lains that the retained )lood )e#omes thi# , and 'rodu#es "a'ors that then affe#t the whole )ody, #ausing su#h sym'toms as 'ainful )reathing, 'al'itations, head 'ain, and suffo#ation of the wom). - further dis#ussion of suffo#ation o##urs in the #onte/t of wom) + ;$ + mo"ement. =he wom) #an lean to one side, )ut sometimes it a#tually rises u' until it rea#hes the

dia'hragm, #ausing suffo#ation. H=hen the woman loses #ons#iousness, with the result that her )reath is sto''ed. =hen one 'uts a )it of wool under her nostrils in order to see whether she is ali"e or dead.H =he #ause here is not menstrual )lood, )ut a##umulated seedJ if there is an He/#ess, la# or a)sen#eH of inter#ourse, seed will a##umulate in the wom), rot, and )e#ome 'oisonous and thi# . =he wom) then mo"es to the dia'hragm and the woman suffo#ates.15;52 =hus wom) mo"ement was readily #om)ined with a Galeni# etiology of retained seed or menses, )ut to this mi/ture at0=a)ari added the e/'lanatory de"i#e of "a'ors. Lhere Gre#o0Roman writers em'loyed the #on#e't of sym'athy to a##ount for the effe#ts of the wom) on other 'arts of the )ody, writers in the -ra) world also used "a'orsJ as we shall see, this de"elo'ment entered the western hysteria tradition when te/ts were translated from -ra)i# to Latin from the ele"enth #entury onward. =he ne/t writer from the -ra) world who should )e #onsidered here is Buhammad i)n0Pa ariyya8 ar0 Ra6i 9Rha6es<, whose 5itab al*Ha%i , a twenty0four0"olume #olle#tion of e/#er'ts from Gree , -ra)i#, and 3ndian writers nown in Latin as the &ontinens , was written around -.K . %**.15;&2 -lso translated into Latin was his 5itab al*!ansori , whi#h in#ludes a #ha'ter on uterine suffo#ation. Here Rha6es gi"es a )asi#ally Galeni# a##ount of the #ondition, in#luding retained menses and seed, the 'atient falling down as though dead, and s#ent thera'yJ he in#ludes the re#ommendation that a midwife should ru) the mouth of the wom) with a well0oiled finger. He does not say that the wom) mo"es, although he des#ri)es a sensation Has if something is 'ulled u'.H15;?2 =he wor of 8-li i)n al08-))as al0BaIusi, nown in Euro'e as Haly -))as, was 'rodu#ed in the tenth #entury -.K . 3t too #om)ines Hi''o#rati# etiologies with a 'redominantly Galeni# a''roa#h, often read through the eyes of Paul(-etiusJ )ut al0BaIusi 'lays down the mem)ranes an#horing the wom), #laiming instead that the wom) #an mo"e around the )ody. He in#ludes )oth sym'athy and "a'ors. He e/'lains that suffo#ation of the wom) is a "ery dangerous #ondition )e#ause sym'athy leads to the "ital organs, the )rain and heart, )eing affe#ted. 3f a woman does not ha"e inter#ourse, a large 4uantity of seed will #olle#t and will Hstifle and e/tinguish the innate heat.H Retained menstrual )lood has similar effe#ts.15;;2 3n a se'arate se#tion on treatment, he retains the Hi''o#rati# s#ent thera'y, )ut e/'lains its su##ess 'artly in terms of "a'ors. Bad smells administered to the nose rise to the )rain, Hwarming, dissol"ing and diluting the #old "a'ors,H )ut also dri"ing the wom) )a# down.15;:2 ,or + ;5 + al0BaIusi, the wom) is Hmore or less an inde'endent li"ing )eing,H yearning for #on#e'tion, annoyed )y )ad smells and leaning toward 'leasant smells. Plato8s des#ri'tion of the wom) as an animal desiring #on#e'tion was nown to the -ra) world through Galen.15;C2 -l0BaIusi also re#ommends se/ual inter#ourse as a #ure, es'e#ially for "irgins, whose strong desire for se/ and thi# menstrual )lood 'redis'oses them to the #ondition.15;>2 3n the a)sen#e of this, he re'eats the Galeni# thera'y of instru#ting a midwife to ru) sweet0smelling oils on the mouth of the wom), and states e/'li#itly that this has the same effe#t as inter#ourse, in warming and thinning the seed, so that it #an drain away and the woman #an Hfind 'ea#e.H15;%2 -lso wor ing in the tenth #entury was 3)n al0Ea66ar, whose main wor was the 5itab 6ad al*!usafir in se"en )oo s. =his was a 'arti#ularly im'ortant sour#e for medie"al Euro'ean medi#ineJ it was translated into Latin, Gree , and He)rew, and is nown in Latin as the 7iaticum .15:*2 Boo :, #ha'ter $$, des#ri)es suffo#ation of the wom)J the #ondition )egins with loss of a''etite and the #hilling of the )ody, whi#h is attri)uted to #orru'tion of retained seed, 'arti#ularly in widows and young girls of marriagea)le age. ,rom the seed a fumus Aa smo e, or "a'orArises to the dia'hragm, )e#ause the

dia'hragm and wom) are #onne#tedJ then, sin#e further #onne#tions e/ist )etween the dia'hragm and the throat and "o#al #hords, suffo#ation ensues. similar 'ro)lems may result from retained menses, and s#ent thera'y and the a''li#ation of fragrant oils to the mouth of the wom) are re#ommended. Re'eated here is a "ersion of the story gi"en in Galen of the woman who lay as dead )ut was nown to )e ali"e )y the 'resen#e of innate heatJ here, howe"er, Galen rather than Em'edo#les )e#omes its heroQ 15:$2 ,inally, 3)n Sing 9-"i#enna<, )orn in -.K . %>*, in#luded dis#ussions of hysteri#al suffo#ation in his 8anun 9the &anon <J translated into Latin )y Gerard of Cremona in twelfth0#entury =oledo, this influential te/t was 'rinted thirty0si/ times in the fifteenth and si/teenth #enturies.15:52 He de"otes four su##essi"e #ha'ters to the #ondition, its signs and #ures, and the 'referred regimen for sufferers. He )ases his des#ri'tion on Galen as inter'reted )y -etius, fa"oring sym'athy 9communitas < o"er "a'ors, and in#luding the test for life with a 'ie#e of wool and the story of the widowJ #ures in#lude 'hle)otomy and the ru))ing of s#ented oil into the "ul"a, while the regimen in#ludes the use of foul0 smelling su)stan#es at the nose and sweet s#ents at the "agina.15:&2 =hus it #an )e seen that the distin#ti"ely Hi''o#rati# features of wom) mo"ement, s#ent thera'y, and the thera'euti# "alue of se/ual inter#ourse sur"i"ed e"en in the dire#tly #ontradi#tory en"ironments of + ;& + Galeni# theory and 3slami# #ulture. Kes'ite the reIe#tion of the mo"ing wom) )y )oth Soranus and Galen, it soon returned to the fore in the e/'lanations of hysteri#al suffo#ation gi"en )y writers and #om'ilers in )oth East and Lest. 3n the -ra)i# world, Soranus8s Gynecology may not ha"e )een translated, so his atta# on the theory of the mo)ile wom) may ha"e remained un nownJ15:?2 as for Galen, although he e/'li#itly reIe#ts Plato8s wom)0as0animal theory in /n the $ffected arts , he im'li#itly a##e'ts it in To Glaucon , thus lea"ing the matter o'en for future #ommentators. Su#h elements of the hysteria tradition as the wool test for life and the story of the widow and the midwife, retained )y the By6antine en#y#lo'edists, #ontinue to sur"i"e in -ra)i# medi#ineJ the story of the woman raised from a''arent death )y Em'edo#les is found in 3)n al0Ea66ar )ut 'lays a minor role, 'erha's )e#ause the short referen#e to it in Galen is insuffi#ient for its re#onstru#tion. 3n terms of the most li ely "i#tims for the #ondition, it is of interest that Galen8s 'referen#e for widows is ignoredJ "irgins )e#ome a 'rime target. =his is not a return to Hi''o#rati# etiology sin#e, as 3 ha"e argued a)o"e, the Hi''o#rati# hysteria te/ts rarely gi"e a 'arti#ular target 'o'ulation for wom) mo"ementJ furthermore, when a 'arti#ular grou' is s'e#ified, this tends to )e the #hildless in general 9sin#e their flesh is not H)ro en downH<, older women not ha"ing inter#ourse, or young widows. =he Hi''o#rati# te/t that may )e at the root of this interest in "irgins is one that was a"aila)le in the -ra) world, sin#e it is #ited twi#e )y Rha6es: the Diseases of 9oung Girls .15:;2 =his is a short and "i"id des#ri'tion of a #ondition that arises not from wom) mo"ement, )ut instead from retention of menstrual, or 'ossi)ly menar#heal, )lood. =he target 'o'ulation #onsists of parthenoi Ameaning young girls, unmarried women, and(or "irginsAwho are Hri'e for marriageH )ut remain unmarried. =heir )lood is des#ri)ed as )eing 'lentiful due to Hfood and the growth of the )ody.H 3f Hthe orifi#e of e/itH is #losed, the )lood that has mo"ed to the wom) ready to lea"e the )ody will tra"el instead to the heart and dia'hragm, #ausing "isions, loss of reason, and a desire to #ommit sui#ide )y hanging. =he author states that he orders girls with this #ondition to marry as 4ui# ly as 'ossi)leJ if they )e#ome 'regnant, they will )e #ured. 3 would suggest that this te/t, retros'e#ti"ely diagnosed as hysteria )y se"eral writers during this #entury, lies )ehind al0BaIusi8s interest in the thi# )lood of a "irgin and in inter#ourse as a #ure, as well as e/'laining 3)n al0Ea66ar8s target 'o'ulation of girls of marriagea)le age.15::2

,inally, in these writers, a new e/'lanatory de"i#e is used to a##ount for the effe#ts of the wom) on other 'arts of the )ody: "a'ors. .et the + ;? + #on#e't of sym'athy #ontinues to e/ist, sometimesAas in 3)n al0Ea66arAin"ol"ing "ery 're#ise #onne#tions )etween 'arti#ular organs of the )ody.

!he 6eeting o* !hree 3orlds

Returning to western Euro'e, most of Galeni# medi#ine had )een lost with the de#line, from the late fourth #entury onward, in nowledge of the Gree language.15:C2 Soranus dominated gyne#ology in generalJ his writings, 'er#ei"ed as shorter and more 'ra#ti#al than those of Galen, were 'reser"ed in a)ridged Latin "ersions that reinstated the wom) mo"ement he had so "ehemently reIe#ted. Hi''o#rati# medi#ine fared worse, although $phorisms #ontinued to #ir#ulate after its translation into Latin in the si/th #enturyJ the Ra"enna translations also in#luded some of the se#tions of Diseases of )omen des#ri)ing wom) mo"ement. Some Galeni# treatises, too, were translated at Ra"ennaJ howe"er, whereas $5% wor s of Galen were translated into -ra)i#, only ? e/isted in Latin )efore the ele"enth #entury. @ne of these was the 'ra#ti#al wor /n the !ethod of Healing3 to Glaucon )ut, as has )een dis#ussed a)o"e, this #an )e read as a further reinstatement of the wandering wom). =he third "olume of Paul of -egina8s en#y#lo'edia, whi#h in#ludes his largely Ga0leni# des#ri'tion of hysteri(e pni# 'lus details of s#ent thera'y, was translated into Latin, )ut 'ro)a)ly only in the tenth #entury.15:>2 =he em'hasis in the Lest lay firmly on the instru#tional and 'ra#ti#al as'e#ts of an#ient medi#ineJ thus the traditional thera'ies for hysteri#al suffo#ation were transmitted when dis#ussions of its #ausation were not. =he #ategory of suffo#ation of the wom) a''ears in se"eral anonymous #olle#tions of te/ts from the eighth to the twelfth #enturies. 3 ha"e already mentioned Leningrad Lat. ,.".73.&, a Latin manus#ri't dating from the eighth or ninth #entury whi#h #ontains se"eral short te/ts on gyne#ology, all of whi#h show some resem)lan#es to the se#ond )oo of the Hi''o#rati# Diseases of )omen .15:%2 @f these, De causis feminarum gi"es 'ra#ti#al ad"i#e on what to do Hsi "ul"a suffo#anturH 9if the wom) is suffo#ated<, gi"ing the Gree name for the #ondition as Hstyre#ersisH: is this a gar)led form of hysteri(e pni# or hysteri(a N =he 'atient should )e gi"en )urned and 'ul"eri6ed stag8s horn in wine or, if she has a fe"er, in hot water.15C*2 -nother te/t in this #olle#tion, the De muliebria causa , #laims that Huri)asiusHA@ri)asius, the only authority named in these te/tsAre#ommends one dra#hma of agari# for suffo#ation of the wom).15C$2 =his is re'eated in a se#tion of the following te/t, the 4iber de muliebria , whi#h later gi"es a more #om'le/ re#i'e for suffo#ation of the wom), in whi#h the 'atient is #ho ed at the ne# , so that it is turned )a# to the #hest.15C52 + ;; + 3t was in the ele"enth and twelfth #enturies that Galeni# treatises were returned to the Lest, through the translations from -ra)i# into Latin made )y Constantine the -fri#an in the late ele"enth #entury at Salerno and Bonte CassinoJ a few Galeni# treatises were translated dire#tly from Gree into Latin in the twelfth and thirteenth #enturies, and these translations are usually of higher 4uality.15C&2 =he effe#t of Constantine on the history of medi#ine #annot, howe"er, )e o"erem'hasi6edJ his arri"al in 3taly with a #argo of )oo s of -ra)i# medi#ine, whi#h he translated into Latin at Bonte Cassino, transformed the Htheoreti#al im'o"erishmentH into whi#h medi#al nowledge in the Lest had fallen. ,or our 'ur'oses here, what is most signifi#ant is that his translations in#luded Galen8s #ommentary on the Hi''o#rati#

$phorisms , and wor s of al0BaIusi and 3)n al0Ea66ar.15C?2 Constantine translated mu#h of the 5amil of al0BaIusi as the 4iber antegni J this wor was translated again in the early twelfth #entury )y Ste'hen of Pisa as the 4iber -egius and was 'rinted in $?%5 and $;5&. =he 5itab 6ad al*!usafir of 3)n al0Ea66ar was translated in an a))re"iated form as the 7iaticum , while Constantine8s 1#positio $forismi is a translation from the -ra)i# of Galen8s #ommentary on the Hi''o0#rati# $phorisms .15C;2 Lhat effe#t do these te/ts ha"e on the hysteria tradition in the LestN Le ha"e already seen the wide range of "ariations that #an o##ur on the theme of wom) mo"ement. 3n the Hi''o#rati# te/ts a dry, hot, and light wom) rises in sear#h of moistureJ Soranus )elie"es that the an#horing mem)ranes 're"ent any mo"ement, while for -retaeus, although the wom) mo"es it is 'ulled )a# )y its mem)ranes, thus affe#ting the higher 'arts of the )ody only through sym'athy. 3n Galen the 'ro)lem is a wom) filled with retained seed or menses, rotting to 'rodu#e #oldness. 3n -ra)i# medi#ine a Hi''o#rati# mo)ile wom) )e#omes a mo)ile wom) with Galeni# #ontents, and "a'ors as well as sym'athy e/'lain its effe#ts on the higher 'arts. 3n the Latin Lest the fo#us on Soranus had )een #om)ined with a##e'tan#e of wom) mo"ementJ while some e/tra#ts from Hi''o#rati# gyne#ology #ir#ulated, Galeni# theory was lost until the ele"enth #entury. =he return of Galeni# medi#ine from the -ra)i# world led to yet another "ariation on this theme of wom) mo"ement and its me#hanisms. 3t was in the twelfth #entury at Salerno in southern 3taly that the te/ts of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us, Soranus, and Galen finally #ame together after their "aried tra"els through the Latin Lest, the Gree East, and the 3slami# world.15C:2 =he result was not a #riti#al #om'arison of these traditions, )ut instead the de#line of Soranus and the rise of the Galeni# medi#al system of humoral )alan#e and im)alan#e. @ne of the HmastersH + ;: + of the s#hool of Salerno in the twelfth #entury was Eohannes Platearius. 3n his des#ri'tion of suffo#ation of the wom), in the late twelfth0#entury en#y#lo'edia and te/t)oo De aegritudinum curatione , he #om)ined Galen and Paul of -egina with 3)n al0Ea66ar8s #laim that the sym'toms were #aused )y "a'ors rising from the #orru't seed, menses, or other retained humor. Howe"er, Platearius went a ste' farther than this, suggesting that it was not the "a'ors, )ut the wom) filled with "a'ors, that rose in the )ody to 'ut 'ressure on the organs of )reathing. Green has argued that, sin#e the Latin translations of al0BaIusi8s 5amil omitted the later se#tion in whi#h he des#ri)es s#ent thera'y in terms of the wom) as an animal annoyed )y foul smells and see ing 'leasant s#ents, this 'arti#ular merger of the mo)ile wom) with Galeni# theory may #ome, not from 3slami# medi#ine, )ut from the sur"i"al of the idea in 'o'ular thought in the Lest.15CC2 @ther features of Platearius8s des#ri'tion are more familiar, showing the o"erall dominan#e of the Galeni# material found in the newly a"aila)le -ra)i# sour#esJ he re#ommends the Galeni# tests of the woolen thread at the nose of the 'atient, or a glass flas full of water 'la#ed on her #hest, and among his suggested #ures one finds snee6ing 'ro"o ed with #astoreum or 'e''er, and the use of foul s#ents at the nose and sweet s#ents at the "ul"a. Howe"er, here too Green 'oints out that non0Galeni# ideas surfa#eJ although Galen ne"er s'e#ifi#ally ad"ised marriage as a #ure, Platearius re#ommends it if the #ause is retained seed. -gain, al0BaIusi did e/'li#itly 'res#ri)e se/ual inter#ourse as a #ureJ )ut, again, this was omitted from the Latin translation of his wor .15C>2 3t seems that the sur"i"al of Hi''o#rati# theoriesA the wandering wom) from Diseases of )omen and the thera'euti# "alue of inter#ourse from se#tions of that treatise and from Diseases of 9oung Girls Ashould not )e underestimated. -nother writer asso#iated with Salerno in the twelfth #entury is the female 'hysi#ian =rota, whose name is asso#iated with a num)er of treatises of this 'eriod whi#h are found in nearly a hundred

manus#ri'ts from the thirteenth to fifteenth #enturies.15C%2 Suffo#ation of the wom) is mentioned in )oth the more em'iri#al Ut de curis , whi#h refers to it o##urring in young girls with e'ile'sy, and the more theoreti#al and Ga0leni# &um auctor .15>*2 =he &um auctor "ersion owes mu#h to 3)n al0Ea66ar, although it does not s'e#ify #on#lusi"ely whether suffo#ation results from "a'ors, or the wom) itself, rising u' inside the )ody. S#ent thera'y is re#ommended, and the story of the woman who lay as if dead )ut was nown to )e ali"e through the 'resen#e of the innate heat, is transmitted through the &um auctor J as in 3)n al0Ea66ar, Galen )e#omes its hero.15>$2 =he influen#e of Galeni# theory grew with the translation of other + ;C + im'ortant -ra)i# te/ts into LatinJ in 'arti#ular, 3)n Sina8s 8anun . =he wor of Soranus )e#ame H"irtually o)solete )y the thirteenth #enturyHJ15>52 the gyne#ologi#al wor s of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us languished in the wings until the si/teenth #entury. Howe"er, one Hi''o#rati# te/t remained in the #enter stage: the $phorisms , in#luding the se#tion on gy0ne#ology with the te/t with whi#h this #ha'ter )egan, the alleged origin for the la)el(diagnosis hysteria , ;.&;: H3n a woman suffering from hysteri(a , or ha"ing a diffi#ult la)or, a snee6e is a good thing.H $phorisms #ir#ulated in )oth the Latin Lest and the -ra)i# worldJ in the latter, from )efore -.K . >**, it was #ou'led with the #ommentary of Galen, 'n Hippocratis $phorismi . =his #ommentary, 'ro)a)ly written in -.K . $C;, was restored to the Lest when Constantinus -fri#anus translated it from -ra)i# into Latin in the ele"enth #entury. 3n terms of its 'rinted editions in the Renaissan#e, it was the third most 'o'ular Ga0leni# treatise after $rs medica and De differentiis febrium .15>&2 =he #entral 'osition of the $phorisms from the ele"enth #entury onward results not only from its 'erennial 'o'ularity as a series of 'ra#ti#al ti's,15>?2 )ut also from its in#lusion in the $rticella , a grou' of medi#al writings Hused for #enturies at Salerno and elsewhere as a te/t)oo for introdu#tory #ourses in medi#ine.H15>;2 =he #entral te/t of the grou' is Hunain i)n 3sha48s 'sagoge , in Constantine8s translation from the -ra)i#J in addition to the $phorisms , the nu#leus also #ontains Galen8s Tegni 9the $rs parva <, the Hi''o#rati# rognostics , =heo'hilus on urines, and Philaretus on 'ulses. 3 ha"e argued that the o'ening words of $phorisms ;.&; #an )est )e translated H3n a woman suffering from hysteri(a ,H where hysteri(a means disorders of the wom). But this translation de'ends on reading the te/t without the Galeni# #ommentary that instead 'ushes for a "ery s'e#ifi# translation, hysteri(e pni# . By loo ing at #hanges in the Latin translation of this a'horism, it is 'ossi)le not only to tra#e its gradual in#or'oration into the hysteria tradition, )ut also to 'ro"ide a test #ase for the 'eriod in whi#h the humanists )egan to #arry out 'hilologi#al wor on the Galeni# and Hi''o#rati# te/ts. Lhen were these te/ts read as the o)Ie#t of serious studyN 3t is the )rief $phorisms , not the lengthy Galeni# #ommentary, whi#h o##u'ied a #entral 'la#e in the medi#al #urri#ula of the Renaissan#e. Kes'ite its im'ressi"e 'rinting history, 3 would argue that Galen8s #ommentary was little read )efore the si/teenth #entury. =he earliest Latin translations of $phorisms , found in manus#ri'ts dating from the eighth to the twelfth #enturies -.K ., #an )e tra#ed )a# to fifth(si/th0#entury Ra"enna.15>:2 Su#h Latin translations are "ery literal, the writers a''arently ha"ing an e4ually wea gras' of )oth Gree and + ;> + medi#ine. =he translation reads HBulieri de matri#e la)oranti aut diffi0#ulter generanti, sternutatio su'er"eniens, o'timumH 93n a woman trou)led )y the wom) or gi"ing )irth with diffi#ulty, a snee6e

#oming on une/'e#tedly is )est<.15>C2 -t this 'eriod, then, the a'horism was not asso#iated with hysteria or suffo#ation of the wom). =he $rticella uses a different Latin translation of the $phorisms , 'ossi)ly 'rodu#ed in the ele"enth #entury, and lin ed to the name of Con0stantinus -fri#anus. 3t is not nown whether this was made from a Gree manus#ri't of $phorisms , or )y merely e/tra#ting the a'horisms from a #o'y of Galen8s #ommentary. Lhate"er its sour#e, it gi"es for ;.&;, HBulieri 4ue a matri#e molestat aut diffi#ulter generanti: ster0nutatio su'er"eniens )onum.H 3t thus differs little from the Ra"enna translationJ a snee6e )e#omes HgoodH instead of Hthe )est thing,H and the wom) #ontinues to HdistressH or Htrou)leH the woman. ,ifteenth0#entury 'rinted editions of the $rticella retain slight "ariations on this translation, whi#h remains the most #ommonly used well into the si/teenth #entury.15>>2 Some editions gi"e two translations, setting this so0#alled versio anti:ua )eside the traductio nova of =heodorus Ga6a. =he new translation runs, HBulieri 4uam "itia uteri infestant, aut 4ue diffi0#ulter 'arit, si sternutamentum su'er"enit, )ono est.H =he o'ening words, H3n a woman in whom disorders atta# the wom),H again ee' this a'horism within a "ery general gyne#ologi#al #onte/t. -nother "ariation in 'rinted editions of the $rticella is to 'rint )oth translations together with a rearrangement of the $phorisms )y the 'art of the )ody dis#ussed, on a capite ad calcem linesJ thus the edition of $;$% gi"es this a'horism under HCon#erning snee6ingH and HCon#erning the female generati"e organs.H15>%2 - further de"elo'ment in the 'rinted "ersions of the $rticella is that, where the manus#ri't "ersions ga"e only the Hi''o#rati# te/t of the $phorisms , the 'rinted editions from $?C: gi"e Galen8s #ommentary )eside it. Galen is thus Hgi"en a 'ri"ileged status #om'ared with other #ommentators.H15%*2 Howe"er, an im'ortant 4uestion remains: Kid anyone read the lengthy #ommentary, whi#h sets it firmly in the #onte/t of hysteri(e pni# , as o''osed to uterine disorders in generalN Galen #onsiders that apnoia , or a)sen#e of )reath, is more a##urate than Hsuffo#ation,H seeing a s'ontaneous snee6e )oth as a HsignH 9semeion < that the 'atient has re"i"ed, and as a H#auseH 9aition < of re#o"ery, sin#e in itself it re"i"es the 'atient.15%$2 Howe"er, des'ite Galen8s #on#lusion that hysteri(a is e4ui"alent to hysteri(e pni# , the #onne#tion with the translation of the Hi''o0#rati# a'horism is not made. Deither the terminology of suffo#ation nor that of hysteria a''ears in the Latin of the $phorisms J instead, the woman + ;% + is said to )e Htrou)led )y the wom)H or to ha"e Hdisorders atta# the wom).H Reading the long dis#ussion of the meaning of hysteri(a in Galen8s #ommentary should lead to a #hange in the translation of the a'horism, away from this general terminology and toward that of hysteri#al suffo#ation, )ut no su#h #hange is made at this time. 3t is in the fifteenth #entury that the first signs of #lose study of Galen8s #ommentary and its im'li#ations for the translation of the a'horism a''ear, in the wor of !go Ben6i 9$&C:0$?&%<. Ben6i wrote #ommentaries on the &anon of -"i#enna, the Tegni of Galen, and the Hi''o#rati# $phorisms , omitting )oo s & and CJ this last was 'ro)a)ly first 'u)lished in $?$& or $?$? while he was le#turing on medi#ine in Parma, )ut it was later re"ised. Li e his #ontem'oraries, of #ourse, he still )ased his translations not on the Gree , )ut on Hthe medie"al Latin "ersions from the -ra)i#.H -lthough he follows the versio anti:ua translation, he im'ro"es the Latin, dis#usses the "iews of Galen and -"i#enna on uterine suffo#ationAin 'arti#ular, on whether it is the wom) or merely "a'ors that rise u' the )odyAand also glosses the a'horism as follows: HSternutatio su'er"eniens mulieri suffo#ationem matri#is 'atienti aut diffi#ulter 'ari0enti est )onumH 9- snee6e s'ontaneously o##urring in a woman suffering from suffo#ation of the wom) or a diffi#ult la)or is a good thing<.15%52

=he translation of =heodorus Ga6a is used )y Loren6o Lauren6iani 9#a. $?;*0$;*5<,15%&2 while Di##olR Leoni#eno 9$?5>0$;5?< gi"es )oth this and the verso anti:ua )eside his own translation, whi#h )egins with another "ariation on the theme of general uterine disorders, HBulieri 4ua uterinis molestant.H15%?2 =he #onne#tion )etween te/t and #ommentary is made #on#lusi"ely only in the $;?*s, when the $phorisms are first the o)Ie#t of detailed 'hilologi#al interest. =he a"aila)ility of 'rinted Gree and Latin editions of the Galeni# and Hi''o#rati# wor s from the $;5*s onward had no immediate im'a#t )ut, after twenty years, #om'arison of the te/t )oth with the Gree manus#ri'ts of $phorisms and with Galen8s #ommentaries is made, and the a'horism )e#omes e/'li#itly Hhysteri#al.H -ntonio Brasa"ola8s annotated edition of the $phorisms and its Ga0leni# #ommentary was 'rinted in $;?$ at Basel. 3t dis#usses not only Galen8s #ommentary )ut also the use of hysteri(a in Bar#ellus8s #ommentary on Kios#orides, Philotheus, and Paul of -egina. Brasa"ola 9$;**0$;;;< reasserts the identity of hysteri(a as hysteri(g pni# , )ut still he does not ta e the ste' of adIusting the translation of $phorisms ;.&;, instead gi"ing a "ariation on Leoni#eno8s translation, whi#h reads: HBulieri, 4uae uterinis molestatur, aut diffi#ulter 'arit, su'er"eniens sternutatio, )onum.H15%;2 + :* + =he earliest translation 3 ha"e found in whi#h the terminology of the suffo#ation of the wom) is dire#tly a''lied to $phorisms ;.&; is that of Leonhart ,u#hs 9$;*$0$;::<. Printed in $;?;, this gi"es HBulieri 4uae a) uteri strangulationi)us infestatur, aut 4uae diffi#ulter 'artum edit, sternutamentum su'er"eniens, )onum.H Here, for the first time, the translation itself )e#omes Hhysteri#alHJ Hin a woman who is atta# ed )y uterine suffo#ation,H a translation Iustified )y ,u#hs on the grounds that Galen and Philotheus e/'lain that hysteri(a e4uals suffo#ation here. He goes on to demonstrate that the )asis of his translation is the #om'arison of Gree manus#ri'ts, dis#ussing whether a word in Galen8s te/t should read lunga or pniga .15%:2 =he edition of Guillaume Plan#y 9$;$?0#a. $;:>< ta es the 'ro#ess a stage further. 3n this 'u)li#ation of $;;5 the Latin reads HBulieri hys0teri#ae, aut diffi#ulter 'arienti, sternutamentum su'er"eniens, )onum.H - note Iustifies the translation )y a referen#e to Galen8s /n the $ffected arts :.;.15%C2 =he #onne#tion has )een made, not only )etween a'horism and #ommentary, )ut )etween the Galen of the #ommentary and the Galen of /n the $ffected arts . @n#e the a'horism has reentered the hysteria tradition, it isAwith a few e/#e'tionsAthere to stay. Claude Cham'ier 9fl. $;;:< also mentions H"ul"ae strangulatus,H while Ea#4ues Houllier 9#a. $;$*0 $;:5< follows Plan#y8s translation.15%>2 3n ee'ing with his general interest in a return to the Gree #lassi#s in order to end error in medi#ine, Houllier also re#alls Hi''o#rati# ideas, gi"ing a further ty'e of suffo#ation due to a dry wom) see ing moisture, for whi#h a snee6e is less )enefi#ial than )aths. 15%%2 =hus, on#e the a'horism is readArather than merely 'rintedAin the #onte/t of Galen8s #ommentary, it #eases to )e understood as a referen#e to disorders of the wom) in general, and #omes to )e a)sor)ed into the hysteria tradition, that set of #onne#ted te/ts re'eated )y su##essi"e #ommentators on suffo#ation of the wom). Glan#ing at its fortunes in "erna#ular editions, the English translation of the $phorisms of $:$* )y HS. H.H gi"es HSnee6ing ha'ning to a woman grie"ed with suffo#ation of the wom)e, or ha"ing a 'ainfull and diffi#ult deli"eran#e is good.H1&**2 =his is also found in a se"enteenth0#entury manus#ri't in the British Li)rary, Sloane 5>$$.1&*$2 - #ommon'la#e )oo of the se"enteenth #entury in#ludes a Latin translation of the $phorisms , gi"ing HBulieri hysteri#a, aut diffi#ulter 'arienti sternutamentium su0

'er"eniens )onumHAa "ariant of Plan#yAand an English translation, reading HSnee6ing ha''ening to a woman sei6ed with suffo#ation of the wom): or that hath a diffi#ult deli"eran#e: is good.H1&*52 =he #omment on + :$ + this a'horism is that snee6ing sha es off no/ious humors and restores the natural heat that was almost e/tinguished. 3n the same )oo a''ears a wor entitled HSele#t -'horisms #on#erning the o'eration of medi#a0ments a##ording to the 'la#e.H =his #ontains a se#tion 9''. $5$" 0$55r < on HHysteri#allsH whi#h des#ri)es how the wom) is drawn to aromati#s and re'elled )y their #ontraries. 3t dis#usses how this me#hanism wor s, and roundly reIe#ts the )elief of Hsome sottsH that the wom) 'ossesses Hthe sense of smelling.H E"en in the se"enteenth #entury s#ent thera'y is defended, )ut this does not mean that the wom) is regarded as an animal. 3f the old dis#ussion of the im'li#ations of s#ent thera'y for the status of the wom) as, in the words of -retaeus, Ha li"ing thing inside another li"ing thingH is still itself ali"e and well in the se"enteenth #entury, has the hysteria tradition made any 'rogress o"er the two thousand or so years of its e/isten#eN 3 would argue that some #hange has, )y this time, o##urred. =he tenden#y )efore the si/teenth #entury was toward an a##umulation of des#ri'tions, e/'lanations, and remedies. Some featuresAsu#h as s#ent thera'y at )oth ends of the )ody, the use of an e/tinguished lam' wi# to rouse a 'atient, and the a''li#ation of aromati# oils to the se/ual organsAwent )a# to Hi''o#rati# medi#ine, as transmitted )y Galen. @thers, although deri"ed from the Hi''o#rati#s, were transformed )y Galen8s reinter'retationJ for e/am'le, Hi''o#rati# pni# #on#erns a hot wom) see ing moisture to douse its fire, yet after Galen it )e#omes Ho)stru#tion of res'iration,H and the wom) is seen as )eing filled with #old and #orru't su)stan#es rather than )eing hot and light. @ther features remained in the tradition des'ite all that #ould )e said to #ondemn them, most nota)ly, the wandering wom), in #oe/isten#e with a''arently #ontradi#tory features su#h as an#horing mem)ranes.

!radition or !ruth4
By the mid0si/teenth #entury, the hysteria tradition was #om'lete: the translation into Latin of te/ts from the -ra)i# and Gree made a"aila)le "irtually the full range of authors dis#ussed a)o"e. E"ery #ommentator on suffo#ation of the wom) new whi#h an#ient authorities to #onsult for a des#ri'tion. Sin#e these an#ient authorities had themsel"es nown and used the wor of many of their 'rede#essors, it is not sur'rising that the result was often merely further re'etition. Latin and Biddle English treatises from the thirteenth to fifteenth #enturies tend to )e hea"ily de'endent on the -ra)i# writers8 "ersions of Galen, and retain the features of s#ent thera'y, 'ro"o ing a snee6e as a #ure 9as o''osed to + :5 + wel#oming a s'ontaneous snee6e<, "enese#tion, and thera'euti# inter#ourse.1&*&2 Howe"er, in the mid0 si/teenth #entury something new does o##ur: the stated desire to #om'are authorities, not only with ea#h other, )ut with reality. -s an e/am'le of this we may ta e the wor of Pieter "an ,oreest 9$;550$;%C<, /bservationum et curationum medicinalium , Boo 5> of whi#h #on#erns women8s diseases.1&*?2 -s the title suggests, rather than sim'ly re'eating the authorities, he also 'resents #ases that he himself has seen. @)ser"ations 5;0&? #on#ern suffo#ation of the wom), #o"ering #ases due to retained seed or menses in widows, in 'regnant and other women, and of "arying se"erity. Rha6es, 3)n Sina, and Galen are #itedJ

Galen is 'arti#ularly fa"ored and, although he is a su''orter of the Hi'0'o#rati# re"i"al, "an ,oreest a##e'ts Galen8s atta# on the Hi''o#rati# theory that the wom) dries out and see s moisture.1&*;2 He notes that the an#ients )elie"ed the wom) itself tra"eled the )ody, whereas Hmore re#ent writersH )elie"e it is "a'ors that rise. =he motif of the woman who uses hysteria to mani'ulate men is reintrodu#ed, e#hoing Bartial8s e'igram on women who announ#e they are hysterica in order to ha"e inter#ourse with a young do#torJ "an ,oreest states that some women simulate hysteri#al suffo#ation )y imagining se/ual inter#ourse, and he #ites the Hnotorious 'oemH mo# ing this.1&*:2 His use of his own o)ser"ations is first suggested when, after re'eating Galen8s statement that the sym'toms from retained seed are worse than those from retained menses, he adds, H-nd this is true.H1&*C2 E"en Galen must )e tested against e/'erien#e. @)ser"ation 5C re'eats the story of the woman who lay as if dead, )ased on Pliny, and gi"es the standard tests for life, adding that a snee6e is more relia)le than the wool or water tests. @)ser"ation 5> in#ludes Galen8s story of the widow who was #ured after 'assing some thi# seed. 3n @)ser"ation &*, on hysteri#al suffo#ation in 'regnan#y, he gi"es two #ases he himself has seen, one dated to @#to)er $;>%, while in @)ser"ation &$ he des#ri)es the #ase of a woman #alled E"a =eylingia, who was married in $;:$ and was nown to his wife. She was unsu##essfully treated )y se"eral named do#tors for suffo#ation, and Hon the third day 3 myself was #alled.H 7an ,oreest8s thera'yA)ased on foul0smelling su)stan#es 'la#ed in the na"elAwas su##essful. 3n @)ser"ation && he gi"es the #ase of a girl of twenty, treated in Se'tem)er $;C%, and in @)ser"ation &? he gi"es a #ase dated Bar#h $;::. Su#h wor s as this were used )y Edward Eorden in his treatise of $:*&, $ Briefe Discourse of a Disease &alled the "uffocation of the !other .1&*>2 Lhat is most stri ing a)out this wor , in whi#h he sets out to show Hin a "ulgar tongueH that sym'toms Hwhi#h in the #ommon o'inion are im'uted to + :& + the Ki"ellH are in fa#t due to the suffo#ation of the wom), is not the use of authorities su#h as Hi''o#rates, Galen, Pliny, and 3)n Sina, )ut his #itation of re#ent #ases seen and re'orted )y men su#h as "an ,oreest, -matus Lusitanus, and -ndreas 7esalius. 3s this, then, the trium'h of e/'erien#e o"er traditionN 3t is not. -s =. La4ueur 'uts it, HE/'erien#e, in short, is re'orted and remem)ered so as to )e #ongruent with dominant 'aradigms.H1&*%2 Bany elements of the hysteria tradition ha"e an e/traordinary "itality as 'aradigms, #ontinuing to )e re'eated well into the nineteenth #entury. =o ta e one e/am'le, Eorden himself re'eats the story of the woman who lay as if dead )ut was nown to )e ali"e )y the 'resen#e of the innate heatJ he uses the "ersion gi"en )y Pliny.1&$*2 =his story has inordinate staying 'ower, turning u' many times in se"enteenth0 #entury literatureJ for e/am'le, Guillaume de Baillou 9$;&>0$:$:< #laims that many women are )eing )uried ali"e )e#ause it is wrongly assumed that the a)sen#e of a 'ulse indi#ates death.1&$$2 3n the nineteenth #entury, =homas Lay0#o# 8s Treatise on the ,ervous Diseases of )omen has a se#tion on H-''arent KeathH #iting Kiogenes Laertius8s "ersion of the same story, here diagnosed )y Lay#o# as hysteria. -s a general rule, Lay#o# re#ommends delaying )urial in su#h #ases until there are signs of de#om'osition.1&$52 He refers readers to Leigh Hunt8s 'lay $ 4egend of Florence , first 'erformed in $>?*, the year of 'u)li#ation of Lay#o# 8s own wor . 3n this 'lay, the moral and married Gine"ra, re#ei"ing letters from a no)leman who de#lares his lo"e for her, has a fainting s'ell and is mista enly )uriedAfortunately, in an o'en "ault. She wa es u' )ut has diffi#ulty 'ersuading the 'eo'le of ,loren#e that she is not a ghost: 3 am Gine"raA)uried, )ut not dead, -nd ha"e got forth and none will let me in.

9a#t ?, s#ene ?< =his highly 'o'ular 'ie#e of drama, seen )y Sueen 7i#toria a num)er of times and regarded as Leigh Hunt8s greatest dramati# su##ess, was in turn )ased on Shelley8s HGine"ra,H 'u)lished in $>5$.1&$&2 3n Shelley8s "ersion, Gine"ra marries a man she does not lo"e and, on her wedding night, falls into a tran#e that drifts into death itself, in order to ee' faith with her disa''ointed lo"er. =hey found Gine"ra dead: if it )e death =o lie without motion or 'ulse or )reath, Lith wa/en #hee s, and lim)s #old, stiff, and white, -nd o'en eyes . . . 9lines $?;0$?>< + :? + Shelley8s words e#ho Kiogenes Laertius8s third0#entury -.K . a##ount of the woman Hwithout )reath or 'ulseH )ut 'reser"ed, a##ording to Galen, )y her innate heat. Su#h 'owerful motifs as a''arent death wea"e in and out of the medi#al a##ounts of suffo#ation of the wom) and of later hysteria. Ko su#h elements sur"i"e sim'ly )e#ause they ma e su#h good storiesN @r is the 'ersisten#e of #ertain 'arts of the tradition e"iden#e for the accuracy of that tradition, and thus for the a##ura#y of the diagnosis of hysteriaN =hroughout this #ha'ter 3 ha"e em'hasi6ed how medi#ine wor ed as a series of te/ts. Bedi#al edu#ation, 'arti#ularly where it #on#erned women8s )odies, was )ased on the te/t in the By6antine, 3slami#, and medie"al worldsJ e"en after 'u)li#ation of 7esalius8s De humani corporis fabrica in $;?&, Hanatomy and surgery #ontinued to )e taught from )oo s rather than from e/'eriment and o)ser"ation.H1&$?2 S'e#ifi#ally, in the te/ts of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us, neither the diagnosis of hysteri(e pni# nor of hysteria is made. =he wom) mo"es, #ausing a range of sym'toms a##ording to its e"entual destination. -t an un nown date, 'ossi)lyAfrom the medi#al 'a'yriAin the se#ond #entury B.C ., a disease #ategory of suffo#ation of the wom) is #reated )y the merger of a num)er of dis#rete Hi''o#rati# te/ts gi"ing sym'toms, #auses, and thera'ies. Galen #hallenges the la)el, )ut ee's the #on#e't and de"elo's a different e/'lanation )ased not on wom) mo"ement so mu#h as retained )lood and seed. 3n the early Roman Em'ire, further stories are added to the disease 'i#ture, sur"i"ing in the different #ultural #limates of the Latin Lest, Gree East, and -ra)i# world. Parti#ularly resistant to #hange are two of the original Hi''o#rati# #om'onents, wom) mo"ement and s#ent thera'y: so too is the need to gi"e the #on#e't anti4uity )y tra#ing it )a# in its entirety to the father of medi#ine. 3 would suggest that what we hear in su#h te/ts as those dis#ussed here is not the insistent "oi#e of a fi/ed disease entity #alling a#ross the #enturies, )ut rather what Bary La# has #alled Hthe rustle of 'ar#hments in dialogue.H1&$;2 3ndeed, it is rarely e"en a true dialogue. Keaf to 'leas from anatomy and e/'erien#e, the te/ts #ontinue to tell one another the traditional stories. =he language may shiftAthe wom) tra"els, "a'ors rise, sym'athy transmits sym'toms through the )odyA)ut the message remains the same: women are si# , and men write their )odies. Dineteenth0#entury hysteria, a 'arasite in sear#h of a history, grafts itself )y name and lineage onto the #enturies0old tradition of suffo#ation of the wom), thus ma ing Hi''o#rates its ado'ted father. 3t is time that father disowned his hy)rid #hild. + :; +

%.5nowledgments
Se#tions of this #ha'ter ha"e )een 'resented to the Py)us Clu) 9Dew#astle, $%>;<, the Classi#al -sso#iation =riennial Beeting 9@/ford, $%>><, a #onferen#e organi6ed )y the Lell#ome 3nstitute for the History of Bedi#ine 9London, $%%*<, and the Li"er'ool Bedi#al History So#iety(So#iety for the History of S#ien#e 9Li"er'ool, $%%$<. 3 am grateful to all who made suggestions as to its im'ro"ement on these o##asions, )ut a)o"e all to the #areful and generous s#holarshi' of Boni#a H. Green and Bar Bi#ale. + %$ +

!wo7% Strange Pathology71 Hysteria in the Early 6odern 3orld8 '9::;'<::

G. S. Rousseau Some will allow no Kiseases to )e new, others will thin that many old ones are #easedJ and that su#h whi#h are esteemed new, will ha"e )ut their time: Howe"er, the Ber#y of God hath s#attered the great Hea' of Kiseases, and not loaded any one Country with all: some may )e new in one Country whi#h ha"e )een old in another. Dew Kis#o"eries of the Earth dis#o"er new Kiseases . . . and if -sia, -fri#a, and -meri#a should )ring in their List, Pandoras 1si#2 Bo/ would swell, and there must )e a strange Pathology. AS3R =H@B-S BR@LDE, H- Letter to a ,riend, !'on @##asion of the Keath of his 3ntimate ,riendH 3t will always )e a mista e . . . to treat 'ast 'hiloso'hies in a de#onte/tuali6ed way, "iewing them sim'ly as addressed to a #anoni#al set of distin#ti"ely 'hiloso'hi#al themes. E"en the most a)stra#t intelle#tual systems #annot )e regarded sim'ly as )odies of 'ro'ositionsJ they must also )e treated as utteran#es, the rhetori#al aims and 'ur'oses of whi#h we need to re#o"er if we are to understand them 'ro'erly. Boreo"er, on#e we #ommit oursel"es to re#onte/tuali6ing the great s#ientifi# and 'hiloso'hi#al systems of the 'ast in this way, we must guard a)o"e all against the tenden#y to re#onstru#t their intelle#tual #onte/t with ana#hronisti# narrowness. AS!ED=3D SK3DDER, Dew .or Re"iew of Boo s

I
E"en in the earliest histori#al 'eriods in the mur y ages )etween $&** and $:**, old man Proteus offers a steadfast #lue to understanding the e"olution of hysteria. 3n its 'rogression from the Gree s to the medie"al world, hysteriaAas Helen King suggestsAwas transformed many times, su#h that )y $?** it was understood as something different from the #on#e'tions gi"en it )y Hi''o#rates and Soranus. 7ast #ultural shiftsAreligious, so#ioe#onomi#, and 'oliti#alAas well as the growth of medi#al theory in the Renaissan#e, 'rom't hysteria to #ontinue its 'rior altera0

+ %5 + tions and #onstru#tions after a''ro/imately $;**J so that )y the 'eriod of the ,ren#h and -meri#an re"olutions it assumed a different set of re'resentations altogether. =hese histori#al transformations and re'resentationsAs'e#ially their 'rotean a)ility to sustain the e/isten#e of a #ondition #alled hysteria without a sta)le set of #auses and effe#ts or, more glaringly, a #ategory identifia)le )y #ommonly agreed u'on #hara#teristi#sA#onstitute the su)stan#e of this #ha'ter. =hroughout 3 will )e attem'ting to e/'lain how a #ategoryAhysteriaAe"idently without a fi/ed #ontent #an endure throughout the #ourse of history.1$2 ,urthermore, among all medi#al #onditions hysteria formed the strongest #riti4ue of the traditional medi#al model u' to the ad"ent of 'sy#hiatry and 'sy#hoanalysis. Before a''ro/imately $>** its dis#ourses were #om'iled )y do#tors who were themsel"es often terrified of their hysteri#al 'atients, as is e"ident in the early !alleus !aleficarum . Hysteria is a uni4ue 'henomenon in the entire re'ertoire of Lestern medi#ine )e#ause it e/'oses the traditional )inary #om'onents of the medi#al modelAmind()ody, 'athology(normal#y, health(si# ness, do#tor('atientAas no other #ondition e"er has. By 'ur'ose here is dual: to show what hysteria was thought to )e, as well as tra#e its re'resentations. Lithin this goal 3 ha"e a set of alternati"es: whether to fo#us on what do#tors #hose to ma e of hysteria, or to ga6e at its re'resentations )y those who were not do#tors. 3ne"ita)ly 3 wor here s'oradi#ally as a historian of s#ien#e and medi#ine whose eye is ne"er far from the medi#al alternati"es do#tors #hose to ta e, while in4uiring into the re'resentations of hysteria made )y those who were not do#tors. =his is the Has isH 9history< and the Has it #ould ha"e )eenH 9re'resentations< of hysteria, strewn with a )road range of meta'hors and language that atta#hed to the #ondition. But e"en in a histori#al and re'resentational treatment li e this one, it is easy to forget that for the modern era the history of hysteria e/tends o"er a 'eriod of four #enturies 9$?**0$>**<, and )e#ause this somewhat syn#hroni# "iew ena)les us to #hart the flow of hysteria in its re#orded "ersions, we 'ossess #ertain ad"antages o"er )oth the do#tors and the 'atients who were entra''ed in their 'arti#ular moment. =his angle of "ision is, of #ourse, dou)le0edged: we are also entra''ed )y our moment, and many "oi#es of hysteria must ha"e )een lost o"er the #enturies. De"ertheless, modern methods of resear#h 'ermit a##ess to a wide )ody of nowledge a)out this #ondition not a"aila)le )efore.152 ,urthermore, some disIointed #on#e'ts 'ertinent to hysteria8s transformations must )e #onsidered: in our time, when the re"olt against ,reud has )een so "ehement, it is im'ortant to remem)er that he laun#hed + %& + his 'sy#hoanalysis e/#lusi"ely on the )asis of his studies of hysteri#al women. -s a #onse4uen#e, hysteria in our #entury has assumed a more im'ortant role in 'sy#hiatry than ha"e other #ategories.1&2 -lthough the diagnosis of hysteria in )oth women and men has "irtually disa''eared in our time, in 'ra#ti#e its sym'toms ha"e )een transformed into the medi#ally san#tioned H#on"ersion syndromeH and then 9mysteriously and 'er'le/ingly< ha"e gone underground.1?2 3t is easy to forget that the an#ient threat of an in"asi"e and irre'ressi)le female se/uality, a 'atent mena#e in e'o#hs studied in this #ha'ter, is in the lay imagination today far from ha"ing )een remo"ed in our own time.1;2 3ndeed, the so#ial o''ression of women throughout history has only re#entlyAsin#e the eighteenth #enturyA)een a# nowledged in any organi6ed way, and this restraint )ears serious im'li#ations for hysteria. ,inallyA and it will seem e/traneous in this dis#ussion a)out a #om'le/ )ut ne"ertheless 'resumed0medi#al #ategoryA)e#ause so mu#h of hysteria in the 'eriod $;**0$>** is em)edded in dis#ursi"e 'ra#ti#es,

mu#h more sensiti"e attention must )e 'aid to language if we ho'e to disentangle hysteria8s transformations. Le are thus 'resented with something of a 'arado/. @n the one hand, hysteria a''ears to )e a #ategory without #ontentJ on the other, hysteria has an amor'hous #ontent in#a'a)le of )eing #ontrolled )y a #lear #ategory. =he history of hysteria 9pace Kr. 3l6a 7eith, the already0mentioned ,reudian medi#al historian who amassed a great deal of information a)out hysteria< is therefore only a 'art of the story 3 tell here. 3ts re'resentations #ount as mu#h. Do matter how #om'lete any history, its dis#ursi"e fa#et #an only ho'e to )e one 'art, its total realism re4uiring a larger #an"as than histori#al narrati"e. =he #hallenge 3 fa#e is that 3 aim to Hfill u'H )oth #ategories 9the medi#al #ategory and its )roader nonmedi#al re'resentations< at the same timeAa dou)le tas . But )oth re4uire am'lifi#ation, e"en when #onIoined as they are here. Boreo"er, the medi#al #ategory itself is so inade4uate for the early 'eriod 9$;**0$>**< that 3 often re)el against its #onstraints. =he history of hysteria is as mu#h the Hhis0 storyH of male fearAin this #ase literally his0storyAas the history of Kr. King8s hysterie pni# or any other wandering wom)s. 3t is also the history of linguisti# em)odiments, rhetori#s, and em'lotments, many of whi#h remain to )e de#oded and inter'reted here.1:2 =wo truths then seem to emerge with rather startling dis'arity: first, that Kr. =homas Sydenham, a##laimed as the HEnglish Hi''o#rates,H rather than Char#ot or ,reud, is the una# nowledged hero of hysteria 9his entran#e to my story is ne#essarily delayed until a later se#tion as my organi6ation is essentially #hronologi#al<J se#ond, that language, + %? + rather than medi#ine 9either theory or thera'y<, is the medium )est a)le to e/'ress and relie"e hysteria8s #ontem'orary agony. 9=he same #on#lusion #an )e drawn #on#erning other #onditions, su#h as de'ression, )ut #on"entional hysteria or twentieth0#entury #on"ersion syndrome is different in that its somati# in"ol"ement is mu#h greater.< =his is the #onIun#tion of language and the )ody: hysteria8s radi#al su)Ie#ti"ity. -nd as 3 shall suggest )elow, hysteria is also the most su)Ie#ti"e of all the #lassifi#ations of disease. =hese are )old assertions, and no one at this time wants to 'romote a history of medi#ine )ased on heroes and heroines. But writingA'erha's self0e/'ression through any of the arts, rather than treatment with drugs or 'sy#hothera'yAalle"iates the modern hysteri#8s 'ain and num)ness )est.1C2 =o "alidate this #laim we will 'ro"e that there remains no )etter medi#al thera'y for #ontem'orary hysteria, #ertainly no more effe#ti"e remedy when hysteria is, as in Sydenham8s "ersion of the $:>*s, 'resented as a Hdisease of #i"ili6ationH rather than as organi# lesions #aused )y 'sy#hogeni# fa#tors.1>2 3f we as what the three hundred years )etween $;** and $>** #an tea#h us a)out hysteria, the answer #an )e found )y loo ing at two fa#tors: gender0)ased 'ain and so#ial #onditions, neither of whi#h falls within a##e'ted #ategories of modern medi#ine. 3t is #onse4uently no small wonder that to its o)ser"ers hysteria has #ontinued to )e one of the most elusi"e of all maladiesJ 1%2 less soAas 3 suggestAto writers, 'oets, or artists, who ha"e often ado'ted a ga6e that differs from the traditional medi#al one. 3f we assign to hysteria a )road re'ertoire of gender0)ased 'ains #aused )y so#ial #onditions, we ha"e the )eginnings of a definition that 'leases few medi#al theorists. Le 'ro"ide a set of #ontents in#a'a)le of )eing )ound together )y any logi#ally #onstru#ted and demonstra)ly #oherent #ategory,1$*2 and so our #ontents will )e unsatisfa#tory to 'hiloso'hers. Boreo"er, of all the diseases #lassified in this early modern 'eriod, hysteria has )een the medi#al #ondition most li ely to generate 'ri"ate languages and dis#oursesAlanguages that #a'ture the #ries and whis'ers of uns'ea a)le agonies, most of whi#h do not remain as single narrati"es )e#ause 'atients ne"er re#orded them. =his was as true in the si/teenth and se"enteenth #enturies as it is of the twentieth. Hysteria8s e/'ressions of 'hysi#al and emotional num)ness and of #hroni# 'ain were

#a'tured in a 'ersonal, often disIointed, medium, most stri ing in its intrinsi# su)Ie#ti"ity. Su)Ie#ti"ity, a)o"e all, has )een the teleology of the annals of hysteria in Lestern #i"ili6ation.1$$2 Bore s'e#ifi#ally, mourning and melan#holia, es'e#ially the grief and e#stasy asso#iated with hysteria, are the shadow0#ategories that ha"e haunted modern theories of su)Ie#ti"ity and re'resentation sin#e ,reud. But e"en ,reud intuited the history of this de"elo'ment in his inau0 + %; + gural lin ing of Hamlet and /edipus -e# in his dis#o"ery of the @edi'us #om'le/, in whi#h Hamlet #ame to re'resent the figure that 'ro"es 9and ruefully denies< the @edi'al rule, as mu#h as literary #riti#ism has ta en Hamlet as its e/em'lary defe#ti"e 9hen#e modern< tragedy. -nd modern theorists 9in#luding Ea#4ues La#an, Lalter BenIamin, and Di#olas -)raham< ha"e re'eatedly returned to Hamlet8s disordered grief as tou#hstones for their insight into su)Ie#ti"ity and re'resentation. ,rom these 'ositions it is only a short ste' to the feminist, 'sy#ho0analyti#, and de#onstru#ti"e attem'ts to arti#ulate a su''lementary 'osition )efore, within, or )eyond the inter'retati"e 'aradigms 'ra#ti#ed in ,reud8s 9and @edi'us8s< name. 3n our time, these ha"e em)ra#edAin )riefAthe literary, 'sy#hoanalyti#, and de#onstru#ti"e sym'toms of hysteria: in Hamlet8s famous 'hrase, the Hforms, moods, sha'es of grief.H1$52 But if mourning and melan#holia ha"e haunted modern #ategories of su)Ie#ti"ity and re'resentation, language alone has re#ogni6ed the silen#es )eyond itself 9i.e., )eyond "er)al language and dis#ourse< to whi#h the 9usually female< hysteri# has had to as#end if her desire, not always limited to the se/ual realm, was to )e a# nowledged. =he 'oint is admittedly elusi"e, e"en if #on#reti6ed in a tangi)le history of medi#ine. Histori#ally s'ea ing, hysteria has )een the #ondition )eyond others that wedded the )ody to )ody language, es'e#ially to gestures, motions, gaits, non"er)al utteran#es. -s su#h, it ne"er refle#tedA#ertainly not in the Renaissan#e or EnlightenmentAa sim'le ontology of the mind or of mind fun#tioning together with )ody, )ut rather #a'tured the #hroni# num)ness and ineffa)le des'air usually in#a'a)le of )eing gras'ed in the su)tleties of written language.1$&2 E"er sin#e the Cartesian re"olution of the se"enteenth #entury and 'erha's e"en )efore then, the philosophical #on#e't of )ody had )een of little use to theories of hysteriaA"iewed, as we shall see, as a meta'hysi#al medi#al #ategoryAnor ha"e mind and )ody, in #onIun#tion, offered solutions to unra"el the riddle of hysteria. Perha's the diffi#ulty arises from the su''ressed desire of those who ha"e 'resented themsel"es with hysteri#al sym'toms. Language and desireJ more 're#isely, desire in languageJ Eulia Kriste"a8s yo ing of these loaded words and their diffi#ult #on#e'ts 'ro"ed more useful, es'e#ially for the uns'ea a)le realms of 'ain that she )elie"es trans#end language: the metalinguisti# s'a#es.1$?2 Language and desire may ultimately )e the only #ategories through whi#h the hysteri# #an arri"e at self0understanding: language used in the a#t of self0analysis and offering )alm to heal the hysteri#. =he traditional remedies dis#ussed later in this )oo ha"e usually 'rodu#ed little im'ro"ement. Bi#hel ,ou#ault s'e#ulated in his history of madness a)out the Hhys0 + %: + teri6ation of women8s )odiesH through whi#h the 'eIorati"e image of the Hner"ous womanH had )een #onstituted.1$;2 Su#h negati"e imaging was ne#essary in 'atriar#hal #ultures that #onfined 'ower solely in the males to ensure #i"i# #ohesion. But ,ou#ault8s analysis would ha"e )een ri#her, and #ertainly more #om'lete, if he had in#luded the Hhysteri6ation of women8s language,H es'e#ially as it had )een

muted with the 'assage of time. ,or hysteria has )een the #ondition 'arado/i#ally )oth #onstituted )y and #onsistently misinter'reted )y medi#al o)ser"ationJ the #ondition that neither the mere 'resen#e of the 'hysi#ian 9whether a''earing as sa"ior or soothsayer< nor the 'ersisten#e of his thera'y #an #ontrol. Se4uen#es of des'air, 'ain, num)ness, and #on"ersion syndrome ultimately #ould not )e #ured )y ma eshift remedies or the her)al #on#o#tions of the Renaissan#e and Enlightenment a'othe#aries. =oday, instead of e/amining the fa)ri# of the so#iety 'er'etuating this #hroni# 'hysi#al and mental 'ain,1$:2 we deny 9'erha's im'rudently< that hysteria e/ists. Le drug 'atients until the 'ain is o)literated, the des'air forgottenJ until 'hysi#ians #an #laim that 4uestions su#h as Hwhere has all the hysteria goneNH #ease to e/ist as "alid medi#al #on#erns.

II
3 ha"e suggested that a )road o"er"iew su#h as this #annot )e narrated without remem)ering that we today are su)Ie#t to all the tensions and #onfusions of #ontem'orary #ulture.1$C2 @ur "ersions of modernism ne#essarily differ from those of other readers, )ut a narrati"e of the e"olution of thought a)out hysteria without interIe#tions and self0#ons#ious refle#tions, sans )road #onte/ts and e"en 'ro)lemati# digressions, will not 'ro#eed mu#h further than 7eith8s narrowly #on#ei"ed dia#hroni# history. =his may seem small Iustifi#ation, )ut it a#tually ad"an#es the understanding of hysteria. 3n this #onte/t it ma es sense to in4uire e#le#ti#ally into the #ultural transformations that affe#ted hysteria as the world mo"ed from the Biddle -ges to the Renaissan#e, and from there to the 'eriod of the se"enteenth #entury, when so many of the salient features of Enlightenment hysteria were esta)lished. =he relation of hysteria to wit#h#raft is also germane here. Set the #hronologi#al dials to the tenth or ele"enth #entury, and few wit#hes are to )e found in Euro'e. By the fourteenth and fifteenth #enturies they roam the #ontinent, ha"ing o"er0ta en it.1$>2 =o whi#h s'e#ifi# #onditions is their 'roliferation to )e attri)utedN -nd, more signifi#antly, were these wit#hes female hysteri#s in disguiseN =he 4uestion is hard to answer authoritati"ely, )ut it assumes 9rightly 3 thin < that hysteria has a #ontent that #an )e misinter'reted + %C + or disguised. E"en more #ru#ial to the #ulture of the Renaissan#e, it was hysteria more than any other 'henomenon that 'layed a maIor role, as 3 maintain )elow, in the demystifi#ation of wit#h#raft. Kes'ite the "ariety of e/'lanations for the histori#al rise of wit#h#raft, none is satisfa#tory, and gi"en that the matter is #entral to the e"olution of hysteria and its growth in the Renaissan#e, it merits dis#ussion here. So many e/'lanations ha"e )een tendered, with so many agendas underlying them and in so many histori#al #onte/ts ranging from 'oliti#al history to the role of women in early Euro'ean so#iety, that no one theory has 're"ailed.1$%2 Dor, on )alan#e, does one e/'lanation seem more reasona)le than another. =he a##ount offered )y Eules Bi#helet, the great ,ren#h so#ial historian of the nineteenth #entury, may therefore )e as "alid as the alternati"es, although Bi#helet re#ounted it as myth rather than fa#t, and his narrati"e suggests a 'layful naughtiness as well.15*2 Bi#helet #laimed that during one of the intermina)le medie"al #rusades, women, who had )een left alone on their farms, out of )oredom )egan to #on"erse with the animals and 'lants, the trees and )irds, e"en the #louds and the moon.15$2 -''arently no one o)Ie#ted to this )eha"ior. But e"entually the men returned and found their women tal ing to the #reatures of nature, to the trees and the wind. 3t was then, Bi#helet says, that men, finding this )a))ling intolera)le, in"ented wit#h#raft. ,rom the start, wit#h#raft wasAhe suggests in the 'ara)leAa male idea, e"en a male in"ention. =o silen#e the women, the men )urned them and )randed them wit#hes.

=his e/'lanation for the genesis of wit#h#raft seemed as reasona)le to Bi#helet as any other "ersion. But for Barguerite Kuras, the #ontem'orary ,ren#h writer who retells Bi#helet8s myth fa)le in se"eral of her short stories and uses it as a leitmotif, it )e#omes a 'otent myth that #a'tured the essen#e of the mas#uline su''ression of female desire and female dis#ourse. Lhether in its Bi#heletian or Kurasean "ersion 9or in some other form<, the fa)le suggests a dire#t line from the late Biddle -ges to fin0de0 siF#le 7iennaJ from the women who on#e new how to s'ea freely to the wind and the #louds to those nowAli e Kuras, Kriste"a, and other feministsAwhose #rusade in our #entury see s to retrie"e the female s'ee#h 9Kriste"a8s utteran#es of ;ouissance < that on#e was theirs.1552 Considering the degree to whi#h 'hallo#rati# and 'atriar#hal dis#ourse #ontinue to )e maIor #on#erns of our #ontem'orary intelle#tual dialogue, as Elaine Showalter shows in #ha'ter ?, the histori#al dis#ourse of hysteria #annot )e #on#e'tuali6ed or re#onstru#ted as a s'e#iali6ed 'ro"in#e of medi#al history. Hysteria, e"en in its early medi#al "ersions among the an#ient Gree s, re'resented more than a set of + %> + medi#al diagnoses and 'harma#euti#al thera'ies. ,rom the start it was em'lotted in dis#ourses that e/tended )eyond the medi#al domain and o'ened to a "ision em)ra#ing a wider #ulture and )roader #i"ili6ation than the medi#al one #ould e"er imagine. 3t was the 'u)li# language em)odying the female8s 'light. -nd it was for good reason then, as we shall see, that Sydenham o)ser"ed that hysteria was, and always had )een, Ha disease of #i"ili6ation,H a seemingly mysterious 'ronoun#ement re4uiring )road #onte/tuali6ation )efore we #an understand what he meant. =he salient histori#al 'oint is that modern hysteria or #on"ersion syndrome, as distin#t from an#ient hysteri(e pni# , first rises to 'rominen#e as an e/'li#it diagnosti# #ategory within the de"elo'ment of demonology. =his is why the relation )etween #ontent and #ategory, already mentioned, is so #ru#ial for an understanding of hysteria8s de"elo'ment )efore ,reud, and why its anomalous mi/ture of gender and so#ial #onditions 9es'e#ially religion< ma es it a uni4ue malady throughout the realm of medi#ine. By the time of Chau#er and Bo##a##io, Christianity had affirmed a #osmology that "iewed #reation as em)odied with s'iritual 'owers, )oth angeli# and demoni#. Christ8s dis#i'les and their followers o"er the #enturies had )een lo# ed in an a'o#aly'ti# struggle against the armies of the night, as e"ery English e'i# from S'enser to Bilton and Bla e had a# nowledged. Satan #ould 'ossess the human soul, turning "i#tims into demonia#s, and indi"idualsAes'e#ially wit#hesA#ould enter into #om'a#ts with the de"il. ,rom the late fifteenth #entury, in a mo"ement 'ea ing in the se"enteenth, authorities, e##lesiasti#al and se#ular ali e, #omandeered the #ourts to sto' the e'idemi# s'read of wit#h#raft, and #on#omitantly #lam' down on the rise of hysteria it was engendering.15&2 3t was then im'ossi)le to distinguish )etween indi"idual and mass hysteria, or e"en to now if the two #ategories e/isted. =he wrath of the ra))le, the #rowd, the mo), was not understood as it would )e in the eighteenth #entury. Besides, mass hysteria is a nineteenth0#entury in"ention that e/ists nowhere in the "o#a)ulary or intelle#tual 'ur"iew of the 'eriods sur"eyed here, e"en if its effe#ts were often felt.15?2 =hough some wit#hes were self0#onfessed, most were identified through 'u)li# a##usations. =o sustain the #harge of wit#h#raft, #ertain standard )eha"ioral and 'hysi#al identifi#ations 9es'e#ially the stigmata diaboli < normally had to )e 'ro"en. Gi"en that wit#h#raft was held to )e a mortal offense e"erywhere in the realms of Christianity, it was #ru#ial that su#h tests )e Iudi#ially #on"in#ing. Beti#ulous #ourtroom 'ro#edures were de"elo'ed throughout Euro'e to winnow true demonia#s and wit#hes from those erroneously or falsely a##usedAthose whose + %% +

'rima fa#ie manifestations of 'ossession were due to other #ausesAto illness, a##ident, suggestion, or e"en fraud. E/'ert witnesses were heard, es'e#ially 'hysi#iansJ often these were the same 'hysi#ians who were #om'iling medi#al definitions of hysteria.15;2 =he do#tors )y $?** had generated no single theory or e"en multi'le theories of hysteria.15:2 =hey #ontinued to 'onder the lin s among se/ual 'hysiology, 'leasure, and lo"e, )ut they were un#ertain of the 'ro'er em'hasis to )e gi"en to any of these, let alone the roles of #ause and effe#t. Bary La# 8s #on#lusion a)out women and lo"esi# ness in the Biddle -ges and early Renaissan#e is surely #orre#t. H3n any #ase,H she writes, Hit is #lear that a #ertain )ran#h of medi#al writers on lo"esi# ness )egan to #onsider it a disease lin ed to the se/ual organs and their humors.H15C2 Hysteria had not yet )e#ome the e/#lusi"e medi#al #ategory it would )e in the early de#ades of the se"enteenth #entury. =here is no reason to assume that in the legal domain do#tors entertained greater dou)ts a)out the e/isten#e of dia)olism than did other e/'erts: indeed, 'hysi#ians8 testimony was often a##usatory and ended in e/e#utions. But familiarity with the "agaries of the human organism, es'e#ially when si# , fe"ered, or mania#al through the ra"ages of natural disasters su#h as floods, storms, earth4ua es, and so on, and the o''ortunity to "ie with the #lergy for authority o"er the human )ody, often led do#tors to insist that su''osed signs of 'ossessionAti#s, #on"ulsions, anesthesias, swoonings, hy'noti# tran#esAwere the wor of illness rather than Satanism.15>2 Su)stitute Hner"ousH or Hneuroti#H for Hdemoni#ally 'ossessed,H and a remar a)le 'arallel )etween this early modern world and our own de"elo's.15%2 =hat is, the 'hysi#ians then were as ed to distinguish )etween real and false wit#hes )ased on #ertain anatomi#al #onditionsJ our do#tors, at least sin#e ,reud altered the fa#e of hysteria through his 'sy#hoanalyti# reforms, distinguish )etween genuine #on"ersion syndrome and somati# derangement #aused )y neuroti# or 'sy#hoti# agen#y. =he first "ariety 9#on"ersion syndrome< entails so0#alled genuine hysteria, the latter no hysteria at all. .et su#h demar#ation #larifies the entire 'oint of #on"ersion syndrome. -nd here, 're#isely at this im'asse )etween the two, our feminists ha"e #ontri)uted a 'ers'e#ti"e that #annot )e ignored des'ite their 'atent la# of medi#al e/'ertise. 3ndeed, it may )e that the feminists8 'sy#hologi#al distan#e from this 'rofessional medi#al world, where so mu#h other than s#ientifi# #ause and effe#t is at sta e, has 'ermitted their dee' insight into this matter. =he feminists ha"e demonstrated that Barguerite Kuras8s writings, for e/am'le, thri"e on notions of the transformation of hysteriaAes'e0 + $** + #ially the intuition that hysteria in our #entury is ali"e and wides'read, though often in"isi)le to the ga6er who #annot read its signs, )ut it is transformed, li e Proteus, in its signals and modern dress.1&*2 -lthough Kuras has not 'ursued the so#ial #onse4uen#es of her argument 9she is, after all, no so#iologist<, it would not )e hard to do so. ,or if the medie"al hysteri#8s geogra'hi#al lo#ale was the farm on whi#h she toiled and #on"ersed with family and neigh)orsJ if the Georgian woman8s world was the Ranelagh and 7au/hall Gardens where she 'araded, and the town and #ountry houses where she sought 'leasureJ1&$2 if the 7i#torian woman8s interior 'ur"iew was the dar )edroom in whi#h she 'retended to see nothing at night, #ertainly not her hus)and8s na ed )ody and aroused se/ual organsJ then today these lo#ales ha"e not disappeared )ut ha"e )een transformed into other so#ial lo#ations: the health #lu), the )edroom with its 'ara'hernalia of )iofeed)a# ma#hines, the thera'ists8 waiting rooms, the 'ain #lini#s, e"en the )eauty salons and e"er0'roliferating malls.1&52 Parado/i#ally, it seems today that these are the lo#ales of health and therefore of 'leasure and ha''iness. .et it may )e, u'on #loser o)ser"ation, that they are merely the 'la#es where modern hysteriaAwhat our "o#a)ulary #alls stressA has learned to disguise itself as health .

=he method used in the dete#tion of wit#hes in the early 'eriod also )ears su#h #lose 'arallels to methods of the last two #enturies that they #annot )e o"erloo ed, not merely )e#ause of their similarities )ut also )e#ause they 'ro"ide #lues to the nature of hysteria itself. Here it is interesting to note that the signs and sym'toms of hysteria ha"e remained #onstant o"er many #enturies. ,rom the late Biddle -ges to the Salem wit#h0hunting trials in Dew England 9and e"en later<, the same methods to dete#t wit#hes were used to dete#t other medi#al #onditions.1&&2 3n the early 'eriod, women were 'ri# ed with shar' needles to lo#ate the de"il8s #law: that insensiti"e 'at#h of s in was #onsidered the infalli)le sign of wit#h#raft. ,i"e #enturies laterAin the late nineteenth #enturyAthe great medi#al #lini#ians li e Kr. Pierre Eanet in Paris were still de#laring that medi#al 'ra#ti#e had gone no further: H3n our #lini#s,H Eanet 'ro#laimed, Hwe are somewhat li e the woman who sought for %itches . Le )lindfold the su)Ie#t, we turn his head away 1noti#e that the 'ronoun has #hanged its gender2, ru) his s in with our nail, 'ri# it suddenly with a hidden 'in, wat#h his answers or starts of 'ainJ the 'i#ture has not #hanged.H1&?2 Dum)nessAan unfeeling 'at#h of s inAwas still the sign of 'ossession and wit#h#raft fi"e #enturies later. =he #on#e't of num)ness altered its "ersions during the Enlightenment, as we will see, )ut it remained a + $*$ + #onstant test at the 'eri'heries of the early and late 'eriod 9Renaissan#e and modern<, and there is e"en e"iden#e that the #ondition e/isted in the middle 'eriod 9Enlightenment<, des'ite the a)sen#e of the word numb from the hysteri#al 'atient8s "o#a)ulary. - #entury after the a''earan#e of the nineteenth0 #entury narrati"es a)out women li e Charlotte Per ins, who as a hysteri# )e#ame permanently numb , Kuras #ontinues to write stories a)out the literal 'hysi#al num)ness of #ontem'orary women, and our finest feminist #riti#s #ontinue to 'ro#laim that hysteria, although offi#ially diagnosed )y the 'hysi#ians as ha"ing disa''eared, is still %ith us . =he e"iden#e lies in some of the titles of their re#ent wor : -li#e Eardine, Gynesis: &onfigurations of )oman and !odernity< Ro)erta Satow, HLhere Has -ll the Hysteria GoneNHJ Kianne Hunter, HHysteria, Psy#hoanalysis, and ,eminism: =he Case of -nna @HJ Patri#ia ,edi ew, HBarguerite Kuras: ,eminine ,ield of Hysteria.H1&;2 =he 4uestions raised )y this de"elo'ment may a''ear less than s#holarly )ut must )e 'ut ne"ertheless. Lhy all this writing a)out hysteria if hysteria has disa''earedN How #an num)ness ha"e )een the semiotic of hysteria as long ago as the si/teenth #entury, disa''eared for #enturies, and rea''eared in the last #enturyN Stated otherwise, what has )een the middle 6one of hysteriaAits high Enlightenment "ersionsN Has it returned, so to s'ea , in the modern wit#h8s 9i.e., today8s hysteri#< num) 'at#h of s inN 1&:2 Lhat is the pathology of hysteria if num)ness has #ontinued 9admittedly with maIor la'ses in the Enlightenment< to )e its maIor signAthe )asis of its semiologyAo"er se"en or eight #enturiesN -nd how does Helen King8s Hi''o#rati# story relate to this lingering malaiseN E"en holy women and saints of the early 'eriodAthe Bargery Kem'es and Saint =heresasAhad 'resented themsel"es with signs that were inter'reted as hysteri#al )y those who e/amined them, further e"iden#e of the many 'hysi#al sha'es and forms that num)ness #ould ta e in its religious guises.1&C2 Here it is wise to remem)er that King left us with hysteria as a #ondition #a'a)le of affli#ting %omen only . Se"en #enturies later, 7i#torian women remained its main "i#tims des'ite a)undant new resear#h #ondu#ted in the #entury from $C;* to $>;* demonstrating that male hysteri#s also a)ounded then. -nd in our time one has to loo "ery far indeed to find a male #orrelati"e of the feminist 'osition that hysteria still a)ounds )ut has gone underground.1&>2 =he e/'lanation for the 'ersisten#e of hysteria throughout history lies in the #on#e't of imitation. Howe"er, )e#ause imitation thri"es on #om'le/ notions of re'resentation 9an elusi"e #on#e't to )egin

with<, this matter of the H#ontentH of hysteria is in#a'a)le of swift and sim'le 'resentation.1&%2 Re'resentation is further #om'li#ated )y the mysterious0 + $*5 + sounding notion, 'ro'ounded )y Sydenham, that =hysteria imitates culture= J a dis#o"ery that ma es him, rather than later 'hysi#ians often asso#iated with hysteria, the una# nowledged hero of that illness )efore ,reud and Char#ot.1?*2 Sydenham was the first to 'ro#laim that hysteria imitated other diseases, and he maintainedA)y im'li#ationAthat hysteria was itself somehow an imitation of #i"ili6ation: an idea as well as a linguisti# #onstru#tion that we shall need to e/'lore if we are to gras' the e"olution of hysteria in the early modern 'eriod. But how #an an organi# derangement, a )odily disorder, e"en a medi#al disease 9if hysteria #an )e #lassified in this fashion in #om'arison to other organi# diseases< imitate a so#iety, a #i"ili6ation, a #ultureN Lhat #an )e meant )y su#h a notion of imitationN Sydenham o)ser"ed that the #ru#ial hysteri#al sym'tom was always 'rodu#ed )y tensions and stresses within the #ulture surrounding the 'atient or "i#tim. =hat is, the sym'toms themsel"es 9the #on"ersion sym'toms the 'atient 'resented< 'ro"ed to )e #onstant o"er time 9in"oluntary swoonings, faints, fits, twit#hings, ner"ous ti#s, eating and slee'ing disorders<, and the sym'toms #learly differed from a more general Hnum)ness.H But the cultural tensions 'rodu#ing these sym'toms "aried enormously. Sydenham was not a #ultural historianAhe was a radi#al em'iri#ist more than anything, an o)ser"er )ut he reali6ed that the human #onditions "aried greatly from one 'eriod to another.1?$2 3n this #onte/t, )e#ause of him the #on#e't of hysteria held )y 'hysi#ians o"er the 're"ious two hundred years was transformed. ,or him the sym'tom leading to the #ondition of hysteria HimitatedH the #ulture in whi#h it 9the sym'tom< had )een 'rodu#ed. 3t was not sim'ly #han#e that the 're#ise as'e#t of #i"ili6ation 'rodu#ing the sym'tom should ha"e )een identified )y Sydenham and a''lied )y his followers in nervous #ategories and nervous language. =ension, stress, and the large #onstellation of #on#e'ts aligned to these wordsAall deri"e from a re"olution in thin ing a)out the )ody whi#h o##urred in the late se"enteenth #entury.1?52 3n amalgamating an old medi#al #ondition 9hysteria< with new #ultural )eliefs and 'ra#ti#es 9es'e#ially the )ody8s me#hani#o0ner"ous organi6ation<, Sydenham was not merely dis'laying that he was an original thin er )ut was himself en"elo'ed in the s#ien#e and so#iety of his era.1?&2 =hat mu#h is 'atently #lear. But it has )een mu#h less e"ident that the new footing on whi#h he 'la#ed hysteria owed as mu#h to the s#ientifi# milieu of his dayAa 'ost0Cartesian radi#al dualism that #alled attention anew to the ner"esAas it did to any #on#e't of imitation and re'resentation, whether #onstrued in medi#al or nonmedi#al terms.1??2 ,urthermore, my own intrusion of SydenhamA + $*& + introdu#ing him into the narrati"e long )efore his #hronologi#al a''earan#e Iustifies itself is essential if his a#hie"ement as the maIor transformer of Enlightenment hysteria is to )e understood. 3f we #onstrue hysteria in this imitati"e way rather than "iewing it narrowly as an neuro'sy#hologi#al 'u66le, we )egin to glean why women ha"e )een demoni6ed for so long and why women #ontinue to e/'ress their own )rand of #ontem'orary num)ness in the twentieth #entury. ,or the #ondition that arises )y the 'rodu#tion of sym'toms that imitate the stresses inherent in a #i"ili6ation re4uires so#ialAe"en so#iologi#alAas well as medi#al analysis. E"en further, the ga6e must )e e/tended to mentalities other than the e/#lusi"ely medi#al, su#h as that of Eulia Kriste"a, the 'hysi#ian who writes a)out language and desire, and a)out language itself imitating the raging desire of women.

III
=hese lea's from wit#hes in the Renaissan#e to Kr. Sydenham, swit#hing from Sydenham to Kriste"a and Kuras, are not as disIointed and dis#onne#ted as they may a''ear, for only )y 'ossessing some sense of the syn#hroni# hysteria does the ri#hness of its dia#hroni# de"elo'ment emerge.1?;2 =his syn#hroni#ity amounts to the #on"ergen#e of all theories of hysteria, 'ast and 'resent, as if one )eheld them simultaneously in the mind. =he #hronologi#al "iew is, naturally, less #onfusing. E"en for a #ondition as 'er'le/ing as hysteria, the dia#hroni# or #hronologi#al "iew suggests fo#us and 're#ision e"en when there is noneJ it gi"es the illusion of a well0wrought argument when there are only a myriad of theories and do6ens of fra#tured images of the hysteri#. =hree hundred years after Sydenham wrote his dissertation on hysteria,1?:2 Kuras 'resented hysteria as imitation in terms of a female num)nessJ SydenhamAin #ontrastAgenerated his theory of hysteria as imitation without any sense that he was the first Hdo#torH to ha"e ha''ened u'on this insight. He merely o)ser"ed from the hundreds of #ases he treated that this was the truth. Sydenham and Kuras may seem odd 'artners with no #ommonalityJ in the realms of hysteria, howe"er, they share mu#h territory. Kuras8s no"els and 'oems #a'ture the 'ersistent anesthesia of modern women li"ing on the "erge of ner"ous )rea downs as a result of their so#ioe#onomi#, marital, and se/ual duress. Sydenham8s notion is that 'athologi#al #onditions of the female ner"ous system 'rodu#e the hysteri#al sym'toms with whi#h the 'atient 'resents herself, )ut li e KurasAhe )elie"es the sym'toms arise from so#ial #onditions that ensla"e not only women )ut also, as we will see, men. Kuras8s num) 'ain, + $*? + li e the wit#h8s #law, is the )asis of three of her wor s: the short 'rose('oem The !alady of Death3 4a Douleur , and The -avishing of 4ol "tein , a story a)out two women 9Lol Stein and =atiana Karl<, )oth of whom ha"e settled for lo"eless marriages. Sydenham8s women are not usually #hroni#led in this detailJ few of his #ase histories sur"i"e a'art from his medi#al notes.1?C2 Kuras8s women are #hara#teri6ed )y a num)ing 'ain that has few somati# sym'toms, e/#e't the sense that they are suffo#ating and 9a##ording to her female 'rotagonists< the indes#ri)a)le sensation #hara#teri6ed )y the words void and death*in*life .1?>2 Kuras stri"es to des#ri)e the mental agony 'rodu#ed )y the unrelenting, num)ing 'ain. !nli e Sydenham8s hysteri#s and those of Char#ot, for her "i#tims, no 'hysi#al #ause of their distur)an#es #an )e found. Kuras8s hysteri#s suffer ne"ertheless, sun into their 'ri"ate hells, where they e/ist on the edge of total des'air. Kuras8s "iew o''oses that of 3l6a 7eith, the medi#al historian who saw hysteria as an elusi"e medi#al disease whose #ode had ne"er )een #ra# ed. 7eith and Kuras are #ontem'oraries, Euro'eans of the same generation who li"ed through the Da6i holo#aust and a re"olution in the 'rofessionali6ation of women. E"en so, 7eith ne"er e/'lained why it was so im'ortant to #ra# the #ode in the first 'la#e. =he medi#al historians of her generation, whose mind0sets were formed in the aftermath of the ,reudian re"olution in 'sy#hoanalysis, too it u'on faith that hysteria was the most elusi"e, and therefore #hallenging, 'sy#hosomati# illness.1?%2 3n her no)le attem't 7eith summoned as her 'rotagonists the maIor do#tors in history: Hi''o#rates and Sydenham, =homas Lillis and ,ran6 -nton Besmer, the #ele)rated Char#ot and ,reud, on grounds that they had mo"ed #loser to its 'sy#hogeni# etiology. But 7eith left many 4uestions unanswered and too a narrow, almost 'aro#hial, "iew. She ne"er e/'lored the role of women in so#iety, their traditional, 'hallo#rati# image as #reatures with an insatia)le and "ora#ious eroti# a''etite, nor did she 'ro)e the im'li#ations of Plato8s "iew 9Timaeus %$#<, e/'anded )y -retaeus, that the wom) was an animal #a'a)le of wrea ing destru#tion,1;*2 as it was e/em'lified in Euri'ides8s Hippolytus , where it rages o"er Phaedra8s )ody li e an animal in heat. 3n this 'lay, it seems ne"er to ha"e o##urred to the stu))orn 'atriar#h, King =heseus, to relie"e Phaedra8s agony and

9as Kuras would #laim< num)ness, any more than it would ha"e o##urred to the Renaissan#e )iologists to relie"e the hysteri#al sym'toms of their female 'atients )y a# nowledging the so#ial stresses and the thwarted se/uality that 'rodu#ed this #ondition in the first 'la#e. =hroughout these early 'eriods women were regularly 'la#ed on trial )y men for wit#h#raft, regularly 'er#ei"ed as fallen E"es + $*; + and des'ised for their sedu#ti"e 'ro'ensitiesJ re'ression of their se/uality )y authoritati"e men 9in medi#ine, theology, the law< )e#ame the "isi)le, 'u)li# sign of an allegedly raging wom): a 'ri"ate gyne#ologi#al disorder the men themsel"es #laimed ne"er to understand fully.1;$2 =hese differing o'inions hardly #om'lete the 'i#ture of hysteria )ut they do ser"e to )ring out signifi#ant as'e#ts of the medi#al #ondition and its so#ial #onte/ts that ha"e usually not )een addressed in the now dormant annals of Euro'ean hysteria. ,or the history of hysteria has )een so )ogged down in the te#hni#al anatomy of uterine de)ility that its larger 'athology and its #ultural resonan#es ha"e )een o"erloo ed.1;52 =he Gree s did not em'loy a "o#a)ulary of female num)ness, any more than the horror0stru# o)ser"ers re#oiling from Renaissan#e wit#hes sus'e#ted num)ness in the wit#h8s #law, )ut a long0range "iew of hysteria demonstrates a #ontinuity of its sym'toms down through the ages des'ite its 'rotean a)ility to transform itself. Do matter what its medi#ali6ation has )een, hysteria, at least until the early nineteenth #entury, has )een so ine/tri#a)ly entwined with the lot of women that the two #an hardly )e se'arated. !n4uen#ha)le se/ual a''etite was long thought to lie at the "ery root of the malady, es'e#ially )y theologians and moralists in early Christian times.1;&2 -nd the noteworthy as'e#t of this "ora#ious female desire in )oth its 'agan and Christian forms is that )esides )eing inherently #ontagious it was #on#e'tuali6ed as morally dangerous 9to the indi"idual, family unit, state, world #ommunity<. @ther women, o)ser"ing its effe#ts, would imitate it and de"elo' their own "ersions. =his "ora#iousness instilled male fear 9engendering a ty'e of male hysteria<J the other dimensionA#ontagionAwas #onstrued as a "irulent form of miasma whi#h 'atriar#hy has always o''osed, whether it )e the 'atriar#hy of the -thenian #ity0states or Da6i Germany, Stuart England, or the ,ourth Re'u)li# of ,ran#e. But what is the source of this raging female a''etiteN 3s it in fa#t ultimately theological N Las it due to an innate lewdness %ithin the female anatomy or 'sy#he arising out of the la)ia o"er whi#h women had no #ontrol, and whi#h was li"ing 'roof of a 'ostla'sarian world whose irre'ressi)le, eroti# a''etite was the s#ar women )ore for the sin of the edeni# a''leN @r was the 'er#e'tion of this female a''etite something elseN Something #ulturally ordainedN Something so#ially #onstru#tedN =hese are the ty'es of 4uestions uniformly a"oided in the dis#ussion a)out hysteria, re"ealing one reason why its re#onsideration H)efore ,reudH has )een so long o"erdue. @nly in our 'oststru#turalist time, and in full "iew of the feminist a"alan#he of s#holarshi' and dialogue, has the a''ro/imation of an answer )egun to emerge. ButAwith a 'olite + $*: + ri'oste to the narrowly ,reudian 7eithA#on"entional e/'lanations a)out se/ual re'ression, de'ression, grief, "irginity, and widowhood ha"e )een insuffi#ient to fit the histori#al fa#ts of the last twenty #enturies. Hysteria may indeed )e, as -lan Krohn has suggested, Hthe elusi"e diseaseHJ1;?2 it has also )een the transformati"e, 'rotean #ondition 'ar e/#ellen#e.

I
3f this a''roa#h has "alidity, then hysteria will al%ays )e 'resent in so#iety unless some mira#le o##urs Ait #an ne"er disa''ear altogether, )e#ause its essentially 'rotean nature #om'els it Hto imitate H other diseases.1;;2 -##ording to this line of reasoning, the unwritten history of hysteriaAthe history that lies )eyond the narrow medi#al ga6eAis not 7eith8s #hronologi#al summary of medi#al theories narrowly #on#ei"ed, )ut rather a social history of hysteria 'la#ed in large #ultural #onte/ts that do not mute the gleanings of literary and artisti# "oi#es. =his )road re#ord, if a''ended to the medi#al one, is more re"ealing than the narrow Hmedi#al ga6eH )e#ause hysteria itself is a refle#tion of the #ultures it imitates.1;:2 =he matter to )e dealt with in an a''roa#h su#h as this )oo ho'es to 'romote thus raises the nature of the problem of hysteria itself . -nd hysteria the #ategory, rather than the set of 'atients 'resenting sym'toms o"er many #enturies, )e#omes 'ar e/#ellen#e the )arometer res'onding, through its finely tuned antennas, to the 'er'etual stresses of gender and se/uality. -s su#h, it is also a )arometer of the #ultural stresses weighing on se/ual relations and gender formations. =he forms of the )arometri# res'onses in the Renaissan#e and Enlightenment #onstitute mu#h of the #ontents that follow. 93n this "iew the 'ani# and 'resenting sym'toms of the -3KS 'atient who internali6es his si# ness and moral #ondition deser"e the #lassifi#ation hysteria, although it is rarely gi"en in our time and #annot, of #ourse, a''ly to all -3KS 'atients.< Boreo"er, hysteria will al%ays eli#it #ontro"ersy among so0#alled Hinternalist historiansH as well as among 'ositi"isti# do#tors who remain un#on#erned with its #ultural dimensions1;C2 Athose who merely want to diagnose its sym'toms and 'res#ri)e medi#ations for its a)atement, "ersus those o)ser"ers, li e Sydenham and Kuras, who lo#ate it in larger #ultural #onte/ts. =he #ontro"ersial dimension 'enetrates to e"ery as'e#t of hysteria8s Hinternalist history,H and must not im'ly any #riti#ism, for e/am'le, of Helen King8s methodology. =he 'oint rather en#om'asses the differen#e )etween te/tual traditions of hysteria that 'ersist o"er the #enturies, and so#ially #onstru#ted #ategories that ne#essarily ee' fashioning hysteria anew. =he material 3 #o"er suggests that + $*C + hysteria #ontinued to )e redefined in the early modern world a##ording to the terms of #hanging #ultural dynami#s, while always ser"ing the interests of its somati6ers and diagnosti#ians. 7iewed so#iologi#ally, mass hysteria is not a #ategory a'art from 'ersonal, indi"idual hysteria, )ut is rather another "ersion of the same 'rotean, imitati"e stress )rought out into the light of 'u)li# grou's, 'ri"ate agony ha"ing gone 'u)li#.1;>2

=his a''roa#h, then, entails a so#ial re#onstru#tion of hysteria. 3n it, the hegemony of Hi''o#rates and his wandering wom), as we ha"e seen in the 're"ious #ha'ter, is diminished and limitedJ it is to )e read as another imaginati"e, if erudite, 'atriar#hal "oi#e in what will )e#ome during the Renaissan#e and Enlightenment a litany of "oi#es ma ing 'ronoun#ements grounded in imagination and o)ser"ation )ut ignoring their #ultural #onte/ts. Bale "oi#es, su#h as those of Hi''o#rates and others dis#ussed )y Helen King who #ame later, #annot )e omitted from the e"olution of hysteria, )ut they must )e lo#ated in larger #onte/ts if hysteria is e"er to trans#end its lo#al, internalist histories. Hi''o#rates #ould not ha"e written as he did had he )een female 9Hi''o#rata<, any more than a female Plato would ha"e "iewed the wom) as an animal: "ora#ious, 'redatory, a''etiti"e, unsta)le, fore"er redu#ing the female into a frail and unsta)le #reature. =hese "iews are those of men with little firsthand nowledge of this 'art of the female anatomy.1;%2 @n#e the Renaissan#e and Enlightenment are #onsidered, it )e#omes e"ident that #onsiderations other than those of 'aganism and Christianity must )e )rought to light if hysteria is to )e fully e/'lained. Le must understand the relation of hysteria to ins'ired 'ersonal

"ision, to shamanism, and in e/tremely #old #limates to so0#alled -r#ti# hysteria, said to )e the natural ha)itat of shamanism, a su)Ie#t deemed of the first im'ortan#e to #om'arati"e anthro'ologists in the early 'art of this #entury.1:*2 Gradually it )e#omes #lear that few to'i#s in this narrati"e are as im'ortant as the #on#e'tion of women held throughout the #ourse of history. =he "iews of anti4uity were not uniform, of #ourse, )ut they seem to )e so in #ontrast to the #haos of the early modern 'eriod, es'e#ially in the transition from medie"al #ulture to the Renaissan#e. By the Eli6a)ethan 'eriod, roughly $:**, it is no longer 'ossi)le to in"o e any maIor "iew of women, des'ite our 'ostmodern tem'tation to do so.1:$2 Lomen ha"e already a#4uired a HhistoryH that 'ermits them to )e seen from different 'ers'e#ti"es, ea#h "iew #laiming to )e e4ually "alid. 3t is e"en said that this new di"ersity is one #ertain 'roof of female frailty, a + $*> + trait made es'e#ially resonant )y the Sha es'earean line: H,railty, thy name is womanQH =his "iew of woman as the 4uintessen#e of frailty is the one the Renaissan#e gra''les with. Loman, whether "iewed in theologi#al or medi#al #onte/ts, whether )y the an#ient s#holiasts or the deri"ati"e -ristotelian )iologists and 'hiloso'hers, whether #on#reti6ed as wea "irgin, )ride of Christ, or as deranged @'helia 9another hysteri# of #ourse<, #ontinues to )e #on#e'tuali6ed as 'art animal , 'art %itch J 'art pleasure*giver , 'art %rea(er of destruction to a"enge her own irrationalityAanything )ut as strong, rational #reature resem)ling homo mensicus , this "iew #oe/isting while men of the Renaissan#e de)ate the heresies of Gallilean astronomy and the su)tleties of Cartesian 'hysiology.1:52 ,or these reasons, and others not 'ro"ided here for la# of s'a#e, it ser"es no 'ur'ose to #om'ile further narrow internal histories of hysteria #lassified a##ording to "arious #hronologi#al 'eriods or ta/onomi# s#hemes. @ld man Proteus has )een too sly for that. -lthough a route su#h as the mind()ody relation a''ears on the surfa#e to hold out infinite 'romise for theories of hysteria in the late Renaissan#e, it is also limited. =he notion that mind()ody dualism #an #ra# the #ode, so to s'ea , of the Helusi"e neurosisH is doomed to failure, if anything resem)ling a #om'lete e/'lanation of how the 'atient 'ro#eeded from initial sym'tom to e"entual 'hysiologi#al dysfun#tion is e/'e#ted. !ltimately Kes#artes is a minor figure in our story, maIor though dualism is for hysteria in the e'o#h of its most formati"e transformation 9as we shall see<. Cartesianism did not #hange hysteria8s destiny other than to ere#t a new, and long insurmounta)le, road)lo# in the form of mental torment "ersus 'hysi#al 'ain. But hysteria8s definition had )een trou)led )efore the ad"ent of the great dualist and would #ontinue to )e long after his demise and the de#line of his 'hiloso'hy in Euro'e.1:&2 Before Kes#artes8s famous dis#o"ery of the 'ineal gland, the human amalgam of mind and )ody was thought to ha"e made man uni4ue among li"ing #reatures. &artesian hysteria Aif one #an 'osit su#h a medi#al #onfigurationAmust )e turned inside out to )e seen for what it really is, or to 'onder how it #ould ha"e )een #on#e'tuali6ed )y its se"enteenth0#entury "iewers. Cartesian dis#ussions of hysteria that got )ogged down in mind and )ody, mind or )ody, as "irtually all did, ultimately #ontri)uted little to the thera'y or re#o"ery of its "i#tims, and, e"en worse, re"ealed nothing a)out its etiology. 3t was not Kes#artes or any other radi#al dualist who 'enetrated dee'ly into the nature of the disorder, )ut a 'ra#ti#ing 'hysi#ian who, howe"er dualisti# his own intelle#tual formation had )een, was not es'e#ially Cartesian in his a''roa#h + $*% +

to medi#ine. =his 'hysi#ian, moreo"er, laid more em'hasis on e/'erien#e and o)ser"ation than on theory and 'hiloso'hy, and for all his o)eisan#e to the maIor s#ientifi# and 'hiloso'hi#al #urrents of his time, re#ogni6ed that in some 'rofound way hysteria was #ulturally #onditioned.1:?2 =his 'hysi#ian was =homas Sydenham, and it is im'ortant that he should )e "iewed )oth dia#hroni#ally and syn#hroni#ally: lo#ated within his time as his 'la#e and time are histori#ally a''roa#hed, and also "iewed syn#hroni#ally and )a# ward, as if the entire history of hysteria #on"erged at the 'oint where Sydenham8s theory of hysteria sits 'oised dire#tly in the #enter.

I
-n a''roa#h to hysteria whi#h is at on#e )roadly histori#al, #ultural, and #onte/tual )ut also re#ogni6es the #entral im'ortan#e of dis#ourse and rhetori#al en#oding to this narrati"e #ontinuum re4uires a high threshold of #ultural e/'lanation and a dis#ussion of the role of realism and re'resentation in the e/'li#ation of the malady. =he dis#ourses of hysteria #annot )e "iewed as neutral te/ts generated inde'endently of the #onsiderations of gender, ideology, 'oliti#s, religion, nationalism, and 'rofessional authority, as if 9when #onsidered in #lusters )y #enturies or 'eriods< they were so many neutral #or'uses or )odies 9here, too, the meta'hors<. 3t is sinful enough to #onsider hysteria in Lestern so#iety onlyAa white Euro'ean8s "ersion.1:;2 =o inter'ret these Lestern dis#ourses on their own terms, without standing a'art from their own systems and ga6ing at the role 'layed )y these narrati"es in the 'ower stru#tures in whi#h they were generated, #ommits a #rime that "iolates the first 'rin#i'les of the new enri#hed history. Produ#ed under s'e#ifi# #onditions at 'arti#ular histori#al Iun#tures, these narrati"es naturally refle#t their moment as well as does any other writing, and it is therefore nai"e to imagine that the intri#a#ies of realism and re'resentation )esetting other genres 9es'e#ially 'rose genres< should disa''ear here. @n the #ontrary, those dimensions of re'resentation are all the more stringent here in "iew of the imitati"e nature of the #ondition of hysteria, and the tem'tation to rewrite the history of hysteria as a set of #ommentaries on a finite num)er of 'hysi#iansAas 7eith didAshould )e resisted. Sydenham8s genius was the intuiti"e lea' that re#ogni6ed that #ulture and imitationA so#iety and re'resentationA#ould ha"e the direst medi#al #onse4uen#es for a malady that had )ewildered do#tors for #enturies. He may not ha"e )een a so'histi#ated #riti# of language or its + $$* + re'resentationsJ ne"ertheless, he ga6ed dee'ly into the #o'ula of disease and re'resentation as ea#h had )een generated )y the #ulture. Con#omitantly, if Sydenham8s theory of hysteria as imitation has s#ientifi# and medi#al "alidity, the most thorough student of hysteria, the one #a'a)le of e/'laining the most a)out the la)yrinths of its histori#al e"olution, will )e the #ultural historian who in4uires into the gender0)ased origins of female suffering with an eye always "igilant to hysteria8s dis#ourses. 3t is not only that the history of medi#ine is in#om'leteJ e"en #ultural history is inade4uate to the #hallenge of hysteria if dis#ourse and re'resentation are omitted. Le may well in4uire why this should )e when so many other maladies ha"e remained the e/#lusi"e territory of the medi#al ga6e. .et e"en these less 'er'le/ing illnesses ha"e )een 'oorly re'resented )y their #hroni#lers. Kes'ite the intuiti"e literary analyses of Susan Sontag in 'llness as !etaphor , as yet there are no satisfa#tory #ultural a##ounts of, for e/am'le, #onsum'tion, #an#er, or e"en su#h seemingly monolithi# medi#al #onditions as the almost risi)le gout.1::2 =he diseases of the 'lagueA)u)oni# fe"er, #holera, ty'hoid fe"er, influen6aAha"e fared )etter than the a)o"e maladies in their narrati"e re'resentations )e#ause it has )een im'ossi)le to imagine and then re'resent them narrati"ely a'art from the histori#al #onditions in whi#h they arose. =hey are, of

#ourse, so#ial diseases 're#isely because of their #ommuni#a)ility, and their essential nature as H#ommuni#a)le #onditionsH mandates "iewing them in so#ial #onte/ts. E"en the no"i#e historian sees that the first great Euro'ean wa"e of )u)oni# 'lague #annot )e #onsidered a'art from fourteenth0 #entury so#ioe#onomi# #onditionsJ that the ad"ent of #holera in the 3ndian su)#ontinent #annot )e narrated without fo#using on em'ire and #olonialism. But those maladies less a''arently intrinsi# to 'arti#ular #ultures ha"e not fared so well.1:C2 Loosely s'ea ing, there has )een a sense, strengthened )y Susan Sontag, that ea#h era has somehow 'rodu#ed and then mythologi6ed a 'arti#ular malady: the Enlightenment had its gout 9was there e"er a disease more indigenous to a #ultureN<J the Romanti#s, #onsum'tion 9well #a'tured in the Keatsian aestheti# im'lied )y the famous line, H-h, what ails thee night, alone and 'alely loiteringNH<J the de#adents and aesthetes, tu)er#ulosisJ our own twentieth #entury, #an#er and -3KS.1:>2 Howe"er, although there is something in the notion, it remains loose: a figment of the histori#al imagination, a mere #himeraJ a meta'hori# and analogous reading of medi#al historyJ a des#ri'tion of disease in relation to #ulture no one would want to #onstrue literally. =he geogra'hy of hysteria lends itself to no su#h fa#ile sets of inter'retations. @##urring neither under #onditions of #ontagion 9li e 'lague< + $$$ + nor as the 'rodu#t of a #ulture8s elusi"e mythology 9we must ne"er forget that the hysteri#8s 'ain is somati#, )odily, not imaginary<, the hysteri#8s 'ain is real 9the 'ro)lem of realism again<. .et hysteria has )een less tied to its #ultural dimensions than any of these medi#al #onditions, this des'ite Sydenham8s notion that it always imitated that #ulture. !ntil the last two #enturies, hysteria was the female malady 'ar e/#ellen#e, and when our )est modern female #riti#s reiterate that women writers must )e hysteri#al, that they ha"e no #hoi#e in the matter, they )ring together the ey sign'osts of the malady when "iewed histori#ally: feminism, the )ody, #ulture, and dis#ourses. =hus an authority no less insightful than Kriste"a has 'ronoun#ed that Hwomen8s writing is the dis#ourse of the hysteri#HJ Euliet Bit#hell has added that in our timeAand 'erha's she would e/tend the #laim to in#lude all time AHthe woman no"elist must )e an hysteri#, for hysteria is simultaneously what a woman #an do to )e feminine and refuse femininity, within 'ra#ti#al dis#ourses.H1:%2 =herefore, as we a''roa#h the ne/t histori#al 'eriod after King8s, we e/tend our ga6e into the realm of the Renaissan#e and Enlightenment woman. How did her status differ from that of the medie"al womanN Las her hysteria therefore differentN Le in4uire into the new stresses #reating num)ness and 'ani# and as , Lhy was Renaissan#e woman thought to )e so influen#ed )y the moon and so 'ossessed of the de"ilN Le #an readily see that the 'athologi#al sym'toms of her hysteria would imitate the sym'toms of other #onditions: the fits and faints, as well as the tremors, ti#s, #oughs, hi##u's, grima#es, gnashing of teeth, 'ulling of hair, )ashing of head, and all the other a)errations o##asioned )y the fi"e senses. @ther #onditions may ha"e 'rodu#ed the last of these sym'toms, yet what #aused the num)ness and 'ani# in the first 'la#e, and how did they get re'resentedN1C*2 =he feminist historians ha"e demonstrated in a "ast and im'ortant )ody of new s#holarshi' that Renaissan#e women were e/'erien#ing 'rofound stress and frustrationJ that as women were 'romised and therefore e/'e#ted more, they found themsel"es a#tually re#ei"ing less in an in#reasingly #om'le/ so#iety within an often #onfusing religious milieu.1C$2 Loman8s role was still seen as entirely domesti#: #entered on her household, often her farm, 'er'etually surrounded )y her #hildren, "iewed as odd if she too time out for anything other than de"otions and e"en more 'e#uliar if her time was used for writing or 'ainting or se#ular su)Ie#ts. 3t was all too easy to denoun#e her as o"erly se/ed, and la)el or stigmati6e her )eha"ior as de"iant )y 'ointing to the somati# signs noted )y her male do#tors: a'othe#aries as well as 'hysi#ians and surgeons.1C52

3n the Renaissan#e and again in the nineteenth #entury, these somati# + $$5 + dysfun#tions were often #alled HstigmataH )y 'hysi#ians sear#hing for the HstigmaH of hysteria. =he line from the fourteenth #entury to the nineteenth is almost #ontinuous in this sense. Stigma was e"entually altered to sym'tom in the semiology of #lini#al analysisAin the se"enteenth #enturyAand this may )e why so many medi#al le#tures a''eared in the nineteenth #entury 9li e that of the ,ren#h neurologist, Pierre Eanet< entitled Hthe maIor sym'toms of hysteria.H1C&2 But hysteria had also )een #onstrued as the first #ousin, so to s'ea , of medie"al lo"e si# ness, a #ondition a)out whi#h do#tors of all ty'es, theologi#al as well as medi#al, had 'ronoun#ed for #enturies.1C?2 Kuring the Biddle -ges lo"e si# ness was said to affli#t both women and men, although women were said to ha"e the mu#h greater 'ro'ensity for affli#tion. -mong women, retained seed that )e#ame #orru'ted and 'oisonous was #onstrued as the dire#t #auseJ this #onstru#tion #ontinued in the time of Eohannes Leyer and Edward Eorden. @n#e lo"e si# ness was lin ed to female se/ual organs )y the si/teenth #entury, it was all too easy for medi#al do#tors to #onstrue it as a 'athologi#al #ondition of women only. =he genderi6ation of many of these #onditions in the Renaissan#eAhysteria, lo"e si# ness, )ut not melan#holy, whi#h was often "iewed as maleAhas ne"er )een told in any detail.1C;2 De"ertheless, gradually o"er three or four #enturies, the Euro'ean do#tors a##om'lished this feat of genderi6ation for reasons that ha"e )een des#ri)ed as H'atriar#halH )y feminist historians )ut whose 're#ise details elude e"en the )est of this grou' of resear#hers. =he result was a genderi6ing of lo"e si# ness that made it the fa"orite malady of diseased female genital 'hysiology, usually said to lead dire#tly to the furor uterinus with whi#h do#tors su#h as Eorden and Ro)ert Burton will )e#ome o)sessed. =he larger se/ual and #ultural dimensions of lo"e si# ness were as im'li#it in the Biddle -ges as they would )e through the eighteenth #entury, es'e#ially in the moral stigma atta#hed to 'urging of the female seed from the "agina lest it wrea ha"o#. Both 'urging and retention were harmful to the woman on#e she had undergone 'u)ertyJ se/ual inter#ourse, in marriage, was the only a##e'ta)le o'tion to her. 3n a Lestern anatomi#al model that had women eIa#ulating internally, there was no healthy s'a#e for a retained seed. ,emale orgasm was essential to the 'ro#ess of #on#e'tion )e#ause the orgasm released the female seed, Iust as se/ual inter#ourse was re4uired if this seed were to #om)ine with the male seed. ,emale seed #onstantly retained, whether through la# of se/ual inter#ourse or e/#essi"e female mastur)ation, #ontained the sour#e of anatomi#al im)alan#e and led to derangement. =he only #ir#umstan#es under whi#h the male seed had to )e 'urged were reli0 + $$& + gious or moral, as when 'u)es#ent )oys were en#ouraged to mastur)ate to diminish their se/ual aggressi"ity, or when adult men were ad"ised to do so while their wi"es were 'regnant. =here was no 'la#e for su#h male 'urging in the anatomi#al or medi#al s'here. =he #odes 'ertaining to 'urging of seed and arousal to eIa#ulation were grounded in )eliefs a)out the differen#es in male and female anatomy. -s Bary La# has #ommented, Hthe arousal was often a#hie"ed )y a woman who mani'ulated the 1female2 'atient manually,H1C:2 and there was no e4ui"alent among males of 'urging the seed from anywhere in the s#rotum. =he o)Ie#t was, of #ourse, to arouse the woman to orgasm so that she eIa#ulated the retained 'utrifying seed. But su#h a highly #harged 'ra#ti#e #ould hardly ha"e )een e/'e#ted to flourish in Christian lands, where the #hur#h

"ehemently o)Ie#ted to it and where medi#al do#tors dared not state what they really )elie"ed a)out its medi#al effi#a#y for fear of e##lesiasti#al retaliation. La# is no dou)t #orre#t in noti#ing that some of the medie"al do#torsAher e/#ellent e/am'le is the fourteenth0#entury Bona ,ortuna8s Treatise on the 7iaticum Adid not write entirely in elisions )ut a#tually re#ommended mastur)ation )y an obstetri# , and some e"en des#ri)ed the manual te#hni4ues to )e used.1CC2 Still, the dis#ourse on se/uality from the fourteenth to the se"enteenth #entury was not so li)eral as to 'ermit female mastur)atory 'ra#ti#es for the 'urgation of seed to flourish.1C>2 Bore direly for the lot of women, female se/uality was #he# ed and im'eded in other ways than the re#oil shown among male do#tors when fa#ed with the 'ros'e#t of des#ri)ing on 'a'er an allegedly #urati"e female mastur)ation thera'y. But female mor)idity was not limited then to the se/ual organs. 3t also e/tended to the soul, whi#h would soon also )e genderi6ed and 'athologi6ed in the form of 'ossession and dia)oli# e#stasy. =he #ommon meta'hor in all these a''li#ations was mor)idity: whether of the se/ual organs, the whole )ody, the eternal soul, or merely the 'assions of the mind. =he tro'e of the 'athologi#al was rein"igorated as it had ne"er )een in an#ient dis#ourse.1C%2 Lhat was said a)out men N =heir lo"e suffering was rarely, if e"er, lin ed to 'athology of the se/ual organs. E"en Ea#4ues ,errand, the already mentioned author of the most widely read treatise on lo"e si# ness 9$:5&<, and ,eli/ Platter 9Platterus< are silent on this matter in their medi#al wor s on the su)Ie#t, and ,ou#aultT who understood the genderi6ation of the se/ual organs all too well, is less e/'li#it than his in4uisiti"e readers li e.1>*2 =he e/'lanation gi"en to the few #ases re#orded is almost entirely 'sy#hologi#al. Ben were said to )e amorous and suffer unre4uited lo"e Iust as women do, )ut the #om)ination of wor and res'on0 + $$? + si)ility #om'elled them to drown their unre4uited lo"e in anger. -nger was their 'rimordial 'assion: e"erything in history #onfirmed it. 3n fa#t, all nown history #ould )e inter'reted, it was said, as res'onses to this male anger, whi#h had )een alternately un)ridled and restrained: wars, 'ea#e, aggression, fear of annihilation, the lot.1>$2 Besides, men were too )usy in the wor 'la#e and arenas of 'oliti#s to ha"e the leisureAthe argument wentAfor eroti# re"erie. Burton refle#ts this 'rogression all too #learly in the 'sy#hologi#al 'ortions of The $natomy of !elancholy . ,or men, a #y#le was thus set u' of eroti# infatuation, unre4uited lo"e, lo"e si# ness, anger, and, finally, melan#holy. Hysteria was 'reem'ted: nowhere did the se/ual organs enter into the se4uen#e, nor was there s'a#e for 'ria'i# 'halluses or mor)idly wandering s#rotums. =he ey for men, as theorists of melan#holy su#h as Burton understood all too well, was re'ressed anger . =heir eroti# disa''ointment #entered on anger well su''ressed and #ulturally "alidated, always 'redi#ta)ly re0suiting in melan#holy. Lomen were 'ermitted no su#h am'litude. =he role of anger was hardly #onsidered a 'ossi)ility for their eroti# ills. ,ear and terror #onsumed them, as did the no#turnal "isions and s'e#torial world of in#u)i and su##u)i so #ommon among those suffering from the hallu#inations of lo"e si# ness and hysteria.1>52 But a female lo"e si# ness 'redi#ated mainly on 'sy#hologi#al #auses was un nown )efore Leyer and Eorden. Li e the larger and more 're"alent hysteria, lo"e si# ness #ontinued to )e #on#e'tuali6ed )y the male 'hysi#ians as something anatomi#al, 'hysiologi#al, humoral, 'athologi#alAan irredu#i)ly feminine medi#al #ondition. Do wonder that lo"e si# ness thri"ed, rea#hing something of a national e'idemi# in Lestern Euro'e )y the time ,errand 'u)lished his medi#al #lassi# wor on Heroti# melan#holyH in $:5& and Sha es'eare )egan to write 'lays. -lready )y the si/teenth #entury Eohannes Leyer 9Leir<, the Kut#h 'hysi#ian, 'ronoun#ed that hysteria was a bodily disease li e all other medi#al #onditions and must )e semiologi#ally #onstrued 9i.e., through signs and sym'toms<.1>&2 - half #entury later, in $:*&, Edward Eorden, the author of an

influential wor in the Galeni# humoralist tradition titled $ Briefe Discourse of a Disease &alled the "uffocation of the !other , #laimed that the diabolic #ould )e translated into the natural Athat hysteria #ould ha"e natural #auses. =his ste' was signifi#ant )e#ause it 'ointed the way for the largely male0 authored medi#al dis#ourses on hysteria that followed for three #enturies, )ut it was less inno"ati"e than it may seem on the surfa#e. Helen King 'ro"ided some reasons in #ha'ter $, es'e#ially in dis#ussing the do#trine of H"a'ors,H )ut there are other reasons as well. + $$; + 7eith summari6ed the wor s of these figures, es'e#ially Leyer, -m)roise ParF 9the ,ren#h 'hysi#ian<, and Eorden, and has #ommented on their im'ortan#e as su##essors to the !alleus !aleficarum 9$?%?<, the so0#alled HLit#hes Hammer,H whi#h she sums u' as Hthe most e/traordinary do#ument to emanate from the wit#h mania.H1>?2 Do reason e/ists to dou)t her #on#lusion that Ha #areful study of this fantasti# do#ument re"eals )eyond dou)t that many, if not most, of the wit#hes as well as a great num)er of their "i#tims des#ri)ed therein were sim'ly hysteri#s who had suffered from 'artial anesthesia, mutism, )lindness, and #on"ulsions, and, a)o"e all, from a "ariety of se/ual delusions.H1>;2 She has )een 'ersuasi"e in e/'laining the medi#ali6ation of hysteria in the light of its #ultural and narrati"e dimensions. 7eith also 'oints out that Leyer too un'o'ular 'ositions on hysteria. Ha"ing little theologi#al or 'oliti#al am)ition, he #ould 'ursue #lini#al o)ser"ation with relati"ely little regard for the re#e'tion his "iews would re#ei"e. But it must also )e noted that while Leyer was a shrewd o)ser"er, he made few theoreti#al ad"an#es when #om'ared to Hi''o#rates and Har"ey, ,eu#htersle)en and ,reud, who were a)le to ta e more lea's than he did. 7eith analy6es the story of the young hysteri#, dis#ussed in Leyer, said to "omit ri))ons that she #laimed had )een inserted daily into her stoma#h )y the de"il. -fter 'raising Leyer for dete#ting the fraudulent nature of the a##ount, 7eith states: HLeyer was a su'er) o)ser"er, and though a s e'ti#, he was #redulous.H1>:2 7eith8s a''raisal #a'tures Leyer8s dou)le )ind: on the one hand, he was dou)tful of these su'ernatural e/'lanations and resisted themJ on the other, he remained a #reature of his time, una)le to e/tri#ate himself from notions of 'ossession in hysteri#al #ases. ,or his am)i"alen#e, Leyer had to withstand the atta# s of authoritati"e #ontem'oraries su#h as Eean Bodin, the 'restigious 'hiloso'her and e#onomi# thin er atta#hed to the #ourt of Henry 333, who #ham'ioned the theory of demoni# 'ossession in hysteria.1>C2 3n esta)lishing hysteria as a natural disease rather than a theologi#al #ondition of the soul, it must )e noted that Leyer and Eorden 'erformed similar fun#tions, )ut that Leyer saw more dee'ly into the female #ondition. He e/onerated hysteri#s from the #harge of dia)olism and 'ronoun#ed them inno#ent of wit#h#raftJ he )ro e away from the regimens of 'hysi#al and mental #ruelty ad"an#ed )y the !alleus !aleficarum 9tortures of many ty'es<J1>>2 and he sym'athi6ed with the 'redi#ament of women and #om'assionated with their "iolent dreams and 'hantoms, treating them as "i#tims and 'atients rather than as malingerers and a##om'li#es. Dot enough is nown a)out Leyer8s life to ground these "iews se#urely in larger )iogra'hi#al #onte/tsJ still, whate"er the + $$: + 'arti#ulars of that Kut#h life of the si/teenth #entury, Leyer #an )e "iewed as a ty'e of Renaissan#e Phili''e Pinel or E.0E.0K. Es4uirol who, rather than wishing to see these mentally ill women tried and 'unished, 'itied them and #ommiserated with their misery.1>%2 Lithin the #onte/t of hysteria, Leyer was foremost a humanitarian who 'a"ed the way, howe"er small, to im'ro"e the lot of these distur)ed women. E"en so, he had few, if any, #lues into the nature of the 'henomenon itself, mu#h less into its natural history in the way that the eighteenth0#entury 'hysi#ians were to #onstru#t these H#ase

historiesH: the #auses of these natural 9i.e., #on"ersion< sym'tomsJ what these women ha"e in #ommonJ and why these sym'toms a''ear 'reeminently in women. Leyer8s humanitarianism is in#ontesta)le: his writing a)ounds in it as it does in #lose o)ser"ation of hysteri#al sym'toms. But dete#tion is not tantamount to insight, and the 'ro#ess of medi#ali6ation, while admira)le for its em'iri#ism and humanitarianism, #annot )e #om'ared with the dee' "ision of the sort =homas Sydenham demonstrated. Leyer8s #ontem'oraries, howe"er, fared no )etter. =imothy Bright, for e/am'le, an English 'hysi#ian trained in medi#ine at =rinity College, Cam)ridge, #hased melan#holy rather than hysteria, the two #onditions then )eing #losely allied. Bright8s a''roa#h was 'artly 'hysiologi#al, 'artly 'sy#hologi#al, mainly #on#ernedAas the title of his treatise on melan#holy saysAwith dis#o"ering the Hreasons of the strange effe#ts it 1melan#holie2 wor eth in our minds and )odies.H1%*2 E"en so, Bright8s main a''roa#h led him to e/'lore Hnourishmentes,H or the transformation of food into Hthe melan#holi# e humour.H -s he says: HLhether good nourishmente )reede melan#holie )y fault of the )odie turning it into melan#holie, U whether su#h humour is founde in nourishmentes, or rather is made of themH 9title of #ha'. &<. =here was in the humoralist Bright no sense of demoni# 'ossessionAmelan#holy was also medi#ali6ed in Bright8s treatmentAnor was there referen#e to a gender0)ased #onditionJ rather Bright attri)uted the #ause to an all0'owerful soul wrea ing ha"o# on the )ody8s )ile through these nourishments. By #ontrast Eorden, a humoralist )orn two generations after Leyer, de"elo'ed a uterine 'athology e/#lusi"ely )ased on the wandering wom) and the )odily 'rodu#tion of "a'ors. Eorden was summoned with three other do#tors to testify in the #ase of Eli6a)eth Ea# son, arraigned on a #harge of )ewit#hing the fourteen0year0old Bary Glo"er.1%$2 =his young girl )egan to suffer from Hfittes. . . so fearfull, that all that were a)out her, su'oosed that she would dye.H She grew s'ee#hless and o##asionally )lindJ her left side was anestheti6ed and 'araly6ed. =hese were the #lassi# sym'toms, re#ogni6ed )efore Eorden #om'iled his narrati"e, )ut + $$C + was their sour#e sor#ery or illnessN Bagi# or diseaseN Glo"er was diagnosed and then treated )y leading do#tors from the Royal College in London. Lhen she failed to res'ond to their thera'ies, usually her)al #on#o#tions and other #hemi#al 're'arations, they 'ronoun#ed, all too 'redi#ta)ly, that something in the #ase was H)eyond naturallH in her sym'toms. Eorden demurred, finding for disease. Lhen Eusti#e -ndersonAa notorious hammer of wit#hesAo"errode his e"iden#e, Eorden felt #om'elled to defend his theory that Glo"er8s sym'toms #onstituted a disease 9insensi)ility, #ho ing sensations, diffi#ulty in eating, #on"ulsions, e'ile'ti# and 'eriodi#al fits: #onditions, he insisted, 'hysi#ians alone were 4ualified to determine<. =his defense )e#ame the su)stan#e of the already mentioned Briefe Discourse . Eorden named Glo"er8s #ondition the Hsuffo#ation of the motherH 9i.e., matri/ or wom)<, more sim'ly #alled the Hmother,H 'referring this usage to the older medi#al term Hhysteri#a 'assio.H1%52 3n se"enteenth0#entury 'arlan#e these 'hrases )e#ame inter#hangea)le with Hhysteria,H or its more #ommon adIe#ti"al form, Hhysteri#al.H -ll referred )a# , medi#ally and etymologi#ally, to the wom), anatomy and language #on"erging on the same 'art of the )ody that had )een the sour#e of hysteria from its in#e'tion. ,or Eorden, su#h #onditions 9not to )e #onfused with sym'toms< as the eso'hagian )all, res'iratory and digesti"e )lo# ages, 'ani# y feelings of suffo#ation and #onstri#tions, all 'ointed #learly to a uterine 'athology. @ne #an readily imagine how this a''roa#h sho# ed e##lesiasti#al authorities. E"en Eorden8s medi#al #olleagues re"olted against the theory of a uterine 'athology as the sole sour#e for the genesis

of a medi#al #ondition. Har"ey had not yet made his dis#o"eries a)out the heart and the #ir#ulation of the )loodJ another generation would ha"e to 'ass )efore Kes#artes infused anatomy and 'hysiology with radi#al me#hanism and materialism. Eorden8s e/'e#tations a)out the re#e'tion of his medi#ali6ation of hysteria are un nown, )ut if he thought his radi#al medi#ali6ation would meet with re#e'ti"e arms he was mista en. 3n a religiously #ra6ed world in whi#h Galileo had re#ently )een tried and others )efore him )eheaded for heresy, it was not easy to #laim that uterine de)ility was the single and sole #ause of distur)an#es thought for so long to )e the wor of the de"il.1%&2 Eorden re#ogni6ed that his "iews in Briefe Discourse would )e #ontro"ersial, if not hereti#al, although his fundamental notion a)out disease itself, es'e#ially the idea that illness is always #ured )y its #ontrary 9hot )y #old, dry )y wet, and so forth<, was thoroughly traditional and #ommon'la#e. -s he wrote in Briefe Discourse : HKiseases are #ured )y their #ontraries . . . and the more e/a#t the #ontrarietie isJ the more 'ro'er + $$> + is the remedy: as when they are e4uall in degree or in 'ower.H1%?2 =o esta)lish his #ase for uterine de)ility as the maIor #ause of hysteria, he drew hea"ily u'on an#ient authority, es'e#ially the Hi''o#rati# and Galeni# ideas with whi#h he was familiar. Eorden did not su)s#ri)e to the notion, mentioned a)o"e as held )y Plato and 'erha's 'o'ular in an#ient fol )elief, of the wom) as an Hanimal within the animal,H1%;2 'erha's the somati# 'rototy'e of ,reud8s free0floating un#ons#ious, the Hmind within the mind.H 3nstead he aired the idea, found in Hi''o#rates and dis#ussed )y Plato, of the %andering wom)Athe e/traordinary )elief that the uterus, when de'ri"ed of the health0gi"ing moisture deri"ed from se/ual inter#ourse, would rise u' into the hy'o#hondrium 9lo#ated )etween the stoma#h and the #hest< in a 4uest for nourishment. Su#h 'redi#ta)le wandering, he )elie"ed, 'ro"o ed 'ainful sensations of o''ression, #onstri#tion, and #ho ing, sometimes leading to "omiting, for#ed )reathing, and s'asms.1%:2 3t was a fan#iful geogra'hy of hysteria, )ased only in 'art on Hi''o#rati# tradition, medi#al reading, and a #ertain amount of erudition in the later #lassi#s, )ut there was more su''osition than o)ser"ation in its #onstru#tion, e"en in those 'remi#ros#o'i# days when anatomy was not what it would )e after the se"enteenth0#entury mi#ros#o'ists and nineteenth0#entury #ell theorists 'erformed their e/'eriments. -lthough Eorden did not intend it, his hy'othesis of the wandering wom) further fueled the fi#tion of female inade4ua#y, in whi#h women were sal"aged and restored )y male #om'lementarityAfurther )e#ause it had )een #ir#ulated sin#e an#ient times and was now rein"igorated )y Eorden. Dowhere is his fa)le more trans'arent than in the 'ositi"e "alue 'la#ed on the healthful "aginal moisture that allegedly se#ured the wom) and held it in 'la#e. But this fluid was 'ro"ided only )y the 'resen#e of the male seedAotherwise the #a"ity remained hollow and dry.1%C2 =he anatomy of this dry and unsafe #ondition had, as we ha"e seen, )een dis#ussed throughout the Biddle -ges. Conse4uently, all uterine mania and 'athology deri"ed from this unhinging and su)se4uent HwanderingH of the wom). -s long as it remained se#ure, so Eorden8s theory went, the female retained her healthful )alan#e: no amount of 'ersonal anguish or grief 9Eorden8s Haffe#tions of the mindH< #ould dislodge her e4uili)rium, for hysteria was entirely a matter of the derangement of her "aginal #a"ity, and for 're#isely this reason Eorden and his #ontem'oraries )elie"ed hysteria #ould ne"er )e a male disease. -lthough meat and drin , the humoralist Eorden )elie"ed, were Hthe Bother of most diseases, whatsoe"er the ,ather )ee, for the #onstitution of the humours of our )odies is a##ording to that whi#h feedes us,H1%>2 + $$% +

the #ause of this illness was a life0threatening dryness in the "aginal #a"ity. =he health of the female, therefore, de'ended 'rimarily on retaining a )alan#ed "aginal moisture, )est 'ro"ided )y male seed through se/ual inter#ourse. 3t was an e/traordinary theory laden with mythi# 4ualities, not least the notions of solitary wanderings and life0threatening 'eregrinations. Lhat )etter way to 'ortray female frailty than )y using the organs of re'rodu#tion themsel"esAa notion the 'oets and 'laywrights of the time will re'eat, meta'hori6e, and mythologi6e. Eorden8s language, es'e#ially his "i"id and dramati# images of solitary female Iourneys and his #onstant analogies of the role of gender in these dramati# wanderings 9as in the mother and father of disease<, #onfirms the degree to whi#h his fi#tion of the Hsuffo#ation of the BotherH is gender0)ased.1%%2 Constru#ted on the ro# of female anatomi# inade4ua#y 9i.e., #om'ared to the male<, it suggests the idea that nature and 'erha's e"en the deity had intended from the )eginning to 'rogram, as it were, the female s'e#ies for hysteria. =hroughout the early modern 'eriod, Lestern medi#ine, es'e#ially medi#al theory rather than its a''lied thera'ies, was )ased on hy'otheses generated in a dense Iungle of "er)iage, in#luding a)undant neologisms, whi#h later 'ro"ed to )e more 'ro/imate to the fi#tions of the 'oets than to those of radi#al em'iri#ists. Eorden8s theory of the 'athologi#al HmotherH was itself a metonymy loaded with #ultural signifi#an#e at the turn of the se"enteenth #entury. 1$**2 ,urthermore, Eorden #laimed that all uterine irregularitiesAmenstrual )lo# age, amenorrhea, the retention of 'utres#ent Hseed,H and assorted other Ho)stru#tionsHAgenerated H"a'oursH that wafted through the )ody, indu#ing 'hysi#al disorders in the e/tremities, the a)domen, and e"en the )rain.1$*$2 ,or this there was no em'iri#al e"iden#eJ e"en the alleged H"a'oursH would later 'ro"e to )e imaginary. =he "a'ors were said to wrea )odily ha"o# and indu#e 'athologi#al states that were fa#ilitated )y the sym)ioti# intera#ti"ity of the entire organi# system. - 'ower of Hsym'athy,H Eorden reasoned, lin ed the wom) to the rest of the )ody: to the head 9then thought to )e the seat not of the )rainAthat #ame later in the se"enteenth #enturyA)ut of the imagination<J1$*52 to the senses 9whi#h determined feelings<J and finally to the Hanimal soulH that go"erned motion, there)y 'rodu#ing twit#hes, 'aro/ysms, 'alsies, #on"ulsi"e dan#ing, stret#hing, yawning, and other terrifying )eha"iors. Bany a##idents #ould trigger the #ondition, Eorden admitted, sin#e Hthe 'ertur)ations of the minde are oftentimes to )lame for this and many other diseases.H1$*&2 7eith, noting Eorden8s in#lusion of su#h H'ertur)ations of the mindeH + $5* + and his ad"o#a#y of thera'euti# #omfort, #ounsel, and su''ort, e/tols the Eli6a)ethan do#tor for anti#i'ating the #on#e'tion of hysteria as a 'sy#hologi#al malady.1$*?2 She #ommends him as well for He/traordinary 'er#e'ti"enessH in re#ommending 'harma#ologi#al 'res#ri'tions for hysteria, while #laiming at the same time, and seemingly #ontradi#torily, that Hhe was the first to ad"ise anything resem)ling 'sy#hothera'y for hysteria.H Some of Eorden8s 'res#ri'tions were traditional her)s and natural medi#ines that seem ina''ro'riate today )ut were #ommon at the time. =he originality of Eorden8s analysis of hysteria lay in his gras' of the 'ower of the mind o"er the )ody. ,or that reason he urged the 'hysi#ian to #onfirm the 'atient8s fantasies, e"en when the do#tor nows )etter. ,or e/am'le, Eorden re#ounted the su##essful treatment of the Countess of Bantua, who )elie"ed her a#ute lingering melan#holy and hysteria resulted from her ha"ing )een )etwit#hed. Her 'hysi#ians 'la#ed nails, needles, and feathers Hinto her #lose stoole when she too e 'hysi# e, ma ing her )elie"e they #ame out of her )odie.H1$*;2 Eorden also demonstrates his familiarity with Galen8s remar s on hysteria. Re#ounting the #ase history of a male 'atient who )elie"ed he was im'otent, Eorden re'orts that his 'hysi#ian 'res#ri)ed Ha foolish medi#ine out of &leopatra , made with a #rowes gall and oyle . . .

whereu'on he re#o"ered his strength.H1$*:2 Eorden lists many su'erstitious remedies that he )elie"ed #ould )e effe#ti"e )e#ause of the great 'ower of the mind o"er the )ody to #ure hysteria. Eorden e'itomi6ed it this way: H-##ording to the saying of $vicen , that the #onfiden#e of the 'atient in the meanes used is oftentimes more a"aila)le to #ure diseases than all other remedies whatsoe"er.H1$*C2 =he #onfiden#e 'atients 'la#ed in these and other remediesA'rayers, offerings, e/oti# ritualsAna)led Eorden to feel #onfident in his own 'res#ri'tions. Eorden8s modernity was in#ontro"erti)le when #om'ared to his #ontem'oraries. De"ertheless, his remedies did not entail an essentially 'sy#hologi#al a''roa#h. =he main thing in his treatment was to Hlet the )odies )ee e't u'right, straight la#ed, and the )elly U throat held downe with ones hand . . . a''ly e"il smells to their nostrils, and sweet smells )eneath . . . tie their legs hard with a garter for re"ulsion sa e.H1$*>2 3n an anti#i'ation of 'sy#hothera'y, he ad"ised a''easing inflamed 'assions )y Hgood #ounsell and 'erswasions: hatred and mali#e )y religious instru#tions, feare )y in#ouragements, lo"e )y indu#ing hatred, or )y 'ermitting them to enIoy their desires.H1$*%2 -lthough 7eith would li e to esta)lish Eorden8s thera'ies as 're#ursors to the modern treatments of hysteria, her inter'retation is misleading and, what is more, o"erloo s its rather 'edestrian medi#al traditionalism. Eorden8s re#ognition of the role 'layed )y #ons#iousness in the genesis of disease was neither new + $5$ + nor 'ro'erly 'sy#hogeni#, as 7eith #laims. =he Briefe Discourse was #on"entionally #ou#hed within the framewor of the then #urrent humoral medi#ine in its 'er#e'tion that all manners of disorders arose from a #on#urren#e of #ertain 'hysi#al #om'laints with the 'assions and senses. 3n this #a'a#ity there is nothing H'sy#hogeni#H a)out the theory of the Hwandering wom)H or the Hsuffo#ation of the Bother.H Boreo"er, it is ana#hronisti# to #laim, as 7eith does, that a staun#h Galeni# humoralist su#h as Eorden #ould ha"e wished to ad"an#e either an e/#lusi"ely somatic , or an essentially psychological , a##ount of the HBotherH: his #on#ern was rather to esta)lish a natural theory, )ased u'on the integrated o'erations of the entire organism, so that Hthe unlearned and rash #on#eits of di"ers 1'ersons who 'ro'ortion2 the )ounds of nature unto their own #a'a#ities . . . might )e there)y )rought to )etter understanding and moderation.H Dot that he would, of #ourse, 're#lude su'ernatural agen#y in 'rin#i'le:1$$*2 3 doe not deny )ut that God doth in these days wor e e/traordinarily, for the deli"eran#e of his #hildren, and for other endes )est nowne unto himselfJ and that among other, there may )e )oth 'ossessions )y the Ke"il, and o)sessions and wit#h#raft, U#. and dis'ossession also through the Prayers and su''li#ations of his ser"ants, whi#h is the onlely meanes left unto us for our reliefe in that #ase. But su#h e/am'les )eing "erie rare now adayes, 3 would in the feare of God ad"ise men to )e "ery #ir#ums'e#t in 'ronoun#ing of a 'ossession: )oth )e#ause the im'ostures )e many, and the effe#ts of naturall diseases )e strange to su#h as ha"e not loo ed thoroughly into them. -iming to 'ro"e to the "ulgar, Hwho are a't to ma e e"ery thing a su'ernaturall wor whi#h they do not understand,H that Bary Glo"er8s H'assio hysteri#aH was a mundane disorder, Eorden e/'lained that ea#h of the tell0tale sym'toms of wit#h#raft #ould easily )e 'ro"en )y the e/'ert 'hysi#ian to )e naturally #aused. =his 'osition differs from the one Sha es'eare was to ta e in 5ing 4ear 9see se#tion 733<. Sha es'eare is less monolithi#ally #onsistent than Eorden a)out fraud and natural genesis. HConsider a little,H Eorden in"ited readers, Hthe signes whi#h some doe shew of a su'ernaturall 'ower in these e/am'lesH: @ne of their signes is insensi)ilitie, when they doe not feele, )eing 'ri# ed with a 'in, or

)urnt with fire, U#. 3s this so strange a s'e#ta#le, when in the Palsie, the falling si# nesse, -'o'le/is, and di"erse other diseases, it is dayly o)ser"edN -nd in these fits of the Bother it is so ordinarie as 3 ne"er read any -uthor writing of this disease who doth not ma e mention thereof.1$$$2 + $55 + Lhat Eorden 'ro"ed in relation to anesthesias was a''lied to other sym'toms, in addition to 'ointing out the #onne#tion )etween mind and )ody in hysteria: =here also you shall find #on"ulsions, #ontra#tions, distortions, and su#h li e to )e ordinarie Sym'toms in this disease. -nother signe of a su'ernaturall 'ower they ma e to )e the due U orderly returning of the fits, when they ee'e their Iust day and houre, whi#h we #all 'eriods or #ir#uits. =his a##ident as it is #ommon to di"erse other #hroni#all diseases, as heada#hes, gowtes, E'ile'sies, =ertians, Suartans U#. so it is often o)ser"ed in this disease of the mother as is suffi#iently 'ro"ed in the 5nd Cha'ter. -nother argument of theirs is the offen#e in eating, or drin ing, as if the Ki"ell ment to #hoa e them therewith. But this Sym'tom is also ordinarie in uterin affe#ts, as 3 shew in the si/t Cha'ter: and 3 ha"e at this time a 'atient trou)led in li e manner. -nother reason of theirs is, the #oming of the fits u'on the 'resen#e of some #ertaine 'erson. =he li e 3 doe shew in the same Cha'ter, and the reasons of it, from the stirring of the affe#tions of the mind.1$$52 =he 'assage #ontinues to em'hasi6e that mind and )ody, wor ing together, 'lay a maIor role in hysteria. Li e other 'assages, this one offers an a)undan#e of signs, es'e#ially in the referen#e to the Haffe#tions of the mind,H that Eorden 'rimarily aimed to translate the Hdia)oli#alH into the natural, wor ing within a familiar e/'lanatory s#heme that saw no reason to 'olari6e or sele#t )etween the organi# and the mental. 3n this 'ro#ess he was sim'ly an edu#ated man of his times. Lhen e"aluating Eorden and Leyer, we #an say that )oth 'hysi#ians Hmedi#ali6edH hysteria )ut, from our 'ers'e#ti"e, neither re#ogni6ed the role 'layed )y the 'atient8s #ultural en"ironment, es'e#ially as related to the lot of women. Both do#tors were 'ersuaded that hysteria arose from )odily ailments and somati#ally grounded emotional distressesJ women were anatomi#ally more 'liant and imaginati"e than men and thus more sus'e#ti)le to the #ondition, a disease of the re'rodu#ti"e organs. .et neither #onsidered the domesti# and so#ial stresses with whi#h these female 'atients were una)le to #o'e. Deither #onsidered the inshi' )etween the hysteri#8s Haffe#tions of the mindH and her emotions stirred in relation to the so#ioe#onomi# fa#tors in"ol"ed: a women8s domesti# situation, se/ual status 9and the dou)le standard "is0V0"is that se/uality<, her legal and e#onomi# misery, her 'ersistent disa''ointments, the la# of ho'e in a hard life rarely a)ated )y anything e/#e't death. 3t may )e e/'e#ting too mu#h for do#tors of the si/teenth #entury to )e so#ial s#ientists, )ut it #an also )e said, on )alan#e, that neither do#tor seems to ha"e had a glimmer of insight into hysteria in relation to #lass stru#ture and so#ial + $5& + stratifi#ation, of whi#h there was then an a)undan#e, e"en in their agrarrian Euro'ean and English #i"ili6ation. -##ording to the "iews of Leyer and Eorden and the many other Renaissan#e 'hysi#ians who wrote a)out hysteria 9i.e., the Swiss -ureolus Para#elsus, the ,ren#h ParF, and Laurent Eou)ert, the #han#ellor of the !ni"ersity of Bont'ellier, among do6ens of names now forgotten or unmentioned here<,1$$&2 the female 'atient 9to the degree that she was medi#ali6ed and remo"ed from her mythi# and dia)oli#

status< was an integrated, organi# hierar#hy: a sym)iosis of soma and 'sy#he to )e "iewed a'art from the so#ial and e#onomi# reality in whi#h she fun#tioned. =he Renaissan#e humanists had "iewed her more totally: as a #reature with a 'ast and 'resent history, with a future determined as mu#h )y #ultural as )iologi#al for#es. =he great humanistsAthe Petrar#hs, Erasmuses, and BoresAli"ed )efore Eorden, and those to whom Leyer8s theories were a"aila)le seem not to ha"e in#or'orated the medi#ali6ation of hysteria into their system of thought. ,or the Renaissan#e humanists, the #ondition of hysteria still lingered in the twilight of a su'ernatural and dia)oli# world: a 6one all the more 'er'le/ing to them inasmu#h as medi#ine, as the Ra)elais s#holar Georges Lote has noted, was Hthe s#ien#e of the si/teenth #entury, e/er#ising great influen#e and ins'iring #onfiden#e.H1$$?2 3n addition, ideas a)out hysteria were then fermenting in a religious and intelle#tual milieu in whi#h medi#ine was ra'idly )eing re"olutioni6ed anyway. Learned and imaginati"e thin ers su#h as Ra)elais, who had also )een medi#ally trained at Bont'ellier, 'ro)a)ly a)sor)ed more than we thin a)out this 'ro#ess of medi#ali6ation.1$$;2 Ra)elais himself #omments ironi#ally in Gargantua and antagruel 9through the mouth'ie#e of the witty Kr. Rondi)ilis< on the wom) as an Hanimal,H 'arodying the Platoni# tradition dis#ussed a)o"e.1$$:2 But not e"en Ra)elais, Bi hail Ba htin has suggested in -abelais and His )orld , with all his 9Ra)elais8s< so'histi#ated medi#o0anatomi#al training, lin ed hysteria to the so#io#ultural 'osition of women. =he Kr. Rondi)ilis who wants to 'ur"ey his 'oint a)out only women ha"ing a wom), and a wom) that it is moreo"er Iust Han animal,H is far more #on#erned with the gulf that lies )etween realism and literary re'resentation than with any so#ioe#onomi# )ases of female hysteria. 9Ra)elais and Sha es'eare later #lassified women a##ording to their "irtue and modesty, their #ourage and )eauty, )ut neither saw the #orrelation )etween health and wealth.< Ri#h women, whether "irgins or widows, were gi"en no dis'ensation when sun in the de'ths of hysteria8s a)yss. =here is no sense anywhere in Leyer and Eorden, for e/am'le, that the melan#holy of the affluent differs from that + $5? + of other grou's. Class0)ased hysteria enters the dis#ussion later, at the end of the eighteenth #entury, as the sym'toms of the affluent are said )y do#tors su#h as the S#ottish Cheyne and Eames B. -dair and the ,ren#h Eose'h Lieutaud, to arise from different #auses.1$$C2 3n the 'eriod from a''ro/imately $?;* to $C**, the only distin#tion is )odily signJ as long as the sign is e"ident, all else 'ro"es irrele"ant: so im)ued with #ertainty is the semiology of the hysteri#. By $:** or $:;* medi#ali6ation )e#ame widely assimilated, as e"iden#ed in the thought of a 'hysi#ian su#h as =homas ,ienus, es'e#ially the notion that hysteri#s are no longer wit#hes to )e dete#ted, tried, and )urned at the sta e.1$$>2 3n our twentieth0 #entury, 'ost0,reudian sense of female num)ness "iewed through the dis#ourses of hysteria #om'osed )y Kriste"a and Kuras, this medi#ali6ation of hysteria #aused a regression in woman8s lot rather than ad"an#ement and )rought little understanding of the 'light of women that had lain at the heart of the #ondition in the first 'la#e. @n#e medi#ali6ed, hysteria )e#ame the de"iant s'ort of Renaissan#e and Enlightenment do#tors who Iustified any thera'y in the name of #alming female fits and faints. 7iewed from the 'ers'e#ti"e of muting the more genuine #auses in woman8s lot, it was a short ste' from Kr. Eorden8s thera'ies of foul smells, tight garters, and H#row8s gall and oyleH to the #litoride#tomies and o"arie#tomies of the nineteenth #entury. Lomen would ha"e to wait for male 'hysi#ians to li)erate themAwait e"en after ,reud and his #olleagues arri"ed in 7ienna.

II
=he #onIun#tion of hysteria and modernity thus arises at the moment of its medi#ali6ation at the turn of the se"enteenth #entury. @n#e hysteria )e#ame medi#ali6ed, its theory was not signifi#antly re"ised

e/#e't for the alteration of its somati# lo#ations. Bany de#ades were to 'ass )efore a maIority of do#tors )e#ame 'ersuaded a)out the naturalness 9as distin#t from the demoni6ation< of the #ondition. Here and there, as we shall see, there were some maIor dis#o"eries of insight, for e/am'le Sydenham8s, )ut the new hy'othesis always leaned u'on, and refle#ted, the 're"ailing medi#al theory of the day, hysteria )eing always a remar a)ly elusi"e disease.1$$%2 =he larger matter a)out hysteria in the se"enteenth #entury essentially entails the re'etition of its medi#al diagnoses. -fter Leyer8s and Eorden8s medi#ali6ation, there was no signifi#ant insight into its nature until the ad"ent of Lillis and Sydenham. Kuring that 'eriod 9#a. $:**0$::*<, the "oi#es of the nonmedi#ally trained 'ro"e to offer as mu#h insight as those of 'hysi#ians and other #areta 0 + $5; + ers. 3f we want to understand se"enteenth0#entury hysteria, we do well to #onsult the so#ial history of women of all #lasses: a re#ord re"ealing as mu#h as the medi#al treatises that #ommonly #ri) from one another without ha"ing engaged in em'iri#al resear#h or )rought forth anything new to the main argument.1$5*2 =he 'ersonal re#ords of hysteri# 'atients in that 'eriodAthe non0medi#al "oi#es we want to hearAare "irtually none/istent.1$5$2 3t is not that the historian0ar#haeologist of hysteria has forgotten to listen to them )ut rather that the do#tors in the se"enteenth #entury did not re#ord what their female 'atients said or did in any detail. ,or e/am'le, Ri#hard Da'ier, an early Stuart 'arson0'hysi#ian, #om'iled in a #areer s'anning many de#ades #ase)oo s of hysteri#al 'atients, )ut e"en here his "oi#e s'ea s more for#efully than the 'atient8s.1$552 Da'ier, as Bi#hael Ba#Konald has demonstrated, ha)itually e/'lained hysteria and all manner of melan#holy states as 'ro#eeding from 'arti#ular #on#atenations of )odily ailments and emotional distresses. Dor had Da'ier )ro en entirely free of the old su'ernaturalism or magi#, o##asionally lin ing hysteria to 'ossession des'ite his #lear awareness of its medi#ali6ation. By way of remedy, he 'res#ri)ed H'hysi# HAusually her)al 'urgati"es, together with su''orti"e ad"i#e and 'rayers. Bissing from his #om'ilations are #om'rehension of, or #om'assion for, the domesti# tra"ails of his female 'atientsAthe so#ial #onditions alluded to a)o"e. Class and ran figure nowhere. He dis#o"ered hysteria e"erywhere in the female world: all diagnosis and thera'y originate, he )elie"ed, in the 'athologi#al )ody 9the wandering wom)< and in emotional grief 9usually loss and de'ression<J ne"er was the distress seen as so#ially or e#onomi#ally determined. Da'ier found no e/am'les of hysteria among malingerers. 3ndeed, those 'retending to )e ill, to )e hysteri#al, to es#a'e 'o"erty and duty )y fa ing fits and starts are remar a)ly a)sent from the early se"enteenth0#entury world: its medi#ine as well as its imaginati"e literature and art.1$5&2 =he degree to whi#h Da'ier anti#i'ated the modern "iew is e/traordinary. Com'are Da'ier on malingerers to Kr. -lan Krohn, for e/am'le: 3t should )e stressed that hysteri#s are not fa ing, 'laying games, or sim'ly see ing attention. . . . =he hysteri# is neither a malingerer nor a 'sy#ho'ath in that the sorts of 'arts he 'lays, feelings he e/'erien#es, and a#tions he underta es ha"e 'redominantly un#ons#ious rootsAhe is usually not aware of trying to fool or de#ei"e. Lhen the hysteri# uses #ultural myths or li"es out a #ultural stereoty'e, he is usually not ma ing a #ons#ious #hoi#e of identity. + $5: + Boreo"er, in Da'ier8s world there were two almost #onfli#ting intelle#tual tenden#ies destined to ee'

women in )iologi#al #hains: on the one hand, a 'ersistent demoni6ation of her as 'art wit#h, 'art animal, with a Hwi# ed wom)H 9not so different from the one flaunted in Germaine Greer8s The Female 1unuch1$5?2 <J on the other, a more humane "iew deri"ed from the re#ent medi#ali6ation of her most em)lemati# disease 9i.e., hysteria<, whi#h ser"ed to demystify her gender status. =he theologi#al and religious #onse4uen#es of these "iews were signifi#ant: e"en there, medi#ali6ation 'layed a signifi#ant although #learly more osmoti# role.1$5;2 De"ertheless, throughout the se"enteenth #entury, women remained sla"es, so to s'ea , of their )iology, a fate similar to that whi#h they e/'erien#ed in anti4uityJ more time was needed to erase their image as "ora#ious wom)s 'arado/i#ally em)odied in de#re'it wit#hes or insatia)le 'leasure0gi"ers.1$5:2 ,urthermore, the se"enteenth0#entury #on#e'tion #onne#ted the Hs'ellH #reated )y the older demoni# fren6y to the Hs'ellH of the menses, or menarche , ram'aging furiously through the female )ody, #ausing "iolent 'aro/ysm and anatomi# u'hea"al. So long as woman was )iologi#ally mythologi6ed, there was no ho'e of grounding her hysteriaAher an/iety and 'ani#, her twit#hes and e'ile'ti# #on"ulsionsAin a social fa)ri# where she #ould )e "iewed as a rational )eing. =he radi#al medi#ali6ation of hysteria, #ulminating in the eighteenth #entury, was well on its way )y the time Eorden and his medi#al #olleagues had died. By then, the re'resentations of the female )ody had, as it were, )een turned inside outJ #harted as ugly in anatomi#al drawings as well as ideali6ed as )eautiful on #an"ases and in literary te/ts, and within this 'arado/i#al relationshi' #o"ertly 'la#ed within the Hugly0)eautifulH tradition in whi#h the late Renaissan#e )as ed. But male fear of demoni# female se/uality would not )e 4uelled so 4ui# ly. Perha's a word su#h as hystero*phobia should )e #oined to des#ri)e the male res'onse to female se/uality in the 'eriod )etween the world of Har"ey the anatomist and that of the radi#al Enlightenment 'hysiologists, )etween the $:5*s and the $:%*s.1$5C2 3n any #ase we will see that this male fear was no irrele"ant o)sta#le on the road to the radi#al medi#ali6ation of hysteria. =hese de"elo'ments are #learly mirrored in thin ers as di"erse as Sha es'eare and Ro)ert Burton, the s#holar0author of the $:5$ $natomy of !elancholy . Burton, who had read Leyer, Eorden, and many other sour#es on hysteria, )elie"ed that fits of the HBotherH #ould )e o##asioned e4ually )y )ody disease and )y inordinate 'assions, a''etites, and fan#y, and similarly ad"ised a dual 'a# age of 'ills and 're#e'ts. Burton ga6ed dee'ly into the #lass filiations of )oth melan#holy and hysteria, )elie"ing that Hhired ser"antsH and HhandmaidensHAno matter + $5C + what their ageAwere rarely affli#ted. =he H#oarserH the woman, the less li elihood of her 'resenting with hysteria. Sha es'eare, who may not ha"e heard of either Leyer or Eorden, ne"ertheless res'onded a#utely to Hthe BotherH as one of the im'ortant ideas of his time, meta'hori6ing it and e"en )uilding it into the fa)ri# of se"eral of his 'lays. His sour#es are #om'le/ and dee'ly interfuse with the ideologi#al dimensions of hysteria in the late si/teenth #entury and its trou)led relation to magi# and wit#h#raft. ,or e/am'le, there is no dou)t that Sha es'eare was familiar with Samuel Harsnett8s anti'a'ist 'am'hlet $ Declaration of 1gregious opishe >sic? 'mpostures . . . Under the retence of &asting /ut Devils 9$:*&<. Harsnett, a #hur#hman with a #he# ered 'ast )y the time he wrote the Declaration early in life, had ser"ed on "arious #ommissions to ins'e#t those who #laimed to e/or#ise de"ils. He had heard "i"id a##ounts of 'ossessed women. ,rom the time he was a student at Cam)ridge, he 'ondered the )oundaries )etween fraudulent wit#h#raft and natural 'ossession, es'e#ially in #ases in whi#h female hysteria was #laimed to ha"e manifested itself as a natural disease. His Declaration s'o e loudly to his generation, es'e#ially to Sha es'eare, who too the names of the s'irits mentioned )y Edgar in 5ing 4ear from it. Harsnett also re#ounts in the Declaration the #ase of a man affli#ted with hysterica passio , a term he uses inter#hangea)ly with Hthe Bother,H and he writes as if the #ase were

an anomaly. But other Eli6a)ethans had also #ommented on Hthe Bother,H under different #ir#umstan#es and in #onte/ts other than 'oliti#al or medi#al ones, and had written a)out it )oth as natural illness and natural meta'hor for female se/uality. - de#ade or so later the 'oet Krayton in"o ed Hthe BotherH as a simile for Ha raging ri"erH in his well0 nown oly*/lbion 9$:$50$:55<Ano dou)t a 'oeti# tro'e for un)ridled female se/ualityAas well as #onsidered it a genuine female malady: -s when we ha'lie see a si# lie woman fall 3nto a fit of that whi#h wee the Bother #all, Lhen from the grie"ed wom)e shee feeles the 'aine arise, Brea es into grie"ous sighes, with intermi/ed #ries, Berea"ed of her senseJ and strugling still with those =hat gainst her rising 'aine their utmost strength o''ose, Starts, tosses, tum)les, stri es, turnes, touses, s'urnes and s'raules, Casting with furious lims her holders to the wallesJ But that the horrid 'angs torments the grie"ed so, @ne well might muse from when#e this suddaine strength should grow.1$5>2 =hus )y the turn of the se"enteenth #entury the #onfluen#e of se"eral streams of thought "is0M0"is hysteria had, so to s'ea , #oagulated. B. E. -ddyman #onsiders Sha es'eare8s assimilation of the do#trine of hys0 + $5> + teria to )e suffi#iently im'ortant to ha"e warranted a )oo 0length study.1$5%2 H3t seemed to me,H she #laims, Hthat, while hysterica passio formed a 'otent sym)ol in 4ear and offered a detailed "o#a)ulary for #ertain effe#ts, its role was limitedJ )ut of Leontes 1in The )inter's Tale 2 one #ould say that he was a hysteri#, and the elu#idating of that #omment would re"eal mu#h of interest a)out the nature of the 'lay.H1$&*2 ,or -ddyman, hysteria and its natural 'rogression to insanity #onstitute the essen#e of Lear8s disintegration. -fter Lear8s mode of )eing and )asis for authority ha"e )een irre"o#a)ly sha en, he in4uires: HLho is it that #an tell me who 3 amNH 93. i". 5;*<. Lhen he no longer nows himself, he e/#laims to the fool, H@ fool, 3 shall go madQH 933. i". 5>%<. -fter e/'ressing his anguish o"er his reIe#tion )y his daughters and the sight of his ser"ant in Regan8s sto# s, Lear #ries out: @, how this mother swells u' toward my heartQ Hysteri#a 'assio, down, thou #lim)ing sorrow, =hy element8s )elowQ 933. i". ;;0;C< -ddyman8s o)ser"ation, whi#h has eluded many Sha es'eareans, is that Lear #on#e'tuali6es the horror of the disenfran#hisement he is soon to e/'erien#e in the "ery terms ofAindeed in the "ery language of the newly medi#ali6ed #ondition. HSome new world,H she writes, Hsome terri)le nowledge whi#h will not a##ommodate e/isting 'atterns of s'ee#h and ha)it, is a)out to )e )rought into )eing, and it is e/'erien#ed in its first inner stirrings as 8this mother,8 as 8hysterica passio .8H1$&$2 Lhy, we wonder, was hysteria, among all the "arious medi#al #onditions then, 'er#ei"ed as #a'a)le of su#h drasti# transformations, es'e#ially if figures as di"erse as Sha es'eare and Burton res'onded so for#efully to itN =he different uses of hysteria made )y Sha es'eare in 4ear and The )inter's Tale do not diminish his #reati"e res'onseAon the #ontrary, they heighten it. - form of nowledge for the great tragi# 'rotagonist 9Lear< )e#omes the )asis for #hara#ter and destiny in the later romanti# one 9Leontes<. Hysteria signified to Sha es'eare not sim'ly a medi#al maladyAfor him it )e#ame more than a newly

dis#o"ered disease re#ently eman#i'ated from its demoni# )ondage. =he transition from demoni# 'rofile to medi#al malady was indeed in the thi# 'ro#ess of transition during the Eli6a)ethan 'eriod. -s -ddyman o)ser"es, HLear8s hysterica passio is a form of nowledge: it is the mode and limitation of his awa ening to the world whi#h e/ists )eyond his willHJ for Leontes it re'resents more than anything Hhis maladIustmentH itself, the essen#e of his dis0ease.1$&52 3t would )e literal0minded, 'erha's e"en o)tuse, to in0 + $5% + 4uire how Sha es'eare #on#ei"ed of a male hysteri# in an era when the do#tors had o)ser"ed few.1$&&2 Darrati"e, es'e#ially great imaginati"e literature su#h as Sha es'eare8s 'lays, or 9#on"ersely< 'o'ular narrati"e, su#h as 'am'hlets and tra#ts, has always 'ro"ided s#ien#e and medi#ine with some of its )est ideasJ narrati"e )rilliantly lea's to hy'otheses do#tors would not, 'erha's #ould not, intelle#tually and imaginati"ely dare to ma e.1$&?2 =he do#tors saw the HmotherH as feminine, )ut in the 'o'ular imagination it was something 9howe"er mysteriously< that #ould affli#t men. 3t is un nown how Eli6a)ethan medi#al authorities res'onded to Sha es'eare8s use of the term hysterica passio , and it may )e that his usage in the 'lays was ignored. Still, the 4uestion a)out male hysteria in the Renaissan#e must )e 'ut in a medi#al #onte/t )efore it ta es on signifi#ant meaning, and e"en more s'e#ifi#ally must )e addressed in relation to the #ategory of hysteria raised at the )eginning of this #ha'ter. Perha's the 'oint a)out Leontes, and 'resuma)ly the larger 'oint a)out hysteria in the Renaissan#e that -ddyman wishes to ma e, is that Leontes8s hysteria signifies the amalgam of disease and #onfusionA indeed, a diseased #onfusionAin whi#h his #hild, adult, and se/ual self #oe/istJ it is not a narrowly #on#ei"ed and almost #lini#al hysteria that Sha es'eare em)odies through the figure of Leontes 9as it might ha"e )een in Eorden8s treatment<, )ut a meta'hori# and sym)oli# hysteria. Similarly Ro)ert Burton enlarged the domain of melan#holy and )rought it to the "ery foreground of his agenda, ma ing it, as Ke"on Hodges has suggested, the )asis for an anatomy and ontology of the #osmos.1$&;2 But if Burton8s $natomy of !elancholy demonstrates an almost un#ontrolla)le im'ulse to disse#t e"ery form of nowledge as a sym'tom of the #ultural transformation of his time, his larger signifierAmelan#holy Ais hewn out of the stone of an e"en larger transformer: this #ategoryAmelan#holia and hysteriaA refle#ting the #ultural shifts that to Burton "irtually defy e/'lanation. -s in the 'lays, where hysteriaA the hysterica passio Are'resents )oth the states of nowledge themsel"es and the 'sy#hologi#al frames of mind of two of Sha es'eare8s most interesting figures, Burton uses the #ategory hysteria to #onne#t forms of nowledge that ha"e )een undergoing monumental #on#e'tual shifts in his lifetime. Both res'onses, Burtonian and Sha es'earean, demonstrate the magisterial signifi#an#e of hysteria for the late Renaissan#e world: a meaning it #ould ne"er ha"e a#4uired had it not )een for the medi#ali6ation of the one malady with se#ular and #ultural o"ertones.1$&:2 =he 4uestion to )e 'ondered then is %hy medicali.ation too( the radical turn it did %hen it did , and throughout this #ha'ter 3 ha"e )een suggesting that among the reasons 9it was not the only reason< was the altering + $&* + status of women in the 'eriod from roughly $:** to $C** as so#ial, e#onomi#, 'oliti#al, and e"en )iologi#al #reatures. 3n )rief, 3 am suggesting that do#tors radi#ally medi#ali6e disease and )e#ome more 'ositi"isti# in their a''roa#h to illness in times of unusual stress 'la#ed on one or )oth of the se/es.1$&C2 =his 'rin#i'le may seem an ar)itrary #orrelation )etween disease and gender. E"entually

histori#al so#iologists will )ear it out, and a great deal of resear#h into the history of the )ody, the so#iology of medi#ine, and the history of gender will )e re4uired )efore we #an understand how the 'rin#i'le de"elo'ed in its #ru#ial 'eriod in early modern Euro'e.1$&>2 3n the dis#i'line of anatomy, then a ra'idly #hanging )ody of nowledge, as well as in medi#al resear#h and em'iri#al s'e#ulation more generally, the "iew of women was )eing re"ised. =hroughout mu#h of the se"enteenth #entury, medi#al resear#h 'romulgated the traditional "iew of the female re'rodu#ti"e a''aratus as an inferior, im'erfe#t, almost in"erted e4ui"alent of the male.1$&%2 =he notion that women were essentially and fundamentally different Aradi#ally other and strangeAhad not yet ta en holdJ they #ontinued to )e "iewed as males man4uF. 3t had long )een nown that female orgasm was unne#essary for #on#e'tion and that menstruation o##urred inde'endent of eroti# e/#itation, )ut these relationshi's had not yet )een 'ut into #onte/ts that #ould #hange the old 'atriar#hal "iews and #reate an inde'endent )iologi#al ni#he for women. -s =homas La4ueur has em'hasi6ed, se"enteenth0#entury medi#al theory #ommonly endorsed the #lassi#al "iew of the female re'rodu#ti"e system as inherently defi#ient, e"en deformed, a 'athologi#al in"ersion of the normati"e male.1$?*2 Benar#he and 'u)erty were #osmi#ally ordained to u'set )ody fun#tioning, 'rodu#ing 'hysi#al irregularities and 'ain that s'awned further )eha"ioral disru'tions. Pregnan#y and #hild)irth entailed seasons of si# ness, sometimes leading to 'ost'artum insanity. Beno'ausal women )e#ame moody and 'redatory. -ll su#h distur)an#es were #learly #aused )y a single a)errationA)y the se"enteenth #entury the term %omb was used meta'hori#ally as well as literally. Ben had no su#h ordained anatomy, no su#h 'redi#ta)le "ulnera)ility, no su#h )iologi#al destiny. Gender, howe"er, was not the only fa#tor go"erning the #ategory then o##u'ied )y hysteria. Bost 'hysi#ians #om)ined their learning in anatomy and 'hysiology to religious, astrologi#al, and astronomi#al )eliefs in the diagnosis and treatment of these uterine syndromes. By the $:?*s, a small li)rary of medi#al literature #onIoining these realms, natural and su'ernatural, had de"elo'ed and was regularly 'rodu#ing )oo s #om'osed for an audien#e of do#tors and their 'atients. Eohn Sadler8s The + $&$ + "ic(e )omans rivate 4oo(ing*Glasse3 %herein !ethodically are handled all uterine affects3 or diseases arising from the %ombe< enabling )omen to informe the hysician about the cause of their griefe is a fine s'e#imen of the genre, and also interesting for its meta'hors of hysteria and "ersions of linguisti# re'resentation.1$?$2 Sadler, a li#ensed 'hysi#ian, 'ra#ti#ed humoral medi#ine in Dorwi#h and s'e#iali6ed in female diseases. =he fifteen #ha'ters of his )oo aim to e/'lain how "irtually all female health and re'rodu#tion is go"erned )y the health of the uterus and its motions: the rising, falling, and stasis of the wom) washed into health )y regular dis#harges and fre4uent 'regnan#y. E"en so, Sadler de"otes a whole #ha'ter 9$&< to the 4uestion Hwhether de"ils #an engender Bonsters 1of )irth2,H and des'ite his negati"e #on#lusion the fa#t remains that he was willing to s'end so mu#h time answering it. Sadler nowhere in"o es the word Hhysteria,H )ut his referen#es to the Hwee'ing of the Lom)eH 9#ha'. ?<, the Hsuffo#ation of the motherH 9#ha'. :<, and Hthe hysteri#all 'assionsH 9'. :5< ma e e"ident that hysteria #onstitutes, of #ourse, his true su)Ie#t matter. His a''roa#h, #ommon in the time, is semioti#: he sear#hes for 'ro/imate H#ausesH and HsignsH in an attem't to 'ro"ide H'rognosti# sH and H#ures,H these ne#essary four #om'onents 'ro"iding the 'hysi#ian with nowledge of the real state of the 'atient8s wom). @n#e in 'ossession of this nowledge, he 'res#ri)es from a wide "ariety of her)al remedies #onsidered in #onIun#tion with Hthe 'lanet8s influen#eH on the 'atient, as his astrologi#al e'igra'h attests. His a''roa#h em'hasi6es that hysteri#al diseases arise 'rimarily from the Hsu''ressionH or Ho"erflowingH of the HmensesHAfrom unnatural dis#hargesAand this is why he starts his )oo with a dis#ussion of unhealthy menstrual dis#harges, the single most #ommon #ause of

hysteria. HHow many in#ura)le diseases,H in4uired Lilliam Har"ey, the famous dis#o"erer of the #ir#ulation of the )lood, Hare )rought a)out )y unhealthy menstrual dis#hargesNH1$?52 =he 4uestion was rhetori#al, re'li#ated do6ens of times )y Har"ey8s medi#al )rethren. Li e his 'eers, Har"ey regarded women as sla"es to their )iologyJ the idea had already )een generated in the great literature of the Renaissan#e, es'e#ially )y Sha es'eare and the dramatists. Gross female a''etites, the Hfuror of the uterusH that was )y now )eing #alled furor uterinus )y the do#tors,1$?&2 dro"e the entire se/, go"erning their words and deeds on earth, e"en ne#essitating a #osmi# theology at whose #enter was an Edeni# myth laying all #ul'a)ility on E"e for man ind8s irre"o#a)le sin.1$??2 Do matter what women did with their )iology, in the Christian myth they were destined to sin as a #onse4uen#e of it. 3n matters anatomi# and 'hysiologi#, there wasAso to s'ea Ano free will. =his s'e#ifi# to'i# the late + $&5 + Renaissan#e theologians de)ated almost ad nauseam .1$?;2 =he #hur#h admonished its 'arishioners as well as serious students, as it had )een #autioning for #enturies, against the sins of the wom) in less "i"id anatomies, )ut se#ular o''osition #laimed that the retention of seed was e4ually, if also )iologi#ally, harmful. Eane Shar', a male H4ua# do#torH in England who assumed a female 'seudonym, ad"ised lusty maidens to marry 9and ha"e se/ual inter#ourse< or fa#e the dire #onse4uen#es of hysteria.1$?:2 Har"ey, the anatomist, 'ro"ided the em'iri#al se#ular raison d8Wtre: without gratifi#ation, o"erheated wom)s would s'ar Hmental a)errations, the delirium, the melan#holy, the 'aro/ysms of fren6y, as if the affe#ted 'erson were under the dominion of s'ells,H this final 'hase re"ealing how a semanti# sleight of hand #ould 'er'etuate wit#h#raft insinuations in se#ular #onte/ts. 3n summary, male hegemoni# #ulture was still affirming that women, es'e#ially in their rudimentary )iologi# sense, were not "ery different from men. But they were more mysterious, as the Romanti# 'oets, es'e#ially Lordsworth, would #ontinue to #laim: mysteryAthe mystery of their dreams and desire rather than of their anatomiesAis what distinguished them. Lhether as wit#hes or hysteri#s, whether in their normal state or 'athologi#ally demented as hysteri#s sometimes were, their imaginations were deemed to )e of another order from men8s. .et the "ery notion of Hwomen as mysteriousH was a male #onstru#t. @ddly, it remains a fundamental #on#e't of twentieth0#entury se/ual theory, as when Ea#4ues La#an #ry'ti#ally 'ronoun#es that it #an ha''en that women are too soulful in lo"e, that is to say, that they soul for the soul. Lhat on earth #ould this )e other than the soul for whi#h they soul in their 'artner, who is none the less homo right u' to the hilt, from whi#h they #annot es#a'eN =his #an only )ring them to the ultimate 'oint . . . 9ultimate not used gratuitously here< of hysteria, as it is #alled in Gree , or of a#ting the man, as 3 #all it. Histori#ally s'ea ing, not until the 'ost0Cartesian world of the Enlightenment, and e"en later, did the notion of a resolute female differen#e mandating res'e#t for its inaltera)ility ta e a firm hold. Har"ey, fore"er the -ristotelian 6oologist, e/'li#itly drew the 'arallel )etween )it#hes in heat and hysteri#al women. 3n these 'ronoun#ements 'i#turing the insatia)le, fero#ious, animal0li e wom), he was #loser to Plato and Euri'ides than he reali6ed. - leader among those de#rying the retention of seed, he warned that women who H#ontinue too long unwedded, are sei6ed with serious sym'tomsA hysteri#s, furor uterinus, + $&& +

U#. or fall into a #a#he#ti# state, and distem'eratures of "arious inds.H1$?C2 ,or Hall animals, indeed, grow sa"age when in heat, and unless they are suffered to enIoy one another, )e#ome #hanged in dis'osition.H =hus hysteri#al women direly needed medical attention, for Hto su#h a height does the malady rea#h in some, that they are )elie"ed to )e 'oisoned, or moonstru# , or 'ossessed )y a de"il.H Lhat, then, was to )e doneN Har"ey ad"ised 'ro'hyla#ti# measures, a)o"e all Hthe influen#e of good nurture,H with its 'ower to Htran4uili6e the inordinate 'assions of the mind.H1$?>2 But if this "iew re'resented a #ontinuation and further medi#ali6ation of the effe#ts of Eorden8s H'assions of the mind,H it also em)edded a theory of se/ whose dou)le standard is a''arent from our 'ers'e#ti"e. Har"ey8s ad"ising of 'ro'hyla#ti# re'ression was, of #ourse, restri#ted to women. 3n his own mind there was no #ontradi#tion )e#ause the raging wom)Athe furor uterinus A)y definition refle#ted a female state of affairs. How else #ould it )eN He did not see, nor did his medi#al )rethren sus'e#t, that men, li e Hall animalsH also Hgrow sa"age when in heat.H @r if he did see, men were e/em't from the need for re'ression )y "irtue of a more 'rote#ti"e anatomi# a''aratus that had )een ordained, it seemed, )y Dature. Here then was gender formation at the hands of the s#ientifi# elite of the dayAthe Har"eys and his li eAin ta#it league to in"o e )iology to engra"e the theory.1$?%2 =he se/ual re'ression of males and its deleterious #onse4uen#es would not )e understood until the nineteenth #entury, as we shall see in #ha'ters & and ?, )y Roy Porter and Elaine Showalter. E"entually it )e#ame e"ident, as they demonstrate, that re'ression itself was #ounter'rodu#ti"e, rendering the already hysteri#al only more hysteri#al. De"ertheless, se"enteenth0#entury formulations, )y #onstruing hysteria a##ording to the Gree model as 'rimarily a gyne#ologi#al disorder, a#ti"ated the disease #on#e't em'lotted within a dis#ourse of gender stigmati6ation. =his is why hysteria the #ategory and hysteria the medi#al dis#ourse lie so 'ro/imate to the dis#ourses of gender in this 'eriod of early modern history. Lomen were on trial, and male do#tors sat on the right hand of the already male Iudges. =his might seem a #lear in"itation for the historian of hysteria to #hu# medi#al theory altogether and instead in"o e so#ial history. -fter all, si# ness did not always e/#use the hysteri#al: in Sha es'eare8s and Har"ey8s time, hysteria was sus'e#ted to )e the stigmata of "i#e, the wages of intem'eran#e, e"en though no one 'ut forth a lu#id or 'ersuasi"e theory e/'laining how this #ould )e so. =wo #enturies laterAin the mid0eighteenth and early nineteenth #enturiesAthin ers as di"erse + $&? + as -dam Smith and Samuel Eohnson, Eane -usten and Harriet Bartineau, re'orted that the si# are #ommonly Iudged to )e nar#issisti# egoists, e/tra"agantly demanding of other 'eo'le8s time, 'atien#e, and resour#es.1$;*2 -nd who #an forget the gloomy fate of the self0indulgent Emma Bo"ary, re'aid in )oth life and death for her mortal sinsN How then did hysteri# si# ness )e#ome the Iust reward of a defe#ti"e 'ersonal morality and deformed female se/ual a''aratusN -nd what were the so#ial or #ultural determinants of this other #on"ersion syndromeN -s men were largely e/em't from the anatomi# stigmata, their own morality was not held a##ounta)le. 3f the hysteri#al female )e#ame somati#ally ill through la# of self0#ontrol or 'ersonal dis#i'line, it had to )e e/'lained why #ontrol and dis#i'line were intrinsi#ally different from that e/'e#ted of the male. 3n other words, why was the raging eroti# a''etite of women different from its male #ounter'artN1$;$2 =hese 4uestions were not answered in the se"enteenth #enturyAin many #ases, not e"en raised. ,urthermore, if we set the #hronologi#al dials to a''ro/imately $:** or $:;*, we o)ser"e little, if any, dis#ussion of the so#ial #om'onents. 3f se/ual inter#ourse was the adIudged )est remedy for hysteria, and marriage the guarantor for inter#ourse, is it not signifi#ant that in this 'eriod marriagea)le women greatly outnum)ered eligi)le menN1$;52 3f marriage was #losed to a #ertain segment of the female 'o'ulation, #an it )e that women #on#o#ted hysteri#al sym'toms as an ali)i to enhan#e their 'ros'e#ts

for marriageN =here were, it would seem, few )etter ways to ward off the often fatal Hwom) diseaseH than the a#4uisition of a marriage 'artner. -lso, in that time 9male< 'hysi#ians were in#reasingly 'res#ri)ing inter#ourse through marriage as a 'res#ri'tion to a"oid hysteria.1$;&2 Su#h 'res#ri'tion was no dou)t a)etted )y the "ery slow and in#remental se#ulari6ation of #ountries li e England and other northern Protestant lands 9the se#ulari6ation was slower in the Catholi# #ountries<. ButAwe must as Adid the do#tors 'erha's ha"e another agenda in re#ommending inter#ourse as the )est remedyN -nd #an hysteria ha"e )een a su##essful method for the otherwise eroti#ally lost woman, so to s'ea , to mediate her an/iety and internal guiltN =hese are modern #on#e'ts, to )e sure, )ut not without uni"ersal a''li#ation, e"en in the 'eriod of early modern Euro'e. ,inally, we must e/amine the roles 'layed )y #lass. =hese #annot )e omitted either, for as early as the time of Bo##a##io and Ra)elais leisured ladies are said to )e the most 'rone to eroti# melan#holy and hysteriaJ e"en if there is as yet no theory of #lass in relation to these illnesses, the idle and ri#h, the affluent and )ored, remain the )est #andidates for affli#tion. + $&; +

III
=his gender asymmetry differentiated males entirely. =hey suffered #rises and an/ieties too, as )oth the medi#al and imaginati"e literature 9'lays, 'oetry< of the day demonstrate, )ut mu#h less so in the romanti# and eroti# s'here. -s the se"enteenth #entury unfolded they were in#reasingly #on#e'tuali6ed and re'resented as 'u)li# #reatures: o'en, straightforward, rational, #ommuni#ati"e, edu#atedJ wor ing and fun#tioning in 'u)li#, in the )road light of day where their )est "irtues #ould )e seenJ and, as we ha"e already suggested, mediating their romanti# disa''ointmentsAwhi#h many o)"iously hadAin the anger said to )e almost 'reternatural to the male #ondition from time immemorial.1$;?2 =he imaginati"e literature of the se"enteenth #enturyAes'e#ially its 'lays and 'oetryAma e it a''arent that the gender gulf widened as the #entury 'rogressed. Perha's this is why marriage itself was transformed from a realisti#, almost literalist, "iew to the more ideali6ed one found in the Biltoni# theogony. Kifferen#e of e"ery ind was introdu#ed into the s'e#ulati"e dis#ourse of gender, )uttressed often )y medi#al and em'iri#al o)ser"ation, )ut also )y religious and moral o)ser"ations that dis#riminated among the inds of friendshi' suita)le to ea#h se/. 3n Bilton8s e'i#, the se/es are already so far a'art, so anatomi#ally and )iologi#ally differentiated, that ideali6ed female mysti4ue and well0 grounded male rationality )e#ome the twin 'illars on whi#h the great 'oet #an #onstru#t his Christian myth.1$;;2 -s the gender differen#es widened, the se/es found themsel"es in#reasingly #ategori6ed into stereoty'es irredu#i)ly female or male. Do one #ause #an )e assigned to these new arrangements, )ut their effe#ts are mira#ulously #a'tured in Ea#o)ean and Restoration drama, es'e#ially in the roles of the ra e, fo', madman, #u# old, unfaithful hus)and, as well asAon the other sideAthe "irgin, widow, #o4uette, dreamer, foolish old du#hess. Lithin these grou'ings and #ategori6ations, a''ro'riate diseases atta#hed to ea#h #hara#ter ty'e, as "irgins and widows fre4uently found themsel"es #ast as hysteri#s while #leri#s and students were de'i#ted as melan#holi#s.1$;:2 =here was no de"iation. Lhen generali6ing in this fashion, o"er large 'eriods of time 9half #enturies rather than de#ades<, it is tem'ting to gras' for the o)"ious trend without differentiating the su)tleties. De"ertheless, if one #om'ares the ar#hety'al #on#e'tions of women and men from roughly $:** to $C**, large, e"en monumental, differen#es a)ound.1$;C2 3f the ra e is ta en as a re'resentati"e e/am'le in $:** and then $C**, his transformed so#ial identity ma es the 'oint, es'e#ially

+ $&: + within the #onte/ts of the de"elo'ing li)ertinism 'redi#ated on gender and se/uality.1$;>2 3n the world of Ben Eonson and Eohn Konne, for e/am'le, he is a marginal figure in the 'ano'ly of so#ial ty'es: li)ertine, wanton, 'romis#uous, 'i#tured as ra"ingly heterose/ualJ )y the time he rea#hes his maturity in the English Restoration, es'e#ially on the stage, he dis'lays a newly a#4uired )ise/ual identity and stands in e/treme #ontrast to those who 'romote the ideals of romanti# marriage and the newly domesti#ated family.1$;%2 -s Randol'h =rum)a#h has written, Hsomewhere in this transition from one se/ual system to anotherAfrom a system of two genders of male and female, to a system of three genders of man, woman, and sodomiteAwas . . . the growth of e4uality )etween men and women that was 'art of the modern Euro'ean #ulture that was emerging in northwestern Euro'e around $C** in all the stru#tures of life.H1$:*2 =his e4uality 'ro)a)ly signaled a transition from one anthro'ologi#al se/ual system to anotherJ it did not diminish the gender differentiation on whi#h so many theories of hysteria were then )uilt. Besides, the genuine underlying reasons for gender differentiation were as 'atently so#ial and 'oliti#al as they were )iologi#al and anatomi#. Politi#al turmoil and e"entual restoration of the rightful monar#h, at least in England, resulted in a new sense of the nation, and with this fer"id nationalism #ame new #ommer#e, new 'rofessions, new military might, new wealth, and most a''arent to the man or woman in the street, new ur)an s'rawl. Lhen Charles 33 returned from ,ran#e in $::*, the greater London area had only a)out three hundred thousand 'eo'leJ )y $C**, it had swelled to a #ity of si/ hundred se"enty0 fi"e thousand, and )y $>**, almost a million. Lith this growth a new set of so#ial and 'rofessional relations de"elo'ed and #aused greater gender stress. Prostitution, female and male, arose as a 'rofession for the first time in England, as did new and sometimes dangerous se/ual liaisons )etween 'ersons of different and same se/es.1$:$2 Crime, "iolen#e, s4ualor, and suffering #aused )y 'o"erty all rea#hed new le"els, as the Dewtons and Lo# es at the #lose of the se"enteenth #entury were #reating their intelle#tual re"olution. So#ially s'ea ing, the world of $C** was a "astly different 'la#e from the England of the Eli6a)ethans Iust a hundred years earlier, and nowhere was the differen#e more 'al'a)le than in the relation of the se/es.1$:52 !nder the strain of the new stress, hysteria )e#ame for the first time in Lestern #i"ili6ationAa male disease. Dot sur'risingly, it was a #onse4uential moment for the history of )oth hysteria and gender. ,rom this Restoration world two more radi#al )rea throughs in the theory of + $&C + hysteria will emerge, )oth )y Sydenham: the first, that hysteria #an Himitate any disease,H and the se#ond, the notion that it is Hthe #ommonest of all diseases.H1$:&2 =he 4uestion we must 'ursue is why the same generationAnot merely the same 'hysi#ianAgi"es rise to )oth ideas, and we go a long way toward finding the answer if we isolate the new so#ial roles of males in the Restoration. 3n )oth the Eli6a)ethan and Restoration imagination, hysteria and melan#holy were intrinsi#ally lin ed. =hroughout the se"enteenth #entury they in#reasingly o"erla''ed, es'e#ially when female 'atients were diagnosed as affli#ted with the one as well as the other.1$:?2 =he medi#al theory of )oth 'eriods re"eals an unusual #oe/isten#e e/tending )eyond o"erla' and re#i'ro#ityJ it often demonstrates #onfusion and #haos #entered on the issues of gender 9is hysteria a female malady and melan#holy a male N< and se/ 9does uterine anatomy 'redis'ose %omen to hysteria while male grief affli#ts the inter#ostal #a"ity, #ausing melan#holy and hy'o#hondriaN<.1$:;2 By the later 'eriod 9the Restoration< men are )eing 'ortrayed in a way altogether different than three generations earlier. =he Restoration stage 'resented, of #ourse, a theater e/'erien#e "ery different from

its =udor0Stuart ante#edent. Bore limited to the u''er #rust in its audien#e, it also #ontrolled their res'onses more, and in this sense it #an )e #om'ared with Ri#hard ,oreman8s #ontem'orary H@ntologi#al0Hysteri# =heatre,H whi#h attem'ts to e/'loit the hysteri#al syndrome )y dramati6ing naturalisti# triangles of 'ersons enmeshed in alienating situations. -nd the Restoration stage 'resented a more limited re'ertoire of #hara#tersAes'e#ially male ra es, fo's, wits, wit0would0)e8s, as well as s4uires, gentlemen, statesmen, soldiersAoften #onsumed in eroti# ad"entures while drawn to the "ery )rin of the old Burtonian melan#holy )y unrelenting male #om'etition. -t the same time this national stage remained #oherent in its #lass stru#ture and a faithful inde/ of the #olle#ti"e eroti# fantasy of the age, holding u' the male "i#tims of a 'redatory female eros fore"er in disguise. Lhy didn8t the medi#al do#tors re#ogni6e that in this dramati# re'resentation lay one of the se#rets of hysteriaNAthat it is as mu#h a male as female #ondition, and therefore in no small degree so#ially rather than )iologi#ally #onstituted, as )y now 9i.e., after $::*< it was widely a##e'ted that men did not ha"e the defe#ti"e female anatomi# 9i.e., re'rodu#ti"e< a''aratus that had )een the nemesis of women for #enturies. =his is the 4uintessen#e of the matter and gi"es us 'ause in the twentieth #entury as we wonder why this gender differen#e had not always )een o)"ious. Dot until the $:>*s did these ideas and ideologies #oales#e in the written dis#ourses of the HEn0 + $&> + glish Hi''o#ratesHAso0#alled for his genius in #lini#al o)ser"ation and faithful re#ording of what he o)ser"ed in his 'atientsAKr. =homas Sydenham 9$:5?0$:>%<.

I=
-lthough well edu#ated and 'ossessing a first0#lass s#ientifi# mind, Sydenham seems an unli ely #andidate for the imaginati"e lea's attri)uted to him. =he son of landed gentry in Korset in the Lest Country, he had )een edu#ated at @/ford, where he )e#ame a#4uainted with many of the 'rominent early mem)ers of the Royal So#iety. But the English Ci"il Lar soon dro"e him from @/ford8s #olleges to the )attlefield, where he gainedAin the words of his )iogra'herAHhis first introdu#tion to manhood.H1$::2 -s a young soldier he a#4uired some of the 'ra#ti#al attitudes that would )enefit him as a mature do#tor. Later, in the $:C*s, he )uilt an ur)an medi#al 'ra#ti#e in England se#ond only to that of =homas Lillis, the famous Hner"e do#tor,H in the 'restige and 'oliti#al eminen#e of its 'atients. 3t is im'ortant that Sydenham8s 'ra#ti#e was lo#ated in London and that most of his 'atients were what we would #all #ity dwellers, for in that era )efore the dawn of 'sy#hiatry and 'sy#hothera'y, the illustrious ur)an 'hysi#ian, su#h as Sydenham, #ould e/'e#t half the #om'laints of his 'atients to )e ner"ous 9their term< or 'sy#hologi#al 9our term<.1$:C2 Be#ause Sydenham had suffered from the gout sin#e his twenties, his own 'oor health re4uired him to use his medi#al nowledge in the most 'ra#ti#al way.1$:>2 3t wasn8t suffi#ient to )e s'e#ulati"e and theoreti#al a)out medi#ine and its thera'ies when the do#tor himself was a 'atient. Professionally, Sydenham8s 'ra#ti#e dealt with the diagnosis and treatment of regular, indi"idual 'atients of stature, wealth, and fashion. He did not see out the ri#hAthey #ame to him.1$:%2 His #om'assion for the ill was su#h that he may ha"e )een the most sought0after 'hysi#ian in the realm. 3n )rief, medi#ine was his life. Lhen the )rilliant young Eohn Lo# e #ame to London with his new medi#al degree from @/ford, it was in Sydenham8s #lini# that he most ho'ed to )egin his 'ra#ti#e, and he did.1$C*2 Sydenham8s re'utation as an effe#ti"e medi#al thera'ist had rea#hed su#h a 'inna#le )y the $:>*s that only the wealthy and 'owerful #ould afford his ser"i#es, although he regularly ministered to the 'oor as well. 3n su#h 'atient0do#tor en#ounters, demonologi#al a##usations were ne"er ta en seriously 9these )eing more attra#ti"e to the lower #lasses than to his sua"e 'atients<, there)y lea"ing the field o'en for new

e/'lorations of su#h mysterious affli#tions as hysteria. + $&% + Sydenham, no medi#al historian or a"id reader of medi#al #lassi#s, wor ed 'rin#i'ally )y o)ser"ation. He )elie"ed that e/'erimentation was su##essful only when se"eral 'hysi#ians made an identi#al diagnosisJ otherwise, he #on#luded, the e/'eriment was not e"en s#ientifi#. So mu#h did he deri"e from his reading in Ba#on, his medi#al edu#ation at @/ford, and his own intuition. By the time he gathered his thoughts a)out hysteria in the early $:>*s he had read mu#h Ba#on 9who did not 'ronoun#e on hysteria<ASydenham8s idol along with Cer"antesAand had inde'endently #onfirmed the earlier o)ser"ations of Charles Le'ois 9the 3talian 'hysi#ian also nown as Carlo Piso, $;:&0$:&&< that hysteria was not entirely an anatomi# #ondition and, as a result, that males were Iust as sus#e'ti)le as females.1$C$2 Le'ois had re)elled against the earlier theorists of hysteria, and his #omments demonstrated to what degree he disagreed with the medi#al esta)lishment: Le )elie"e we are #orre#t in #on#luding that all the hysteri#al sym'toms . . . ha"e )een attri)uted to the uterus, the stoma#h and other internal organs for the wrong reason. -ll 1these sym'toms2 #ome from the head. 3t is this 'art whi#h is affe#ted not )y sym'athy )ut idio'athi#ally and 'rodu#es motions whi#h ma e themsel"es felt throughout the entire )ody.1$C52 H=he hysteri#al sym'toms are almost all #ommon to )oth men and women,H Le'ois wrote in the $:5*s. 1$C&2 But if Le'ois loo ed to the )rain, in the head, Sydenham felt no su#h #onstraint to sear#h anatomi#ally at all. 3nstead, he seemed to ha"e )een 'artially li)erated from the 'ressure to s'e#ify a uni4ue somati# seat for the disease. He wrote little and measured his words.1$C?2 Lhat he wrote he 'enned la#oni#ally and em'iri#ally, without #yni#ism or mali#e toward his 'atients, addressing himself only to what he )elie"ed truly #ounted: #lini#al reality. 7eith has summari6ed the )iogra'hi#al and medi#al #ir#umstan#es under whi#h Sydenham wrote the 1pistolary Dissertation . Do reason e/ists to re#ount them here, for there is little to add, e/#e't to o)ser"e Sydenham8s reason for a##e'ting Kr. Lilliam Cole8s in"itation to set down on 'a'er his thoughts H#on#erning the so0#alled hysteri#al diseases.H1$C;2 Cole, a noted 'hysi#ian, had a large 'ra#ti#e of his own in whi#h he treated his own hysteri#al 'atients.1$C:2 Considering Sydenham one of the greatest li"ing 'hysi#ians, he as ed the "enerated do#tor why hysteria had 'ro"ed so elusi"e. Sydenham8s answer in the 1pistolary Dissertation was )riefJ #oming from Sydenham it must ha"e astonished many of his medi#al )rethren. Lhether through #om'assion or insight, he admitted how diffi#ult hysteria was to #ure. He em'atheti#ally refle#ted + $?* + that the 'ain suffered )y hysteri#al 'atients was more se"ere than that in 'atients with other illnesses. He was the first in the medi#al esta)lishment 9after Le'ois, mentioned a)o"e< to )rea from the uterine etiologyJ the first to degenderi6e hysteria )y remo"ing its eroti# stigma altogetherJ the first also to #laim that no single organ was res'onsi)le )ut a #om)ination of Hmental emotionsH and H)odily derangementsH wor ing through the ner"es and the then all0im'ortant animal s'irits. 3n this last matter he differed radi#ally from Le'ois, who had thought the )rain the somati# seat of hysteria.1$CC2 3n )rief then, Sydenham arri"ed at radi#al #on#lusions: $. He #laimed that hysteria affli#ted )oth men and women.

5. He #onsidered hysteria the most #ommon of all diseases. &. He "iewed hysteria as a fun#tion of #i"ili6ation, that is, the ri#her and more #i"ili6ed and influential the 'atient, the more li ely he or she was to )e affli#ted. - few years earlier, Lillis had also #on#luded inde'endently of Le'ois that hysteria might )e a''li#a)le to men, gi"en its lodgingAa##ording to LillisAin the ner"ous sto# , s'anning the )rain and the s'inal #ord.1$C>2 He deri"ed this attitude from his theory of sym'athy, whi#h led him to reIe#t inherited Hi''o#rati# "ersions of hysteria. Lillis8s main argument was with the notion of a Hwandering wom)H as anatomi#ally Hsuffo#atingH the rest of the )ody as it su''osedly ram'aged and #ho ed other organs and de'ri"ed them of their rightful s'a#e. He also held o)Ie#tions to this "iew )ased on the normal and 'athologi#al dry0moist #onditions in the )ody. Hysteria was an im'ortant #on#ern to Lillis from the )eginning of his medi#al #areer. He #hallenged Dathaniel Highmore8s etiology from H)ad )loodH in a huge treatise written in Latin and entitled $ffectionum :uae dicuntur @ hypochondriacae pathologia . . . 9$:C5<, all as 'art of a larger #am'aign to gi"e the )rain a mu#h greater role in the genesis of illness and to #on"ert many #onditions into diseases of the ner"ous system. =he s'e#ifi# route for our #ondition, he )elie"ed, was that the uterus HradiatedH 9his word< hysteria through an infinity of neural 'athways e/tending into e"ery organ and tissue of the human #or'us. Lillis a''lied his notions of #or'oral sym'athy to hysteria and then e/tended this route of ner"ous transmission to other female #onditions, in#luding #hroni# Hhead a#heH 9of the intense "ariety suffered )y his #ontem'orary, the )rilliant and ri#h Lady Conway<, #oma, somnolen#y, e'ile'sy, "ertigo, a'o'le/y, and generali6ed 'aro/ysm 9i.e., num)ness<, among many others. =hese and other #onditions were owing, Lillis thought, to nervous disorders he often termed H'aralysis of + $?$ + the ner"es.H1$C%2 But why omit men, Lillis as ed, unless the anatomy and 'hysiology of the genders differN Howe"er, Lillis #hose not to in"estigate the 'ossi)ility, #on#entrating instead on his medi#al 'ra#ti#e and treating the large num)er of female hysteri#s in his waiting rooms with a wide re'ertoire of drugs. =he first of the great Hner"e do#torsH who flourished during the 'an0Euro'ean Enlightenment, Lillis anti#i'ated our #urrent medi#al 'ra#ti#e of 'res#ri)ing drug0)ased thera'ies. 3ndeed, he would )e at home today in our neuro'sy#hiatri# institutes where 'harma#ology reigns su'reme and 'atients are drugged for almost e"ery form of de'ression, an/iety, and 'ain. Howe"er, Sydenham ga6ed more dee'ly into hysteria than Lillis: if Lillis dis#o"ered hysteria through theory, Sydenham #ame to it from 'ra#ti#e. Li e his 'rede#essor, Sydenham intuiti"ely demystified hysteria )y rendering it an authenti# medi#al affli#tion, neither dia)oli#al nor fan#iful )ut rational, em'iri#al, me#hani#al, e"en mathemati#al, and, most #ru#ially, #alling it Han affli#tion of the mindH or, in our 'arlan#e, a 'sy#hologi#al malady.1$>*2 =he ad"an#ement in his thin ing was 'art of a larger Restoration anatomi# mo"ement that had demystified the re'rodu#ti"e organs of the female )ody.1$>$2 Sydenham8s 'sy#hologi6ing of hysteria was #ru#ial. .et he 'ro)ed further than Lillis: he stressed hysteria8s imitative fun#tionAan altogether new ideaAand noti#ed its 'rotean 'otential to #on"ert the original 'sy#hologi#al distress into somati# reality. -s ,ou#ault intimates in his own wor on hysteria in #ha'ter ; of !adness and &ivili.ation , Sydenham was also more #om'assionate than Lillis and 'enetrated further into the wasted li"es of his female 'atients. Lhether women merely eli#ited from Sydenham more #om'assion than men is un nown, and nothing in his writing offers a #lue, )ut he was less sus'i#ious than most of his medi#al #olleagues that women8s hysteri#al #om'laints were fa ed. By "irtue of the silen#es in his Dissertation Are"ealing silen#es gi"en his already S'artan style and a"oidan#e of rhetori#Ahe a''arently ruled out the 'ossi)ility that these 'hysi#al sym'toms originated in the 'atient8s attem't to de#ei"e his or her 'hysi#ian, or, furthermore, that hysteria was an imaginary

illness. 3n his "iew 'ain itself was a felt emotion, as real as fear, lo"e, grief, and hateJ he refused to #ontem'late the 'ossi)ility that a woman 'resenting with demonstra)le somati# 'ain was imagining or fa)ri#ating her anger or fear.1$>52 3n matters of gender a''li#ation, Sydenham #laimed that the radi#al mood swings of womenAs'asms, swoonings, e'ile'sies, #on"ulsions, sudden fitsAwere also nown among men, es'e#ially, as he wrote, Hamong su#h male su)Ie#ts as lead a sedentary or studious life, and grow 'ale o"er their )oo s and 'a'ers.H1$>&2 Ca'ri#e, in )oth women and men, + $?5 + was the norm: "iolent laughter suddenly altered to 'rofuse wee'ing, ea#h su##eeding the other in fits and starts. Dothing in the )eha"ior of either gender, Sydenham thought, was grounded in reason, nor #ould a#tions )e e/'lained. Emotional insta)ility was the hysteri#8s hallmar . But who were these HstudiousH ty'esN Certainly not the farmers or rusti#s of eighteenth0#entury England or ,ran#e, )ut the u''er and leisured #lasses, many of whom had atta#hed themsel"es to #olleges, #hur#hes, and go"ernment 'osts. 3m'li#it rather than e/'li#it in Sydenham8s male hysteria was a )uilt0in #lass notion. =he fa#t that Hwomen are more su)Ie#t than men,H as Sydenham #omments, has nothing to do with general anatomi#al differen#es or with female re'rodu#ti"e anatomy. Sydenham )elie"ed rather that the 'ro#li"ity was an e/'ression of the %hole person , arising from a #on"ergen#e of the mind and ner"es mediated through the Hanimal s'irits.H =hese were su)tle distin#tions, es'e#ially the s'e#ifi# lo#ations of anatomi# differen#e. 3f hysteria was more 're"alent and se"ere among women than men, it was )e#ause their anatomi# ner"ous #onstitutions were wea er. =hese were im'ortant ste's and lin ages, es'e#ially the new signifi#an#e atta#hed to the mysterious animal s'irits,1$>?2 and the relati"ely new idea that the )odily strength of the ner"ous #onstitution was gender )ound and gender determined.1$>;2 By $:C* or $:>*, not enough resear#h on the ner"es had )een 'erformed to Iustify su#h #on#lusionsJ what had )een learned was s'e#ulati"e and theoreti#alJ what is most interesting a)out Sydenham8s 'osition was that while he too a giant lea' in the 'sy#hologi6ing of hysteria, he also laid out an agenda for Hthe wea and ner"ous feminine #onstitutionH that would 'lay a magisterial role in Euro'ean hysteria for more than two #enturies. =he latter theory is, ideologi#ally at least, a more #ontro"ersial a##om'lishment and must )e addressed now.1$>:2 =his analyti# inter'retation of Sydenham8s three0'art #ontri)ution is not meant to diminish it in any way. Surely 7eith is right to 'raise him as Hthe great #lini#ianH of hysteria and hail him for 'sy#hologi6ing it. .et 7eith has analy6ed hysteria narrowly, #onsidered a'art from its 'hiloso'hi#al, so#ial, and ideologi#al #onte/tsAan o''osite a''roa#h to that of Suentin S inner 94uoted in the e'igra'h to this #ha'ter<J Sydenham himself, narrowing his fo#us to the wea and ner"ous feminine #onstitution, further genderi6ed the 'er'le/ing malady, as ,reud would later do in fin0de0siG#le 7ienna. E"en so, the term nervous constitution was no rhetori#al flourish or linguisti# elision for Sydenham, no meta'hor or analogy to des#ri)e something sensed )ut im'ro'erly understood. =o Sydenham and his #olleagues it denoted the 4uintessen#e of the )ody8s me#hani#al o'erations: the amalgam of its su'erlati"e, integrati"e net0 + $?& + wor .1$>C2 3t was meta'hori#, of #ourse, to the degree that all language is, )ut in terms of re'resentation the des#ri'tion was )elie"ed to )e identi#al with the )ody8s most essential anatomi#al networ . =he ner"ous system was, in short, the )ody8s greatest mira#le, without whi#h neither sensation nor #ognition #ould e/ist. =herefore, it is ina''ro'riate to use the a''roa#hes of literary #riti#ism to

assume the #on#e't re'resented merely a metonymy or meta'hor for Lillis, Sydenham, or the other anatomists and 'hysi#ians in the aftermath of Kes#artes who )egan to ma e the ner"es the )asis of the new medi#al s#ien#e.1$>>2 Sydenham )elie"ed that Hof all #hroni# diseases hysteriaAunless 3 err is the #ommonest.H1$>%2 By #ommon he meant not sim'ly 're"alent then and in the 'ast and 'resuma)ly in Lestern and non0 Lestern #ultures, )ut #onstantly on the in#rease, and spreading , es'e#ially among the ri#h and the influential.1$%*2 -lthough Sydenham had treated #ases of 'oor women, )eggars, and "agrants who 'resented hysteri#al sym'toms, he #onsidered them e/#e'tions. =he H#ommonH #ases to whi#h he refers e/isted among the leisured and idle: He wrote, H=here is rarely one who is wholly free from them 1hysteri#al #om'laints2Aand females, it must )e remem)ered, form one half of the adults of the world.H1$%$2 He does not ela)orate on this remar . -lthough he has mu#h to say in the Dissertation a)out the 'ro/imate and dire#t #auses, as well as the 'athogenesis of hysteria, he does not e/'lore one of his most )rilliant insights a)out the so#ial 'er"asi"eness of hysteria. He sees hysteria as Hthe most #ommon of all diseasesH )e#ause affli#tions of the mind now 9i.e., in the se"enteenth #entury< ha"e assumed an im'ortan#e they did not ha"e 're"iously. =o generali6e the matter to a 'rin#i'le: as life for the leisured and influential )e#omes more #om'le/, so#iety8s maladies also alter. - hundred years ago, a##ording to Sydenham8s reasoning, hysteria may ha"e )een less 're"alent, )ut )y the end of the se"enteenth #entury, in the #om'le/ ur)an milieu 're"iously des#ri)ed, hysteria is on the rise and will #ontinue to in#rease so long as the so#ial milieu 9its e#onomi# #onditions, 'oliti#al institutions, #lass arrangements, et#.< grows in#reasingly #om'le/. =he o)ser"ation entails no 'hiloso'hy of history or 'hiloso'hy of medi#ine, to )e sure, )ut does demonstrate a 'rofound insight into the relation of #ulture and disease.1$%52 Sydenham saw all this before the nineteenth0#entury growth of hysteriaJ indeed, he #laims to ha"e witnessed an e/'losionAan e'idemi#Aduring the English Restoration. Pro'heti# of things to #ome, he intuited that hysteria had 'ersisted throughout the ages among both genders, although it had gone largely undiagnosedJ within this #onte/t, he glim'sed the ha"o# wrea ed on human li"es )y ra'id so#ioe#onomi# + $?? + #hange and the new la# of 'ersonal re'ression. =he li)ertinism and hedonism of the Restoration were un'aralleled in 're"ious generations. 3f Sydenham #ould somehow ha"e )een re)orn into ,reud8s 7ienna, he would neither ha"e denied nor )een ama6ed )y hysteria8s new 'rominen#e. He who had re#ogni6ed that hysteria His the #ommonest of all diseasesH would not ha"e )een sur'rised )y its e/'losion under the strain of e"en further gender arrangements in a nineteenth0#entury world in whi#h inter#onne#ting, almost organi#, #om'le/ity #reated new stressesJ where male indi"idualism and selfhood were )eing threatened as they had not )een )eforeJ and where women demanded rights 9es'e#ially the "ote< more "igorously than e"er )efore. 3f the female ner"ous #onstitution was 'er#ei"ed to )e wea er than the male in the English Restoration, it was deemed to )e e"en wea er around $%**.1$%&2 =his last matterAthe histori#al de"elo'ment of the so0#alled wea feminine #onstitutionAforms an integral 'art of the story of hysteria in the aftermath of Sydenham. Dothing in its nineteenth0#entury formulations #an )e understood without glim'sing how the genders )e#ame further differentiated a##ording to this ner"ous system. But Sydenham also dete#ted something e"en more e/traordinary a)out hysteria: its 'rotean a)ility to transform itself and its sym'toms. He wrote in $:>$: H=he fre4uen#y of hysteria is no less remar a)le than the multiformity of the sha'es whi#h it 'uts on. ,ew of the maladies of misera)le mortality are not imitated )y it.H1$%?2 3t is an e/traordinary insight. =his sus'e#ted a)ility Hto imitateH is what rendered

hysteria, Sydenham thought, uni:ue among maladies . Do one had dete#ted this remar a)le and elusi"e #a'a)ility )efore. 3t is as if Sydenham were as ing, Lhat is hysteria if it 'ossesses this 'ower of transformationN 3t is. not sur'rising that Hwhate"er 'art of the )ody it atta# s, it will #reate the 'ro'er sym'tom of that 'art. Hen#e, without s ill and saga#ity the 'hysi#ian will )e de#ei"edJ so as to refer the sym'toms to some essential disease of the 'art in 4uestion, and not to the effe#ts of hysteria.H1$%;2 Hysteria in Sydenham8s #onstrual was thus a singular malady. -s in the re#ent 'rofiles of su#h #onditions as #an#er or -3KS, the natural history of hysteria was su#h that it always )rought with it another HhistoryH 'ersonal to ea#h 'atient: Hen#e, as often as females #onsult me #on#erning su#h, or su#h )odily ailments as are diffi#ult to )e determined )y the usual role for diagnosis, 3 ne"er fail to #arefully in4uire whether they are not worse sufferers when trou)le, low0s'irits, or any mental 'ertur)ation ta es hold of them. 3f so, 3 'ut down the sym'toms for hysteria.1$%:2 + $?; + @ur #ontem'orary diagnosti# 'ra#ti#es may not differ so drasti#ally as we thin . .et Sydenham8s hysteria was a si# ness )orn of emotional agitation and 'hysi#al enfee)lement, one arising, for e/am'le, when Hmental emotionsH were su'eradded to H)odily derangements,H su#h as Hlong fasting and o"er0free e"a#uations 9whether from )leeding, 'urging, or emeti#s< whi#h ha"e )een too mu#h for the system to )ear u' against.H -ndAmore germane to 'rotean transformationAits sym'toms had )een so e/traordinarily 'rotean )e#ause, rather as with "ol#ani# eru'tions, the disorder )ro e out in whi#he"er )odily system was #urrently wea est.1$%C2 Long )efore ,reud then, Sydenham was the first thin er to #onsider hysteria a disease of civili.ation , unli e most other maladies. Construing hysteria as Ha farrago of disorderly and irregular 'henomena,H he saw the unrelia)ility of mu#h 're"ious medi#al theory a)out the #ondition and #ommented: H3f we e/#e't those who lead a hard and hardy life, then no 'ersons are e/em't from its tenta#les.H ,or him, hysteria was not a single disease )ut a )road range of medi#al #onditions: a hodge'odgeAa HfarragoHAof #hanging sym'toms, the 'remier em)lem of the #lass of diseases, or #onditions, that defied 'redi#ta)ility: anomalous, sui generis , e/em'ted from the regularity of all other diseases.

=
=he su##ession of medi#al theory in the Restoration and eighteenth #entury was therefore relati"ely #lear. 3n the 'rogression from Lillis and Sydenham to Cheyne and Bernard Bande"illeAthe satirist of The Fable of the Bees Aand their su##essors later in the eighteenth #entury, it was Sydenham who too the largest strides. Lillis made free use of the hysteria diagnosis in managing si# women, saw hysteria as a somati# distur)an#e, treated 'atients with drug0)ased thera'euti#s, and #onsidered the 'ro)a)ility that men #ould )e affli#ted too. 3nasmu#h as women of all ages and ran s #ould suffer from it, he 'rudently dismissed the notion of Kr. Dathaniel Highmore, his #ontem'orary, that hysteria was due to )ad )lood.1$%>2 He dou)ted that it was owing to any s'e#ifi# uterine 'athology and identified the #entral ner"ous system, s'anning the )rain and the s'inal #ord, as the true site. Being H#hiefly and 'rimarily #on"ulsi"e,H he argued, Hhysteria flared on the )rain, and the ner"ous sto# )eing affe#ted.H1$%%2 =he animal s'irits were s'e#ially "ulnera)le: H=he assions #ommonly #alled Hysteri#al . . . arise most often 1when2 . . . the animal s'irits, 'ossessing the )eginning of the Der"es within the head, + $?: +

are infe#ted with some =aint.H So he, li e Sydenham, #on#luded that hysteria #ould not, te#hni#ally s'ea ing, )e solely a female #om'laintJ he offered the wea er ner"ous #onstitution as the reason why women were worse affli#ted.15**2 =he o)"ious #on#lusion, although )oth Lillis and Sydenham were too #autious to 'roffer it, was that men with #lear sym'toms of hysteria were effeminate.15*$2 =hese s#hemati6ations shifted the ground to the ner"ous system as the ey through whi#h to understand and inter'ret hysteria as a #ategory as well as human illness, and the 'aradigmati# shift is im'ortant for Enlightenment medi#ine.15*52 But if hysteria, as )oth Sydenham and Lillis #laimed, was the Proteus of maladiesAthe elusi"e medi#al #ondition 'ar e/#ellen#eAthen we should e/'e#t the medi#al theory of the 'eriod to "iew the ner"ous system as the ey to 'ra#ti#ally all illness, not merely hysteria. =his it did. =he )est theory of the day did not, naturally, endow the ner"es with the ey to e"ery disease, )ut on#e the me#hani#al 'hiloso'hy had #om'leted its wor and the 'aradigmati# shift was a)sor)ed 9roughly )y $C**<, there were few if any diseases without ner"ous im'li#ations. E"entually this monolithi# attri)ution would )e seen for the foreshadowing of modern ner"ousness that it is. -t the time, it was "iewed as the only res'e#ta)le medi#al #ourse 'ossi)le. Kealing with affluent #lienteles, the highly influential 3talian 'hysi#ian Georgio Bagli"i and satirist Bernard Bande"ille #ar"ed out #om'ara)le #on#e'ts of hysteria to en#om'ass the 'rotean ailments of the 'olite, whose sensi)ilities to 'ain were as e/tensi"e as their "o#a)ularies, and who may ha"e )een adroit at mani'ulating the 'rote#ti"e 'otential of si# ness. Bande"ille, a )rilliant writer of 'rose, was sensiti"e to the languages of hysteria, es'e#ially their Ium)led "o#a)ularies and dense meta'hors. He had #ommented 'rofusely on the meta'hori# ingdoms of Hthe animal s'iritsHA#ommenting 'eIorati"ely most of the time and demonstrating how little he )elie"ed that medi#al writers had followed the 'ious #redos of the Royal So#iety es'ousing nullius in verba , loosely Hnothing in the word.H 3n his dialogi# Treatise of the Hypochondriac( and Hysteric( assions , Bande"ille ma es a #hara#ter 'ro#laim: H.ou Gentlemen of Learning ma e use of "ery #om'rehensi"e E/'ressionsJ the Lord Hysteric( must )e of a 'rodigious Latitude, to signify so many different E"ils,H suggesting that a ty'e of HmadnessH would arise from nomen#lature itself, a form of illness e"ery )it as real as the genuine Hhysteri#8s affli#tion.H Krawing u'on his e/tensi"e #lini#al e/'erien#e, Bagli"i demonstrated how 'atients #ommonly 'resented sym'tom #lusters resistant to rigid disease #ategories, though res'onsi"e to the 'ersonal ta#t and guile of + $?C + the 'hysi#ian.15*&2 Bande"ille, for his 'art a 'rofound so#ial #ommentator as well as a sought0after medi#al 'ra#titioner, made mu#h of the fashiona)le life0style 'ressures dis'osing women to hysteria while their hus)ands san into hy'o#hondriasis.15*?2 Las there a determinant anatomi#o0'hysiologi#al etiology for the disorderN Bande"ille, li e Sydenham, defle#ted the 4uestion, #on#entrating instead u'on those )eha"ioral fa#etsAlanguor, low s'irits, mood swings, de'ression, an/ietyAintegral to the 'resentation of the self in e"eryday si# ness. Bande"ille8s su)stantial #ontri)ution to the theory of hysteria was re"isionary more than anything else. He ridi#uled the ela)orate s'e#ulati"e models of me#hani#o0#or'oreal ma#hinery floated )y Lillis, es'e#ially the idea that errati# mood shifts were literally due to He/'losionsH in the animal s'irits, and derogated the highly analogi#al language Lillis used to #a'ture the iatromathemati#al motion of these ner"ous eru'tions. Bande"ille was less trou)led )y Lillis8s theory of sympathy than with his "ersion of idiopathy : the idea that the He/'losionH #ould #on"ey its neuroanatomi# effe#ts throughout the )ody )y sym'athy. 3dio'athy and HdetonationH were Bande"ille8s unrelenting gri'e, es'e#ially the un'redi#ta)le onset of the Hdetonations,H not a theory of medi#al sym'athy that had histori#ally antedated Lillis nor neuro'hysiologi#al disagreement a)out the manner of #on"eyan#e through the ner"ous 'athways. ,urthermore, the meta'hori# dangers of

Hdetonation in the human )odyH stru# the satiri# Bande"ille as #omi#, e"en hilarious. -natomi# detonations, ner"ous e/'losions, sudden eru'tions: what reason did nature ha"e for infusing the human mi#ro#osm #alled Hthe )odyH with these sudden Hdetonations,H es'e#ially if they #ould He/'lodeH at any moment and throw the organism into a 'aro/ysm of hysteri#al illnessN15*;2 Su)se4uent theorists of hysteria too u' Bande"ille8s #a"eat, fa"oring the sym'atheti# transmission o"er the idio'athi#. But )y nowAthe eighteenth #enturyAthe neural transmission of hysteria had almost #om'letely re'la#ed the H)loodyH and uterine, He/'losionsH or not. =he old dualisti# #ategories of s'irit and )ody, rational and 'hysi#al dimensions, were re'la#ed )y a more or less integral Hner"ous systemH 9howe"er 'oorly defined and ill understood< transmitting all manner of Hner"ous disorders,H of whi#h hysteria was indu)ita)ly the su'reme. -s the dis#ourse on hysteria made its way through the world of the Enlightenment, at least three of its most #herished )eliefs were 4uashed. Set the dials roughly to the first 4uarter of the eighteenth #entury and hysteria is now a ram'antly s'reading malady that #learly affli#ts both genders, women 'rimarily )e#ause of their %ea(er nervous systems , and while stress and daily routine are #ru#ial in its genesis, nothing is more + $?> + im'ortant than the state of the nerves and the animal spirits that go"ern them. Lhen Bagli"i wrote in The ractice of hysic(3 reduc'd to the ancient )ay of /bservations3 containing a ;ust arallel bet%een the )isdom of the $ncients and the Hypothesis's of !odern hysicians 9$C*?< that HLomen are more su)Ie#t than Ben to Kiseases arising from the Passions of the Bind, and more "iolently affe#ted with them, )y Reason of the =imorousness and Lea ness of their Se/,H he meant wea ness in the nerves . Bagli"i was widely read throughout Euro'e, from north to south, from the a"ant0garde medi#al s#hools of Holland to those in S'ain and Salerno. His theory of HKiseases arising from the Passions of the BindH as diseases of gender too hold almost instantly. =his eighteenth0 #entury "iew re'resented a narrow #on#e'tion of a disease that had 'u66led do#tors for long, e"en if men and women then in"ested in the ideologies of the animal s'irits in ways now almost irretrie"a)le. 3t was a narrow #on#e'tion, and it demonstrates that the 'aradigmati# shift from a uterine to a ner"ous model for hysteria was the most signifi#ant shift the #on#e'tion of hysteria e/'erien#ed sin#e its medi#ali6ation in the si/teenth #entury and until its genuine 'sy#hogeni# formulation in the nineteenth.

=I
3 ho'e 3 ha"e e/'lain8d the Dature and Causes of Der"ous Kistem'ers 9whi#h ha"e hitherto )een re# on8d Lit#h#raft, En#hantment, Sor#ery and Possession, and ha"e )een the #onstant Resour#e of 3gnoran#e< from Prin#i'les easy, natural and intelligi)le, dedu#8d from the )est and soundest Datural Philoso'hy. AGE@RGE CHE.DE, =he English Balady =he 'aradigmati# shift is, of #ourse, self0e"ident to the #areful reader of these dis#ourses, es'e#ially as former Hhysteri#alH #om'laints now )e#ome monolithi#ally Hner"ous.H Sydenham died in $:>%, almost at the moment that Dewton8s rincipia 9$:>C< was )eing inter'reted and Lo# e8s 1ssay &oncerning Human Understanding 9$:%*< 'rinted, wor s 'ro"iding e"iden#e that 'aradigmati# shifts were then ta ing 'la#e in other fields as well as in medi#al theory.15*:2 Lithin a generation, to )e hysteri#al was to )e nervous : the two )e#ame synonymous, the latter e"entually a shorthand, a metonymy, almost a #ode word, for the )road #lass of hysteri#al and hy'o#hondria#al illnesses. -nother feature of the theory of hysteria 9not merely the fa#t of its e/isten#e as a medi#al #ondition< affords a #lue to this

transformation into ner"ous illnesses: the sense that ner"ous disease permeates so#iety. =his 'er"asi"eness had ne"er )een a 'rimary dimension of the older theories of hysteria.15*C2 ,or + $?% + generations, at least sin#e the time of Leyer and Eorden, it had )een thought that hysteria was 'resent and #ould )e found in segments here and there )ut that it was not omni'resent or 'er"asi"e in Euro'ean so#iety. Dow, in the generation )etween the death of Sydenham and the su##ession of the Hano"erians 9$:>%0$C$?<, the 'er"asi"eness of ner"ous disease )e#ame as entren#hed as the me#hani#al re"olution in s#ien#e more widely.15*>2 Las it for that reason, 'erha's, that a large num)er of #ases )egan to surfa#e in the eighteenth #entury in #om'arison to 're"ious 'eriodsN E"en more 'u66ling, why should diagnoses of hysteria suddenly rea#h su#h e'idemi# 'ro'ortionsN Lere there the #ases to su''ort the diagnoses, or were do#tors on some ty'e of #rusade to hysteri#i6e 9i.e., neurali6e< medi#al illness and en#ourage the 'er#e'tion that disease was now fundamentally ner"ousN =he answers must )e sought in the dis#ourses themsel"es as well as in the "iews of women then and in so#ial transformations then o##urring. =oday, we tend to thin of the nineteenth #entury as the golden age of hysteri#al women in 'art )e#auseAwe thin Athe eighteenth #entury refused to 'ro)lemati6e the female se/15*%2 Athat is, to see women in all their )iologi# and so#ial #om'le/ity. .et authoritati"e so#ial history re"eals the o''osite: for e/am'le, Sydenham8s remar a)le so#ial #onstru#tion of women and their #hief disease. =he degree to whi#h an e'o#h 'ro)lemati6es women "aries of #ourseJ it is 'erfe#tly true that all e'o#hs 'ro)lemati6e their womenJ ne"ertheless, in the 'eriod of the Enlightenment it was high. =hroughout the Restoration and eighteenth #entury, at least in the British 3sles and ,ran#e, e"en the healthy woman was still seen as a wal ing wom). Se"eral do6en re)elsAthe Bluesto# ings, the -'hra Behns and Charlotte Char es, the Lady Bary Lortley Bontagus and Badame de StaXl8s, and other so'histi#ates in the leading #ourts and #a'ital #ities of Euro'eA #hallenged this #hara#teri6ation, )ut they and their #ohorts were una)le to 'ut a signifi#ant dent in the armor of that so#ial world.15$*2 ,or some, s'leen and "a'ors, often used inter#hangea)ly, were still 'roofs of demoni# 'ossession rather than somati# ailmentJ this is not sur'rising sin#e wit#hes were still )eing tried in the early eighteenth #entury 9until the $C&*s<, e"en if not so "igorously as they had )een 're"iously.15$$2 But for most, Hthe "a'orsH was the #ollo4uial #ousin of hysteria, as Kr. Eohn Pur#ell, a self0'rofessed Hner"e do#tor,H insisted.15$52 Kr. Eohn Rad#liffe, for whom @/ford8s Rad#liffe #amera is named, was dismissed from Sueen -nne8s ser"i#e after telling Her BaIesty that she suffered only from the "a'ors, there)y im'lying that hers was an imaginary and dou)tful malady. =his was nothing Her BaIesty wished to + $;* + hearJ the Sueen wanted a diagnosis indi#ating real illness that #ould )e treated with a##e'ta)le thera'y, not some imaginary delusion, li e Hthe "a'ors,H for whi#h her #hara#ter #ould )e im'ugned and to whi#h no attention would )e 'aid.15$&2 Le glim'se a different "iew in the 'oet Po'e8s treatment of Belinda when she des#ends into H=he Ca"e of S'leenH in #anto ? of the famous mo# 0e'i# 'oem The -ape of the 4oc( 9$C$?<. Belinda8s sudden hysteri#al sei6ure em)odies the older #onnotation of the medi#al do#tors, and )e#omes the sign of the unsta)le 'ost'u)es#ent and nu)ile nym'h )urdened with her essential uterine stigmata:15$?2 Safe 'ast the Gnome thro8 this fantasti# Band, - )ran#h of healing "pleen%ort in his hand.

=hen thus addrest the Pow8rAHail wayward Sueen Lho rule the Se/ from ,ifty to ,ifteen, Parent of 7a'ours and of ,emale Lit, Lho gi"e th8 Hysteric or oetic Fit , @n "arious =em'ers a#t )y "arious ways, Ba e some ta e Physi# , others s#ri))le Plays. 9lines ;;0:o<15$;2 =he 'oetry su##eeds )rilliantly here )e#ause of a sustained am)i"alen#e )etween real and imaginary delusion: HHysteric H and H oetic H fits: that ne"er0ne"er land #a'turing genuine dementia "ersus imagined, e"en feigned, "a'ors. Po'e there)y ena)les Belinda to enIoy a status una"aila)le in a#tual life had she )een the histori#al, 're#o#ious, u''er0#lass -ra)ella ,ermor suffering from medi#ally diagnosed hysteria.15$:2 !nli e Belinda, real 'atients #ra"ed diagnoses that did not )rand them as 'ossessed or deluded )y imaginary or 'retended illnesses. =hey wanted to )e told )y their 'hysi#ians and a'othe#aries that they were suffering from genuine ner"ous affli#tions that had atta# ed s'e#ifi# 'arts of their ner"ous systems for whi#h there e/isted 'harma#ologi#al remedies and other toni# nostrums.15$C2 -lternati"ely, in medi#al theory as distin#t from the diagnosti# and thera'euti# s'heres, nothing 'ersuaded do#tors and 'atients ali e so well as num)ers and mathemati#s. So long as the 'hysi#ian #ould 4uantify the malfun#tion of the diseased animal s'irits and a''ly arithmeti# and e"en Dewtonian flu/ions to the motions 9i.e., the #ontra#tions and e/'ansions< of the ner"ous system, )oth diagnosis and thera'y seemed 'ossi)le. S'e#iali6ed Hner"e do#torsH were well ser"ed )y iatrome#hani#al training. ,or the rest, 4uantifi#ation and num)ers had 'ro#eeded so far in the me#hani#al imagination of the day that nothing thera'euti# su##eeded so well as 'ills and 'otions designed to + $;$ + normali6e the me#hani#al motions of the animal s'irits within the ner"es that had #aused the hysteria in the first 'la#e. =he 'ath ahead for the theory of hysteria lay then in its iatrome#hani#al a''li#ations, i.e., its mathemati#al #harting.15$>2 =he followers of Sydenham, es'e#ially Bagli"i and Bande"ille, and of their #ounter'arts -r#hi)ald Pit#airne 9a S#ot who )e#ame an im'ortant 'rofessor of medi#ine in Leyden and Edin)urgh< and Herman Boerhaa"e in Holland,15$%2 a"owed a medi#al Dewtonianism as'iring to esta)lish the lawsAstati#, dynami#, hydrauli#Ago"erning the me#hani#s of the organism and 'refera)ly #ou#hing their findings in these mathemati#al e/'ressions. -natomi#al attention to the )ody8s solids would 'ro"ide, they #ontended, surer foundations for medi#al laws than the traditional Galeni# 'reo##u'ation with the humors and flu#tuations of the fluids. Kr. George Cheyne in 'arti#ular had nothing )ut s#orn for tal of humors and those Hfugiti"e fi#tions,H the animal s'irits.155*2 Be#hanist 'hysi#ians, treading lightly in Lillis8s footste's, 'ointed to the e/'erimentally demonstra)le role of the ner"ous systemAa sensory s eleton "ariously imagined as #om'rising ner"es, fi)ers and s'irits, strings, 'i'es, or #ordsAin mediating )etween )rain and )ody, anatomy and a#ti"ity. -s 3 ha"e des#ri)ed elsewhere, Cheyne and his medi#al 'eers in Enlightenment England laun#hed an aggressi"ely somati#i6ing dri"e to moderni6e medi#ine in a Dewtonian mode. HPhysi#,H Cheyne ad"ised his )rethren, must as'ire to the #ondition of 'hysi#s. =he 'ossi)ility of diseases, es'e#ially hysteria, s'ringing 'rimarily from the mind was dis#ountedAno longer, in the main, )e#ause su#h disorders would )e deemed dia)oli#ally insinuated, )ut )e#ause they would there)y )e rendered em'iri#ally unintelligi)le. ,or the theory of hysteria this re'resented an in"igorating somati#i6ing that totally undid Sydenham8s cultural unra"eling.155$2

=he Dewtonian me#hani#s of #ause and effe#t meant that no refle/, no distur)an#e of #ons#iousness, no sensation or motor res'onse, was to )e admitted without 'resuming some 'rior organi# distur)an#e #ommuni#ated "ia the senses and the ner"es. HE"ery #hange of the Bind,H 'ronoun#ed the enthusiasti# Dewtonian Kr. Di#holas Ro)inson in $C5%, Hindi#ates a #hange in the Bodily @rgans,H15552 a "iew Cheyne endorsed in The 1nglish !alady )y adum)rating its wor ings in the intimate inter'lay )etween the digesti"e organs and healthy ner"es8 toni#ity: 3 ne"er saw a 'erson la)our under se"ere, o)stinate, and strong ner"ous #om'laints, )ut 3 always found at last, the stoma#h, guts, li"er, s'leen, mesentery 1i.e., thi# mem)ranes enfolding internal organs2, or some of + $;5 + the great and ne#essary organs or glands of the )elly were o)stru#ted, notted, s#hirrous, s'oiled or 'erha's all these together.155&2 Cheyne su)sumed hysteriaAwhi#h in his fashiona)le medi#al 'ra#ti#e #o"ered a multitude of sym'toms ranging Hfrom .awning and Stret#hing u' to a mortal ,it of -'o'le/yHAunder the um)rella of ner"ous diseases, its )eing due to Ha Rela/ation and the Lant of a suffi#ient ,or#e and Elasti#ity in the Solids in general and the ,erves in 'arti#ular.H155?2 Cheyne8s Hner"esH there)y endorsed the Sydenham(Lillis e/oneration of the wom), relo#ating the distem'er as the neigh)or of the s'leen and "a'ors, and #losely situated ne/t to melan#holy. =ime ela'sed, howe"er, )efore the edu#ated 'u)li# #aught u' with Cheyne8s reforms, and e"en someone as nowledgea)le of Cheyne8s theory of hysteria as the no"elist Samuel Ri#hardson, Cheyne8s great friend, #onflated his "ersion of hysteria with the "a'ors and s'leen. 3n Ri#hardson8s last no"el, "ir &harles Grandison 9$C;&<, the willowy heroine Clementina endures the three stages of H"a'oursH Cheyne des#ri)ed in The 1nglish !alady , 'ro#eeding from fits, fainting, lethargy, or restlessness to hallu#inations, loss of memory, and des'onden#y 9Cheyne re#ommended )leeding and )listering at this stage<, with a final de#line toward #onsum'tion. =o #ure her, Sir Charles follows Cheyne, 'res#ri)ing diet and medi#ine, e/er#ise, di"ersion, and rest, and the story is #onsidera)ly affe#ted when Clementina8s 'arents ado't un4uestioningly Kr. Ro)ert Eames8s further re#ommendation that Hin 7irgins arri"ed at Baturity, and rendered mad )y Lo"e, Barriage is the most effi#a#ious Remedy.H155;2 3n the 'er#e'tions and 'ra#ti#e of early Georgian medi#ine, these ner"ous #om'laints #onstituted a )lo# of relati"ely nons'e#ifi# ailments and )eha"ioral disorders. @ne need merely thin of the letters and diaries of the 'eriod to see what resonan#e s'leen and "a'ors emitted.155:2 =hey are e"en more fre4uently referred to in the 'oetry and drama of the 'eriod, where "irtually no author is e/em't. ,rom the mad ha# 8s atta# s of s'leen in Eonathan Swift8s Tale of a Tub to Clarissa Harlowe8s 'ersistent )outs with "a'ors in the Ri#hardson no"el of that name, the ner"ous ailment e/ists as mundane reality as well as #li#hF and #om'le/ tro'e.155C2 Gender 'ro"es no dis#riminating fa#tor, as men and women ali e, and in almost e4ual num)ers, fall 'rey to its sudden atta# s. But diagnosed ina##urately, the same sym'toms #ould denote luna#y, insanity, dementia: the same madness Swift8s ha# #learly suffers from in the Ra)elaisian Tale of a Tub .155>2 =o our way of thin ing, the )road #ategory melan#holy would not seem to fit under this #on#e'tion of hysteria. .et it then did, one e"iden#e of whi#h is the #onsistent inter#hange of the + $;& + two words in e"en the most te#hni#al medi#al literature. ,urthermore, the line )etween melan#holy and

madness was deli#ate and thus greatly feared. Belan#holy, madness, hysteria, hy'o#hondria, dementia, s'leen, "a'ors, ner"es: )y $C5* or $C&* all were Ium)led and #onfused with one another as they had ne"er )een )efore. -nne ,in#h, the Countess of Lin#helsea and a 'oet mu#h admired )y Po'e and Lordsworth, turned this #onfusion a)out the status of hysteria to her ad"antage in The "pleen: $ indari:ue /de by a 4ady 9$C*%<. =his is her most am)itious wor : a 'hantasmagoria a)out life, death, and the no#turnal re"erie worldAall #on#ei"ed and e/e#uted )y 'ondering reality through the ga6e of the s'leneti# 'oet.155%2 =he leading Hner"e do#torsHAthe Bande"illes and Cheynes and their grou' of lesser e'igoniA grounded these hysteri#al sym'toms entirely in somati# origins: to ma e #ertain through ta#t and e/'ertise that 'atients understood that "irtually all hysteri#al #om'laints were worlds a'art from gross luna#y. =hus Kr. Pur#ell, mentioned earlier as a fashiona)le ner"e do#tor, #laimed that Hthe "a'oursHA a #ondition #ollo4uially synonymous with hysteriaA#onsisted entirely of an organi# o)stru#tion lo#ated Hin the Stoma#h and GutsJ whereof the Grum)ling of the one and the Hea"iness and uneasiness of the other generally 're#eding the Paro/ysm, are no small Proofs.H15&*2 Doting that one of Hi''o#rates8s no)lest #ontri)utions to medi#ine lay in re#ogni6ing that e'ile'sy was not a di"ine affli#tion 9Hthe sa#red diseaseH< )ut entirely natural, Pur#ell insisted that the "a'ors 9what the ,ren#h would #all the H'etit malH< were a in to e'ile'sy 9the Hgrand malH<J indeed that Han e'ile'sie, is 7a'ours arri"8d to a more "iolent degree.H Lhat had )e#ome of Sydenham8s re"olutionary insightsAthe so#ial #onditions, daily stresses, no#turnal e/#esses, wasting away of women in a 'atriar#hal world, all of whi#h he had )elie"ed were im'ortant in the genesis of hysteriaN Lhere was the "iew that the new Enlightenment #odes of 'oliteness and refinement, and the en#roa#hment of unwanted foreign #ustoms on #i"ili6ed English and ,ren#h life 9#offee, tea, #ho#olate, snuff, et#.< 'layed a 'art in #reating these hysteri#al #om'laintsN 3n England and later in Lestern Euro'e they had gone underground, su)ser"ient to, or o"erwhelmed )y, a s#ientifi# milieu )ristling with "igorous Dewtonianism.15&$2 3t is not easy to imagine that a wa"e of Dewtonian0ism di"erted the ner"e do#tors to su#h a 're'onderant degree des'ite theories su#h as Ro)inson8s 9note 5&$<J ne"ertheless, the fa#t is that it did. Bental illness in our time has )een #onstrued so #om'letely within the light of so#ioe#onomi# determinants, when it is not #onsidered a geneti# or hormonal disorder re4uiring #hemi#al #orre#tion, that we find + $;? + it hard to imagine an a''roa#h to hysteria so monolithi#ally iatromathemati#al as the Dewtonian one of Cheyne8s world. .et for a generation at least, e/tending well )eyond the se#ond 4uarter of the eighteenth #entury, 'ersonal and so#ial stress were dis#ounted as uninteresting to the theories of hysteria, while the limelight fell on the a''li#ation of the new Hmathemati#al medi#ineH to e/isting #ases. 3ndeed, in4uiry into the etiology of hysteria as a "alid form of e/'loration regressed: all #ases were deemed to result from de"iant 'hysiologies of the ner"ous system that #ould )e understood only )y Dewtonian or other me#hani#al analyses. -s the #entury e"ol"ed, it )e#ame #lear that luna#y, insanity, and madness re'resented the great fearsAthe grand peur Aof these early Georgians, not the #hroni# hysteria that do#tors li e Bande"ille and Cheyne #laimed they #ould al%ays #ure now that it was somati#i6ed and released from its 're"ious dia)oli#al moorings. Luna#y was feared as the great hangman )e#ause e"en the )est of the Dewtonian do#tors had no #lue to its genesis and #ure.15&52 3n #ases of hysteria there was at least ho'e for the 'atient. 3ts onset, as the do#tors assuaged their 'atients, had not e"en )een mi8lady8s or his lordshi'8s fault. Badness, on the other hand, re'resented an une4ui"o#al failing in the 'o'ular imagination: a fatal la'se of the soul, a disIun#tion of mind and

)odyJ the stigma ne plus ultra J in the )ra"e new world of the Enlightenment it was a final, irre"o#a)le state, usually ending in in#ar#eration. 3t was not until late in the #entury that a new #lass of humane 'hysi#iansAthe Batties, Bonros, Chiarugis, Cri#htons, PinelsAdemonstrated the same humanitarian attitude to madness that the Lillises, Sydenhams, and Cheynes had for hysteria and other ner"ous disorders.15&&2 Bedi#al s#ien#e thus led early Enlightenment 'hysi#ians to ma e a great 'lay of the organi# rootings of 'ro)lemati# disorders. But so too did )edside di'loma#y. Confronted with indeterminate ailments, Cheyne, for e/am'le, 'ondered the 'ro)lem of negotiating diagnoses a##e'ta)le to do#tor and 'atient ali e. 3n his remar a)le auto)iogra'hy and tantali6ingly am)iguous self H#ase history,H he #laimed to em'athi6e with these "i#tims )e#ause he himself suffered from su#h disorders.15&?2 Physi#ians were #ommonly 'ut on the s'ot )y Hner"ous #ases,H he noted, )e#ause su#h #onditions were easily dismissed )y the H"ulgarH as mar s of H'ee"ishness,H or, when ladies were affli#ted, of Hfantasti#alnessH or H#o4uetry.H15&;2 But his own somati#i6ing #ategories were 'ure musi# to his 'atients8 ears, for they #ra"ed diagnoses that rendered their hysteri#al disorders real . =he uninformed might su''ose that hysteria, the s'leen, and all that #lass of disorders were Hnothing )ut the effe#t of ,an#y, and a delusi"e 3maginationH: su#h a #harge was ill0founded, + $;; + Cheyne assured them, )e#ause Hthe #onse4uent Sufferings are without dou)t real and unfeigned.H15&:2 E"en so, finding le mot ;uste re4uired ta#t. H@ften when 3 ha"e )een #onsulted in a Case,H Cheyne mused, Hand found it to )e what is #ommonly #all8d Der"ous, 3 ha"e )een in the utmost Kiffi#ulty, when desir8d to define or name the Kistem'er.H15&C2 His reason was the 'redi#ta)le desire not to offend, Hfor fear of affronting them or fi/ing a Re'roa#h on a ,amily or Person.H ,or, Hif 3 said it was 7a'ours, hysteri# or Hy'o#hondria#al Kisorders, they thought 3 #all8d them Bad or ,antasti#al.H Lhat 're#isely was the so#iology and linguisti#s of this annotated disgustN Kid the 'atients disown their hysteria and the similar maladies )e#ause they refle#ted a 'er"erse life0styleN Some moral or religious failingN @r was it that somehow #enturies of uterine stigma #ould not )e wi'ed away so 4ui# ly, not e"en )y the reforms of Lillis and SydenhamN =hroughout his 'rolifi# medi#al writings, #ommenting on the re#oil of his 'atients in the fa#e of a diagnosis of ner"es or s'leen, e"en when he ga"e the #om'laints a somati# )asis, Cheyne re#ogni6ed the degree to whi#h he would ha"e to edu#ate them. Sir Ri#hard Bla# more, another fashiona)le Hner"e do#tor,H e/'erien#ed similar diffi#ulties, to the 'oint of admitting that his hysteri#al 'atients were often "iewed as frea s suffering from Han imaginary and fantasti# si# ness of the Brain.H15&>2 =he frea s thus )e#ame H@)Ie#ts of Kerision and Contem't,H and naturally were Hunwilling to own a Kisease that will e/'ose them to Kishonour and Re'roa#h.H Lhile Enlightenment do#tors ignored what we would #all the so#iology of hysteria, they did a##e't the la# of gender distin#tions. Bla# 0more was as me#hani#al and Dewtonian a 'hysi#ian as one #ould find in the early eighteenth #entury, #ertainly as Hme#hani#alH as Ro)inson, his #olleague, )ut he lost no o''ortunity to show that hysteri#al sym'toms in women were identi#al to those in hy'o#hondria#al men. Ridi#uling uterine theories of hysteria as so mu#h anatomi#al Ii))erish, Bla# more #on#luded, as Cheyne did, that Hthe Sym'toms that distur) the @'erations of the Bind and 3magination in hysteri# LomenHA)y whi#h he meant H,lu#tuations of Eudgment, and swift =urns in forming and re"ersing of @'inions and Resolutions, 3n#onstan#y, =imidity, -)sen#e of Bind, want of self0determining 'ower, 3nattention, 3n#ogitan#y, Kiffiden#e, Sus'i#ion, and an -'tness to ta e well0meant =hings amissHAHare the same with those in Hy'o#hondria#al Ben.H15&%2 =he #ondition, he maintained, was #ommon to )oth se/es, and the many names gi"en to itAmelan#holy, s'leen, "a'ors, hysteria, ner"es, among

do6ens of othersAall amounted to the same thing: a genuine malady with so0 + $;: + mati# 'athology re4uiring a new understanding )etween do#tor and 'atient. =he sensiti"e 'hysi#ian demonstrated his e/'ertise )y ridi#uling theories that these ner"ous #om'laints were the result of a diseased wom), and he re#ommended identi#al thera'y for hysteri# male and female 'atients. =o gain a##e'tan#e for the term hysteric and its sym'toms, these 'hysi#ians 'ro'osed to yo e them with more #ommon organi# illnesses, in"esting them with la)els and #o''er0)ottomed organi# #onnotations, for e/am'le, )y s'ea ing of Hhysteri# #oli#H or Hhysteri# gout.H =he tenden#y 'ersisted for si/ty or se"enty years at least. =hus one woman Cheyne treated had a Hhysteri# lowness,H another Hfre4uent hysteri# fitsHJ e"entually the word hysteric was so flattened and )e#ame so neutral in its #onnotations as to mean almost nothing at all. =he 'hysi#ian there)y s'ared himself the a##usation of merely trading in wordsAwhi#h he was #ons#iously doing anyway in "iew of the num)er of #onditions that had #ome under the um)rella of Hner"ousHAand im'utations of shamming also were a"oided. Ro)inson, already mentioned, insisted that su#h ner"ous disorders were not Himaginary Lhims and ,an#ies, )ut real -ffe#tions of the Bind, arising from the real, me#hani#al -ffe#tions of Batter and Botion.H15?*2 His reason was that Hneither the ,an#y, nor 3magination, nor e"en Reason itself . . . #an feign . . . a Kisease that has no ,oundation in Dature,H a 'osition that hurls down the gauntlet to Sigmund ,reud.15?$2 @rgani# agen#ies, su#h as stone, tumor, fistula, and so on, thus had to initiate the #hain of rea#tions, no matter what the #on"ersion 'ro#ess entailed: H=he affe#ted Der"es . . . must stri e the 3magination with the Sense of Pain, )efore the Bind #an #on#ei"e the 3dea of Pain in that Part.H Here then was the all0im'ortant role of the ner"es in sensation, as well as all human 'leasure and 'ain. Cheyne, Bla# more, Ro)inson, and their #ontem'oraries did not see to deny the #ontri)ution of #ons#iousness to the genesis of ner"ous disease nor redu#e mind to )ody 9Bagli"i, so influential in southern Euro'e, went the other way, redu#ing all )ody to mindAa mind whose 'assions had )een sha'ed e/#lusi"ely )y the state of the ner"es<. But their as'irations as Hs#ientifi#H do#tors treating HenlightenedH 'atients 9usually the elite of the 'o'ulation< dis'osed them to insist u'on the 'riority of 'hysi#al stimuli as 'art of their two0'ronged strategy to win the #onfiden#e of their 'atients and the esteem of their medi#al 'eers. =hey relied on their a#ademi#0medi#al #redentials to enfor#e this a''roa#h as )eing )oth o)Ie#ti"e and true. Credentials were, after all, one of the main fa#tors in determining authority, 'o'ularity, and fashion0a)ility.15?52 =he most sought0after do#tors in London and Edin)urgh, + $;C + @/ford and Cam)ridge, as well as at the s'as and in the maIor #ities of other #ountries, had )een de#orated, so to s'ea , for their a#ademi# a#hie"ements. 3f this a''roa#h rendered the s'e#ies manAin a world in#reasingly e/'lained )y new theories a)out the s#ien#es of manAl'homme machine , its 'hiloso'hi#al materialism also had )enefi#ial effe#ts. =hus the esta)lishment of ner"ous #onditions as "alid medi#al diseases hel'ed to se#ure the #redit of medi#ine itself in an era of ram'ant 4ua# s and 'roliferating mounte)an s, when dou)ts a)out its "alidity as a s#ien#e were at an all0time high.15?&2 Bore lo#ally, within the realm of medi#al theory, this state of affairs amounted to a neurologi#al a''roa#h to hysteria, whi#h 7eith has #laimed was HsterileH in a H#ontro"ersial #entury.H15??2 @ddly, it was the dominan#e of this neurologi#al a''roa#h to hysteria and the trium'h of the ner"e do#tors with

their 'atients 9'hysi#ians su#h as Cheyne< that led 7eith to any 7i#torian or Karwinian notions a)out the e"olution of medi#ine this disastrous #on#lusion. Countering her Iudgment, we might note 9without ado'ting a''roa#h and returned to it the 'rima#y of neuro)iology.15?;2 =his may 'ro"e nothing in itself )ut at least demonstrates the or medi#al #onditions< that late twentieth0#entury medi#ine has "indi#ated the neurologi#al longe"ity of the neurologi#al a''roa#h. ,urthermore, the Enlightenment ner"e do#tors were immensely sym'atheti# to their 'atients. E"en in an age, su#h as ours, when hysteria has )e#ome so 'oliti#ally and a#ademi#ally #harged, this fa#t within the history of hysteria #annot )e lightly dismissed. 3n the #ase histories detailed in the final se#tion of The 1nglish !alady , Cheyne drew attention to the real woes of sufferers )urdened with misery, de'ression, taedium vitae , ennui, hysteria, and melan#holyAnot least, to his own ner"ous misery.15?:2 His 'atients, unli e Sydenham8s, shared one #ommon thread: they uniformly #ame from the ran s of the ri#h and the famous.

=II
Hysteria thus #ame of age in the o'enness of the Enlightenment, more s'e#ifi#ally in the sunlight of the Dewtonian Enlightenment. 7irtually no im'ortant do#tor in the first half of the eighteenth #entury 'la#ed the root of hysteria in the uterus, and this fa#t tells us as mu#h a)out the 'atients of the e'o#h as its mostly male 'hysi#ians. =he moderni6ation 'ro"ed anatomi#ally li)erating, while also hel'ing to dis#redit the theory )ased on the misogynisti# se/ual stigma of the "ora#ious wom).15?C2 =he new em'la#ement of hysteria in the world of Cheyne and his Hner"e do#torH #olleagues moreo"er s irted "ulgar redu#tionism. 3ts unmista 0 + $;> + a)le language of the ner"esAamounting to the heart of its linguisti# dis#ourseA'ointed toward the mutual inter'lay of #ons#iousness and )ody through the )rain and the 9often< still 'er'le/ing animal s'irits as the 'rimary ner"ous medium.15?>2 =his new linguisti# footing, whi#h had )een de"elo'ing sin#e the days of Lillis and Bande"ille, had 'rofound #ultural and gender0)ased im'li#ations: #ultural )e#ause so#iety itself was growing Hner"ousH in ways no one had anti#i'ated, and gender0)ased as a #onse4uen#e of this new ner"ous model of man ind mandating a wea er ner"ous #onstitution for women than men. =he dese/uali6ation of hysteria was, of #ourse, one 'art of a mo"ement during the Enlightenment that demystified the entire )ody.15?%2 =his 'ro#ess in#luded the re'rodu#ti"e organs and the newly 'ri"ileged mind o"er matter, as in Hume8s e/am'les and 9es'e#ially under the weight of Linnaean ta/onomy< the rule of s'e#ies o"er gender. Lith demystifi#ation also #ame the shedding of mu#h of the shame of hysteria. 3ts sufferers at mid0#entury were now seen as the "i#tims of an interestingly deli#ate ner"ous system )u# ling under the 'ressures of #i"ili6ation, ty'i#ally the thorn in the flesh of elites mo"ing in flashy, fast0lane so#iety.15;*2 =his was the essen#e of Cheyne8s message in his )est0selling )oo , The 1nglish !alady . But the #ultural reasons for this Hdeli#ate ner"ous #onstitutionH were to remain hidden and elusi"e for some time. 3ts 'ersonal effe#ts, es'e#ially for 'atients, were des#ri)ed ad infinitemJ the other effe#ts, the larger images of those li"ing an affluent life, #ould )e seen in the new image the emerging Georgians held of themsel"es. -t home, in the )edroom, this might entail 'aralysis, fear of the dar , as well as dread of the in#u)us and su##u)us, as e"iden#ed )y slee'wal ing and amnesia.15;$2 93f the wee ly and monthly maga6ines #an )e #onsidered relia)le, amnesia was more #ommon than we might thin .< =hese were the standard images of the somnam)ulant melan#holi# or insomnia# hysteri# in the

#ari#atures of the time, as the a##om'anying 'late demonstrates. Bore lo#ally still, within the #onte/t of a now dese/uali6ed female hysteria, the suggestion was that #o4uetry "erged on hysteria.15;52 =o the "ulgar, as Po'e had suggested in The -ape of the 4oc( , hysteria might signify nothing more than #o4uetry itself. But these e/am'les, medi#al and literary, signified something more dee'ly ingrained in the world of the Georgians than has )een thought: namely, the ner"ous self0fashioning of -ugustan so#iety. Ste'hen Green)latt and others among the Dew Histori#ists ha"e written a)out su#h self0fashioning in the Renaissan#e.15;&2 .et the latter 'eriod of the Enlightenment is e"en more re"ealing of the great 'ersonal ten0 + $;% +

HBadwoman in =error,H #a. $CC;, Be66otint )y L. Ki# inson, after a 'ainting )y Ro)ert Edge Pine. Engra"ing in the Lell#ome 3nstitute in London. =he 'ortrait illuminates the early female i#onogra'hy of hysteria, in this instan#e a mad young woman of 'erha's twenty or so whose wild hair is strung with straw, and whose eye)alls flash with terror and fear. - )andana is wra''ed around her headJ in fury she has torn the garment from her )reast, whi#h now lies )are. - feathery or animal garment #lings loosely around her, and she is #hained and ro'ed, e"iden#e that she 'oses a threat to others and is dangerous to herself. Lindow high u' in the left #orner ma es #lear that this is a #ell for lunati#s where she has )een in#ar#erated. + $:* + sions it raised )etween the se/es in a milieu of in#reasing dese/uali6ation in whi#h women #ontinued to enIoy greater freedom and e4uality than they had )efore. =he -ugustan witsAthe -ddisons and Swifts, "irtually all the S#ri)leriansAen#ouraged us to )elie"e that logi#, wit and intelligen#eAall 'art of the realm of the mindAwere the sine 4ua nons of 'olite so#iety then. But the tension )etween men and women re"ol"ed around more than mat#hing wits, #om'eting intelle#ts, wit and wit0would0)e, e"en in a Hre'u)li# of lettersH go"erned )y an o)sessi"e #ommitment to refinement and 'oliteness, manners and eti4uette. 3n addition, and most im'ortant, there was the unrelenting sear#h for 'ersonal identity and self0fulfillment. =his need is what the no"el and drama of the 'eriod #a'ture 'ar e/#ellen#e, and nothing refle#ts the mood of the e'o#h )etter than its great imaginati"e literature.15;?2 -ll these #ults of sensi)ilityAas 3 ha"e #alled them elsewhere15;;2 Ademanded rising standards of )eha"ioral a#hie"ement and ne#essarily #alled attention to their o''osites: the realms of 'athology and a)normality. =his is why the medi#ine of the day, es'e#ially its theory )ased on )odily signs and sym'toms, the semiology and 'athology of illness, #annot )e dismissed as so mu#h esoteri#a.15;:2 Le ha"e de"oted two generations of study to the literary language of the GeorgiansJ their ideas of )ody would well re'ay half that attention. =he Lady Barys and Ku#hess of Portlands were hardly norms #a'a)le of emulation, yet in their )odily motions were #odified the )rilliant new ur)anity of the age. =heir so'histi#ated 'ostures swirled round in rarefied atmos'heres of #ourtliness and 'olite town so#iety, a)iding )y a #ode of language and gesture in whi#h the )ody was always re4uired to )e

dis#i'lined and drilled, #oy and #ontrolledJ always mannered, as we see e"erywhere from the roles of dan#ing masters, a#ting tea#hers, tutors, go"ernesses, and gymnasts of the age.15;C2 E"en so, new inner sensi)ilities had to find e/'ression through refined and often su)tly "eiled )odily #odes: one8s )earing around the tea ta)le, in the salon, at the assem)ly and 'um'room, in town and #ountry, at home and a)road, 'arado/i#ally re"ealing yet #on#ealing at the same time, in a#tions, gestures, and mo"ements that s'o e louder than words.15;>2 =his was the sour#e of tension now su'erim'osed on the gender 'ressures s'awned in the Restoration under the weight of ur)an s'rawl and new so#io'oliti#al arrangements. 3n England at least, the gender rearrangements of the Restoration were ele"ated to e/'onential highs in the ages of -nne and the Georges. 3sn8t this a 'rin#i'al reason why the drama from Etherege and Congre"e to Gay and Goldsmith assumes its 'arti#ular traIe#tory "is0Y0"is the se/es and gender arrangementsN + $:$ + !r)an s'rawl, new forms of #onsumer #onsum'tion, gender rearrangements, inter'ersonal tensions, #rime and "iolen#e, #lass mo)ility, the transfer of money and goods into a 'ro#ess of un're#edented #onsum'tion: the 'hrases a''ear to des#ri)e our "e/ed world. =his was, howe"er, the eighteenth #entury, #onsuming itself in newly found nationalism and wealth and )as ing in its a##om'anying leisure time, es'e#ially in food and drin .15;%2 =he lingua fran#a of su#h e/'ression0re'ression0 e/'ression lay in the refined #odes of ner"ousness: a new )ody language, ultrafle/i)le, nuan#ed yet thoroughly 'oised within am)i"alen#e. =he essen#e of the #ode lay in these )odily gestures of re#ognitionAwhether )lushing or wee'ing, fainting or swooningAwhi#h #ould a#t as sorting0out de"i#es in times of dou)t, #ertainly when lo"e and marriage were in"ol"ed. =he #omi# drama from a''ro/imately $C&* onward demonstrates what heightened re4uirements the #ode 'la#ed on a#tors who tried to refle#t itJ our la# of re#ognition of the #ode itself results, in 'art, from the rarity with whi#h any of these 'lays is now 'erformed. Lords were also to ens of re#ognition for the sensi)le and sensiti"e: sorting0out de"i#es too. !nder duress and at great e/'ense, the language 9of gestures and words< #ould )e learned, )ut e"en among the ri#h and great, the smart and #hi#, it was a#4uired at the #ost of great 'ersonal ris and self0dou)t. Ris lay e"erywhere in the new so#ial arrangements re'resentedAalmost mimeti#allyAin the 'roliferating idioms of ner"ous sensi)ility. =he sheer num)er of the idioms then a"aila)le has 're"ented us from seeing dee'ly 9and some might say dar ly< into the ris s in"ol"ed. !'on o##asion we ha"e e"en denied that the idioms e/isted. Readers today may well wonder: Lhat #ults of ner"ous sensi)ilityN -nd why nervous N15:*2 Lant of nerve , for e/am'le, )etrayed a #lear effemina#y, una##e'ta)le in all #lasses from the highest ra es and fo's to the lowest la)orers. Parado/i#ally, want of nerves , e/'osed a rusti# dullness, a latent tedium, a resulting )oredom odious to the British for all sorts of reasons and feared among the highest ran ing of )oth genders. .et florid, "olatile ner"ousness Ain )oth men and womenA)etrayed e/#ess and #onfusion: sym'toms that #ould result in hysteri#al #risis. -nd hysteria, no matter what a''ellation it was gi"en and no matter how #ulturally 'ositi"e in the 'o'ular semioti#s of that world, was a refuge of last resort. 3t was the #ry of the 'erson 9usually female< una)le to #o'e with the shar' #ultural dislo#ations and so#ial norms that had o##urred in su#h a relati"ely short time. Lithin this ta/onomy of disease, then, hysteria was the final limit )eyond whi#h no #ondition was more )affling, none #a'a)le of 'rodu#ing stranger somati# #onse4uen#es. =he semioti#s of the ner"es, + $:5 +

leading to understanding of hysteria, is therefore a way of nowing, and there)y de#oding, the infirmity of e/#ess, in mu#h the same way that ,ou#ault8s hysteria is an understanding deri"ed through #om'rehension of the female8s inner s'a#es. -nd it was through this semioti#s of the ner"es that ,ou#ault made the grandest #laim of all: H3t was in these diseases of the ner"es and in those hysterias 1of the 'eriod $:>*0$C>*2, whi#h would soon 'ro"o e its irony, that 'sy#hiatry too its origin.H15:$2 =he 4uest was rather for a golden mean filtered )y de#orumAthe same "ariegated de#orum e/tolled )y the age. But de#orum had its snares tooJ it was easier to #on#e'tuali6e or "er)ali6e than to 'ut into 'ra#ti#e, as wee'y heroine u'on heroine lamented, usually to her detriment, in the fi#tions of the age. =he snare was the retention of one8s indi"iduality within this )odily and "er)al #ontrol. 3n 'ra#ti#e, the a#t resem)led treading on a tightro'e, the wal er fore"er )alan#ing o"er the a)yss. =his was the )eginning of a way of lifeAas Cheyne a)o"e all others in his age seems to ha"e re#ogni6edAwhere the 'arti#i'ants li"ed on the edge and in the fast lane. Ri#hard Sennett, the -meri#an so#iologist, has lo#ated the origins of modern indi"idualism within this fast0'a#ed eighteenth0#entury #ulture.15:52 Bore 're#isely, we might #ounterargue, indi"idualism was #reated out of ner"ous tension and am)i"alen#e o"er the self: the a##ommodation )etween the hy'er0"isi)le, nar#issisti# indi"idual and a so#iety that had #ra"ed it 9i.e., the indi"idualism<, while at the same time demanding #onformity to the #i"ili6ing 'ro#ess. =his was the self0fashioning of the ur)ane -ugustans, the #odes on whi#h the se/ual 'oliti#s of the new hysteria of the eighteenth #entury de'ended, and it would not ha"e #ome a)out without the 'rior hy'ostases of the great ner"e do#torsAthe Sydenhams and Lillises, the Bande"illes and CheynesAwhi#h resulted in the ner"ous #odes that ele"ated sensi)ility to a new 'inna#le.15:&2 Here then was a different route to the golden age of hysteria, a different dualism than the old Cartesian saw a)out mind and )ody. =his Georgian self was less a di"ided Cartesian selfAthe now unise/ woman or man ri"eted )y #on"entional mind and )odyAthan a #reature 'art 'u)li#, 'art 'ri"ate, often hidden )ehind a mas 9sometimes a literal "i6ard< that #urtailed self0e/'ression as well as 'ermitted it to flourish. Here, in this 'assionate se/ual am)i"alen#e, was the heart 9one might as well #laim the stoma#h and li"er for the "is#eral effe#t it had on li"es then< of the #ults of ner"ous sensi)ility. 3t im)ued -ugustan and Georgian #ultureJ e"entually it made inroads in Holland, ,ran#e, 3taly, all Euro'e. -nd it left its mar on the )est 'hiloso'hers: the 7oltaires and Hailers and Humes without whom an eighteenth0#entury HEnlight0 + $:& + enmentH is unthin a)le.15:?2 3t energi6ed the Kiderots and Sternes, the Casano"as and Rousseaus, as well as the fi#tional Clarissas and E"elinas, the =ristram Shandys and other noted HgentlemenHAand gentlewomenAof feeling. How then #ould ner"ous sensi)ility ha"e )een )orn without a medi#al agenda that demystified the )ody and a su)se4uent Dewtonian re"olution that #on#reti6ed its )est hy'othesesN15:;2 3n the intelle#tual domain, this ner"ous tension surfa#ed as a S'hin/ian riddle of 'sy#he0soma affinities, and s'urred, in 'art, the literally hundreds of wor s on mind and )ody we ha"e heard a)out for so long.15::2 But in more familiar #ornersAat home and in #hur#h, in the theater and 'u)li# garden, e"erywhere in 'olite so#ietyAit also a''eared in su)tle ways: in )odily motion, gait, affe#tation, gesture, e"en in the sim'le )lush or tear, and in the most 'ri"ate thought that now #ould )e read )y another. Der"ous tension was thus domesti#i6ed for the first time in modern history. 7iewed from another 'ers'e#ti"e, it was also )eing me#hani6ed for the first time, as manners themsel"es #oagulated into an a)stra#t #ode0language of me#hani#al 'hiloso'hy: on the surfa#e a loose a''li#ation of Dewtonian me#hani#s to the )ody8s gait and gestures, )ut an a''li#ation ne"ertheless.15:C2

=he self0fashioning of ner"es was thus signifi#antly e/'anded: from me#hani#al 'hiloso'hy it was medi#ali6ed, familiari6ed, domesti#ated, and e"entually transformed into the mFtier of 'olite self0 fashioning and e"en world0fashioning, in the sense that its #ode was e"entually ado'ted as a uni"ersal sine :ua non for those as'iring to su##eed in the )eau monde. =he #onse4uen#es for human se/uality and so#ial inter#ourse were in#al#ula)le )e#ause 'assion and the imagination were im'li#ated to su#h an e/traordinary degree, as were the lin s )etween hysteria and the imagination. -s soon as the imagination was aroused or distur)ed, e"en in the most im'er#e'ti)le way, somati# #hange was indi#ated. @f this se4uen#e, the 'hysi#ians had )een #ertain from the mid0eighteenth #entury, if not earlier. H3t a''ears almost in#redi)le,H Peter Shaw, His BaIesty George 338s Physi#ian E/traordinary and the English #ham'ion of #hemi#al a''li#ations in medi#ine, wrote in The -eflector: -epresenting Human $ffairs3 $s They $re: and may be improved 9$C;*, num)er 55><, Hwhat great Effe#ts the 3magination has u'on Patients.H Later on the 'oint was reiterated )y Lilliam He)erden, another noted #lini#ian in the tradition of Boerhaa"e whose life s'anned nearly the whole of the eighteenth #entury and of whom Samuel Eohnson said that he was Hultimus -omanorum , the last of our great 'hysi#ians.H He)erden was as mu#h a 'rodu#t of this Hner"e #ultureH as anyone else. -fter years of #lini#al e/'erien#e he found that the indi#ation of hysteria usually )e0 + $:? + gan Hwith some uneasiness of the stoma#h or )owels.H15:>2 He listed the sym'toms: HHy'o#hondria# men and hysteri# women suffer a##idities, wind, #ho ing, leading to giddiness, #onfusion, stu'idity, inattention, forgetfulness, and irresolution.H =he sym'toms were di"erse, 'erha's too di"erseJ a 'owerful and wild imagination lay at their )ase. But when He)erden 'ronoun#ed on the root #ause of hysteria, he #ould only say that the #ondition was fundamentally nervous , that is, fundamentally real or nonimaginaryJ in his words, Hfor 3 dou)t not their arising from as real a #ause as any other distem'er.H15:%2 Su#h ner"ous self0fashioning lay at the )ase of the so#ial #ults and linguisti# idioms of Enlightenment sensi)ility, and were as influential as any other for#e in generating the theory of hysteria that we see refle#ted in the writings of the ner"e do#tors and their students.15C*2 =he 'ro#ess would not )e re"ersi)le. =he do#tors did not im'ose their "ision of so#iety on their #ultureJ it was life with its tensions that drew e"en the do#tors into its or)it and #aused their theories utterly to refle#t this new so#iety. Eust as im'ortant, ner"es in the new #ulture 're#luded moral )lame, )e#ause there #ould )e no #ensure in a so#ial, almost 6eitgeist , disease. Enlightenment swoons and their su)se4uent num)ness in )oth women and men #ame from the a#t of )u# ling under the 'ressures of #i"ili6ation, es'e#ially for the elite who mo"ed within the fast lane of so#iety. =he new "iolen#e and the threat of its omni'resen#e enhan#ed the 'ani#, as Eohn Gay and the early no"elists o)ser"ed. -melia8s strange disorder is des#ri)ed )y Ca'tain Booth in ,ielding8s $melia in terms that ma e #lear the 'ri#e she has 'aid for li"ing in the new fast lane. Booth nows not what to #all her Hdisease,H )ut e"entually lands on Hthe hysteri#s,H whi#h seems as a##urate to him as any other a''ellations. ,ielding8s #ase history is not "ery different from the one Eane -usten will narrate with laser 're#ision in "ense and "ensibility J its Barianne Kashwood, with her swoons and sighs, is another Hhysteri#H whose #ase has not yet )een dis#ussed in the detail it deser"es, meti#ulously re#ounted as it is in that no"el from the first onset of fits and starts to the 'atient8s near demise and e"entual re#o"ery. 3n all these #ases, real and imagined, 'ani# stemmed not merely from male "iolen#e )ut from a new ty'e of female as well, and so#iety8s fears were su)stantiated almost daily )y the #ul'rits and "aga)onds a''rehended and )rought into the #ourts of law.15C$2 Life in the fast lane then, at least for the new ur)an ri#h, entailed high li"ing,

#ons'i#uous #onsum'tion, re# less s'ending, more tra"el than 're"iously 9es'e#ially to the de"elo'ing seaside resorts<, late nights, and new gender arrangements, all #om)ining to set off the )eau monde from the other ran s of so#iety. Deurologi#al #haos in the )ody merely + $:; + mirrored the so#ial disorder of the time. =hough the #om'arison may not ha"e stru# the a"erage aristo#rat, these forms of disorder ne"er stood a'art, nor did the hysteria of its women and men. But did a deli#ate ner"ous organi6ation 'redis'ose one to the )u# ling under, or did the )u# ling under alter the )ody8s ner"ous organi6ationN =he 4uestion is hard )ut #annot )e o"erloo ed or swe't away. =he a''roa#h to the answers ta en )y the ner"e do#tors was not, as 7eith has suggested, sterileJ they re#ogni6ed the 'sy#hogeni# )urdens of their 'atients and the role 'layed )y mind and imagination, e"en though the do#tors grounded "irtually all their diseases in ner"ous stru#tures. =his monolithi# attri)ution remains the diffi#ult as'e#t of their Hhysteria diagnosisH for us. E"en so, the do#tors often failed 9almost always< to see the so#iologi#al roots of num)ness and its radi#al enmeshment in language and its re'resentations.15C52 =his is a re"elatory indi#ation of the degree to whi#h the new ner"ous #ulture of the eighteenth #entury had made inroads into the 'hiloso'hy, 'sy#hology, and medi#ine of the time. 3n )rief, Cheyne and his #olleagues s#ienti6ed hysteria )y radi#ally neurali6ing it. =hey did not in"alidate #ons#iousness in human life or redu#e mind to )ody. =heirs was rather a #rusade against du'li#itous disease, #am'aigned for in the sunny light and 4uasi0)lind o'timism of high Enlightenment s#ien#e. Dot e"en hysteria #ould hide from them or 'ro"e elusi"e. 3f the Enlightenment ner"e do#tors #ame )a# todayAheyne recidivus Athey #ould not agree with our #ontem'orary Kr. -lan Krohn a)out hysteria as Hthe elusi"e neurosis.H =o them, hysteria was fundamentally nowa)le: a neurology of solids, an iatromathemati#s of for#es, a neural we) of ner"es, s'irits, and fi)ers.

=III
By the mid0eighteenth #entury, ner"es seem to ha"e run wildJ the resulting hysteria was #hroni# among all those li"ing in the fast lane and endemi#, for different reasons, among the nation at large. Some women new they had it, others did not: the in#onsisten#y was less a defe#t of medi#al theory than the e/treme fluidity of the diagnosis. ,or hysteria was not 'oured into a rigid mold )y either the do#tors or their 'atients. =he diagnosis was usually made to fit the sufferer: a nonredu#ti"e e/'ression of disorder. Linguisti#ally s'ea ing, hysteria 'rofited from a new and "ery mallea)le "o#a)ulary of the ner"es as fle/i)le and adIusta)le to the 'arti#ular situation as the 'atient8s sym'toms themsel"es. 3n formal writing, )y mid0#entury this "o#a)ulary had )een e/'ressed + $:: + in new ner"ous dis#ourses: of 'oets, no"elists, #riti#s, dida#ti# writers, in narrati"es of all sorts. -n aestheti# of Hner"ous styleH )egan to emerge, endorsed )y male writers, found sus'e#t )y female, whi#h was una)ashed in #alling itself, after its 'atriar#hal affinities, mas#uline, strong, tautAanything )ut feminine or e'i#ene. -nd if style was then genderi6ed to this degree, why should medi#ine not ha"e )een, es'e#ially the maladia summa hysteriaAthe genderi6ed #ondition 'ar e/#ellen#eN Cheyne, a)o"e all, e/'loited this 'rotean ner"ous idiom and 'ro#rustean "o#a)ulary in his )est0seller The 1nglish !alady , the real reason for its instant su##ess. So too did his followers and dis#i'les. @ne of these, re'resentati"e of these dis#i'les in se"eral ways, was Kr. Eames Ba ittri# -dair. Li e

Cheyne and Lilliam Cullen, -dair was also a S#ot who had )een dee'ly influen#ed )y the S#ottish Enlightenment. But -dair was also a Cheyne follower who saw what )enefits #ould a##rue to his #areer )y worshi'ing, so to s'ea , within the H=em'le of the English Balady.H -dair had )een taught in Edin)urgh )y Ro)ert Lhytt, the H'hiloso'hi# do#torH who related Hner"ous sensi)ilityH to e"ery as'e#t of modern life, and he ne"er forgot the great medi#al 're#e't of his tea#her, whi#h resounded in the le#ture theaters -dair attended: H=he sha'es of roteus , or the #olours of the chameleon , are not more numerous and in#onstant, than the "ariations of the hy'o#hondria# and hysteri# diseases.H But it was Cheyne8s thought that lay in the dee'est regions of -dair8s imagination throughout his 'rofessional medi#al #areer.15C&2 -lways a# nowledging his tea#her8s famous essay of $C:?0:; on ner"ous diseases 9Lhytt8s /bservations on the nature3 causes3 and cure of those disorders %hich have been commonly called nervous3 hypochondriac3 or hysteric3 to %hich are prefi#ed some remar(s on the sympathy of the nerves <, -dair ser"ed u' e/'lanations his readers wanted to hear a)out hysteria. He also 'ro"ided them with a natural history of ner"es in the linguisti# and #ultural domain: !'wards of thirty years ago, a treatise on ner"ous diseases was 'u)lished )y my 4uondam learned and ingenious 're#e'tor KR. LH.==, 'rofessor of 'hysi# , at Edin)urgh. Before the 'u)li#ation of this )oo , 'eo'le of fashion had not the least idea that they had ner"esJ )ut a fashiona)le a'othe#ary of my a#4uaintan#e, ha"ing #ast his eye o"er the )oo , and ha"ing )een often 'u66led )y the en4uiries of his 'atients #on#erning the nature and #auses of their #om'laints, deri"ed from then#e a hint, )y whi#h he readily #ut the gordian not AHBadam, you are ner"ousHJ the solution was 4uite satisfa#tory, the term 1ner"ous2 )e#ame 4uite fashiona)le, and s'leen, "a'ours, and hy', were forgotten.15C?2 + $:C + 3t is an e/traordinary e/'lanation, showing the #ontinuity of eighteenth0#entury ner"ous self0 fashioning. 3t not only #asts light on the aftermath of Cheyne8s #areer following his death in $C?& and on Lhytt8s mu#h0dis#ussed treatise of $C:? )ut resonates with #lass filiation. -dair saw how shrewd his medi#al )rethren had )een to #lassify as Hner"ousH those )eha"ioral disorders free of determinate organi# lesions: that is, "a'ors, s'leen, hysteria, hy'o#hondria, melan#holy, and the do6ens of su)#ategories s'awned from these. -dair also re#ogni6ed that naming and la)eling 'layed a large role in the hysteri#8s #on#e'tuali6ation. =he Gordian not was unra"eled when words were de#i'hered. Li ewise, in the 're"ious generation, when Kr. Di#holas Ro)inson 'u)lished a HDewtonian dissertation on hysteriaH and wrote that e"ery maiden had )e#ome so ner"ous that #oining new words to des#ri)e its minute grades was ne#essary, he new whereof he s'o e. He himself #om'iled a whole "o#a)ulary of remar a)le neologisms that had )een #oined in his time: hy'', hy''os, hy''o#ons, mar am)les, moon'alls, strong fia#s, ho# ogroglesAall Io#ularly des#ri)ing hysteria8s grades of se"erity. Still, it was the great male 'oet, the dwarf of =wi# enham, who used the "erna#ular of ner"es to des#ri)e the li"ing #onse4uen#es of male hysteria. -s he lay dying at fifty0fi"e, -le/ander Po'e #laimed to those gathered around him that he Hhad ne"er )een hy''ish in his life.H =here was no need to gloss the 'hrase. Presuma)ly all new what he meant. =he "ery sturdy and nonhysteri#al Lady Bary, already mentioned, may ha"e #onsidered the Hlittle 'oet of =wi# enhamH to )e, li e his fier#e enemy Lord Her"ey, a mem)er of the Hthird se/.H But e"en Lady Bary would ha"e had to admit that Po'e was essentially Hmale.H How #ame it to 'ass that Po'e, whose Hlong Kisease, my LifeH had 'a"ed the way for him to )e#ome more intimate with medi#al literature than he would otherwise ha"e )een, assumed male hysteria to )e in the normal #ourse of affairsN15C;2 @ne #an demonstrate, as 3 ha"e tried, that as far )a# as the Eli6a)ethan era, and 'ro)a)ly earlier, males were assumed to )e natural targets for Hthe mother,H this des'ite their o)"iously not ha"ing the re4uisite

anatomi#al a''aratus. =he 'rogress of medi#al theory in the aftermath of Sydenham and outside the Cheyne0-dair #ir#le also needs to )e #onsulted if we are to understand how male hysteria sha'ed u' in the eighteenth #entury. ,or the fa#t is that "irtually e"ery serious medi#al author who wrote a)out hysteria after Sydenham8s death in $:>%, e"en the s e'ti#s among the medi#al fraternity, in#luded men among their lists of those naturally affli#ted: in England, for e/am'le, these authors in#luded some of the + $:> + )est0 nown do#tors of the age, in#luding Dathaniel Highmore, Ri#hard Bla# more, Bernard Bande"ille 9the 'hysi#ian0satirist<, Eohn Pur#ell, and Di#holas Ro)insonJ in S#otland, =homas Cu''les, Lawren#e ,raser, Lilliam =urner, and nearly the whole of the Edin)urgh medi#al s#hoolJ in Holland, the HEuro#entri#H Boerhaa"e and his far0flung students, in#luding Ean Esgers, C. "an de Haghen, Lu#as "an Ste"eni# , as #an )e gleaned from do6ens of medi#al dissertations written on hysteria at Leiden and !tre#htJ in Kenmar , Eohannes =odeJ in Swit6erland and Bohemia, a #ertain num)erJ in ,ran#e, Eean -stru#, Di#holas Kellehe, E. C. Ku'ont, Pierre Pomme, and e"en the so0#alled father of 'sy#hiatry and transformer of thera'ies for the suffering insane, the great Phili''e PinelJ15C:2 in Germany, Gusta"us Be# er, C. G. Burghart, Georg Clasius, C. G. Gross, E. ,. 3senflamm, Eohann Christo'h Sto# J in 3taly, -. ,ra#assini, P. 7irard, G. 7. Pe"iani. =hese names suggest little if anything now, )ut in their time these figures #onstituted something of an international gallery of medi#al stars. 15CC2 =he treatment of males among the hysteri#ally affli#ted, and es'e#ially males of the u''er #lasses, was a "erita)le industry in the eighteenth #entury. Lhether the do#tors were 'ersuaded that males were #lini#ally affli#ted in the same way as women 9sans Hthe motherH and the rest of the female re'rodu#ti"e a''aratus< we may ne"er now, and Bar Bi#ale8s )iogra'hi#al resear#hes do not e/tend far enough )a# to offer a #lue.15C>2 .et the medi#al literature from Sydenham forward s'ea s for itself and is une4ui"o#al on the matter. Boreo"er, there seems to ha"e )een no maIor o''onent to Sydenham8s "iew a)out male hysteria to #hallenge his theory in the long #ourse of the eighteenth #entury, neither in England nor elsewhere. @n#e the notion of male hysteria too root as a #lini#ally o)ser"ed 'henomenon, whi#h it had not done a hundred years earlier, its e/isten#e a''ears to ha"e )een guaranteed. =he huge annals of eighteenth0#entury medi#al literature #orro)orate this 'osition, and e/am'les #iting Sydenham as their fount are re'lete in the re#ord. 3t is more diffi#ult, howe"er, to dis#o"er e/am'les roughly #ontem'orary with Sydenham, 'erha's suggesting to what degree the notion of male hysteria had )een a)sor)ed into the medi#al imagination.15C%2 ,or e/am'le, #onsider the #urious )ut still far from #lear relationshi' )etween =homas Guidott and Eohn Ba'let. Both were English 'hysi#ians 'ra#ti#ing in the Restoration and early eighteenth #entury in and around Bath. Guidott owed his entire Bath 'ra#ti#e to Ba'let, who hel'ed him a#4uire it. -fter Guidott lost his 'ra#ti#e in Bath through im'ruden#e, li)el, and s4uandering, he mo"ed to London, remained loyal to his former 'atron, and #ontinued to diagnose and treat his + $:% + 9Ba'let8s< ailments until the end of his life.15>*2 =his would seem to )e a #ase of 'rofessional 'atronage larded o"er with friendshi', )ut it also had its 'rofound medi#al side useful in these e/'lorations of male hysteria. Lhat sur"i"es are Guidott8s a##ounts 9not Ba'let8s<, and #onsidering Guidott8s #olorful #hara#ter, his re#ord may not )e entirely relia)le or #om'lete. But it does 'ro"ide

enough information to #om'rehend what it was a)out Ba'let8s Hmale hysteriaH that so attra#ted and e/#ited Guidott, who wrote many years after Ba'let8s death: 1He2 was of a tender, )rittle Constitution, in#lining to ,eminine, #lear S in8d, and of a "ery fair Com'le/ion, and though "ery tem'erate. . . yet in#lina)le to Hysterical Kistem'ers, #hiefly Gouts and Catarrhs, whi#h would oftentimes #onfuse his Body, )ut not his Bind 1mind and )ody #onstrued as se'arate entities2, whi#h was then more at Li)erty to e/'atiate, and gi"e some 3n"itation to his Poeti# Genius . . . to des#ant on the =ormentor, and transmit his Sorrow into a S#ene of Birth.15>$2 Bulti'le as'e#ts of this analysis gi"e us 'ause: Guidott8s strange lin ing of hysteria to gout and #atarrh and in other writings his su)#lassifi#ation of Hhysteri#al goutHJ his 'ost0Cartesian "ersion of the mind()ody s'litJ the assum'tion that #reati"ity and hysteria 9HPoeti# GeniusH and Hthe =ormentorH< are #ousinsJ a)o"e all, the 'resum'tion that in edu#ated and intelligent males li e Ba'let Hhysteri#al maniaH is merely the outward sign 9again a semioti#s of the malady< of an almost H,eminineH ner"ous HConstitution.H Here, in ner"ous anatomy and H=ender Constitution,H lies the origin of tem'eramental sensiti"ity in men. Later, Guidott dis#usses Ba'let8s deli#ate ner"es, meta'hori#ally isolating them as Hsus'e#tsH in this 4uasi0#riminal hysteri#al disorder.15>52 HSus'e#tsH in )oth the 'ositi"e and 'eIorati"e dimension: 'ositi"e in that they "irtually )reed sensiti"ity and #reati"ityJ negati"e in their 'athologi#al 'redis'osing toward the #ondition. -ll this is what we would e/'e#t after unra"eling and de#oding the #om'le/ medi#al theory of the time. Bu#h less e/'e#ted is Guidott8s lea' to friendshi'. He #laims to )e Hattra#tedH to the ner"ous, )rittle, deli#ate, tender, frail, white0s inned Ba'letAnot attra#ted se/ually, #ertainly, nor 'rimarily as a #onse4uen#e of Ba'let8s 'rofessional generosity, although one would 'resuma)ly )e interested in the arm and leg of 'atronage, )ut attra#ted intelle#tually and humanly. Guidott8s life is not suffi#iently understood to ha6ard any guesses a)out his se/uality, )ut his #ase history of Ba'let suggests the e/isten#e )y a''ro/imately $C** of a new Sydenhamian 'aradigm a)out male hysteria that yo es anatomy, 'hysiology, and 'sy#hology to #ulture, gender formation, and so#iety.15>&2 + $C* + Lhat )etter e"iden#e #ould there )e of gender )asis in this a##ountN Ba'let is the Htender, ner"ous, )rittleH male who has )e#ome affli#ted and re4uires diagnosing and treating )y GuidottJ he is also the soft, #reati"e, ner"ous male 'redis'osed to hysteria and friendshi'. Guidott8s language does not yet re"eal the de"elo'ed Iungle of ner"es and fi)ers that will flourish in Cheyne and Ri#hardson, and later e"en more meta'hori#ally and densely in the fi#tions of Sterne and the S#ottish do#tors. But it remains one of the earliest and most interesting a##ounts of male hysteria in English, #ertainly a 'rototy'e of sorts. Guidott himself was somewhat H'oeti#ally ins'ired,H though he is not nown to ha"e )een Hhysteri#al.H He had #om'osed 'oetry at @/ford and wrote 'oeti# satire when he 4uarreled with the London 'hysi#ians.15>?2 -nd he had matured in a world o"errun with male enthusiasts of all sortsAthe )road s'e#trum that 'ermeates the great satires of the age, su#h as Swift8s Tale of a Tub . Guidott8s London, li e that of Sydenham, his #ontem'orary, dis'layed ranting enthusiasts on e"ery #orner, often said )y the Hdo#torsH to )e male hysteri#s let loose on the =own. =hough their num)ers in#reased and de#reased a##ording to the lu# of the time, de#ade )y de#ade, their 'resen#e was #ommonly e/'lained, as Swift had suggested in the Tale , in the language of the "a'ors and s'leen, ner"es and fi)ers, all their ra"ing and madness attri)uta)le to Hhysteri#al affe#tions.H =his was a motifAthe #onne#tion )etween religious ins'iration and male hysteriaAthat would e/tend throughout the #ourse of the eighteenth #entury. -s newly ins'ired se#ts )e#ame more "isi)le, so too

the "arieties of their male hysteri#s, and in almost e"ery #ase where do#umentation sur"i"es there lingers the im'li#ation of a Hhysteri#al affe#tionH of one or another "ariety. 3f e'ile'sies and #on"ulsions were the signs of se#ular distra#tion, they also affli#ted men #ra6ed in grou's )y their religious enthusiasmJ Phili''e He#4uet, a ,ren#h 'hysi#ian of the an#ien rFgime, #laimed in 4e naturalisme des convulsions dans les maladies de l'ApidAmie convulsionnaire 9$C&&< that #on"ulsions among the mo) were anatomi#ally e/'erien#ed no differently than among indi"iduals.15>;2 Charles Re"illon, another ,ren#h 'hysi#ian, su''orted this "iew in -echerches sur la cause des affections hypochrondria:ues 9Paris: HFrissant, $C>:<, e/'laining that sudden and une/'e#ted #atastro'hi# e"ents trigger hysteria in the Hmo)8s )odyH e/a#tly as they do in the indi"idual )ody. Histori#ally there wereA to )rowse through the #entury #ursorilyAthe strolling ,ren#h 'ro'hets, or Cami6ards, in the first two de#adesJ the new al#hemists and 'rea#hers of the mid0#enturyJ the melan#holi# "isionary 'oets 9the Grays, Smarts, Collinses, Cow'ers<, all of whom suffered some ty'e of religious melan#holy and were either in#ar#erated + $C$ + in their #olleges, li e Gray, or in madhouses<J to say nothing of the non0religious se#ts and the s'ate ranging from Hogarth8s #omi# "arieties to Kame Edith Sitwell8s gallery of rogues.15>:2 Bale hysteria #oursed down through the #entury. Lhole )oo s #ould )e written a)out it, deri"ing mu#h of their information from the 'ages of 'o'ular re"iews li e the Gentleman's !aga.ine , one of the most widely #ir#ulated outlets of the Enlightenment, British or non0British. ,or e/am'le, the Do"em)er issue of $C&? re#ounts a story em)ellished )y the twist of #ross dressing. Both the hus)and and wife ha"e )een Hhysteri#ally affe#ted,H she more a#utely than he. Bore familiar than she with the medi#al 'rofession, the hus)and 'ersuades a friend to im'ersonate a 'hysi#ian, who treats his hysteri#al wife )y 'res#ri)ing Hthe sim'le life.H =he wife is du'ed, follows her thera'y, and re#o"ers. Bore #ommon #ases re"eal affli#ted males, 'res#ri)ed to )y )ona fide do#tors, who do not re#o"er 4ui# ly. By $CC;, Hugh ,armer, the dissenting minister who was the friend of Kr. Phili' Koddridge and enemy of Eose'h Priestley, 'ersuaded his 'u)lishers that there was suffi#ient interest in #ontem'orary male hysteria to resus#itate it in the oldest e/tant te/ts. ,armer did so himself in $n 1ssay on the >male? Demoniacs of the ,e% Testament , a wor aimed to show how an#ient the lineage of ins'iration was. 15>C2 ,armer, li e Christo'her Smart and Lilliam Cow'er, had himself )een affli#ted with a "ariety of religious melan#holies that left him as de)ilitated as many #hroni# male hysteri#s. -s a dissenting minister with a 'arish to loo after and duties to attend to, ,armer was utterly uninterested in male li#ense and li)erty and, li e Smart and Cow'er, had maintained a 4ueasy fear of women, es'e#ially older, sisterly women who fore"er res#ued him and loo ed after him. =he mindsets of all these figures lie far from the medi#al theory 3 dis#ussed earlier, )ut not so far as to es#a'e its effe#ts. -s 3 #ontinue to suggest here, #ulture is a large mosai# whose indi"idual 'ie#es do fit together if the historian #an only relate them. =he English lyri# 'oets, those of the il of Lilliam Collins and Smart, who were diagnosed male hysteri#s and melan#holi#s, glim'sed the soli'sism of their #ondition. -ll they dis#o"ered was an omnis#ient God whose 'owers of insight they #ould worshi' and emulate through their own "isionary #a'a)ilities.15>>2 Bore )roadly though, the greater the resistance to hysteria among men 9in that #entury there was a surfeit of resistan#e<, the more it re"ealed a)out their male se/uality in an era growing in#reasingly 'atriar#hal and fastidious a)out its se/ual mores. -ll these #onditions and indi"idual #ases, far0flung and dis'arate as they are, some more ane#dotal than others, 'resaged the s#enario for male hysteri#s in the nineteenth #entury. + $C5 +

Still, the 'reeminent matter of gender in #ases more or less hysteri#al hardly "anished in the se#ond half of the eighteenth #entury. Granting that )oth se/es #ould )e#ome affli#ted, 'erha's in e4ual degree, 'rofound 4uestions a)out hysteria8s anatomi#al 'refigurements lingered. =his is not sur'rising after #enturies in whi#h the feminine gender )ase had )een strengthened )y men e/or#ising hysteri#al %omen in need of hel'. Do one to my nowledge has e"er attem'ted to #om'ile a list of eighteenth0 #entury #ases )y gender.15>%2 3f it were tried, e"en on a limited )asis, it would )e e"ident that women were said to ha"e )e#ome affli#ted in far greater num)ers. =he trend is e"en refle#ted in the lam' of imaginati"e literature. @ne and only one #learly delineated hysteri#al figure, for e/am'le, a''ears in ,ielding8s mo# 0e'i# no"el Tom 2ones : the young Dan#y Biller, stee'ed in lo"e si# ness. Gi"en the #are with whi#h ,ielding is nown to ha"e #onstru#ted his symmetri#al wor of heroi# 'ro'ortions, the fa#t is not insignifi#ant and #an )e demonstrated with similar results for other writers of the e'o#h. 3n =o)ias Smollett there are many more: e"en the male hysteri# Laun#elot Grea"es, a modern British "ersion of Kon Sui/ote, whose Hner"esH )e#ome damaged from his #ir#ulation in a #rime0ridden, dangerous en"ironment. Smollett was mor)idly fas#inated with #rime in an almost so#iologi#al way. He e"entually #on#luded that it had 'er'etrated the most heinous atta# against the so#iety of his day and formed the )edro# on whi#h #hroni# diseases li e hysteria flourished.15%*2 Pro"ided that medi#al and nonmedi#al dis#ourses are ga6ed at in tandem, and without undue #on#ern for "alidity in e"iden#e, it )e#omes a''arent that for most of the eighteenth #entury the ner"es, not gender, were the )urning issue for hysteriaJ that is, the ner"es in their "ariegated anatomi#al, 'hysiologi#al, "i"ise#tional, linguisti#, ideologi#, and e"en 'oliti#al senses. 3n the first 'u)lished treatise on nym'homania, B. K. =. Bien"ille8s #urious wor of $CC;, there is no distin#tion whate"er in regard to gender, no sense that the irritation or e/#itation of the genital area s'e#ifi#ally is the #ause of his new nym'homania.15%$2 HDym'homania,H Bien"ille wrote, arises from Hdiseased imaginationH ta ing root on the ner"ous sto# , and it #ould affli#t men as readily as women. Perha's this o##urred, in Bien"ille8s "iew, )e#ause )oth genders had the 'otential for a Hdiseased imagination.H 3t is an odd 'osition to maintain, #onsidering that his mind was formed in a world in whi#h the #lose #onne#tion )etween se/ and hysteria was ta en for granted. Cases of Herotomania,H a fier#e and heightened form of eroti# melan#holy #aused )y lo"e si# ness, were regularly #hroni#led in the news'a'ers of the day. Erasmus Karwin, the 'oet and s#ientist, had mentioned one se"ere #ase + $C& + 9Eames Ha# man8s shooting of Bartha Ray<, )ut others were also written u'. 3n all of them, the ner"ous system had flared out of #ontrol as the result of 'assion. =he ner"es were the 6one Bien"ille was trying to 'enetrate in his dis#ourseJ the healthy or unhealthy state of the ner"es, as well as the anatomi# #ondition of the genital area 9mor)id, toni#, fla##id, 'ut to use or not, aroused<, the determinants. Bien"ille, a ,ren#h me#hanist a)out whom sur'risingly little is nown, ultimately wanted little tru# with an underlying mental malady. =urn the 'age, so to s'ea , to more literary annals, and hysteria )lends in with other #onditions from whi#h its #ommentators )arely differentiate it. Hysteria, hy'o#hondria, melan#holyAall are ner"ous maladies of one grade or another. Sterne8s eternally melan#holi# =ristram may ha"e )een, in Iust this sense, the greatest and most self0refle#ti"e male hy'o#hondria# of all the fi#tional #hara#ters of the #entury. He #alls his #onfessional )oo Ha treatise writ against the s'leen,H and nows, as his o'ening 'aragra'h ma es 'lain, that his animal s'irits and ner"ous fi)ers ha"e )een irre"o#a)ly mutilated, rendering him a ty'e of male hysteri#. =his is why he 9li e so many male 'atients in the ne/t #entury< must )e Hta en out of himselfH as it were, through his own ho))ies and the ho))yhorses of others. =he ner"ous Htra# sH on whi#h Hhis little gentlemenH tra"eled during #on#e'tion ha"e )een damaged. But a

"isit from =ristram to the great Hner"e do#torsHAthe Cheynes, Cullens, and -dairsAwould ha"e 'ro"ed futile: he might as well ha"e sent his manus#ri't, whi#h is as good a #ase history of a Hmale hysteri#H as has e"er )een #om'iled. .et =ristram himself might ha"e )een sho# ed to ha"e )een tendered this diagnosis. Lhat Sydenham and his medi#al followers o'ined a)out male hysteria and gender at the end of the se"enteenth #entury too de#ades to filter down to the ordinary 'erson in any so'histi#ated way. Po'ular #ulture was indeed 'ermeated with notions of hysteria, as 3 ha"e )een suggesting throughout this #ha'ter, )ut Sydenham8s "iews re4uired de#ades to filter through to other do#tors, let alone the lay 'u)li#. - generation after Lauren#e Sterne8s death in $C:>, Edward Eenner, the Glou#estershire do#tor and medi#al resear#her into small'o/, was astonished to find himself a mem)er of this filtered #lass. H3n a female,H Eenner wrote, H3 should #all it Hysteri#alA)ut in myself 3 now not what to #all it, )ut )y the old swee'ing term ner"ous.H15%52 =he differen#e was e/traordinarily signifi#ant for him. @ne of hysteria8s other 'arado/es was that it was alleged )oth to affli#t males and to safeguard them against it. =his was a #urious dou)le ta e seemingly reser"ed for hysteria, although tra#es of the in#ongruity are also found in the theory of gout and #onsum'tion at the time. =he dou0 + $C? + )le )ind rendered men safe and "ulnera)le at the same time. How are these theoreti#al Hdou)lesH e/'lainedN !nder what framingN 3f run through the gamut of 'ossi)ilities, it is seen that gender and 'atriar#hy, 'ower and marginali6ation alone #an e/'lain the dou)le status of hysteria. =he ner"es ha"e merely )een the #on"enient 'awns of a grander landlord. ,or the 'rofessional medi#al world of the eighteenth #entury was still 're'onderantlyAas it would )e in the nineteenth #entury and mu#h of our ownAa male0#entered uni"erse.15%&2 Lilliam Hogarth8s male do#tors, H#onsultingH as they often do in his 'rints, #ould not see to what degree they were monolithi#ally set against the few females who a''eared in them and were an indire#t #ause of the "ery hysteri#al suffering they #laimed they sought to relie"e. 3t is hardly sur'rising then that the theory of male hysteria )etween Sydenham and the 7i#torians re"ealed what it genuinely was )y des#ri)ing its @ther, its Counter, its Kou)le: female hysteria. Hordes of male do#tors, e/#lusi"ely generating medi#al theory, nowAfor the first timeA institutionali6ed female hysteria )y #laiming that men #ould )e affli#ted )y it )ut in a#tuality rarely were. Lhether in S#otland or the Lest Country, in ,ran#e or Germany, the results of these gender de)ates were more or less identi#al, often deri"ed from one another.15%?2 =he tas then was to demonstrate 're#isely %hy women were more 'rone. But as the uterine de)ility hy'othesis had )een o"erthrown, the most 'ersuasi"e mode was to argue from so0#alled in#ontro"erti)le uni"ersals: women8s innate 'ro'ensity to ner"ousnessJ their domesti# situation in a 'ri"ate world #ondu#i"e to hysteri#al e/#essJ their insatia)le se/ual "ora#ity granted from time immemorialAthese as God0gi"en, ine"ita)le, un#hangea)le #onditions. But all the while it was a# nowledged that men were also 'rone, and 'ro"ing theoreti#al #onsisten#y )y o##asionally diagnosing male hysterias and do#umenting them in the 'u)lished literature. =oday, we understand the #om'le/ity of Enlightenment hysteria only if we are willing to "iew its 'arado/es, its dou)le )inds, within large so#ial and #ultural #onte/ts, and only if we are #a'a)le of #on#eding that medi#al theory then was #onsistent and internally logi#al so long as do#tors were not as ed to )e held a##ounta)le for the #ultural #onditions in whi#h hysteria flourished. =he state of la)oratory "erifia)ility and #lini#al o)ser"ation of 'atients in a #ondition su#h as hysteria was still small #om'ared to other maladies. - hundred years later, in ,reud8s 7ienna, there would still )e de)ate a)out the o)Ie#ti"ity of the #lini#ian8s ga6e. Lhat #ounted for more than o)Ie#ti"e ga6e in the world of

Lhytt, Cullen, and Eenner was a "iew of HwomanH that naturallyAalmost 'reternaturallyAseemed to lend itself to the hysteria diagnosis. + $C; +

=I
3t was not a##idental then that treatises on madness )egan to a''ear in num)ers at the histori#al moment that resistan#e set in to the monolithi# theories of Hthe ner"e do#tors,H es'e#ially their hysteria diagnosis. =his o"erla' is a #om'le/ 'henomenon in"ol"ing theory and 'ra#ti#e, as well as so#ial #onditions in Lestern Euro'ean so#ieties that were )e#oming more re'ressi"e of their 'oor #lasses after a''ro/imately the mid0eighteenth #entury. Gi"en the degree to whi#h ner"es had earlier )een held to a##ount for e"erything 'athologi#al in )ody and mind the gamut from affe#tions and 'assions to the wildest imaginationAsome do#tors )egan to dou)t whether this #ould )e so. 3 refer, of #ourse, to the well0 nown treatises )y the Batties and Bonros, the Perfe#ts and Pargeters in the se#ond half of the eighteenth #entury, who in "arying degrees felt am)i"alent a)out ner"ous diagnosis in relation to 'er#ei"ed luna#y and derangementJ in )rief, the #om'any dis#ussed )y the late Ri#hard Hunter and 3da Ba#al'ine.15%;2 =heir #olle#ti"e 'osition 'ermits us to understand how the ri"al theory of madness de"elo'ed in relation to the hysteria diagnosis, as well as to #om'rehend to what degree the hysteria diagnosis had )e#ome a )arometer of so#ial #onditions lorded o"er )y notions of genderAsurely a mental 6one em)ra#ing more than a medi#al #ategory. =he s'a#es of #onfinementAmadhouses 'u)li# and 'ri"ate, the #lini#, the hos'ital, 'risons of one ty'e or another, atti#s and #losetsAare as re"ealing here as the theory of madness itself. =he line )etween so0#alled hysteri#s, female and male, and other ty'es of lunati#s was not finely drawn. 3n#ar#eration #ould )e ordered for one ty'e as easily as another. =here were no s'e#ially ordained Hhysteria hos'italsH 9although there were dedi#ated wards )y late #entury su#h as the one in Edin)urgh<. =reatment and thera'y for in#ar#erated hysteri#s were usually identi#al to that for other derangements. ,urthermore, if the late eighteenth0#entury madhouse had not yet )e#ome the nineteenth0#entury ner"ous #lini#, there were ne"ertheless stru#tural similarities in )oth their methods of diagnosis and a''lied thera'ies. But there was one other differen#e )etween the diagnoses of madness and hysteria. !nli e the )road )ase of Enlightenment ner"ous #onditions, madness was not then 9in the age of Lilliam Battie and -. Bonro< a stigma0free organi# illness. 3t was #loser to our 'olluted "iew of those affli#ted with -3KS.15%:2 Stigma was nothing new. 3t had atta#hed to diagnoses of derangement for #enturies. Lhat differentiated it now, in the medi#al realm of the late eighteenth #entury, was its new gender lines, often drawn with ran and so#ial #lass as firmly in mind as any gender )ase. -s Bagli"i had 'ro0 + $C: + noun#ed at the turn of the #entury: HLomen are more su)Ie#t than Ben to Kiseases arising from the Passions of the Bind.H15%C2 He and other 'hysi#ians #ontinued to stress that madness es'e#ially affli#ted H'oor women.H Dot so hysteria, a female #ondition said to affli#t as many of the ri#h as the 'oor and 'erha's more.15%>2 Dor was madness gendered along the lines it would later )e in the nineteenth #entury, in the de#adent world of su#h su)se4uent Hner"e do#torsH as Char#ot and Leir Bit#hell, nor )elie"ed to imitate other diseases 9Lhytt8s HProteus and the #hameleonH<. =hus hysteria and madness drifted shar'ly a'art in this dimension: the former deemed )y medi#al 'rofessionals to )e

stigma0free, the latter tarnished )y it. But in most other #onsiderations the margins )etween madness and hysteria were irre'ara)ly )lurred, and there was as mu#h disagreement as agreement a)out whi#h of the two diseases was more #hroni# and lingering. Dor was there mu#h lu#idity a)out, or signifi#ant differentiation of, somati# 'ain in relation to the two #onditions. =he 'atients8 'ain was often thought to )e identi#al in )oth #onditions, affirmed in either state to ha"e )een e/'li#itly lodged in an organi# site. So in these often #ontradi#tory #on#e'tuali6ations of the late eighteenth #entury we are a#tually not far from the radi#al 'ositi"ism of late nineteenth0#entury s#ien#e and medi#ine. @ne other #ontrast )etween luna#y and hysteria #annot )e omitted )efore ma ing the #entral 'oint a)out their differen#e. =his is the luna#y that did not announ#e its 'athology through the e/'li#itly a##e'ta)le language of organi# ner"ous o)stru#tion )ut whi#h was said to )e something else: hysteria mas:uerading as lunacy . Hysteria #ould 'resent )oth waysAthis was one of the features of its 'rotean a)ility to imitate. -nd it may ha"e )een one reason the 'ro'rietors of Bedlam #ould o'en its doors to the 'u)li# Hto "iew the lunati#s for a 'enny,H without #onsidering that they were infli#ting 'ain u'on 'atients. =his Hluna#y that was something elseH leads us, moreo"er, to interrogate the rise of madness in the #lear light of the hysteria diagnosis. ,ortunately, the 'oint is not so sim'le as a somati# 9)odily< "ersus 'sy#hogeni# 9mental< hysteria.15%%2 - )road ga6e o"er the eighteenth #entury )uttressd )y a #ursory )i)liogra'hi#al #olumn ma es the 'oint loud and 'lain. Lhen =homas =ryon, the neo0Pythagorean guru of health and diet, #ommented on luna#y in his $C*& Discourse of the &auses of !adness , he was 'ersuaded that madness was still su'ernaturally indu#ed through 'ossession of de"ils and s'irits, and he har)ored no sense of a medi#ali6ed, let alone se#ulari6ed, #ondition or #ategory. @nly one generation later Charles Perry, a li#ensed 'hysi#ian who tra"eled widely in the @rient and #om'iled massi"e treatises on the Le"ant, 'u)lished a treatise /n the &auses and + $CC + ,ature of !adness 9$C5&< #laiming that luna#y was a me#hani#al defe#t in the ner"ous #onstitution, a 'osition e#hoed for years to #ome in other wor s of Hme#hani#al medi#ine,H as in Gio"anni Battista Borgagni8s "eats and &auses of Diseases . . . 9English "ersion $C:%<. - few years later -ndrew Lilson tried to refine the #lassifi#ation of all these #onditions, )ut shortly thereafter Lilliam Rowley, another English 'hysi#ian who s'e#iali6ed in Hfemale diseases,H Ium)led the #ategories together again in $ treatise on female3 nervous3 hysterical3 hypochondriacal3 bilious3 convulsive disease< apople#y @ palsy %ith thoughts on madness @ suicide3 etc .1&**2 Rowley8s #lassifi#ations were wea , to say the least. Had he )een a student at Edin)urgh and listened to the le#tures of Cullen and the other 'rofessors stressing the im'ortan#e of #lassifi#ation in medi#ine, he would not ha"e written as he did, )ut Rowley was a 'ra#titioner, not a theorist, and the intri#a#ies of the female #onstitution and its maladies were )eyond him.1&*$2 Dot a year went )y, it seems, without the a''earan#e of some medi#al treatise aiming to distinguish among these #onditions. @"er these de#ades writing #ontinued a)out the dangers of religious melan#holy leading to madness and hysteria, as in Eohn Langhorne8s 4etters on -eligious -etirement3 !elancholy3 and 1nthusiasm 9London, $C:5< or in the real0life #ases of 'oets su#h as Christo'her Smart, Lilliam Cow'er, and 9some would later say< Lilliam Bla e. Lordsworth 'erformed something of a 'oeti# amalgam of these traditions lin ing religion and hysteria, es'e#ially in the strange medi#al #ase of Susan Gale, the lonely mother whose intense 'assion he des#ri)es in H=he 3diot Boy.H Susan8s Hsolitary imaginationH lies at the )ase of her undiagnosed medi#al #ondition, Iust as the medi#ali6ed imagination did for so many hysteri#s e/amined )y Lordsworth8s #ontem'orary 'hysi#ians. -lan Bewell dis#ussed the figure of Susan and Hmaternal 'assionH and #laimed that the theory of hysteria 'lays a #entral role in the 'oetry of this great Romanti# 'oet. H-s a

maIor figure in Lordsworth8s mythology of origins,H he wrote, Hthe lonely wit#h(hysteri# 'ro"ided him with a figural and em'iri#al means for imagining in 'al'a)le terms the genesis of language and #ulture.H1&*52 =hese are large #laims, )ut su)stantiated, 3 thin , )y the swee'ing role the theory of hysteria 'layed in the Euro'ean Enlightenment. But why, one as s, was there a need for a madness diagnosis in the first 'la#e if hysteria had )een so )road and 'rotean a #ategory sin#e the time of Sydenham that it #ould em)ra#e most HmadH sym'tomsN =his is the 4uestion that must )e 'ut if we are to ma e entry to the world of the nineteenth #entury, the milieu e/'ounded in #ha'ter &, )y Roy Porter. =o restate the matter, where did hysteria and its ri"al, madness, + $C> + stand in relation to gender and the mind()ody dilemma 9#onsidered se'arately and in tandem< if there was need for a new #ondition #alled madness in the eighteenth #enturyN =here is no sim'le answer to this all0im'ortant 4uestion, in itself )ound to 'ro"o e de)ate. @n one hand, it may )e argued that madness was not new in the eighteenth #entury, and yet e"en a #ursory glan#e at its dis#ursi"e re'resentations from $:** forward shows a sudden out)urst of writing in this #entury. Bore #ru#ially on the 4uestion a)out gender and the mind()ody s'lit, there is no #lear0#ut di"ision in the late eighteenth #entury, as 3 ha"e )een stressing, )etween madness and the hysteria diagnosis. @n the other handAand the ad"ersati"e is as weightyAthe do#tors and e"en their 'atients #learly ha"e something in mind when they 'oint to the #ondition of the one or the other. -nd many readers today will )e stru# )y the fa#t that Battie8s im'ortant dis#ussion of madness ne"er refers to hysteria or e"er uses the word. Do one #an read these treatises on madnessA)y Battie, Bonro, and their #ohortsAand #ome away )elie"ing one has read a treatise on hysteria. -t the same time, and e4ually 'arado/i#ally, the 'atients8 sym'toms often 'resented identi#ally and were des#ri)ed in the same language for )oth #onditions. =hese are the in#onsisten#ies that must )e fa#ed if we are to mo"e into the world of nineteenth0#entury Hner"ousness.H Lhen the artist Eose'h ,arington re#orded that his friend, Hone, had H)een in a "ery ner"ous Hysteri#al state, the effe#t of an/iety of mind,H1&*&2 did he mean hysteria or madnessN -#ross the #hannel, when ,ren#h 'hysi#ian Pierre Pomme, who interested himself in few diseases more than ner"ous ones, 'u)lished his treatise on HHysteri#al -ffe#tions in Both Se/es,H1&*?2 did he mean hysteria or insanity or )othN Pomme8s )oundaries are not drawn. Li ewise for other medi#al writers of "arying ran s and a)ilities. Lilliam ,al#oner8s wor on hysteria and madness was geared to strengthen the 'sy#hogeni# )ases of derangement )y showing how fier#e is Hthe 3nfluen#e of the Passions u'on Kisorders of the Body.H1&*;2 So too Eohn Haygarth8s treatise /f the 'magination3 as a &ause and as a &ure of Disorders of the Body , written only a few years later.1&*:2 But at the same time BenIamin ,aul ner, who owned and o'erated a 'ri"ate madhouse in Little Chelsea in London, #om'lained that )oth hysteria and madness had Hgi"en )irth to endless #onIe#ture and 'er'etual error.H1&*C2 He was dou)tless right, and Eohn Haslam, for two de#ades an offi#ial at Bethlehem, who wrote from long e/'erien#e in the 'rison0 houses of madness, found himself writing treatises on insanity without in"o ing hysteria.1&*>2 Parado/i#ally, it is as if the two #onditions were + $C% + identi#al, yet o#eans a'art. =he lists #ould )e e/tended many times. .et the matter is not lists )ut definition, #ategories, #lassifi#ation, andAfrom the 'atient8s 'oint of "iewAa''ro'riate thera'ies for

ea#h #ondition. Lhat then was madness if it was ta/onomi#ally )red in the heyday of the hysteria diagnosisN ,rom what need was it s'rungN -nd what had the thousand0year0old hysteria ultimately )e#ome if it re4uired the )irth of a new maladyAmadnessAto assuage its 'hiloso'hi#al and 'ra#ti#al defe#tsN ,ou#ault 'ro"ided no answers in his #lassi# wor s on madness, and the fault may not )e his. @r is it that the late eighteenth0#entury do#tors generating this welter of theory really )elie"ed they had dis#o"ered some intrinsi# differen#e now lost to timeN Can the #ru/ )e the massi"e amountA'erha's too massi"eAf e/tant e"iden#eN -nyone #an study these early treatises on madnessAfrom Battie to HaslamJ in ,ran#e, from Pomme to PinelAand e/'li#ate them 'age )y 'age. 3t is more diffi#ult to 'ronoun#e authoritati"ely on the silences of these dis#ourses, su#h as the #ategori#al la#una dis#o"ered when Lilliam Battie8s 'aradigmati# Treatise on !adness defines madness )y refraining from glan#ing at the #on#e't of hysteria. 3 am therefore suggesting that we need to study these wor s, )oth on hysteria and madness, for their silen#es as well as their re"elations. 3n #on#lusion, there is 'lenty of e"iden#e to suggest that the Enlightenment ner"e do#tors #on#e'tuali6ed hysteria as light years away from luna#y, the latter normally #on#e'tuali6ed as a Hdiseased 'assion of the mindH often o##urring without 'athologi#al ner"ous in"ol"ement and without a lingering and #hroni# madness. Luna#y, madness, insanity: the three are inter#hangea)le terms in their #on#e'tuali6ationA)ut not so hysteria . Here then is the #ategori#al im'erati"e on#e again.1&*%2 ,or them, hysteria was not a malingering malefa#tor, )ut a #ura)le #ondition of the )ody8s ner"ous a''aratus thrown into #on"ulsion. Hysteria was thus not essentially the inflammation of the re'rodu#ti"e organs unduly e/#ited, as it would again )e in the nineteenth #entury with its retaliati"e #litoride#tomies and antimastur)ation te#hni4ues, )ut the ner"es la)oring under some e/traordinary lo#al distress, lesion, or fe"er. Still, a''ro/imately )y the turn of the nineteenth #entury hysteria was thought to )e the more )affling of the two diseasesAhysteria and madnessAif also the less #hroni# #ondition, and now a''arently losing ground to a more treata)le Hinsanity.H -s Lhytt had em'hasi6ed in Edin)urgh a generation earlier with #hara#teristi# humility and wisdom, the )ody8s ner"ous organi6ation, following the laws of sym'athy and sensi)ility, regulates all mind()ody traffi#. E"en so, Lhytt had to #laim + $>* + 9following Sydenham who had seen so 'rofoundly into the mysteries of hysteria< that hysteria is entirely un'redi#ta)le whereas insanity was not.1&$*2 But the dis#ourses on madness, #ommitted as they were to medi#al materialism, also )uilt mystery into the essen#e of se#ulari6ed modern man.1&$$2 Kown through the eighteenth #entury the Enlightenment ner"e do#tors had #onstru#ted their theoreti#al edifi#es on the dualisti# model they inherited from a 'ost0Cartesian lega#yJ as well, they wrote in an intelle#tual milieu des'erate to #onstru#t an infalli)le Hs#ien#e of manHAone as 'redi#ta)le for his or her frail states as strong states. De"ertheless, in generating their "ersions of hysteria, and then later of madness, they #ar"ed out s'a#e for man8s mystery, enigma, anomaly. =he endea"or demonstrated a 'hiloso'hi#al toleran#e that would ser"e the nineteenth #entury well. 3t also hel'ed to legitimate anomalous, irrational, and enigmati# #reatures of )oth genders as the "i#tims of a medi#al #ondition still re4uiring medi#al resear#h and authenti# #lassifi#ation. By the turn of the nineteenth #entury the male ner"e do#tors had 'al'a)ly defemini6ed and dehumani6ed their female lunati#s, often re#ording their #ase histories as if these mad 'atients were Hunise/H: #onflating female and male dis#ourse into a new "ersion. Pinel, for all his well0deser"ed

reforms in Paris, was the odd man out. H!r0EnlightenmentH and humanitarian figure that he was, he also dis'layed the most unusual "ersions of #om'assion and sym'athy for his 'atients. But e"en Pinel #ould not resol"e the definitional dis'utes on the )oundaries of the two #onditions, hysteria and madness, nor did he try.1&$52 3n the flow of theory, female luna#y was said to imitate male, a 'osition as old as genesis itself, and Iust as female "oi#es were re#orded in the terms and tro'es of the male, no different from the 'rotean imitations hysteria had 'erformed. -s hysteria had imitated "irtually e"ery other disease, a##ording to Sydenham and Lhytt, now, at the end of the eighteenth #entury, the #ase histories of women8s derangement resem)led those of men. 3t was an odd form of re'resentation, no less )affling than all 'hiloso'hi#al mimesis.1&$&2 But women not only lost their se/ual identity, they e"en lost the "oi#eAthe e/'ressi"e "oi#eA'residing o"er their #olle#ti"e dis#ourse. =he reason and #ontrol of the Hmad do#torsH )urned feminine unreason out of the medi#al annals of the late eighteenth #entury, so mu#h did the do#tors fear it. 3nstead, they re'la#ed it with a logi# and language of their own: a male grammar and synta/ that 're"ailed u' to the time of Eosef Breuer and ,reud. @ur #ontem'orary -meri#an feminists ha"e enlightened us hereAas Bary Ea#o)us and Euliet Bit#hell + $>$ + ha"e so #on"in#ingly writtenAwhen #autioning that Hwomen8s writing #an ne"er )e anything other than hysterical.=1&$?2 Le #an almost re#onstru#t the 'osition from the so#ial "antage of the last two #enturies )y gleaning how ine"ita)le it was that women would e"entually retrie"e the 'atheti# "oi#es they had lost. Do wonder that in our own time hysteria8s Hhis0storyH 9history< has )een transformed into Hher0storyH: the retrie"al of a grammar and synta/ long su''ressed as mu#h as any set of diagnoses and thera'ies. =o return to the world of Enlightenment hysteria as it a''roa#hed the turn of the #entury, not until Lilliam Cullen, near #entury8s end, did the wom) rea''ear, and then Iust momentarily, only to )e dis#redited on#e again. Cullen8s )i6arre im'li#ation of the wom) #lung firmly to a somati# etiology, and in this sense it may )e said to ha"e had a tem'orary retarding effe#t. He not only in"o ed the hysteri#al wom) )ut lin ed it to ner"ous #onditions and the #lass he #alled Hneuroses,H #laiming in First 4ines of the ractice of hysic 9$CCC<, as had Sydenham and others )efore him, that hysteria was the most H'rotean of all diseases.H H=he many and "arious sym'toms,H he wrote, Hwhi#h ha"e )een su''osed to )elong to a disease under this a''ellation, render it e/tremely diffi#ult to gi"e a general #hara#ter or definition of it.H But Cullen8s e/'lanation retains some of the mystery of hysteria in ways that had )een lost on his less enlightened #olleagues in Edin)urgh and elsewhere. He ga6ed dee'ly into womenJ he understood their anatomies as well as neuroses 9a word he "irtually #oined and made his own<.1&$;2 He somehow gathered that the #onstant redefinition of hysteria8s #ause from the Renaissan#e to his own time was ultimately #onsistent with the so#ioe#onomi# de"elo'ments he witnessed around him: in ran , #lass, and e#onomi# means. His "ersion of hysteria was as so#iologi#al as Sydenham8s, and it #a'tured the age0old #ounter'oint of endorsing and reIe#ting the wom) etiology that had )een in "ogue from the time of Hi''o#rates. $u fond there is something uni4ue to women and im'li#itly 'owerful, if destru#ti"ely so, in the idea of the raging wom) #om'ared to the mu#h tamer and "aguer notion that women ha"e Hinherently wea H ner"ous systems merely )e#ause of inferior Hinner s'a#es.H1&$:2 But e"en at that time, in the $CC*s and $C>*s, Cullen8s strong 'aradigm a)out hysteria and neurosis too sha'e within the #onte/ts of a de"elo'ing ri"al theory of madness. -nother #ha'ter would )e ne#essary to #hart with #larity and 're#ision its o"erla's with hysteria. .et ran and #lass ne"er lur ed "ery far )ehind these #onsiderations of the role of gender in hysteria and madness. Dow, in a Euro'ean world that would

soon )e 'lunged into the night of #haos and 'oliti#al anar#hy, )oth medi#ine and #ulture + $>5 + #ons'ired to ro) the middle nou"eau ri#he of its newest and most fashiona)le gar): ner"ous affli#tion. 3f the 'oor #ould )e hysteri#al, as they were in Edin)urgh, what was left for the Hmad ri#h in London and ParisHN =he 'attern a''eared to )e glo)al and lo#al at on#eAas 'arado/i#al in this sense as the gender0)ound nature of the a#tual hysteria. =hroughout Euro'e, ner"es signified one thing 'reeminently: ran and #lass. Lhat differed from 'la#e to 'la#e, lo#ale to lo#ale, were the forms of so#ial #ontrol and 'atriar#hal e/'ression of the ner"es. =o these dis'arities, the medi#ine of the time was almost entirely o)li"ious and insensiti"e, and nothing 'ro"ed it more than the 'rolifi# treatises on hysteria and madness. Beanwhile, the do#tors #hurned out their "ast #olle#ti"e annals of hysteria diagnoses, one of the largest in the medi#o0histori#al literature.

=
3n #on#lusion, 3 ha"e )een suggesting that the history of hysteria is essentially a so#ial history. E"en in the 'eriods 'ri"ileged hereAthe Renaissan#e and the EnlightenmentA#lass stru#tures were #learly falling a'art in England )y the $C:*s 9one thin s of the Biddlese/ riots, whi#h were little more than the mass hysteria of the mo)<. !nder this new #lass stress, gender and se/ were further #onstrained, and slowly, "ery gradually, the onset of what would )e#ome, when full0grown and full0)lown, 7i#torian 'rudery set in.1&$C2 But mass hysteria also needs to )e #onsidered within its so#io'oliti#al #onte/ts. ,or e/am'le, a #ase #an )e made that the onania #rusadesAthe antimastur)ation #am'aignsAof the eighteenth #entury manifested themsel"es in so#ial forms that amounted to mass hysteria. =he dri"e to )lot out all mastur)ation as the road to insanity was in 'art a grass0roots mo"ementJ it was also a)undantly dis#ussed in the 'o'ular writings of Samuel -uguste =issot, the 'rolifi# Swiss do#tor who made Hanti0mastur)ationH the #enter'ie#e of his "oluminous wor s, a #ha'ter in so#ial history that has now )een retrie"ed )y Roy Porter. =he remar a)le as'e#t of this swee'ing manifestation of mass hysteria is the degree to whi#h e"eryone then was 'ersuaded of the e"ils of mastur)ation: hardly a "oi#e in the long eighteenth #entury dared to #ry out in fa"or of mastur)ation. - 'henomenon merely Hin the airH of a former #ulture 9the Renaissan#e or the Enlightenment< may )e diffi#ult to retrie"e, )ut it is not so when thousands of words ha"e )een e/'ended on it, as was the #ase regarding onania. Regen#y and 7i#torian re'ression of se/uality, and other nineteenth0#entury "ersions on the Continent, + $>& + are unthin a)le without the so#ial u'hea"al #reated )y the antimastur)ation #rusades e/tending o"er many de#ades in the eighteenth #entury. =he 'ro#ess #reated a new )ourgeois re'ression of se/uality in late eighteenth0#entury England, and 'ro'erty, the law, #onsumer #onsum'tion, and finan#es all #om)ined to ma e woman8s lot worse than it had )een in the Renaissan#eAnot worse in any a)solute sense )ut worse in relation to desire and e/'e#tation. But the role of shame and shaming in hysteria must also )e #onsidered. =hose e/traordinary ner"e do#tors from Lillis to Cheyne, Lhytt to Cullen, who found a #lear organi# su)strate, safeguarded their 'atients against the #harges that )rought shame: the notion that they were 'oorhouse malingerers who had feigned these sym'toms to im'ro"e their sad e#onomi# #ondition. By #ontrast, early eighteenth0#entury ner"e do#tors tended to indi#t #ultural "olatility as the #ul'rit in hysteria and hy'o#hondriasis. Luminous literati and salon so'histi#ates were "i#tims of "ertiginous

life0styles said to ener"ate the ner"es and sa' their toni# strength. =hese ner"es had not )een originally defe#ti"e at )irthJ they )e#ame so through high li"ing under the new ur)an and su)ur)an stress. By the late eighteenth #entury the 'oor had filtered u', and now they too were )eing "i#timi6ed in this new re#ension of the disease. =he effe#t of e#onomi# shoring, of a'ing the ri#h without the resour#es to do so, #learly had its ner"ous #onse4uen#es. Long )efore Ro)ert Carter wrote a)out wor house hysteri#s from a 'sy#hogeni# 'oint of "iew that #ast them in a )ad light,1&$>2 others in late eighteenth #entury had de"elo'ed a similar angle of e/'lanation. 3n S#otland the hinge was so#ial ran , as the 'oorer the woman, the more hysteri#alAand 'atheti#Aher #ase was adIudged to )e. 3roni#ally, what Cullen and his #ohorts saw in S#otland and England, Besmer did not see in ,ran#e. 7eith #redited Besmer as a hero within the history of hysteria for reasons that misinter'ret his wor s and inflate his hy'notism. She hails Besmer as of towering im'ortan#e to the #ra# ing of the hysteria #ode, on the grounds that his demonstration of the #a'a#ity of hy'nosis to #ontrol the )ody through ta''ing un#ons#ious mental networ s ultimately )ore fruit in 'sy#hogeni# theories of Char0#ot8s ,ran#e and ,reud8s 7ienna.1&$%2 .et Besmer ne"er #ontended that the origins of his 'atient8s hysterias were 'sy#hologi#al, nor did he tout his own #a'a#ity to wor #ures through mental suggestion. He is not the har)inger of an internal millennium of the 'sy#he, )ut of a 'oised ner"ous system "ulnera)le at e"ery turn. ace 7eith, )ut this is as flawed an inter'retation of Besmer as is the notion that his #ontem'orary, Emanuel Sweden)org, the ardent 'ost0Dewtonian mysti#, was more mysti# than s#ientist, whi#h no reading + $>? + of his wor s #an su)stantiate. Besmer was as staun#h in his Dewtonian0ism as the British iatrome#hanists, fore"er maintaining that animal magnetism was a 'hysi#ally grounded, etherial fluid #oursing through the #osmos, 'ossessed of the #a'a#ity, when 'ro'erly funneled through the affli#ted, to relie"e illness0#ausing o)stru#tions.1&5*2 Lhen Louis Z738s in"estigating #ommission denied the reality of su#h a material su)stan#e, #on#luding that Besmer a#tually 'erformed his #ures )y the use of raw Himagination,H su#h under#utting of his #laims to a material su)stratum 'un#tured his #redentials and ruined his as'irations. Hysteria in the ,ren#h Re"olution is, of #ourse, an immensely diffi#ult su)Ie#t )e#ause it )lends so #unningly into other radi#ally misogynisti# )eha"iors, in#luding the #ataloging of egregious a#ts #ommitted )y women from the )eginning of ,ren#h history. 3t may )e that su#h e/treme antifeminism was itself a dis'lay of the mass hysteria on whi#h 3 ha"e #ommented at different 'oints in this #ha'ter, and that as the $C%*s e"ol"ed, retrogression rather than 'rogress o##urred in this 'atriar#hal so#iety. 1&5$2 E"en so, the long0term student of hysteria )efore, and )eyond, ,reud wants, of #ourse, to #om'are this Besmerian agenda with ,reud8s. - #entury later, it was the failure of hy'notism that initiated ,reud8s 'assage from an organi# to a 'sy#hogeni# etiology of hysteria. But there is no e"iden#e that Besmer, any more than Sweden)org, regarded his theories of ner"ous disorders and their thera'ies as grounded in anything other than Dewtonian matter theory. So too the notorious Bar4uis de Sade, although under rather different ideologi#al #onditions and in different genres. =he Sade whose women are told )y their hedonisti# instru#tors that Hthey are their anatomyHJ the Sade whose first 'rin#i'le and holy gos'el is not a latter0day Cartesian mind()ody relation )ut a 'hysi#s of 'leasure and 'ainJ1&552 this Sade also 'ossesses a notion of hysteria that is mu#h more organi# than 'sy#hogeni#. =he 'owerful idiom of the ner"es re#eded "ery slowly in the nineteenth #entury, as did the organi# )asis of disease. =his is one reason that, in England, Regen#y and e"en 7i#torian treatises on hysteria

often resem)le, or seem to )e "ariations on the theme of, Enlightenment hysteria: an old malady with a familiar ring. =he nineteenth0#entury neurastheni# 'atientAas Roy Porter and Elaine Showalter demonstrate in #ha'ters & and ?Aremains fore"er on the "erge of ner"ous #olla'se, wea ened )y ner"ous de)ility, with atoni# ner"es, s'irits, and fi)ers that re4uire strengthening a)o"e all. Restore the eighteenth0#entury #a'itali6ations and synta/, and one has not mo"ed "ery far from the world of Bande"ille and Bonro, Cheyne and Cullen, Lillis and Lhytt. =his + $>; + will not #hange until the 'sy#hogeni# theory and etiology of hysteria o"erta e the organi# in the late nineteenth #entury. -nd e"en then, the riddle of Hthe elusi"e diseaseH will #ontinue to )e, as it has )een in our #entury, hysteria8s ines#a'a)le organi# resonan#es. 3t is not my 'la#e in this #ha'ter to 'oa#h in the gro"es of Char#ot. But "iewing Char#ot in re"erse ana#hronismAfor e/am'le, from the 'ers'e#ti"es of Sydenham and BesmerAhel's to e/'ound what will )e at high sta e in the world of hysteria anatomi6ed )y Roy Porter and Elaine Showalter. Li e Sydenham and BesmerAe"en Sweden)org and Bla e, to sele#t more e/treme e/am'lesAChar#ot has )een more misunderstood than understood in relation to hysteria. - s'iritual )rother of Sydenham, Char#ot wanted hysteria to )e the most universal of all diseasesA)ut with this differen#e. Sydenham had observed it to )e the most uni"ersal and 'rotean, inde'endent of his own ideologi#al gain, )ut he had not wished it soJ Char#ot willed it )e#ause it legitimated his own s#ientifi#ity, and no sense is made of his theory of hysteria without "iewing it within the "isual 'ers'e#ti"es of the age and the )road #onte/ts of his own life, as his )iogra'hers and )est students ha"e now shown.1&5&2 =he lea' )etween Sydenham and Char#ot is also ma/imal in other ways. =he 'ositi"ists among Char#ot8s #ir#le reIe#ted the old -ristotelian "iew of 'ain as an emotion. Current medi#al nowledge, sin#e the late eighteenth #entury, had identified 'ain with organi# lesions in, and #onstri#tions of, the ner"ous system. Lomen who #om'lained of #hroni# 'ain that #ould not )e lo#ated in the ner"ous system ran the ris of finding themsel"es #lassified as hy'o#hondria#s suffering from imaginary illnesses. Lhat had 'resented itself to the Gree s as a fiery animal, an o"erheated, la)ile, "ora#ious, and raging uterus, was now, in Char#ot8s world, diagnosed as a se/ually diseased and morally de)au#hed female imagination. =he 'rogress of the hysteria diagnosis from $C;* to $>;* had now )een #om'leted, and no"elist Samuel Ri#hardson8s lighthearted 're#e't a)out He"ery woman )eing a ra e at heartHA'ut forward )y Brs. Sin#lair8s female de)au#hes in &larissa Harlo%e Ahad #ome round full #ir#le in Char#ot: from the Gree s to the 7i#torians. Loman8s generati"e organs had gi"en her this #a'a)ility, in the an#ient world as well as the 7i#torian. Dowhere would this diseased female imaginationA'er#ei"ed to )e #unning and artful as well as de#eitfulA'resent itself more grotes4uely than in the hysteri#al females seen )y Bri4uet, 'hotogra'hed )y Char#ot, and fi#ti"ely imagined )y no"elists su#h as Ki# ens in 4ittle Dorrit in the figure of ,lora, the diminuti"e #hild0wife fore"er in a hysteri#al swoon.1&5?2 Perha's this is whyA)ut in 'art onlyAthe early nineteenth0#entury + $>: + no"el is so hea"ily 'ermeated with tyranni#al hus)ands and #hild0wi"es on the "erge of madness, only to )e lo# ed u' in dingy atti#s )y their hus)ands where they hallu#inate, li e Charlotte Per ins Gilman, im'risoned )y her do#tors and her yellow wall'a'er. -ll 'oint to a #on#e'tion of hysteria whose most re"elatory dimensions remain its )asis in gender and so#ial #lass 'ower and #ontrol.

=he #om'le/ story of the medi#al, s#ientifi#, ideologi#al, 'oliti#al, and 'atriar#hal way the nineteenth #entury #rafted hysteria before Freud as an e/#lusi"e 'ro"in#e of u''er0#lass male 'hysi#ians remains to )e told. + 55& +

P%R! II!HE6%!I$
+ 55; +

!hree!he Body and the 6ind8 !he ,o.tor and the Patient1 Negotiating Hysteria
Roy Porter

,iseases
- #entral aim of medi#al history must surely )e to #hart the history of disease, for without that, we will ne"er fully gain a sense of 'eo'le8s health, sufferings, mor)idity 'rofiles, life e/'e#tations, and e/'e#tations out of life.1$2 Some historians go so far as to #laim that 'athogens ha"e 'erha's )een the most 'otent agents of so#io'oliti#al #hange at large.152 -nd without 'ro'er understanding of mi#ro)es and to/ins, it has )een #ontended, the history of hysteria will )e misread. ,or a##ording to Bary Batossian, what #ontem'oraries and s#holars ali e ha"e identified as eru'tions of mass hysteriaAthe late medie"al wit#h #ra6e, religious re"i"als, la grande peur Aought 'ro'erly to )e read as the sym'toms of ergotism.1&2 .et, as is shown )y s#holarly s#e'ti#ism toward su#h #laims, identifying 'ast diseases 'resents daunting #hallenges. Lith all our semioti# s ills and modern #lini#al e/'ertise, are we a)le to de#ode the medi#al te/ts, eyewitness a##ounts, and mortality re#ords of )ygone #enturies and alien #ultures, and tra#e the natural histories of diseasesN1?2 Las the HagueH of early modern England truly malaria, or H4uinseyH a stre'to#o##al infe#tionN @n the )asis of =hu#ydides8 des#ri'tion of the so0#alled Hgreat 'lagueH of -thens, s#holars ha"e #ome u' with do6ens of disease la)els 9though su#h is the de)ris of dis#arded identifi#ations, that only fools should rush in<.1;2 =he ha6ards of retros'e#ti"e diagnosis tea#h a salutary s#e'ti#ism. -fter all, as e'idemiologists now, mi#roorganisms themsel"es mutate, following un'redi#ta)le e"olutionary )iogeogra'hies. Perha's the -the0 + 55: + nian 'lague, or the de#imating Hgreat sweatH of early0=udor England, that mysterious disorder, were

due to 'athogens that #ame and went. -nd, in any #ase, our fore)ears may ha"e rea#ted to this or that infe#tion in ways foreign to modern sym'tomatologiesAto the des'air of the histori#al e'idemiologist )ut the delight of the shameless relati"ist. =he former e/'e#ts disease to o)ey laws, regularly 'rodu#ing 'redi#ta)le effe#tsJ the latter may, )y #ontrast, lu/uriate in the heterogeneity of su)Ie#ti"e e/'erien#es of affli#tion.1:2 Bedi#al historians must soldier on, using what e"iden#e they #an: s eletal remains, artifa#ts 9'aintings, 'hotogra'hs<, and written testimony, though words may )e false friends: what early moderns #alled H#holeraH was #ertainly not the H-siati#H #holera that swe't Euro'e and Dorth -meri#a in the nineteenth #entury, although its identity still )affles in4uiry.1C2 So what of hysteriaN -re historians to thin of hysteria as a true disease, whose rise and fall #an, in 'rin#i'le, )e 'lotted down the #enturies, so long as we e/er#ise "igilan#e against ana#hronisti# translation of ar#hai# #on#e'tsN @r is it a "erita)le Io er in the ta/onomi# 'a# , a 'romis#uous diagnosti# fly0)y0night, ne"er faithfully wedded to an authenti# maladyAor worse, a wholly s'urious entity, a fan#y0free disease name, li e Prester Eohn, inde'endent of any #orres'onding disease0thing, a #o"er0u' for medi#al ignoran#eN @r, worse still, may hysteria truly ha"e )een the do#tors8 Laterloo: a real disorder, )ut, as -lan Krohn hints, one so Helusi"eH as to ha"e sli''ed our nosologi#al netsN1>2 ,or reasons #lear to e"ery reader of this )oo , HhysteriaH ine"ita)ly indu#es dou)ts. .et why shouldn8t a history of hysteria )e writtenN Dot one e/'e#ting 9in the manner of Professor Batossian< to unearth a mi#roto/in as vera causa , nor e"en one tra#ing 'rogress from medi#al #onfusion to medi#al #larifi#ation. But a history of hysteria e/'erien#es, that is, of 'eo'le la)eled as hysteri#al, or identifying themsel"es as suffering from the #ondition, and em)odying it in their )eha"iorJ one ta ing into a##ount all the intri#ate negotiations, denials, and #ontestations )ound to mediate su#h multifarious si# ness 'resentations.1%2 Su#h a history #ould )e written while Iudgment is sus'ended a)out hysteria8s ontology. S#holars, after all, ha)itually tra#e the in#iden#e of "arious fe"ersAlow, s'otted, and remittingAwhile remaining in the dar as to their etiologyJ Hwar fe"erH or Hgold fe"erH are also dis#ussed without o)ligation to s'e#ify the root #ause of these dri"es. =he em)ossing of hysteriaA'erha's unli e s'otted fe"erAwith #ultural meanings does not dis#redit su#h a 'roIe#t, )ut ma es it all the more in"iting. Le should e/'e#t not a single, un)ro en narrati"e )ut s#atters of o##urren#es: histories of hysterias, in fa#t. .et the #hronologi#al e'i#enter + 55C + is )ound to )e the nineteenth #entury. -s Helen King has shown in #ha'ter $, anti4uity and medie"al Euro'e had no need of the hysteria #on#e't.1$*2 -ndAso runs G. S. Rousseau8s dis#ussion in the 're"ious #ha'terAthough from Renaissan#e to Enlightenment 'hysi#ians de"elo'ed the hysteria diagnosis, it remained largely su)ordinate to dis#ourses a)out melan#holy and the ner"es. 3t was during the nineteenth #entury that hysteria mo"ed #enter0stage. 3t )e#ame the e/'li#it theme of s#ores of medi#al te/ts.1$$2 3ts in"estigation and treatment made the fame and fortunes of towering medi#al figuresAChar#ot, Breuer, Eanet, and ,reud. Hysteria #ame to )e seen as the o'en sesame to im'enetra)le riddles of e/isten#e: religious e#stasy, se/ual de"iation, and, a)o"e all, that mystery of mysteries, woman. Boreo"er, 'eo'le )egan to suffer from hysteria, or 9what amounts to the same thing< to )e said to suffer from hysteria, in su)stantial num)ers. 3n no"els1$52 and news'a'ers, 'oli#e re'orts and so#ial sur"eys, the 'redi#aments of mass so#iety, #rowd )eha"ior, street life, and so#ial 'athology were endlessly anatomi6ed in the idiom of hysteria.1$&2 -ndAoften in #om'ound forms, su#h as hystero0e'ile'syA hysteria )e#ame traded as a #ommon #urren#y )etween the si# , their families, their medi#al attendants,

and the #ulture at large: witness the re'eated illness e'isodes undergone in the $>&*s )y -da Lo"ela#e, Byron8s daughter 9needless to say, the word #arried dee'ly di"ergent nuan#es for -da, her mother, her hus)and, and her flo# of medi#al attendants<.1$?2 Hysteria8s #lientele )roadened. @ne senses that, in the eighteenth #entury, the term still #ir#ulated in rather #onfined, indeed, refined, #ir#les. =hat #hanged. -s may )e seen from Char#ot8s 'ra#ti#e, hysteria )e#ame, at least )y the belle epo:ue , esta)lished as a disorder of males as well as females,1$;2 of sensiti"e and silly ali e: 'erha's none was wholly immune. 3n his dis#ussion in #ha'ter ;, Sander Gilman do#uments the e/tension of Hhysteri#alH to #ertain ethni# ty'es, nota)ly Semites.1$:2 ,urthermore, as Edward Shorter has em'hasi6ed, a multitude of nineteenth0#entury re#ordsA'oli#e, hos'ital, and Poor LawAtestify that the terminology of hysteria shed most of its #lass e/#lusi"eness. Sho' girls, seamstresses, ser"ants, street wal ers, engine dri"ers, na""ies, wi"es, mothers, and hus)ands too, were now eligi)le for de'i#tion as hysteri#al alongside their )etters, and not merely 9as in Restoration #omedy< as mimi#ry M la mode.1$C2 =he #oming of mass so#iety e"idently demo#rati6ed the disorder. 3nstitutional e"iden#e attests this. 3n the mid0nineteenth #entury, Ro)ert Carter alluded to hysteria e'idemi#s in wor houses as though su#h out)rea s were #ommon.1$>2 7i#torian asylum re#ords show 'atients + 55> + se#tioned with hysteria written into their diagnosis or figuring in their #ase notes.1$%2 Esta)lishmentsA hydros, s'as, retreats, sanatoria, nursing homesAstarted #atering to 'ri"ate 'atients suffering from hysteriform #onditions.15*2 Shorter has e/'lored the 'ro#edures that filtered in"alids of a #ertain #lass or in#ome into su'erior institutions 9with greater freedom and 'ri"ileges<, under #hoi#er diagnosti# "er)iage. Considera)le linguisti# ta#t was re4uisite. =oo 'sy#hiatri# a diagnosis #ould suggest 'sy#hosis, or downright luna#y, with #onnotations una##e'ta)le for the family. -n o"erly 'hysi#alist term might #ome too near the )one )y suggesting a tu)er#ular #ondition or sy'hilis and its se4uelae. Ke/terity with diagnosti# eu'hemisms was at a 'remium: this )e#ame the age of Hneurasthenia.H15$2 ,inally, and to us, most famously, there was the string of #lients #lim)ing the stairs at Berggasse $%. 3f some were Hhysteri#sH largely )y "irtue of )eing so designated )y others, ,reud8s 'atients, it seems, mainly "olunteered. ,reud strenuously #ontested his 'atients8 Hdenials,H )ut none of them, not e"en Kora, seems to ha"e denied that he or she was hysteri#al.1552 @ne #ould thus tra#e the hysteria wa"e 9or one might say #ra6e, e'idemi#, or sim'ly s'read<. 3ts #resting at that time seems 'erfe#tly amena)le to e/'lanation, without need to resort to #rass redu#tion0 ism 9"ulgar la)eling or so#ial #ontrol theory, or the medi#al dominan#e model<. Cultures, grou's, and indi"iduals res'ond in different ways to life8s 'ains and 'ressuresJ idioms of suffering and si# ness #an )e more or less e/'ressi"eJ dire#t or indire#tJ emotional, "er)al, or 'hysi#alJ arti#ulated through inner feelings or outward gesture. 7aried re'ertoires #learly register the tensions, 'rohi)itions, and o''ortunities afforded )y the #ulture 9or su)#ulture< at large, rea#ting to e/'e#tations of a''ro"al and disa''ro"al, legitimation and shame, to 'ros'e#ts of 'rimary 'enalty and se#ondary gain.15&2 Some so#ieties legitimi6e 'sy#hologi#al 'resentations of suffering, while others san#tion somati# e/'ression. -ffluent Dew .or ers are today allowed, e"en e/'e#ted, to a#t out trauma 'sy#hologi#ally. Bao8s China, )y #ontrast, a''arently #ondemned su#h 'erforman#es as la'ses into inadmissi)le su)Ie#ti"ism and 'oliti#al de"ian#y. Hen#e Hfeeling )adH in the Re'u)li# had to )e #ou#hed in terms of a 'hysi#al de)ility or malfun#tion that es#a'ed #ensure and soli#ited sym'athy and relief.15?2

3n this res'e#t, the si# ness #ulture of nineteenth0#entury Euro'e and Dorth -meri#a seems to ha"e )orne some resem)lan#e to modern China. 3n a fier#ely #om'etiti"e e#onomi# world, high 'erforman#e was e/'e#ted, with few safety nets for failures. =here were intense 'ressures + 55% + toward in#ul#ating self0#ontrol, self0dis#i'line, and outward #onformity 9)ourgeois res'e#ta)ility<. Personal res'onsi)ility, 'ro)ity, and 'iety were, furthermore, internali6ed through stri#t moral training, im'arted "ia hallowed so#iali6ation agen#ies li e the family, neigh)orhood, s#hool, and #ha'el. Guilt, shame, and disa''ro"al were always nigh. 3n su#h stringent for#e fields, feelings of distress or resentment, an/iety or anger, were ine"ita)le )ut diffi#ult to manageJ they were #ommonly Hre'ressedH or rerouted into one of the rare forms of e/'ression that were legitimate: the 'resentation of 'hysi#al illness. Being si# afforded res'ite and release to those who needed tem'orarily or 'ermanently to o't out.15;2 -nd the system was s ewed so that some too the strain more than others. Lomen were dis'ro'ortionately )urdened, )eing more isolated and in#urring intenser e/'e#tations of moral and se/ual re#titudeJ ladies often had time for refle#tion without outlets for their talents.15:2 Su#h #on#atenations of #ir#umstan#esAhigh 'ressures, few safety "al"esAseem almost tailor0made for hysteria, "iewed 9as, of #ourse, many nineteenth0#entury 'hysi#ians themsel"es "iewed it< as a disorder where)y nons'e#ifi# distress was gi"en somati# #ontours. Sym'tom #hoi#e in"ol"es #om'le/ learning and imitati"e 'ro#esses. Pi# ing u' hysteria was aided )y the fa#t that nineteenth0#entury 'u)li# life 'ut on "iew an a)undan#e of 'hysi#al 'e#uliarities: gait disorders, 'aralyses, lim's, 'alsies, and other #om'ara)le handi#a's. Su#h #onditions were the effe#ts of )irth defe#ts and inherited diseases, of sy'hilis, lead and mer#urial 'oisons at the wor 'la#e, of o"erdosing with unsafe drugs, industrial a##idents, and high le"els of al#oholism with #onse4uent delirium tremens . =he "isi)ility of real )iomedi#al neurologi#al disorders enti#ed and authenti#ated those see ing a si# ness stylisti#s for e/'ressing inner 'ains. Shorter has further argued, as ha"e many feminist s#holars, that a #ertain rhyme and reason may )e dis#erned in the sym'tom sele#tion.15C2 =he gastri# disorders men widely Hado'tedH were #om'ati)le with #ontinuing an a#ti"e life, and hen#e with a #ertain model of mas#ulinity. Being a hysteri#al woman, )y #ontrast, meant e/hi)iting a )attery of in#a'a#itating sym'toms em)lemati# of hel'lessness, enfee)lement, and 9with lower lim) 'aralyses< immo)ili6ation, a#ting out there)y, through si# ness 'antomime, the sufferer8s a#tual so#ial #ondition. Hysteria was thus mo# es#a'e )y self0mutilation 9a male analogue finally emerged in the ,irst Lorld Lar with shell sho# <. Le need detailed a history Hfrom )elowH of ran 0and0file nineteenth0#entury hysteri#s, and not Iust of su#h HimmortalsH as Blan#he Littmann, LFonie B., and -nna @. 3t would enhan#e our gras' of the ele#0 + 5&* + ti"e affinities )etween disease and #ulture, #onfirming the adage that e"ery so#iety gets the disorders it deser"es. -longside e'idemiology, medi#al history needs to study the history of illness, that is, of sufferers8 #onditions, regardless of s#ien#e8s Iudgment u'on their authenti#ity. -side from meta'hysi#al 4uestions 9is hysteria a real diseaseN<, it is #lear that our great grand'arents suffered from hysteria, no less than Eli6a)ethans underwent the HsweatH or we su##um) to Hde'ression,H Hstress,H or low0)a# 'ainJ it is the Io) of historians to e/'lain how and why.15>2 =his grass0roots history of hysteri#s, this so#ial history of sym'toms, should )e high on the agenda. But

it is not what the remainder of this #ha'ter ta# les. 3nstead, 3 shall e/'lore the medi#al 'rofession8s attem'ts to resol"e the hysteria mystery, a disorder enigmati# )e#ause it ho"ered elusi"ely )etween the organi# and the 'sy#hologi#al, or 9trans"aluating that am)i"alen#e< )e#ause it muddled the medi#al and the moral, or 9'ut yet another way< )e#ause it was e"er dis#rediting its own #redentials 9were sufferers si# or shammingN<. 3n this, 3 ha"e in mind se"eral larger goals. 3 want to e/'lore the o''ortunities hysteria offered, and the 'u66les it 'osed, for the medi#al 'rofession: was it to )e their finest hour or their LaterlooN 3 shall 'ro)e how differential readings of hysteria suited di"erse se#tors of a 'rofession in#reasingly s'e#iali6ed and di"ided. Dot least, 3 wish to gauge hysteria8s sym)oli# re'lay 9'arody e"en< of the intera#tions )etween do#tors and 'atients, suggesting how, in 'sy#hoanalysis, it laun#hed a wildly new and dee'ly a)errant s#ri't of do#tor0'atient inter'lay.

Hysteria>6ysteria
Dineteenth0#entury do#tors ha)itually re'resented hysteria as a #hallenge, a tough nut to #ra# . Chameleonli e in its manifestations, and often aggra"ated )y their ministrations, it did not fight )y the Sueens0)ury Rules. Bedi#ine8s flounderings suggest that hysteria 'ro"ed something Hother,H the one that got away. Consensus ne"er #rystalli6ed as to its nature and #ause. 3n re#ent years, it has walt6ed in and out of the Diagnostic and "tatistical !anual , the English0s'ea ing world8s authoritati"e 'sy#hiatri# hand)oo . Kisgruntled do#tors ha"e often 'ro'osed #on#e'tual slum #learan#e and a fresh terminologi#al start: Eosef Ba)ins i wanted to rename it H'sy#hastheniaH or H'ithiatism,H Eanet suggested H'sy#hasthenia,H and #ertain #ontem'orary 'hysi#ians 'refer HBri4uet8s syndrome,H15%2 all in the, surely "ain, ho'e that old #onfusions were )ut word dee'. -s the shrewd reassessments of -le# Roy, Harold Bers ey, -lan + 5&$ + Krohn, and others ha"e made #lear, medi#ine today remains dee'ly di"ided as to whether hysteria is a s eleton in the #u')oard or a ghost in the ma#hineJ a 'hantom li e Hthe s'leen,H or a )ona fide disorder. -nd if authenti#, is it organi# or mentalN - disease that has largely died out or )een #ured, or one #amouflaging itself in #olors e"er newN1&*2 Su#h )attles long sin#e s'illed o"er time8s )order into the terrain of history. - #ast of heroes and "illains from the 'ast has )een re#ruited to 'lay ey roles. 3ndeed, as Helen King esta)lished earlier in this "olume, when Renaissan#e do#tors first needed to de"elo' the hysteria #on#e't, high 'riority was gi"en to manufa#turing a 'edigree going all the way )a# to Hi''o#rates.1&$2 Physi#ians ha"e also turned to the 'ast to e/er#ise their s ills in retros'e#ti"e diagnosis: 'referred readings of hysteria will, it is assumed, )e "indi#ated if they lead to the identifi#ation of former out)rea s. -fter all 9so argued nineteenth0#entury )io0medi#s<, what is medi#al s#ien#e if not an engine for dis#o"ering nature8s uni"ersal laws, o'erating uniformly through time and s'a#e, in the 'ast, 'resent, and futureN =hus Char#ot de#lared in ringing tones that HL8HystFrie a touIours e/istF, en tous lieu/ et en tous tem's.H1&52 3n 4es Demonia:ues dans l'art 9$>>C<, Iointly written with his #olleague -ntoine Ri#her, he #ontended that what )enighted ages had mista en for mysti#s and demonia#s were ar#hety'i#ally hysteri#s. By thus e/'osing the hysteria so long hidden from history, Char#ot strengthened his #laim to )e, in the there0and0then as well as the here0and0now, the all0#on4uering HDa'oleon of the neuroses.H ,urther medi#al demystifi#ation of religious enthusiasm )y K.0B. Bourne"ille and other intimates of the charcoterie hel'ed mo)ili6e the radi#al, anti#leri#al medi#al 'oliti#s of the =hird Re'u)li#.1&&2 Psy#hiatrists su#h as Gregory Pil)oorg su)se4uently de"elo'ed these retros'e#ti"e diagnoses of early modern demonia#s as si# 'eo'le 'ossessed, not )y the de"il, )ut )y disease, as 'eo'le fit, not for the

flames, )ut for the #ou#h. 3n 'ro'agating su#h "iews, analysts from ,reud to 'resent 'sy#hohistorians ha"e 'resented themsel"es as 'ioneers of thera'euti# methods and histori#al readings )oth enlightened and s#ientifi#.1&?2

Historiogra/hy
-nd historians of hysteria ha"e #hara#teristi#ally followed in their footste's: it was no a##ident that the first su)stantial #hroni#les of hysteria were written )y Char#otian 'rotFgFs.1&;2 Su#h wor s ha"e assumed that the annals of medi#al history, down the #enturies and a#ross the #ul0 + 5&5 + tures, 'oint to out#ro's of a disorder now identifia)le as hysteria, and that the medi#al mission of understanding, #lassifying, and treating it #an )e re#ounted as a 'rogression from su'erstition to s#ien#e, ignoran#e to e/'ertise, 'reIudi#e to 'sy#hoanalysis. =he standard English0language history, 3l6a 7eith8s Hysteria: The History of a Disease 9$%:;<, is wholly #ast within this mold.1&:2 -s her title indi#ates, 7eith8s 'remise is that hysteria is an o)Ie#ti"e disease, the same the whole world o"er. 3t had )een nown to do#torsAEast and LestAat least from $>** B.C ., 7eith #ontended, though it was the Gree s who had gi"en it its name. Bedie"al Christendom8s gestalt swit#h, treating 'sy#hosomati# sym'toms as the stigmata of Satan, had entailed a giganti# regression.1&C2 ,ortunately, far0sighted Renaissan#e 'hysi#ians su#h as Eohannes Leyer had re#a'tured hysteria from the theologians, seeing it as a disease, not a sin. E"en so, true understanding 9and treatment< #ontinued to )e hamstrung )y a falla#ious medi#al materialism mis#onstruing hysteria as organi#Astandardly, an a)normality of the wom), or, in later #enturies, of the ner"ous system and )rain stem. 7eith 'arti#ularly de'lored the Hin#reasingly sterile and re'etiti"e neurologi#al )asis that had emanated from Great Britain for nearly two hundred years,H s'ar ed, a)o"e all, )y George Cheyne8s Hner"ousH theory, whose Haffe#tation and a)surdities are su#h that it s#ar#ely merits ela)orate dis#ussionHAe"en the S#ottish iatrome#hanist8s Hreferen#es to his own distress,H 7eith un#harita)ly grum)led, Hseem in#onse4uential.H1&>2 Dot least, she argued, somati# hy'otheses had )een marred )y misogyny. @"erall, su#h ideas were 're#isely the o)sta#les that, in ,reud8s "iew, had Hso long stood in the way of 1hysteria2 )eing re#ogni6ed as a 'sy#hi#al disorder.H1&%2 ,ortunately, a##ording to 7eith, a #ounterinter'retation had emerged, al)eit )y fits and starts. Bra"e s'irits su#h as Para#elsus, Edward Eorden, =homas Sydenham, ,ran6 -nton Besmer, Phili''e Pinel, Ernst "on ,eu#htersle)en, and Ro)ert Carter )egan to de"elo' Han ama6ing amount of anti#i'ationH of the insightAfinally trium'hant with ,reudAthat hysteria was 'sy#hogeni#, the monster #hild of emotional trauma aggra"ated )y )ourgeois se/ual re'ression, es'e#ially of females.1?*2 =han s 'rin#i'ally to ,reud, this li)idinal straitIa# et had finally )een flung off, leading to the disorder8s demise in the 'resent #entury: 7eith8s narration #on#luded with ,reud. 3t says something for the "itality of medi#al history that, twenty0fi"e years later, 7eith8s re#ension a''ears ho'elessly outdated. ,or one thing, hers was heroes0and0"illains history, )eing 'arti#ularly free with )ou4uets for those who Hanti#i'atedH ,reud8s 'sy#hose/ual theory. -mong these, + 5&& + the mid07i#torian 'ra#titioner Ro)ert Carter re#ei"ed her most fulsome floral tri)utes, for ha"ing effe#ted Ha greater stride forwardH than Hall the ad"an#es made sin#e the )eginning of its history.H1?$2

=his rosy inter'retation of Carter grates, howe"er, u'on a modern generation 'rimed on anti'sy#hiatry and feminism. -fter all, it was 're#isely his Iudgment that hysteria was 'sy#hogeni# that ena)led Carter to indi#t hysteri#al women as not si# )ut swindlers, sun in Hmoral o)li4uity,H #yni#ally e/'loiting the si# role to mani'ulate their families and getting 'er"erse se/ual i# s out of the re'eated "aginal e/aminations they demanded. Carter, howe"er, saw through their tri# s and ad"o#ated su)Ie#ting them to ordeal )y 'sy#hiatri# e/'osure.1?52 Lith Kora8s #ase in mind, we might wryly agree with 7eith that Carter did indeed Hanti#i'ateH ,reud, )ut su#h a #om'liment would, of #ourse, )e )a# handed, underlining that ,reud too #ould )e a misogynisti# "i#tim )lamer and thera'euti# )ully. ,a#ed with the de"iousness of hysteri#s, ,reud #onfided to Lilhelm ,liess his sym'athy for the Hharsh thera'y of the wit#hes8 Iudges.H1?&2 Bore generally, 7eith8s Hhistory of a diseaseHAindeed, of a Hmental diseaseH1??2 A#on#ei"ed as a Ioust )etween )enighted 9somati#< theorists, who HretardedH #om'rehension, and their forward0loo ing 'sy#hologi#al ri"als, suffers from the sto# short#omings of wise0after0the0e"ent Lhiggism.1?;2 Past theorists are graded )y the yardsti# of ,reud, whose theory is ta en as the last word. Lith hindsight deri"ed from the 'sy#hodynami# re"olution, 7eith organi6es her history of hysteria around an essential tension )etween 9wrong< somatogeni# and 9"alid< 'sy#hogeni# #laims. - radi#ally different reading is offered )y =homas S6as6. ,or S6as6, hysteria is not a real disease, whose nature has )een 'rogressi"ely #ra# ed, )ut a myth forged )y 'sy#hiatry for its own greater glory. ,reud did not dis#o"er its se#retJ he manufa#tured its mythology.1?:2 Krawing u'on "aried intelle#tual traditionsAlogi#al 'ositi"ism, =al#ot Parsons8s theory of the si# role, ethnomethodology, and the so#iology of medi#al dominan#eAS6as6 has made 'rominent, in his The !yth of !ental 'llness ,1?C2 'sy#hoanalysis8s H#on"ersionH of hysteria into a 'rimary 'sy#hogeni# Hmental illnessH mar ed )y somati# #on"ersion, the translation, as Lilliam R. K. ,air)airn 'ut it, of a H'ersonal 'ro)lemH into a H)odily state.H1?>2 H3 was in#lined,H refle#ted ,reud, Hto loo for a psychical origin for all sym'toms in #ases of hysteria.H1?%2 E/'osing this as a strategy integral to a self0ser"ing Hmanufa#ture of madness,H S6as6 #ounters with a #orrosi"e 'hiloso'hi#al #riti4ue. By thus 'ri"ileging the 'sy#he, ,reud was in effe#t )reathing new life into the + 5&? + o)solete Cartesian dualism, resurre#ting the old ghost in the ma#hine, or rather, in the guise of the !n#ons#ious, in"enting the ghost in a ghost.1;*2 ,or S6as6, on the other hand, the e/'e#tation of finding the etiology of hysteria in )ody or mind, a)o"e all in some mental underworld, must )e a lost #ause, a dead end, a linguisti# error, and an e/er#ise in )ad faith. ,or the Hun#ons#iousH is not a 'la#e or an organ )ut, at most, a meta'horJ ,reud stands arraigned of rather nai"ely 'i#toriali6ing the 'sy#he in hydrauli# and ele#tri#al terms, of reifying the fi#ti"e su)stan#e )ehind the su)stanti"e.1;$2 Pro'erly s'ea ing, #ontends S6as6, hysteria is not a disease with origins to )e e/#a"ated, )ut a )eha"ior with meanings to )e de#oded. So#ial e/isten#e is a rule0go"erned game0'laying ritual. =he hysteri# )ends the rules and e/'loits their loo'holes. Dot illness )ut idiom 9gestural more than "er)al<, hysteria 'ertains not to a Cartesian ontology )ut to a semioti#s, )eing #ommuni#ation )y complaints . Sin#e the hysteri# is engaged in so#ial 'erforman#es that follow #ertain e/'e#tations so as to defy others, the 'ertinent 4uestions are not a)out the origins, )ut the #on"entions, of hysteria.1;52 Sideste''ing mind()ody dualisms, S6as6 thus re#asts hysteria as so#ial 'erforman#e, 'resenting 'ro)lems of #ondu#t, #ommuni#ation, and #onte/t. ,reud )elie"ed mind()ody di#hotomies were real, though ty'i#ally mystified, and attem'ted to #ra# them. S6as6 dismisses these as :uestions mal posAes

, deri"ing 9li e ,reud8s Hdis#o"eryH of the un#ons#ious< from linguisti# reifi#ation or )ad faith, and he aims to reformulate them. 3f idiosyn#rati#, S6as68s analysis is also a #hild of its time. Bodern linguisti# 'hiloso'hy, )eha"iorism, and 'oststru#turalism all de're#iate the etiologi#al 4uest: origins, authors, and intentions are dis#ounted, systems, #on"entions, and meanings forefronted. S6as6 does not, of #ourse, e/'e#t that his 'aradigm0swit#h will magi#ally swit#h off all the un#ontrolla)le so))ing, fits, tantrums, and 'aralyses. But it offers alternati"e readings of su#h a#ts, while undermining e/'e#tations that tra# ing hysteria will lead to the sour#e of the Dile, that is, the solution of the riddle of mind and )ody.1;&2 S6as68s resolution of hysteria is )ra#ing, )ut it is a#hie"ed at the #ost of redu#ing its 'ast to 'antomime: his ado'tion of the language of game0'laying turns e"eryone, sufferers and medi#s ali e, into mani'ulati"e egoists. 3llness is Iust a #ounter in a #ontest. So why em)ra#e this dismissi"e, )elittling "iewN 3t is )e#ause S6as6 is at )ottom an old0s#hool medi#al materialist: disease is really disease only if it is organi#.1;?2 Lere hysteriaAwere any so0#alled mental illnessAsomati#ally )ased, it would ha"e a real history 9affli#ting 'eo'le, )eing in"estigated )y 'hysi#ians<. La# ing organi# H'a'ers,H its 'ast, rather li e those of transu)stantiation + 5&; + or of 'er'etual0motion engines, is a )lot, a disgra#e, a fi#tion, a tale of na"es and fools worthy of some 'hiloso'he8s 'en. =hus, for e4ual )ut o''osite reasons, 7eith and S6as6 )oth short0#ir#uit hysteria8s history. 7eith 9oddly li e Char#ot< feels o)liged to tra#e it from the 'haroahs to ,reudJ S6as6 thin s the history of hysteria begins with ,reud8s 'sy#hodynami# em'ire )uilding. Belie"ing hysteria 'sy#hogeni#, 7eith re#ounts her Hhistory of a diseaseH as the road to ,reud. Belie"ing disease must )e somati#, S6as6 'aints hysteria8s history as the 'ageant of a dream. Both a''roa#hes tri"iali6e the intri#ate te/ture of hysteria down the ages, the true understanding of whi#h must res'e#t, not e/'lain away, the enigmas of multifa#eted, e"anes#ent 'ain in a #ulture within whi#h mind()ody relations ha"e )een su'er#harged and de"ilishly 'ro)lemati#. .et 7eith8s and S6as68s 'olari6ed readings are, in their own way, highly e/em'lary, for they )oth highlight mind()ody dis'utes in hysteria8s etiology. Kown the #enturies, 'hysi#ians long lamented how hysteria remained s'hin/li e, because mind()ody relations themsel"es 'ro"ed a #onundrum. 7eith8s desire to di"ide her 'rotagonists into 9HretardingH< materialist and 9H'rogressi"eH< 'sy#hologi#al #am's is, howe"er, misguided, for it free6es the rhetori# of the ,reudian era and ana#hronisti#ally )a# 'roIe#ts it. .et S6as68s mythi# history, su)ser"ing his own de)un ing and li)erating 'olemi#, also #uts #orners, a)o"e all )y seemingly denying any signifi#ant de"elo'ments )efore ,reud. Bany re#ent historians, es'e#ially Bar Bi#ale,1;;2 ha"e, )y #ontrast, insisted on the enormous intri#a#y and indetermina#y of the story of hysteria. -)o"e all, as will )e e/'lored )elow, it would )e sim'listi# to im'ly that early theories were e/#lusi"ely either somatogeni# or 'sy#hogeni#J most #ommonly they were attem'ts to disse#t and 'lot the 'u66ling entente )etween the 'assions of the mind and the #onstitution of the )ody. @ur story is thus not a matter of either(or )ut of )oth(and. -nd it is, a)o"e all, a history in whi#h the "ery notions of mind and )ody, and the )oundaries and )ridges )etween them, were #onstantly )eing #hallenged and re#onstituted. Hen#e this #ha'ter will fo#us on medi#al theori6ings of mind()ody 'athologies. 3t will thus engage the meta'hysi#s of hysteria, e/amining the theoreti#al under'innings that made 'ossi)le a su##ession of 'u66les, 'ro)lems, and solutions. =he story of hysteria 93 will argue< ma es s#ant sense if restri#ted to internal, te#hni#al s irmishings o"er ner"es and neurons, 'assions and 'athogens. ,ar more was at

sta e, not least )e#ause, as S6as6 has insisted, hysteria )e#ame an e/em'lary disease, the disorder that single0handedly laun#hed 'sy#hoanalysis. Small wonder this wider history is re4uisite, for the )iomedi#al do#0 + 5&: + trines of )ody and )rain, 'sy#he and soma, ha"e ne"er )een neutral 'ost0mortem findings, hermeti#ally sealed from the sym)oli# meanings a##reting around si# ness in daily e/'erien#e, meanings of utmost signifi#an#e for do#trines of human nature, gender relations, moral autonomy, legal res'onsi)ility, and the dignity of man.1;:2 Bedi#ine8s authority, its 'ri6ed s#ientifi#ity, may ha"e rested u'on its "aunted mono'oly of e/'ertise o"er the human organism, )ut its 'u)li# a''eal has e4ually hung u'on its a)ility to attune its terms and tones to the 'o'ular ear. =he historian of hysteria must, in short, )ear in mind the wider determinants: #hanging ideas of man, morality and #ulture, and the 'oliti#s of medi#ine in so#iety.

6ind and Body1 6edi.al 6aterialism and Hegemoni. Idealism

3 wish to e/'lore a further di#hotomyAChar#ot8s histori#al meta'hysi#s Iu/ta'osed against ,reud8sAto show its e/em'lary status for understanding the mind()ody 'oliti#s of hysteria. =o se#ure their #redentials, many nineteenth0#entury medi#s 'ro#laimed a 'owerful metahistory: -uguste Comte8s s#heme of the rise of thought, from the theologi#al, "ia the meta'hysi#al, u' to the s#ientifi# 'lane.1;C2 -s em)ra#ed )y 'ositi"ists, 'ar e/#ellen#e those in Char#ot8s #ir#le, su#h a 'rogressi"e s#hema im'lied that si# ness had, at the dawn of #i"ili6ation, )een misattri)uted to otherworldly agen#ies 9s'irit 'ossession, ne#roman#y, et#.<, su)se4uently )eing mystified into formulai# "er)iage 9humors, animal s'irits, #om'le/ions< dissem)ling as e/'lanations. Growing out of su#h mum)o Ium)o, 'hysi#ians had finally learned to ground their art in the nuts0and0)olts real0world of anatomy, 'hysiology, and neurology.1;>2 =hrough a)andoning myths for measurement, words for things, meta'hysi#s for meta)olism, medi#ine had at long last gras'ed the laws of nature, whi#h would 'ro"e the 'relude to effe#ti"e thera'euti#s. -##ording to Char#ot 9as will further )e e/'lored )elow<, hysteria would )e sol"ed )y 'ursuing the s#ien#e of the )ody. ,reud, howe"er, though Char#ot8s sometime student, #uts a#ross the grain of this e/'lanatory strategy Aindeed, 'resents a #ase of ontogeny re"ersing 'hylogeny. =he young ,reud had )een indu#ted into the Germani# s#hool of neuro'hysiology, whose #reed 9'aralleling the 'ositi"ist< es'oused the tri'le allian#e of s#ientifi# method, medi#al materialism, and intelle#tual 'rogress: e/'lanations of the li"ing had to )e somati#ally grounded or they weren8t s#ien#e. =hough initially endorsing this neurologi#al idiom, ,reud, in his own theori6ings of neuroses and hysteria, + 5&C + e"entually ado'ted a thoroughgoing 'sy#hodynami# stan#e, e"entually formulating a )attery of mentalist neologismsAthe un#ons#ious, ego, id, su'er ego, death wish, and so onAwhi#h logi#al 'ositi"ists ha"e e"er sin#e derided as throw)a# s to Comte8s Hmeta'hysi#alH stage.1;%2 3n tandem, ,reud8s thera'euti#s mo"ed from drugs 9e.g., #o#aine<, through hands0on, 'ressure0'oint hy'nosis, to the 'urely 'sy#hi#al 9free s'ee#h asso#iations<.1:*2 ,reud, some would say, was a ind of mental re#idi"ist. 3n thus 'ri"ileging the mind as primum mobile , ,reud #hallenged )iomedi#ine8s )ottom lineAand

regarded himself as "i#timi6ed for his 'ains, while energeti#ally mil ing his self0image as a 'erse#uted hereti#.1:$2 .et, )y so doing, he has won a standing o"ation from twentieth0#entury high #ulture, 'redis'osed to )elie"e that e/'lanations of human )eha"ior 'redi#ated u'on the wor ings of the mind , howe"er dar and de"ious, must )e more 'rofound, humane, insightful, true, and titillating e"en, than any formulated in )io#hemi#al or geneti# #ategories.1:52 -s we ha"e seen, 7eith herself assumed that on#e ,reud finally dis#o"ered hysteria to )e psychogenic , the #urtain #ould )e )rought down to ra'turous a''lause. Psy#hoanalysis8s Hdis#o"ery of the un#ons#ious,H1:&2 unlo# ing the se#rets of human desires, )oth normal and 'athologi#al, remains one of the foundation myths of modernity. 3n addressing the ri"al 'aradigms of fin de siG#le hysteria, we thus find a #ross fireAthe one s#ientifi#, ratifying 'ositi"ist laws of the organismJ the other #on"in#ed that meaningful e/'lanations of a#tion must deri"e from an ontology of the 'sy#he. =his is an instru#ti"e di#hotomy 9)iologism(mentalism<, re'rodu#ing in a nutshell two #lashing #onfigurations of Lestern thought. @n the one hand, 'sy#hoanalysis8s mentalism is under'inned )y the 'er"asi"e and 'restigious 3dealism, 'hiloso'hi6ed )y Platonism and the Cartesian cogito , long underwritten )y Christian theology, and, in se#ular gar), still the informal meta'hysi#al foundations of the humanities in C. P. Snow8s Htwo #ulturesH di#hotomy. Su#h hierar#hi#al, dualisti# models 'rogrammati#ally set mind o"er matter, thin ing o"er )eing, nurture o"er nature, head o"er hand, as higher o"er lower, the mental )eing ontologi#ally su'erior to the #or'oreal. Ba#ro#osmi#ally, )rute matter was su)ordinate to the Ki"ine Bind or 3dea, a#ting through immaterial agen#iesJ li ewise, mi#ro#osmi#ally, the a#hie"ement of mens sana in corpore sano re4uired that mind, will, or s'irit must #ommand )ase fleshAand, as =heodor -dorno, Dor)ert Elias, ,ou#ault, and others ha"e argued, the #i"ili6ing 'ro#ess, that #ele)rated mar#h of mind demanded )y #a'italism, long entailed the intensifi#ation of )ody0dis#i'lining te#hni4ues.1:?2 Lithin this "iew, si# ness is regarded 9li e #rime, "i#e, or sin< + 5&> + as the aftermath of reason losing #ontrol, either )e#ause the meta)olism itself has )een highIa# ed 9for instan#e, in the delirium of fe"er<, or when #i"il war eru'ts within the mind itself, leading to the Hmind forg8d mana#lesH of mental illness.1:;2 ,reud tor'edoed theology, wrestled with 'hiloso'hy, )ut lo"ed s#ien#e. His "iews of the dri"es and the un#ons#ious naturally #ould not #ountenan#e the Christian0Platoni# di"ine0right monar#hy of Pure Reason: it is, after all, the mission of 'sy#hoanalysis to de)un su#h illusions 9'urity indeedQ< as 'roIe#tions, su)limations, and mystifi#ations.1::2 Dor #ould he a##e't at fa#e "alue the do#trinaire distin#tions )etween freedom and ne#essity, "irtue and a''etite, lo"e and li)ido, and so on 'ostulated )y 'hiloso'hi#al 3dealism. =heseAli e so many other "aluesAwere not eternal "erities, gifts from the gods, )ut 'ro)lemati#, su)limated, e"en mor)id, #onstru#ts 9Hdefen#esH<. De"ertheless, the thrust of ,reudian 'sy#hodynami#sAhis 'oint of de'arture from Lilhelm Br[# e, Char#ot, and ,liess, and then from some of his own epigoni su#h as Lilhelm Rei#hAlay in denying the suffi#ien#y of )iology or heredity to e/'lain #om'le/ities of )eha"ior, healthy or mor)id. 3n the #ase of #om'le/es, the )ody )e#omes the )attleground for struggles masterminded elsewhere.1:C2 ,reud was dee'ly torn. Clini#al e/'erien#e led to his gi"ing so"ereignty to the 'sy#he. .et herein lay a 'rofound irony, for he was also, as Peter Gay has a'tly em'hasi6ed, a #hild of the old Enlightenment it#h to smash 3dealism, un"eiling it as the se#ret agent of false #ons#iousness, re'ression, and 'riest#raft.1:>2 He was, moreo"er, heir, )y training and tem'er, to the #rusading medi#al materialism and )io'hysi#s of his youthful heroesAHermann Helmholt6, =heodor Beynert, and his mentor, Br[# e, not to mention Char#ot himself. ,or su#h luminaries, as for the ,reud of the a)andoned $>%;

ProIe#t, doing s#ien#e meant translating )eha"ior into )iology, #ons#iousness into neurology, random e/'erien#e into o)Ie#ti"e laws. -nd in 'ursuing su#h 'ositi"ist a''roa#hes, nineteenth0#entury )ios#ientists were, as Lain Entralgo has stressed, further endorsing the dis'osition, from the Gree s onward, in what was signifi#antly titled H'hysi# ,H to enshrine the )ody as the ultimate Hreality 'rin#i'le.H1:%2 =he )ody 'ro"ides suffi#ient e/'lanation of its own )eha"ior. Kiseases are in and of the organism. =hey are #aused )y some fluid im)alan#e, 'hysi#al lesion, internal dislo#ation, HseedH 9or foreign )ody<, e/#ess, defi#ien#y, or )lo# ageJ material thera'euti#sAdrugs and surgeryAwill relie"e or #ure. -)andon su#h home truths, su#h 'rofessional arti#les of faith, and the autonomy and Iurisdi#tion of )iomedi#al s#ien#e and #lini#al 'ra#ti#e melt li e Bay mist. @n#e it were admitted that + 5&% + si# ness #ould not )e suffi#iently e/'lained in and through the )odyAunless it #ould )e said, at some le"el, Hin the )eginning, was the )odyHAmedi#ine would forfeit its title as a master dis#i'line, grounded u'on 'ri6ed #lini#os#ientifi# e/'ertise. !nless si# ness is translata)le into the lingo of lesions and laws, why should not anyoneA'riests, 'hiloso'hers, #harlatans, sufferersAtreat it as well as a do#torN Herein lies the e/'lanation of why s#ientifi# medi#ine #ommitted itself, from the Renaissan#e, to e"ermore minute anatomi#al and 'hysiologi#al in"estigations, e"en though the thera'euti# 'ayoffs long remained un#on"in#ing. .et this strategy for ratifying 'rofessional #redentials through a s#ien#e of the )ody naturally ran the ris of #ounter'rodu#ti"ity. ,or, in a #ulture0at0large in whi#h 3dealism was hegemoni#, medi#ine there)y e/'osed itself to the #harge that its in#om'ara)le organi# e/'ertise was 'ur#hased at the 'ri#e of higher dignity: a lia)ility 'erfe#tly summed u' in Coleridge8s damnation of the do#tors for their de)asing somatism: H=hey are shallo% animals,H Iudged the ardent Platonist, Hha"ing always em'loyed their minds a)out Body and Gut, they imagine that in the whole system of things there is nothing )ut Gut and Body.H1C*2 =he 'rogram widely, if ta#itly, ado'ted )y medi#ine sin#e the s#ientifi# re"olution of lo#ating disease e/'lanations within the )ody seemed une/#e'tiona)le when addressing #ons'i#uous #onditionsA tumors or dro'sy, for instan#eAin"ol"ing 'hysi#al a)normalities. 3t has 'ro"ed more 'ro)lemati#, howe"er, where 'ain flares seemingly inde'endently of manifest e/ternal lesions: e"en today medi#ine is em)arrassed when fa#ed with #ommon #om'laints su#h as ner"ous e/haustion, stress, or addi#tion. -nd medi#ine8s #laims en#ounter s'e#ial strain in #ases where distur)an#es are s'oradi# and seemingly irrational. 3t is in these )orderland areas, the fields of so0#alled fun#tional and ner"ous disorders where si# ness e/'erien#e wants se#ure somati# an#horage, that medi#al #redit is least #on"in#ing. 3f suffering la# s lesions and lo#ali6ations, why should it )e medi#ine8s 'ro"in#e at allN -fter all, leading #riti#s from within the 'rofession, nota)ly =homas S6as6, ha"e in"o ed medi#ine8s #herished #riteria 9logi#al 'ositi"ism and methodologi#al materialism< to #ontend that, sin#e 'hysi# 8s ingdom is the )ody, and medi#ine is thus definitionally organi# 9else it is a #himera<, the "ery idea of 'rimary mental illness should )e stru# off the register as a #ategory error, a misleading meta'horAor, worse, a 'ious fraud, sma# ing of 'rofessional )ad faith.1C$2 Bedi#ine has Iurisdi#tion o"er the somati#, )ut who authori6ed its writ to run one ste' )eyondN -s G. S. Rousseau8s essay has shown, 'hysi#ians long ago hoisted their flag o"er hysteriaJ )ut the terra in#ognita has e"er 'ro"ed remar a)ly resistant to assured #oloni6ation. =hus ours has )een a #i"ili6ation in whi#h, in an ideologi#al shadow

+ 5?* + 'lay of the so#io'oliti#al order, hegemoni# 3dealism has traditionally enthroned mind o"er what theology denigrated as the Hflesh,H fore"er too, too solid and sullied.1C52 -t the same time, medi#ine, )y em)ra#ing 9'roto<0'ositi"ist notions of s#ien#e and 'rofessional territorial im'erati"es, has es'oused a 'ra/is affording it #ontrol o"er the organi#. Su'erfi#ially it might seem that these two dri"esA enshrining s'irit, yet ma ing matter the foundation stone of s#ien#eAare radi#ally in#ommensura)le. .et do#tors li"e in the world and medi#ine needs to )e #redit0worthyJ or, in other words, a##ommodations ha"e e"er )een rea#hed, or ensure that #ultural idealism and medi#al materialism wor in )road harmony, rather than on a #ollision #ourse.1C&2 Bedi#ine, 'hiloso'hy, and theology de"elo'ed thought0'a# ages designed to demar#ate the domains and s'e#ify the 'athways of mind and matter. =hus, so ran long0standing 'res#ri'tions, the rules of health re4uired that mind must )e in the saddle, ena#ting the 're#e'ts of 'hiloso'hers and 'rea#hers. Lhene"er the reign of reason is #hallenged, when )rute flesh mutinies, the resultant state is si# ness, and then the mentor ma es way for the do#tor. 3n any #ase, and gi"ing the lie to Coleridge8s slur, 'hysi#ians themsel"es, time out of mind, ha"e 'res#ri)ed. li)eral doses of will'ower as the re#i'e for Hwhole 'ersonH well0)eing: )e healthy0minded, thin 'ositi"e, e/er#ise self0#ontrol. -s Bi#hael Clar has )rilliantly shown, late 7i#torian do#tors #hara#teri6ed the sound, res'onsi)le 'erson as one who tem'ered the will and dis#i'lined the )ody, #hanneling the energies, li e a true -ristotelian, into healthy 'u)li# a#ti"ity. By #ontrast, the hy'o#hondria# or degenerate was tra''ed in mor)id intros'e#tion, 'risoner, in Henry Baudsley8s gra'hi# 'hrase, of the Htyranny of organi6ation.H1C?2 So #ultural 3dealism and medi#al materialism, though 'erha's worlds a'art, ha"e rarely )een daggers drawn. Ea#h assigned roles to the other within its own 'lay. E"en medi#al materialists su#h as Eulien de La Bettrie re#ogni6ed that, ta en to e/tremes, to redu#e man to nothing )ut l'homme machine would )e self0dis#onfirming, while no less an idealist than Bisho' George Ber eley did not hesitate to tout tar0 water as a 'ana#ea.1C;2 =hus #ultural Platonism and medi#al materialism are )est regarded as un#omforta)le matrimonial 'artners, who ha"e engaged in 'artial #oo'eration to frame images of the #onstitution of man, the dan#e of soma and 'sy#he, the triangle of sanity, salu)rity, and si# ness, and, not least, of the 'oliti#s of the moral('hysi#al interfa#e.1C:2 ,or do#tors ha"e to o'erate in the 'u)li# domain, Iostling with ri"als in e/'ertise and authority, and their ser"i#es ultimately ha"e to 'lease 'aying 'atients. So medi#ine #annot afford to )ury itself in s'rains and 'ains )ut must engage with wider issuesAreligious, ethi#al, so#ial, and + 5?$ + #ultural. =he 'u)li# wants from do#tors e/'lanations no less than medi#ationsJ so#iety loo s to the 'rofession for e/hortation and e/#uses. Bedi#ine is #alled u'on to su''ly stories a)out the nature of man and the order of things. Boreo"er, )e#ause medi#ine has ne"er enIoyed mono'olyAnor has it )een monolithi#J it has )een di"ided within itselfAit has de"elo'ed multi'le strategies for se#uring its 'la#e in the sun. 3t would, in fine, )e myo'i# to treat medi#ine as a limited te#hni#al enter'rise. =his is es'e#ially so when we are fa#ed with inter'reting the 'e#uliarities of hysteria, a disorder that, as indi#ated, dramati#ally rose and fell )etween the Renaissan#e and the ,irst Lorld Lar, a traIe#tory indu)ita)ly lin ed to larger #ultural determinants affe#ting 'atients and 'ra#titioners ali e. Hysteria 'resented do#tors with a tease, a trial, and a )rea . =he hysteria diagnosis, #riti#s gri'ed, was the most egregious medi#al ho#us0'o#us, atta#hed to sym'tom #lusters 'hysi#ians #ould not im'ute to some more regular #ause. =he sym'toms were heterogeneous, )i6arre, and un'redi#ta)le: 'ains in the

genitals and a)domen, shooting to' to toe, or rising into the thora/ and 'rodu#ing #onstri#tions around the throat 9globus hystericus <J )reathing irregularitiesJ twit#hings, ti#s, and s'asmsJ mounting an/iety and emotional out)ursts, )reathlessness, and floods of tearsJ more a#ute sei6ures, 'aralyses, #on"ulsions, hemi'lagias, or #atale'syAany or all of whi#h might ring the #hanges in di66ying su##ession and often with no o)"ious organi# sour#e. ,a#ed with su#h sym'toms, what was to )e doneN =he mystery #ondition 9s'a e the #yni#s< was wra''ed u' as Hhysteria.H Su#h, a##ording to the mid0 se"enteenth0#entury neurologist =homas Lillis, was the 'hysi#ians8 fig leaf worn to hide their #ogniti"e shame: 1L2hen at any time a si# ness ha''ens in a Loman8s Body, of an unusual manner, or more o##ult original, so that its #auses lie hid, and a Curatory indi#ation is altogether un#ertain. . . . we de#lare it to )e something hysteri#al . . . whi#h oftentimes is only the su)terfuge of ignoran#e.1CC2 E"idently, things did not im'ro"e. - full #entury later, Lilliam Bu#han still felt o)liged to du) hysteria the Hre'roa#h of medi#ine,H sin#e the H'hysi#ian . . . is at a loss to a##ount for the sym'tom.H1C>2 Las hysteria then Iust a will0o80the0wis', a fa)ulous )east or 'hantomN @r was it an authenti# malady, whose essen#e lay in ha"ing no essen#e, )eing 'rodigiously 'rotean, the mas4uerading malady, mimi# ing all othersN1C%2 -nd if hysteria were su#h a des'erado, was it truly not a disease at all, )ut some ind of ,ran enstein8s monster, a )rain0#hild of the medi#al imagination finally turned u'on its own #reatorsN + 5?5 + 3n the light of these grander issuesAthe 'ro)lems of medi#ine8s #ontinued attem't to #onfirm its 'la#e within the wider #ulture, the mind()ody am)i"alen#e of hysteria, the )re"ity of hysteria8s heyday, and the #onstrual of hysteria as an anomalous monster diseaseAit #an hardly )e illuminating to write, as did 7eith, a)out the Hhistory of a diseaseH in the same manner that one might sensi)ly sur"ey small'o/ and its medi#al eradi#ation. 3t would )e dou)ly misleading to im'ly that medi#al ad"an#es su##essi"ely laid )are the true roles 'layed in the etiology of hysteria )y mind and )odyJ for, as Iust suggested, mind and )ody are not themsel"es #ast0iron #ategories, )ut )est seen as re'resentations negotiated )etween #ulture, medi#ine, and so#iety.1>*2 Hen#e, in the remainder of this #ha'ter, 3 shall e/'lore some different meanings su##essi"ely assumed )y hysteria, in a world in whi#h medi#ine was )attling to e/tend its sway. By a##ount will em'hasi6e the initiati"es of medi#ine. Dot )e#ause 3 )elie"e that do#tors had uni4ue s'e#ial insight into the #ondition,1>$2 or, #ontrariwise, that hysteria was #yni#ally manufa#tured )y a malign medi#al mafia. 3 do so, rather, )elie"ing that, li e in"isi)le in when heat is a''lied, hysteria was a #ondition #hiefly rendered "isi)le )y the medi#al 'resen#e. Lithout the #alling of medi#al witnesses to wit#h trials, early modern 'hysi#ians would rarely ha"e 'ronoun#ed u'on these )i6arre )eha"iors. Lithout the leisured sufferer whose 'urse s'elled good times for 'ri"ate 'ra#ti#e, Enlightenment 'hysi#ians would not ha"e had a tale to tell of ner"ousness. Lithout #onfinement in the Sal'WtriGre hos'ital in the 'ro/imity of e'ile'ti#s, and, a)o"e all, without the ele#tri# atmos'here of Char#ot8s #lini#, Blan#he Littmann and other stars of hysteria would ha"e wasted their swoonings on the desert air.1>52 Ro)ert Carter, who was #yni#al a)out those Ha#tresses,H refle#ted that nature new no su#h )eing as a solitary hysteri#: hysteria was a 'u)li# #om'laint 'resu''osing an audien#eAmass hysteria definitionally so.1>&2 Las hysteria, then, 'urely iatrogeni#, or, at least, as Eliot Slater would 'ut it, Ha disorder of the do#tor0'atient relationshi'HN1>?2 Bay)e, though it would )e more Iudi#ious to say that the nineteenth #entury was hysteria8s golden age 're#isely )e#ause it was then that the moral 'resen#e of the do#tor )e#ame normati"e as ne"er )efore in regulating intimate li"es.

$ontinuities1 !oward Nineteenth;$entury Ner+ousness

-s Rousseau showed in the 're"ious #ha'ter, Enlightenment sensi)ilities were #onfronted with a#tions and sufferings not easily #om'ati)le with + 5?& + "aunted 'aradigms of #ondu#t or #lassifi#ations of disease. =he a''earan#e of su#h alienation and irrationality has #ommonly )een )lamed, )y modern #ounter#ultural #riti#s, u'on the dualisti# do#trine of man 'ro#laimed )y the new 'hiloso'hy, a)o"e all the Cartesian se"ered head and di"ided self, deri"ed from the a)solute rule of the cogito in the age of reason.1>;2 3t is 'ossi)le to ta e a "iew more sym'atheti# to eighteenth0#entury stru#tures of feeling. =he new a"aila)ility of a 'lurality of models of li"ing 9Christian, #i"i# humanist, indi"idualist, s#ientifi#, and so forth< 'erha's afforded wel#ome 'sy#hologi#al Le)ensraum to thoseAfor instan#e, mem)ers of the newly emergent intelligentsiaAwho did not fit easily into rigid 'res#ri'tions. Kualisti# models and multi'le 'rototy'es allowed a #ertain indetermina#y, or 'sy#hologi#al ;e ne sais :uoi , to )e )uilt into the ma eu' of modern man, allowing the a##ommodation of e##entri#ity and differen#e.1>:2 Su#h margins of toleran#e were sorely needed. ,or, as the Enlightenment era rela/ed religious re4uirements, it was also a''lying intenser 'ersonal strains. 3ts e/hausting #ommitment to the life of intelligen#e, its demand for 'oliteness, and its relentless 'ressures for self0awareness and0reali6ation, s'elled more stressful standards of )eha"ior, and hen#e highlighted their o)"erse: a)normality. 3n the rarefied atmos'heres of so'histi#ated #ourtliness and )rilliant ur)anity, the )ody was re4uired to )e dis#i'lined and drilled, yet also dis'layed. 3nner sensi)ilities had to find e/'ression at the tea ta)le or in the salon through refined, su)tle, and often "eiled #odes of eti4uette, re"ealing )ut #on#ealing through a#tions #om'elled to s'ea louder than words. =he lingua fran#a for negotiating su#h re'ression0 e/'ression tensions lay in ner"ousness, a )ody language ultra fle/i)le, nuan#ed, and am)i"alent, yet )rittle and fitful. ,or life li"ed through the idioms of ner"ous sensi)ility #arried high ris s. Lant of nerve )etrayed effemina#yJ want of nerves , )y #ontrast, e/'osed 'le)eian dullnessJ yet "olatile e/#ita)ility #ould )e too mu#h of a good thing, a la'se of ta#t, #ulminating in hysteri#al #rises. - golden meanA'oised de#orum s'i#ed with idiosyn#rati# differen#eAwas the goal. -#hie"ement of this ha6ardous role adIustment, this a##ommodation )etween the hy'er"isi)le nar#issisti# indi"idual and a so#iety demanding Chesterfieldian #onformism, was 'erha's fa#ilitated )y 're#isely that di"ided Cartesian self so often )erated )y modern #riti#s. Su#h a dualismAthe man0)ehind0the0mas 'laying out the ontology, of the ghost in the ma#hineAallowed a #ertain distan#e, a disowning, a usa)le tension )etween self and )ody. Kiderot, Sterne, Casano"a, and Rousseau all demonstrated, through their li"es and writings, the ri#h 'otential for + 5?? + dramati# self0e/'ression afforded to the Hnew 'ersonH )y the no"el 'olysemi# idioms of im'ulse, feeling, imagination, ner"es, and, ultimately, hysteria.1>C2 Enlightenment thin ers 'rofessed )afflement at the S'hin/ian riddles of 'sy#he(soma affinities. H=he a#tion of the mind on the )ody, and of the )ody on the mind,H noted a leading authority on madness, Hafter all that has )een written, is as little understood, as it is uni"ersally felt.H1>>2 =his ontologi#al e4ui"o#ation, this sus'ension of Iudgment, surely enhan#ed that res'e#t with whi#h the 'ost0Sydenham hysteri# was treated in a 'ri"ate 'ra#ti#e milieu in whi#h, as Di#holas Eewson has stressed, some rough0

and0ready 'arity go"erned 'atient('ra#titioner relationshi's.1>%2 =hus, that great #lini#ian, Lilliam He)erden, a man utterly au fait with the sym'toms, saw hysteria as a #ondition all too readily 'ro"o ed )y the Hslightest affe#tion of the sense or fan#y, )eginning with some uneasiness of the stoma#h or )owels.H HHy'o#hondria# men and hysteri# womenH suffered a#idities, wind, and #ho ing, leading to Hgiddiness, #onfusion, stu'idity, inattention, forgetfulness, and irresolution,H all 'roof that the Hanimal fun#tions are no longer under 'ro'er #ommand.H1%*2 But, a man of his time, he was loath to dogmati6e as to the root #ause. ,or, our great ignoran#e of the #onne/ion and sym'athies of )ody and mind, and also of the animal 'owers, whi#h are e/erted in a manner not to )e e/'lained )y the #ommon laws of inanimate matter, ma es a great diffi#ulty in the history of all distem'ers, and 'arti#ularly of this. ,or hy'o#hondria# and hysteri# #om'laints seem to )elong wholly to these un nown 'arts of the human #om'osition.1%$2 Li e most #ontem'orary #lini#ians, He)erden was 're'ared to li"e with the mystery "isitor. H3 would )y no means )e understood, )y any thing whi#h 3 ha"e said, to re'resent the sufferings of hy'o#hondria# and hysteri# 'atients as imaginaryJ for 3 dou)t not their arising from as real a #ause as any other distem'er.H1%52 3n other words, the histori#al so#iology of Enlightenment hysteria is defined )y the #lini#al en#ounter )etween the sensiti"e 'atient and the sym'atheti# 'hysi#ian. =he am)ien#e was elitist, and it was, in 'rin#i'le at least, unise/. Ridi#uling uterine theories of hysteria as anatomi#al moonshine, Ri#hard Bla# more had #on#luded that Hthe Sym'toms that distur) the @'erations of the Bind and 3magination in Hysteri# LomenHAand )y these sym'toms he meant H,lu#tuations of Eudgment, and swift =urns in forming and re"ersing of @'inions and Resolutions, 3n#onstan#y, =imidity, -)sen#e of Bind, want of self0determining + 5?; + 'ower, 3nattention, 3n#ogitan#y, Kiffiden#e, Sus'i#ion, and an -'tness to ta e well0meant =hings amissHAthese, he insisted, Hare the same with those in Hy'o#hondria#al Ben.H1%&2 How #ould an age nailing its #olors to the mast of uni"ersal reason, a #ulture whose moral "o#a)ulary turned u'on sense and sensi)ility, define hysteria as the malaise of the mu#ous mem)raneN =his #lini#al ra''ort forged in the #entury after Sydenham )etween fashiona)le do#tor and his moneyed 'atients did not #ease in $>**: far from it. Dineteenth0#entury medi#ine 'resents a ,rithian 'anorama of well0to0do, time0to0 ill, twit#hy ty'es of )oth se/es )eing diagnosed as hysteri#al, or 'erha's )y one of its in#reasingly used eu'hemisti# aliases, su#h as Hneurastheni#,H1%?2 and )eing treated, )y general 'ra#titioners and s'e#ialist ner"e do#tors ali e, with a #ornu#o'ia of drugs and toni#s, moral and )eha"ioral su''ort, indulgen#e, rest, regimen, and what0you0willAin ways that surely would ha"e won the im'rimatur of Samuel =issot, =heodore =ron#hin, or He)erden.1%;2 Su#h #ontinuity may show that 7i#torian medi#ine failed in its 4uest for the 'romised s'e#ifi# for hysteria. But it would )e more to the 'oint to em'hasi6e that, from Giorgio Bagli"i to George Beard, the #anny #lini#ian new that the hysteri#8s 'rime needs were for attention, es#a'e, 'rote#tion, rest, re#u'eration, reinfor#ementA 'hysi#al, moral, and mental ali e. =he least 'lausi)le indi#tment against either Bande"ille or Leir Bit#hell is that they tried to for#e hysteria onto some Pro#rustean )ed. ,or them, the 'rotean language of ner"es 'ermitted the sufferer to )es'ea his or her own hysteria diagnosis as a nonstigmati6ing #loa of disorder. 3t was Bit#hell who was wont to s'ea of Hmysteria.H1%:2 3n the nineteenth #entury, the rest home, #lini#, and sanatorium su''lemented the s'a0resort to 'ro"ide new re#u'erati"e sites for the familiar ner"ous #om'laints of the ri#h. =heir thera'euti# rationale,

howe"er, was old wine in new )ottles. Der"e do#tors #ontinued to em'hasi6e the for#e field of the 'hysi#al, emotional, and intelle#tual in 're#i'itating hysteria 9or, later, neuro'athy, neurasthenia, et#.<J they defined hysteria, formally at least, as gender nons'e#ifi#, inde'endent of gyne#ologi#al etiology. =here was life still in the old Enlightenment idiom of the ner"es. -)o"e all, )y #ushioning neurastheni# 'atients within a somati6ing diagnosti#s of ner"ous #olla'se, ner"ous de)ility, gastri# wea ness, dys'e'sia, atoni#ity, s'inal inflammation, migraine, and so forth, fashiona)le do#tors #ould forestall sus'i#ions that their res'e#ta)le 'atients were either half mad or malingering so#io'aths.1%C2 Dot least, Hner"esH 're#luded moral )lame, )y hinting at a 'athology not e"en 'rimarily 'ersonal, )ut so#ial, a 6eitgeist disease. Eighteenth0 + 5?: + #entury ner"e do#tors tended to indi#t #ultural "olatility: salon so'histi#ates were "i#tims of e/4uisitely "ertiginous life0styles that sa''ed the ner"es. By #ontrast, in later re#ensions of the diseases of #i"ili6ation, High 7i#torian thera'ists on )oth sides of the -tlanti# 'ointed a##using fingers at the 'itiless #om'etition of mar et so#iety. -s ,ran#is Gosling has shown, George Beard and Leir Bit#hell argued that #areer strains in the )usiness rat ra#e de"itali6ed young a#hie"ersJ )rain0fagged )y stress and tension in the #o# 'it of #ommer#e, they ended u' ner"ous wre# s, their 'sy#hologi#al #a'ital o"erta/ed. Cere)ral #ir#uits suffered o"erload, mental ma#hinery )lew fuses, )atteries ran down, )rains were )an ru'ted: su#h meta'hors, )orrowed from 'hysi#s and engineering, were reminders that disorders were 'hysi#al, offering #on"in#ing e/'lanations why go0getting all0-meri#an .ale graduates li e Clifford Beers should suffer ner"ous )rea downs no less than their deli#ate and de"oted sisters. 1%>2 Su#h de#orous somati6ing also 'ermitted 'hysi#ians to e/hi)it da66ling thera'euti# ma#hineries, targeted at )odily re#u'eration: )aths and dou#hes, 'assi"e He/er#ise,H massage, #ustom0)uilt diets 'rogrammed to ma e weight, fat, and )loodJ regimes of wal ing, games, and gymJ o##u'ational thera'y, water treatments, ele#tri#al stimuli, rela/ation, routine, and so forth. =his 'ara'hernalia of remedial te#hnologies o)"iously s'elled good )usiness for residential #lini#al dire#tors. Strategi#ally, su#h routines were said to )enefit 'atients )y defle#ting them from mor)id self0awareness, training attention more )enefi#ially elsewhere. ,or nineteenth0#entury 'hysi#ians )egan to "oi#e fears of mor)id intros'e#tion, that hysteri#al s'iral arising from 'atients dwelling u'on their disorders.1%%2 Pre#e'ts for healthy li"ing widely #an"assedA )y sages su#h as Eohn Stuart Bill and =homas Carlyle no less than medi#al gurusAde'lored egoisti# 'reo##u'ation as the road to ruin, to sui#ide e"en, and ad"ised #ons#iousness0o)literating, outgoing a#ti"ity.1$**2 ,or the hysteri# was ty'i#ally regarded as the nar#issist or intro"ert. ,rom her ,reudian "iew'oint, 7eith has )lamed Leir Bit#hell for not en#ouraging his rest0#ure #on"ales#ents to tal their 'sy#hose/ual 'ro)lems through, im'lying that this silen#e may ha"e )een due to 'rudery. @ne sus'e#ts, in truth, the do#tor8s reti#en#e refle#ts neither 'uritanism nor shallowness, )ut sa""y: a #on"i#tion that some matters were )etter left latent, lest they inflame mor)id tenden#ies.1$*$2 H@nly when )odily fun#tions are deranged,H warned the mid07i#torian British 'hysi#ian Be"an Lewis, do Hwe )e#ome . . . #ons#ious of the e/isten#e of our organs.H1$*52 3n his #aution a)out #ons#iousness, Lewis was of a mind with the leaders of British 'ra#ti#eACharles Ber#ier, + 5?C + Ka"id S ae, Henry Baudsley, and =homas CloustonAwho saw hysteria as the 'enalty for e/#essi"e

intros'e#tion, es'e#ially when a##om'anied )y a0 or anti0so#ial dis'ositions and, worse still, )y auto0 erotism.1$*&2 3t was, #onse4uentially, dangerous to dis#uss su#h dis'ositions freely with 'atients, lest this en#ourage further mor)id egoism and attention0see ing, and all the attendant train of self0 a)sor'tion, daydreaming, re"erie, and solitary and sedentary ha)its. Prom'ted to dwell u'on herself, Baudsley feared, the hysteri# would most li ely sin into soli'sisti# moral insanity or im)e#ilityJ1$*?2 for, as the 'atient 'rogressi"ely a)andoned her 'ower of willAHa #hara#teristi# sym'tom of hysteria in all its 'rotean formsHAshe would fall into Hmoral 'er"ersion,H losing more and more of her energy and self0#ontrol, )e#oming #a'ri#iously fan#iful a)out her health, imagining or feigning strange diseases, and ee'ing u' the delusion or the im'osture with a 'ertina#ity that might seem in#redi)le, getting more and more im'atient of the ad"i#e and interferen#e of others, and indifferent to the interests and duties of her 'osition.1$*;2 ,or their own sa es, therefore, 'atients must )e ta en Hout of themsel"esHAthrough thera'euti# ho))ies, e/er#ise, and so#ia)ility. =hus Sir Lilliam Bradshaw, the so#iety 'hysi#ian in 7irginia Loolf8s !rs. Dallo%ay , notoriously instru#ts the shell0sho# ed war "i#tim Se'timus Smith to 'ull himself together and #ulti"ate a sense of 'ro'ortion. =hrough the #ari#ature of this 'om'ous ass, Loolf e/'ressed her #ontem't for su#h London 'hysi#ians as Sir George Sa"age and Bauri#e Craig, who treated her own ner"ous #olla'ses with the moral anodyne of the rest #ure. .et Loolf herself was no less s#athing, in a terri)ly English way, a)out the asininities of se/0on0the0)rain Germani# 'sy#hiatrists. =here is no sign that she fa"ored ha"ing ,reudian Hmind do#torsH o'en ,reud0ian windows onto her 'sy#he.1$*:2 3n short, 'owerful #urrents through the nineteenth #entury and )eyond #ontinued to #lass hysteria as a disease of ner"ous organi6ation. Ko#tors fi/ed u'on 'hysi#al sym'toms, and treated them with 'hysi#al means, steering #lear of too mu#h s irmishing with, or stirring u', the mind. 3f )lin ered and #om'la#ent, su#h a''roa#hes were not ne#essarily o)tuse. =he #ontrasting 'roto#ols of Char#ot8s =uesday Clini#1$*C2 and the ,reudian #ou#h argua)ly hysteri6ed hysteria, as one might douse a fire with gasoline. .et if #ontinuities with the Enlightenment may )e seen, there are gear shifts tooJ a)o"e all, 'erha's, a #ertain waning of medi#al sym'athy for the ner"ous hysteri# in the generations after $>**, than s to a sterner E"angeli#al 'ri6ing of self0relian#e.1$*>2 3f the Enlightenment indulged a #ertain fas#ination for idiosyn#ra#y, 7i#torian + 5?> + mores too their stand against the egoisti# so#io'ath. =o these so#io'aths we turn.

$hange1 3omen8 Body8 and S.ienti*i. 6edi.ine

Con#entrating on #ontinuities with the 'ast ris s s ewing nineteenth0#entury outloo s on hysteria. 3t was, all agree, hysteria8s belle epo:ue , than s a)o"e all to the startling emergen#e and #on"ergen#e of mutually reinfor#ing #onditions: a 'rofound a##entuation of the Hwoman 4uestion,H #oterminous with an e"idently not unrelated e/'ansion in organi6ed medi#ine. -s Elaine Showalter fully e/'lores in #ha'ter ?, the 4uestion of feminine nature )e#ame a )urning issue. Romanti#ism rang the #hanges on the 'arado/es: wife and whore, femme fragile and femme fatale , wea )ut wantonAwoman, it seemed, was an a''allingly irresisti)le #o# tail of inno#en#e and mor)id se/uality.1$*%2 Bram KiI stra, among others, has tra#ed the sensationali6ation of that mythology toward the turn of the #entury.1$$*2 3n the shadow of su#h stereoty'es, women e/'erien#ed 'rofound #onfli#ts o"er ri"al ideals and e/'e#tations.1$$$2 =o hoo a hus)and, a woman had to )e

#hildli e and de'endent, yet also a tower of strength as the household manager of that great moral engine, the family, and ro)ust enough to sur"i"e innumera)le 'regnan#ies. Li"es had to )e 'ure, yet 'leasing, or ris )eing su''lanted )y the Hother woman.H Hen#e they had to de"elo' their talents, yet intelle#tual as'irations were #ensured as unnatural, im'eriling their manifest )iologi#al destiny as willing wom)s. -nd if, stu'efied )y su#h 'ressures, 'arado/es, and 'rohi)itions, women showed signs of )ewilderment or )ridling, what did this 'ro"e )ut that they were s'oiled, diffi#ult, and #a'ri#ious, further 'roof of the ne#essity for male and medi#al #ontrolN Lhen 'roto0feminist 'rotest mounted, it ga"e further e"iden#e to those who saw hysteria as the root of all female a#ti"ism. History, anatomy, destiny, e"olutionAall were #ons#ri'ted to #lam' women in their 'la#e.1$$52 -nd so, of #ourse, as fine feminist s#holarshi' has shown, was medi#ine.1$$&2 .et the medi#al 'rofession itself was in the toils of traumati# transformation. S'a#e limits here 're#lude any ade4uate e/'loration of the u'hea"als in the internal organi6ation and 'u)li# fa#ade of medi#ine during the nineteenth #entury, )ut a few de"elo'ments must )e mentioned, 'laying as they did ey 'arts in resha'ing hysteria. -mid the throng of 'rofessional grou's #om'eting for re#ognition and rewards, medi#ine #ontri)uted noisily to the #langor, franti#ally asserting its own uni4ue "o#ation. Ko#tors sought fighter 'rofessional orga0 + 5?% + ni6ation and 'u)li# 'ri"ileges. =ea#hing and resear#h assumed greater institutionali6ation in uni"ersity and la)oratory. -nd, than s to su#h de"elo'ments, medi#al dis#ourse )e#ame in#reasingly dire#ted to 'rofessional 'eers. Lith new ladders of ad"an#ement, and the e/'ansion of resear#h s#hools and s#ientifi# #ir#les, 'rofessional esprit de corps grew #ommensura)ly, entailing a #ertain dis'la#ement of the 'atient, who was in#reasingly downgraded to an o)Ie#t of Hthe medi#al ga6e.H -ll su#h #hanges had, as we shall see, 'rofound im'li#ations for the hysteri#.1$$?2 @"er'o'ulated, inse#ure, )ut am)itious, medi#ine fra#tured into a 'roliferation of su)dis#i'lines, with new s'e#ialties multi'lying and "ying for funds and fame. -s @rnella Bos#u##i has demonstrated, o)stetri#s and gyne#ology 'ioneered identities of their own, sta ing out the new terrain of women8s medi#ine. Deurology too sha'e as a s'e#ialtyJ Russell Baulit6 has tra#ed the rise of 'athology. Pu)li# health #ame of age, and allian#es )etween the so#ial s#ien#es and the emergent s'e#ialties of organi# #hemistry and )a#teriology hel'ed to forge modern e'idemiology. Psy#hiatry )lossomed, #oloni6ing its own lo#ations, a)o"e all, the asylum and the uni"ersity 'oly#lini#.1$$;2 -nd all su#h heightened di"ision of la)or led to different s#hools, national grou's, and su)s'e#ialisms "aunting their own #ogniti"e #laims: in some #ases, )asi# s#ien#e, in others, #lini#al e/'erien#e or la)oratory e/'erimentation, eyed to the mi#ros#o'e. L. S. Ea#yna has stressed the es'ousal )y 'rofessional medi#s of ideologies of s#ientifi# naturalism, #entered on the laws of life.1$$:2 Dineteenth0#entury medi#ine reoriented itself )eyond the si# )ed into the #lini#: the "ast, in"estigati"e tea#hing hos'ital, e4ui''ed with ad"an#ed 'atho0anatomi#al fa#ilities and a ne"er0failing su''ly of e/'erimental su)Ie#ts. -t the same time, with the emergen#e of the industrial state, medi#ine also found itself enIoying greater intera#tion with so#io'oliti#al institutions. E/amining "ast disease 'o'ulations in their new 'u)li# #a'a#ity, 'hysi#ians had to #onfront fresh 4uestions: laten#y, dis'osition, #ontagion, diathesis, #onstitution, and inheritan#e.1$$C2 3n short, s#ientifi# medi#ine fle/ed its mus#les and s'read its wings. 3t was #ourted )y the 'u)li#J it #ra"ed offi#ial authori6ation. Hen#e, do#tors made )old to )e#ome s#ientifi# 'oli#yma ers for the new age. =he 4uestions they addressedAmatters of hygiene, effi#ien#y, sanity, ra#e, se/uality, morality,

#riminal lia)ility, and so forthAwere ine"ita)ly morally #hargedJ many 'hysi#ians #laimed medi#ine as the "ery #ornerstone of 'u)li# morals. -nd so 'hysi#ians shouldered an e"er greater regulatory role, a#ting as )ro ers and adIudi#ators for state, Iudi#iary, and the family. =urning te#hni#al e/'ertise into so#ial and moral dire#ti"es, + 5;* + medi#ine s'o e out u'on so#ial order and so#ial 'athology, 'rogress, and degeneration. -s will now )e seen, new medi#al s'e#ialties #laimed Iurisdi#tion o"er hysteria, and made it yield moral messages to sla e, or sto e, 7i#torian an/ieties.1$$>2

Pro2lem 3omen1 Gyne.ology and Hysteria

-s =homas La4ueur has #ontended, resear#h in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth #enturies into human se/uality did not resol"e the mystery of woman, )ut dee'ened it. =he more that was dis#o"ered, howe"er tentati"ely and tardily, a)out menstruation and #on#e'tion, the more medi#al s#ien#e #onfirmed the truth that hegemoni# male #ulture was inde'endently affirming: women were different . 1$$%2 =raditional Gree 0deri"ed )iomedi#al tea#hings had re'resented the female re'rodu#ti"e a''aratus as an inferior, im'erfe#t in"ersion of the male. But during the eighteenth #entury and )eyond, medi#ine and #ulture were a)andoning that "iew and #om)ining to re#onstru#t women as radi#ally other .1$5*2 -nd not merely other, )ut )i6arre. 3t had )e#ome a# nowledged that, #ontradi#ting medi#al tea#hings going )a# to Hi''o#rates, female orgasm was unne#essary for #on#e'tion. 3n"estigations into o"ulation also a''eared to show that menstruation in women, unli e other mammals, o##urred inde'endently of li)idinal e/#itation. 3n short, the relationshi' )etween eroti# stimulus on the one hand, and #on#e'tion on the other, )e#ame utterly 9and uni4uely< 'ro)lemati#. ,emale se/uality thus seemed, from the "iew'oint of resear#h into generation, a mystery, a''arently )iologi#ally su'erfluous, and 'erha's e"en 'athologi#al.1$5$2 Pontifi#ating u'on the riddles of female se/uality )e#ame the sto# 0in0trade of emergent gyne#ology. El)owing aside Hignorant midwi"esH and the mu#h0mo# ed accoucheurs , s'e#ialist surgeon0 gyne#ologists made their )id to 'ass themsel"es off as more than mere o'erators: )eing rather e/'erts, 4ualified to hold forth on the o"er'owering role of re'rodu#tion in determining female life 'atterns, in a set of s#ientifi# dis#ourses in whi#h wom) )e#ame a syne#do#he for woman.1$552 Dineteenth0 #entury medi#ine, #laimed ,ou#ault, forged a new hysteri6ation of women8s )odies. =his was 're#isely the a#hie"ement of gyne#ology, largely )a# ed )y the e4ually Iunior dis#i'lines of se/ology and 'sy#hologi#al medi#ine, against the )a# dro', Iust s et#hed, of the esta)lishment of s'e#iali6ed, s#ientifi# medi#ine.1$5&2 3n a #onte/t of 'atriar#hal "alues ultra0sus'i#ious of female se/uality,1$5?2 gyne#ologists set a)out designating the 'hysiology and 'athology + 5;$ + of this 'er'le/ing )eing. @n#e the #hasm )etween arousal and #on#e'tion had )een esta)lished, female li)idoAso "olatile, #a'ri#ious, e"en ram'agingAwas re"ealed as inherently dysfun#tional, dangerous e"en. So why the 'e#uliar sensiti"ities of #litoris and "agina, all too sus#e'ti)le to 'hysiologi#al and emotional distur)an#eN Las not e"en the uterus itself trou)lesome )eyond the demands of #hild)earingN Lere not women ensla"ed )y their generati"e organsN -nd if so, what was to )e doneN Confronted with streams of female 'atientsAmany tortured with internal 'ain, others deIe#ted, still

others Hdelin4uentHAthese were the 'ro)lems u'on whi#h the growing #or's of women8s disease s'e#ialists )uilt their 'latform. =he answers offered )y emergent gyne#ology 'ortrayed women8s health as des'erately wom)0 de'endent. Sin#e the "ery raison d'Btre of the female lay in 'ro#reation,1$5;2 'ro'erly dire#ted thereto, eroti# arousal had a #ertain "alue, within the walled garden of matrimony. .et what of the ris of arousal among adoles#ent girls, s'insters, and widowsN -)stinen#e was so#ially e/'e#ted, yet #ontinen#e had its 4uandaries, leading to #hlorosis, wasting #onditions, and emotional waywardness. 1$5:2 ,rustration fueled fantasies and #ould lead to mastur)ation, an a#ti"ity im'eriling healthA 'hysi#al, moral, and mental.1$5C2 3n short, the female re'rodu#ti"e system was so 're#ariously 'oised that almost any irregularity, whether e/#itation or re'ression, was sure to 'ro"o e hysteriform disorders. Hysteria had e"er )een regarded as the #harade of disease.1$5>2 Dow do#tors feared it as eros in disguise. 3ts swoonings, Ier s, #on"ulsions, and 'anting )latantly simulated se/uality, affording surrogate outlets and relief, while the sufferer es#a'ed the stigma of lu)ri#ity. Dot least, in the throes of a fit, the hysteri# was )ound to )e tou#hed, 'am'ered, and su)Ie#ted to medi#al e/amination and treatment, all of whi#h nineteenth0#entury do#tors regarded as eroti#ally gratifying.1$5%2 Gyne#ology and 'sy#ho'hysiology thus Ioined for#es to ma e female se/uality 'ro)lemati#, highlighting the role of the se/ual organs in 'ro"o ing hysteri#al #onditions widely )elie"ed to 're#i'itate moral insanity. HCon"ulsions . . . in early life,H Iudged the to' late 7i#torian 'sy#hiatrist, Henry Baudsley, were indi#es of the Hinsane tem'erament,H e"en in su)Ie#ts not yet a#tually insane. 1$&*2 Su#h 're#o#ious, dis'la#ed eroti#ism #ould trigger long0term distur)an#es. Early in the #entury, 'sy#hiatrists had 'in'ointed the lin s )etween menstrual a)normalities and hysteria. Eohn Haslam, a'othe#ary at Bethlem Hos'ital, o)ser"ed that in Hfemales who )e#ome insane, the disease is often #onne#ted with the 'e#uliarities of their se/.H1$&$2 3n a similar + 5;5 + "ein, the influential 'sy#hiatri# s'o esman, George Ban Burrows, drew attention to H"arious sanguiferous dis#harges, whether 'eriodi#al, o##asional, or a##idental,H all of whi#h Hgreatly influen#e the fun#tions of the mind.H1$&52 Herein, argued Burrows, lay the ey to female trou)les, for He"ery )ody of the least e/'erien#e must )e sensi)le of the influen#e of menstruation on the o'erations of the mindHAit was, he Iudged, no less than the Hmoral and 'hysi#al )arometer of the female #onstitution.H1$&&2 Burrows tendered a 'hysiologi#al e/'lanation )ased u'on Hthe due e4uili)rium of the "as#ular and ner"ous systemsH: 3f the )alan#e )e distur)ed, so li ewise will )e the uterine a#tion and 'eriodi#al dis#hargeJ though it does not follow that the mind always sym'athises with its irregularities so as to distur) the #ere)ral fun#tions. .et the fun#tions of the )rain are so intimately #onne#ted with the uterine system, that the interru'tion of any one 'ro#ess whi#h the latter has to 'erform in the human e#onomy may im'li#ate the former.1$&?2 Ri'eness for #hild)earing was the mar of the healthy woman. Hen#e, Burrows em'hasi6ed, were menstruation interru'ted, Hthe seeds of "arious disorders are sownJ and es'e#ially where any 'redis'osition o)tains, the ha6ard of insanity is imminent.H1$&;2 E4ually, he Iudged, lo#al genital and uterine irritations would generate Hthose 'hantasies #alled longings, whi#h are de#ided 'er"ersions or a)errations of the Iudgment, though 'erha's the sim'lest modifi#ations of intelle#tual derangement.H1$&:2 Lhat was the e/'lanationN

=hese anomalous feelings ha"e )een referred to uterine irritation from mere gra"itation, and so they may )eJ )ut they first indu#e a greater determination of )lood to the uterus and its #ontents, and then to the )rain, through the re#i'ro#al #onne/ion and a#tion e/isting )etween the two organs.1$&C2 3t was two0way traffi#. -menorrhea was sometimes Ha #ause of insanity,H1$&>2 )ut, re#i'ro#ally, H#ere)ral distur)an#eH #ould itself #ause Hmenstrual o)stru#tion,H1$&%2 further e/a#er)ating mental disorder, for Hterror, the sudden a''li#ation of #old, et#., ha"e o##asioned the instant #essation of the menses, u'on whi#h se"ere #ere)ral affe#tions, or instant insanity, has su'er"ened.H1$?*2 3n line with the times, Burrows also )lamed meno'ause for se"ere female distur)an#e. @n#e again, he em'hasi6ed, the 'rimary #hange was 'hysiologi#al: =he whole e#onomy of the #onstitution at that e'o#h again undergoes a re"olution. . . . =here is neither so mu#h "ital nor mental energy to resist + 5;& + the effe#ts of the "arious ad"erse #ir#umstan#es whi#h it is the lot of most to meet with in the inter"al )etween 'u)erty and the #riti#al 'eriod.1$?$2 .et, in the o'inion of the less0than0gallant Burrows, so#io'sy#hologi#al for#es were also at wor : =he age of 'leasing in all females is then 'ast, though in many the desire to 'lease is not the less li"ely. =he e/terior alone loses its attra#tions, )ut "anity 'reser"es its 'retensions. 3t is now es'e#ially that Iealousy e/erts its em'ire, and )e#omes "ery often a #ause of delirium. Bany, too, at this e'o#h im)i)e "ery enthusiasti# religious notionsJ )ut more ha"e re#ourse to the stimulus of strong #ordials to allay the uneasy and ner"ous sensations 'e#uliar to this time of life, and thus 'rodu#e a degree of e/#itation e4ually dangerous to the e4uanimity of the moral feelings and mental fa#ulties.1$?52 Kou)le Ieo'ardy surrounded the meno'ausal #risis. @"erall, Burrows Iudged hysteria intrinsi# to the female se/ual #onstitution: HDer"ous sus#e'ti)le women )etween 'u)erty and thirty years of age, and #learly the single more so than the married, are most fre4uently "isited )y hysteria.H1$?&2 3ts root, he em'hasi6ed, was organi#: HSu#h #onstitutions ha"e always a greater a'titude to strong mental emotions, whi#h, on re'etition, will su'erindu#e mental derangement, or 'erha's e'ile'sy.H1$??2 !nli e Enlightenment 'hysi#ians, though 'refiguring later 7i#torian o'inion, Burrows feared hysteria, )e#ause it was always lia)le to flare into a dangerous, e"en in#ura)le, #ondition. HKelirium is a #ommon sym'tom of hysteria,H he warned, Hand this sym'tom is 'rolonged some0times )eyond the remo"al of the s'asm of 'aro/ysm.H1$?;2 =hus, in the e"ent of a re'etition of hysteri#al fits, Hthe )rain at length retained the mor)id a#tion, and insanity is de"elo'ed.H 3ndeed, )e#ause Hhysteria is of that #lass of maladies whi#h, where"er it is manifested, )etrays a mania#al diathesis,H it followed that Hha)itual hysteria #learly a''ro/imates to insanity.H1$?:2 =his 'rognosis 9uterine distur)an#es lead to hysteri#al #onditions that 're#i'itate insanity 'ro'er< )e#ame standard to nineteenth0#entury medi#ine. H=he re'rodu#ti"e organs . . . when unduly, unseasona)ly, or e/or)itantly e/#ited,H argued -lfred Beaumont Baddo# , are not only Hne#essarily su)Ie#t to the usual ad"ent of those 'hysi#al diseases whi#h are the inheritan#e of frail humanity, )ut are also #losely interwo"en with errati# and disordered intelle#tual, as well as moral, manifestations.H1$?C2 Su#h female disorders were, Baddo# Iudged, the dire#t result of Hthe 'e#uliar

destiny that 1woman2 is intended )y nature to fulfil, as + 5;? + the future mother of the human ra#e.H1$?>2 @thers #on#urred. HBental derangement fre4uently o##urs in young females from -menorrhoea,H argued Eohn Billar, Hes'e#ially in those who ha"e any strong hereditary 'redis'osition to insanity.H1$?%2 =his HHysteri#8s Progress,H ar#ing almost literally from wom) to tom), was e"o ed most "i"idly )y that gloomy giant of late 7i#torian 'sy#hiatry, Henry Baudsley. Baudsley tra#ed the sli''ery slo'e from hysteria to Hhysteri#al insanity,H a Hs'e#ial "arietyH of the #om'laint #onnoting an atta# of a#ute mania#al e/#itement, with great restlessness, ra'id and dis#onne#ted )ut not entirely in#oherent #on"ersation, sometimes tending to the eroti# or o)s#ene, e"idently without a)olition of #ons#iousnessJ 1and also2 laughing, singing, or rhyming, and 'er"erseness of #ondu#t, whi#h is still more or less #oherent and seemingly wilful.1$;*2 Su#h distur)an#es Hmay o##ur in #onne#tion with, or instead of, the usual hysteri#al #on"ulsions,H although, Baudsley warned, Hthe ordinary hysteri#al sym'toms may 'ass )y degrees into #hroni# insanity.H1$;$2 Gyne#ologi#al and 'sy#hiatri# #auses were "irtually inse'ara)le: H@ut)ursts of tem'er )e#ome almost out)rea s of mania, 'arti#ularly at the menstrual 'eriods. -n eroti# tinge may )e o)ser"a)le in her manner of )eha"iourJ and o##asionally there are 4uasi0e#stati# or #atale'ti# states.H1$;52 Su#h #onditions, em'hasi6ed the highly materialist Baudsley, were Hthe effe#t of some #ondition of the re'rodu#ti"e organs on the )rain.H =heir #ere)ral fi)ers war'ed, sufferers would not hesitate to e/'loit their self0dramati6ing 'otential, Baudsley admonished, 'ointing to the He/treme moral 'er"ersion shown )y su#h hysteri#al young women of a ner"ous tem'erament as imagine that their lim)s are 'aralysed and lie in )ed or on a #ou#h day after day.H1$;&2 =here was, howe"er, a moral sting in the tail of Baudsley8s materialism. Li e most of his #loth, he Iudged that the o'timum treatment for young ladies in this He/tremely 'er"erted moral stateH was moral, re4uiring that Hthe 'atient )e remo"ed in time from the an/ious )ut hurtful sym'athies and attentions of her family, and 'la#ed under good moral #ontrol.H 3f, instead, Hit )e allowed to go on un#he# ed, it will end in dementia, and it is es'e#ially a't to do so when there is a mar ed hereditary 'redis'osition.H1$;?2 Dot sur'risingly, Baudsley lin ed hysteri#al insanity to nym'homania, )oth following from Hthe irritation of the o"aries or uterus.H1$;;2 Su#h an/iety0ma ing, misogynisti# "iewsAsingling out women and )laming the uterusAwere no 'e#uliarity of the English. =he eminent German 'sy#hiatrist Lilhelm Griesinger identified hysteria as sym'tomati# of lo#al disorders of the uterus, o"aries, and "agina.1$;:2 Li e his + 5;; + English #ounter'arts, Griesinger es'oused a do#trinaire medi#al materialism in whi#h )io0reality was definitionally somati#, and 'henomena a''arently without )odily #orrelates were to )e 'resumed imaginary. ,emale hysteria, he dis#losed in his !ental athology and Therapeutics 9$>?;<, was thus either the 'rodu#t of genital disease or a wor of art. -uthenti# hysteria was somati#, in"ol"ing the Hmor)id a#tion of . . . the )rain,H1$;C2 generally 'ro"o ed )y "aginally seated eroti# stimulus, itself in turn s'ar ed )y menstrual 'ain and irregularities, #onstri#tions and sto''ages, and e/a#er)ated )y ha)itual mastur)ation. But hysteria was often fa edAa #hara#teristi# foi)le of a se/ whose entire demeanor was 'o# mar ed )y dishonesty, de#eitfulness, and emotional waywardness. Griesinger8s Hre"ersion to a somati# e/'lanation for hysteri#al distur)an#es,H Iudged 7eith, Hmust )e loo ed u'on as

a regression from the 'sy#hiatri# #on#e'ts of Pinel and ,eu#htersle)en,H a)o"e all )e#ause he had a H)lind s'otH for women8s se/ual frustration.1$;>2 =hus the new s#ien#es of gyne#ology and 'sy#hologi#al medi#ine 'ro"ided twin 'illars su''orting the reha)ilitation of uterine theories of hysteria that )e#ame so 'rominent throughout the nineteenth #entury. =hese led in turn, with growing fre4uen#y, as Eeffrey Basson has am'ly do#umented, to surgi#al inter"entions, in#luding the 'ra#ti#e of hystere#tomy and o"arie#tomy and the o##asional resort to #litoride#tomy or #auteri6ation )y figures su#h as Ba er Brown and -lfred Hegar, touted as radi#al solutions to mental disorders no less than to lo#al infe#tions. 3t was not un nown, @rnella Bos#u##i has shown, for English surgeons to re#ommend genital o'erations for 're"enti"e 'sy#hiatri# 'ur'oses.1$;%2 -gainst the )a# dro' of the Hwoman 'ro)lem,H aggressi"e medi#ali6ation thus reinstated, in new guise, the uterine 'athology theory, )oth regendering and re0eroti#i6ing the #ondition.

Neurology and Hysteria

Enlightenment s#ientifi# medi#ine #lassed as Hner"ousH those 'rotean )eha"ioral disorders, floating free of determinate lesions, whi#h it termed the "a'ors and s'leen, hysteria, hy'o#hondria, and melan#holy. -ssimilating hysteria )y this "er)al sleight of hand to one of the maIor organi# systems 'ro"ed strategi#ally adroit, allowing the in#or'oration of the anomalous within 'restigious, systemati6ing, and )odily an#hored disease s#hemata. Deurologi#al models 'ro"ed e4ually fruitful in the nineteenth #entury, in #onte/t of the s'e#ial diagnosti# and )ureau#rati# needs of the 'u)li# hos'ital and the mammoth mental asylum.1$:*2 3nstitutional medi0 + 5;: + #ine had the )urden of 'ro#essingAand the )enefit of studyingAan infinitely wider range of mor)id #onditions than e"er )efore en#ountered #lose u' and en masse: #hroni#, 'rogressi"e, and degenerati"e disorders, a)o"e all. Hos'ital medi#ine, on the Paris model, too ad"antage of the uni4ue a"aila)ility of 'oor 'atients for o)ser"ation, e/'eriment, and 'ostmortem in"estigation. Kiagnosti# a#umen, thera'euti# nihilism, and 'atho0anatomi#al e/'ertise #om)ined to lay )are a host of degenerati"e disorders.1$:$2 =he asylum li ewise 'ro"ided un'aralleled o''ortunities for long0term sur"eillan#e 9and su)se4uent auto'sy< of e'ile'sy, dementia, general 'aresis, s'ee#h and gait defe#tsJ of what would e"entually )e identified as multi'le s#lerosisJ of Par inson8s disease, Huntingdon8s #horea, #ere)ral 'alsy, and a host of other hitherto little0tra# ed sensorimotor distur)an#es. Su#h #onditions, many feared, were s'readingJ they #ertainly affli#ted a hard #ore of 'atients in nineteenth0#entury 'u)li# institutions, wor houses, and infirmaries, and the H)a# wardsH and #hroni# and in#ura)le wings of Euro'e8s and Dorth -meri#a8s mush0rooming lunati# asylums. =hough ty'i#ally defying not Iust #ure )ut e"en anatomi#al lo#ali6ation, su#h #onditions at least s4uared with a 'o'ular and 'lausi)le #om'rehensi"e si# ness s#enario, whose 'arameters were nature and history: degeneration.1$:52 Kisorders otherwise )affling to s#ien#e were in#reasingly normali6ed )y )eing termed #onstitutional, hereditary, and degenerati"e. 3n the a)sen#e of tangi)le lesions, e"en 'ostmortem, the indi"idual8s 'edigree, the family history, )e#ame, as it were, a dis'lay of lesions dredged u' from the 'ast: the generational deterioration, for instan#e, from al#oholi# great grand'arents, through a nym'homania#al 'rostitute of a grandmother, to a hysteri#al mother, and finally 'erha's to an e'ile'ti# #hild. Su#h genealogi#al de#lensions a''arently laid the disease affinities )are.

3t is against this wider degenerationist )a# dro', and in #onte/t of the dri"e to translate intra#ta)le disorders into neurology through de'loying the 'atho0anatomi#al methods 'ioneered in the #lini#, that the #areer of Eean0Bartin Char#ot assumes su#h monumental im'ortan#e in framing yet another 'aradigm of hysteria. Historians ha"e rightly drawn attention to the great 'rofessor8s e/er#ise of S"engalian authority o"er his female 'atients.1$:&2 .et something far more #om'le/ was going on. =he hysteria that Char#ot studiedAor, )etter 'erha's, that he and his 'atients #o0'rodu#edAwas a 'alim'sest of a 'erforman#e, many layered with meanings. 3t )es'ea s the utter do#ility of the )ody, under the #harismati# authority of mind 9a)o"e all, the ro)ot )eha"ior of the hy'noti6ed<. 3t mar s defle#ted, o)li4ue 'rotestAa resistan#e that, in#a'a0 + 5;C + )le of "er)ali6ation, was #on"erted into somati# signals of "iolen#e and )urles4ue.1$:?2 3t may also )e read as du'li#itous sedu#tion: were not the 'atients, or their diseases, du'ing the s#ientisti#, "oyeuristi# do#tors, there)y ironi#ally #onfirmingAhad Char#ot only nownQAfin de siG#le medi#ine8s #on"i#tion of the 'athognomy of the feminine, and insensi)ly ratifying male 'ho)ias a)out woman as the femme fataleN =hese are Iust some of the fa#ets of gender 'oliti#s in Char#otian hysteria, further disse#ted in #ha'ter ? )y Elaine Showalter. -gainst su#h a )a# ground, a different as'e#t also deser"es em'hasis: Char#ot8s )urning desire to ma e hysteria re'uta)le, distinguished e"en, within the somati6ing enter'rise of s#ientifi# medi#ine. -s =rillat and Bi#ale ha"e em'hasi6ed, des'ite his lo#ation at the Sal'WtriGre, Char#ot ne"er was, nor as'ired to )e, a 'sy#hiatrist or alienist in the great tradition of Pinel and Es4uirol.1$:;2 He was an ardent neurologist, #ommitted to the te#hni4ues of 'athologi#al anatomy, 'roud to hold a Clini#al Chair of the Der"ous System. He aimed to redu#e neurologi#al #haos, hysteria in#luded, to order. He was fa#ed with fiendishly #om'le/ sym'tom #lusters. Su#h #onditions as He'ile'sy, hysteria, e"en the most in"eterate #ases, #horea, and many other mor)id states . . . #ome to us li e so many S'hyn/,H he #onfessed, defying Hthe most 'enetrating anatomi#al in"estigations.H ,or 're#isely that reason, he o)ser"ed, s#e'ti#s urged that hysteria Hshould )e )anished to the #ategory of the un nown.H1$::2 Dot soQ His am)ition, initially at least, was to 'in down ner"ous 'henomena to organi# lesions, and there)y to )ring regular system to general 'aralysis, neuralgias, sei6ures, e'ile'tiform fits, s'asti# sym'toms, ta)es dorsalis, and, not least, hysteria.1$:C2 -nd in attem'ting this Her#ulean la)or, far from fo#using e/#lusi"ely u'on a trou'e of star hysteri#s, Char#ot aimed to show that hysteria 'artoo of the #hara#teristi#s of neurologi#al disorders as a whole, dis'ersed among the #ommunity at large. He thus too 'ride in his demonstrations that hysteria "isited males as well as females, 'arents and #hildren ali e, a gala/y of ethni# grou's, and, a)o"e all, the whole so#ial s'e#trum.1$:>2 Lith hysteria, the more it was uni"ersal, the surer the grounding for its Hs#ientifi#ity.H -ddressing thus the range of its manifestations, Char#ot8s 'roIe#t was #ommitted to massi"e #lini#al s#rutiny of hysteri#al 'athologyAmotor and sensory sym'toms, )i6arre "isual a)normalities, ti#s, migraine, e'ile'tiform sei6ures, somnam)ulism, hallu#inations, word )lindness, ale/ia, a'hasia, mutism, #ontra#tures, hy'eraesthesias, and numerous other defi#itsAde"ising #riti#al e/'eriments 9e.g., u'on eyesight and hearing 'e#uliarities<, refining #om'arison and measurement, and #om0 + 5;> + 'iling la"ish and multigenerational 'atient histories.1$:%2 =he #ontented 'ositi"ist #ould lea"e no

"aria)le unturned. Char#ot had some measure of su##ess in ma''ing hysteria onto the )ody. He was delighted to dis#o"er, for instan#e, hysterogeni# 'oints, 6ones of hy'ersensiti"ity whi#h, when fingered, 'ro"o ed an atta# , analogous 'erha's to the 'ressing of an ele#tri# light swit#h. Su#h a dis#o"ery #onfirmed his #on"i#tion of the reality of Hlatent hysteria.H1$C*2 .et his early faith that s#ientifi# in"estigation into hysteria would systemati#ally re"eal demonstra)le neurologi#al su)strates in#reasingly 'ro"ed a forlornAor, at least, a 'rematureAho'e. By #onse4uen#e, Char#ot found he needed to satisfy himself with an e'i'henomenalist a##ount of the regularities and laws of hysteria, deri"ed from its manifestations. Chara#teristi#ally, he #ou#hed his 'raise for his 'rede#essor, Pierre Bri4uet, in Iust these termsJ Bri4uet8s a#hie"ement lay in ha"ing shown that Hhysteria is go"erned, in the same way as other mor)id #onditions, )y rule and laws, whi#h attenti"e and suffi#iently numerous o)ser"ations always 'ermit us to esta)lish.H1$C$2 Building thereu'on, Char#ot thus #laimed to ha"e esta)lished the series or stages of manifestations, from petite hystArie through hystArie ordinaire u' to the grande atta:ue d'hystAro*epilepti:ue . 3n this way #lini#al o)ser"ations 'ermitted the un#o"ering, he #laimed, of the natural histories of e/tended families of related defi#its: hemilateral anesthesias, 'haryngeal anesthesias, grandes paro#ysmes , 'al'itations, #horea, Saint 7itus dan#e, tertiary neurosy'hiliti# infe#tions, and tem'oral lo)e e'ile'sy. 3f Sydenham had seen hysteria as the e#ception to the natural history of diseases, the 'ositi"ist Char#ot, )y #ontrast, )elie"ed he #ould in#or'orate it within su#h a ta/onomy. H=hese diseases,H he insisted, Hdo not form, in 'athology, a #lass a'art, go"erned )y other 'hysiologi#al laws than the #ommon ones.H1$C52 3t is this 'assion to illuminate hysteria8s hidden dis'osition, its diatheses and fre4uen#ies, that e/'lains Char#ot8s lasting 'assion for hy'nosis and his )rief en#ounter with metallos#o'y. Hy'nosis ser"ed Char0#ot as a ind of litmus test. 3t )e#ame an arti#le of faith with him that the #a'a#ity to )e hy'noti6ed was a #ru#ial e/'erimental demonstration of underlying, organi#, hysteri#al 'athology. Hy'nosis was the dowser8s twig, 'ointing to the reser"oir of the 'athologi#alJ hen#e his eagerness to dis#redit Hi''olyte Bernheim8s "iew that hy'noti# states were normal and 'otentially uni"ersal. ,or Char#ot, hy'noti6a)ility was the gi"eaway of the 'athologi#al.1$C&2 ,or similar reasons, as -nne Harrington has demonstrated, Char0#ot8s #ir#le )e#ame fas#inated )y 7i#tor Eean0Barie Bur48s metallos#o'i# + 5;% + e/'eriments. Bur4 #laimed that distin#t metals, ea#h 'ossessed of its own force neuri:ue , had the 'ower, when )rought #lose to a su)Ie#t, to modify )eha"ior. 3ndeed, the )io0magnetist Bur4 e"en a''eared to ha"e the #a'a#ity, through de'loying rods of di"erse alloys, to transfer hy'noti# and hysteri# #onditions from organ to organ, and from indi"idual to indi"idual, de'ending u'on their Hmetalli# 'ersonality.H Bur48s neo0Besmeri# use of rods offered further #onfirmation to the #redulous Char#ot 9in a manner e#hoing Besmer himself< that hysteria and its indred ner"ous #onditions deri"ed from authenti#, if ill0understood, organi# su)strates, )eing su)Ie#t to the uni"ersal 'hysi#al laws go"erning the atomi# stru#tures of different metals. Bani'ulation of mood )y the mani'ulation of metals showed the "ery laws of #ause and effe#t at wor , no less #learly than using magnets to ma e iron filings dan#e. 3n drawing u'on Bur4, the charcoterie 9grou' of dis#i'les of Char#ot< thus further hit#hed its wagon to the rising star of late0nineteenth0#entury 'hysi#s, with its 'restigious do#trines of ethers and 4uasi0o##ult energy sour#es.1$C?2 How then do we a''raise Char#ot8s #hara#teri6ation of hysteriaN 3t was #learly in 'art the 'rodu#t of the inter'rofessional ri"alries of medi#os#ientifi# s'e#ialisms dis#ussed earlier. 3n #ham'ioning

'hysiologi#al methods to 'lot hysteria onto the )ody, Char#ot was 'lanting 'atho0anatomy8s flag on a #ondition #ontested )y alienists and #lini#ians, gyne#ologists and o)stetri#ians. Char#ot ne"er a''roa#hed hysteri#al 'atients from the stand'oints of 'sy#hiatry or 'sy#hology. His in"estigati"e te#hni4ues remained largely indifferent to the 'ro)ing of their #ons#iousness.1$C;2 LhyN 3nstitutional ens#on#ement in the Hli"ing 'athologi#al museumH of the Sal'WtriGre1$C:2 and staun#h =hird Re'u)li# 'ositi"ism #onfirmed in Char0#ot a #on#e't of s#ien#e whi#h ga"e 'riority to esta)lishing the laws of life, grounded in the totality of the li"ing organism. Hen#e he set #ons#iousness to one side as essentially se#ondary. @f #ourse, he had no dou)t that hysteria atta# s were #ommonly s'ar ed )y mental and emotional trauma, al)eit, naturally, in indi"iduals already endowed with a hysteri#al #onstitutional diathesis. -nd, e4ually, he had to 'ut his 'atients8 minds to the test in #riti#al e/'eriments, to win le out malingerers and self0'u)li#ists: his 'neumogra'h ma#hine, for e/am'le, ga"e gra'hi# 'roof that, unli e a genuine #atale'ti#, a )ogus #atale'ti# will register fatigue. Hindsight re"eals the dee' 'athos in Char#ot8s )oast that the H'ro"in#e of the 'hysi#ianH is Hto dissi'ate #hi#anery.H1$CC2 But o"erall, Char#otAunli e #ertain of his 'rotFgFs su#h as Eanet1$C>2 Ashowed s#ant 'rofessional interest in what were then )eing #alled the + 5:* + 'sy#hology or 'sy#hodynami#s of the 'atients he used for e/'erimental and 'edagogi#al 'ur'oses. =his was 'artly the result of #ir#umstan#es. 3t is li ely, after all, that Char#ot8s main fa#e0to0fa#e #onta#t with su#h 'atients lay in #lini#al demonstrations, his assistants and students ha"ing )een delegated to su)Ie#t them to 'rior 'ersonal e/amination. Char#ot was there)y 'ro)a)ly the unwitting "i#tim of both do#tor and 'atient #om'lian#e, yes0'eo'le all in his Da'oleoni# em'ire. 3n any #ase, his =uesday Clini# su)Ie#ts were )ut wor ing0#lass Parisian girls. Lould a Char#ot #onsider it s#ientifi#ally fruitful to interrogate su#h riffraff 'ersonallyN 9,or the sa e of his illusions, it was 'erha's Iust as well that he didn8t.< @ne wonders whether Char#ot used identi#al, that is, neurologi#al, a''roa#hes on his 'ri"ate 'atients: it was #ertainly his #ontention that, in hysteria, He"erything follows definite rulesAalways the same, whether the #ase is met with in 'ri"ate or hos'ital 'ra#ti#e.H1$C%2 Char#ot the 'u)li# figure, the institutional man, and #ham'ion of the dis#i'line of neuro'athology, was wholly wedded to the 'ositi"e s#ientifi# 'ursuit of hysteria as a 'athology of the #onstitution. Le now all too little of how far the 'u)li# Char#ot also had a dou)le, one 're'ared to ela)orate on the more 'sy#hologi#al 'ers'e#ti"es im'lied )y his notorious aside, H&'est tou;ours la chose gAnitale HAa remar reesta)lishing 're#isely that lin )etween hysteria and lu)ri#ity whi#h he ha)itually denied.1$>*2 Char#ot 'layed the s#ientist, an e'i'henomenalist insistent that hysteria was a fun#tion of the )ody. S#ien#e8s 'oint of entry lay not in 'sy#hology )ut in 'hysiologi#al stigmata, reinfor#ed )y degenerationist neuro'athy 9H#ontra#ture diathesisH or Hlatent hysteriaH<. HDeuro'athi# heredity,H he )elie"ed, Hfigures #ons'i#uously in the etiology of hysteria,H1$>$2 for Hhysteria is often hereditary.H1$>52 Hysteria, of #ourse, had its emotional #orrelates 9attention see ing, #o4uettishness, lying<, )ut these were #hiefly )y0'rodu#ts, sym'tomati# of more )asi# 'sy#ho'hysiologi#al defe#ts em)edded in )odies o"er the generations.1$>&2

Hysteria8 Psy.hiatry8 and the $lini.al En.ounter

Dineteenth0#entury transformations in medi#ine and so#iety 'rodu#ed their re#on#e'tuali6ations of hysteria. Gyne#ology and 'sy#hologi#al medi#ine intera#ted to re'resent hysteria as a woman8s disease, stemming from the re'rodu#ti"e system and generating an emotional 'athology. By #ontrast, the 'atho0

anatomi#al ga6e of hos'ital medi#ine imagined a hysteria that was unise/ and inde/ed )y multi'le )eha"ioral irregularities that were deemed ultimately neuro0'hysiologi#al. 3n this + 5:$ + highly s#hemati# a##ount, a third and final initiati"e remains to )e dis#ussed: the de"elo'ment of a 'sy#hologi#al theory of hysteria. =he intelle#tual roots of this a''roa#h lie in lunati# asylum reform around the turn of the nineteenth #entury. Leading asylum su'erintendents, 'arti#ularly Chiarugi, Pinel, Eohann Reil, and the =u es 9Lilliam and Samuel<, re'udiated traditional organi# nosologies and medi#al thera'euti#s as mis#on#ei"ed and ineffi#a#ious, urging instead te#hni4ues of moral management and moral thera'y. Lithin their theories, insanity was redefined as s'ringing from #ons#iousnessAthe intelle#t and the 'assionsAthus ne#essitating treatment on 'sy#hologi#al 'rin#i'les, )y a''eals to reason, humanity, and the feelings 9fear and esteem, 'leasure and 'ain, et#.<. Herein lay the founding of 'sy#hiatry. Being #hiefly #on#erned with des'erate asylum #ases, su#h authors naturally had rather little to say a)out hysteria 'er se. But their "ision of an authenti# se#ular 'sy#ho'athology later 'ro"ed a sour#e of ins'iration and authority.1$>?2 Psy#hologi#al theories of hysteria were de"elo'ed )y do#tors a#ti"e in )ourgeois 'ri"ate 'ra#ti#e. =his should #ome as no sur'rise. Su#h 'ra#ti#es ne#essitated 'rotra#ted and intimate #onta#t with 'atients, women a)o"e all, whoAwhate"er their a#tual medi#al historiesAwere utterly au fait with the 'ower 'ossessed )y si# ness and in"alidism to se#ure res'ite or le"erage within the 'oliti#s of the family. =he #ulture of sensi)ility, 'arti#ularly among those on whose hands time hung hea"ily, en#ouraged hy'ersensiti"ity to malaise. Bourgeois sufferers were )oth intros'e#ti"e and "o#al in their #om'laints, rationali6ations, and demands. Little wonder that the affinity )etween hysteri#al sym'toms and the out'ourings of #ons#iousness might )e thought to stare 'hysi#ians in the fa#e. 3 ha"e argued earlier that do#tors ty'i#ally refused this asso#iation. =heirs was a mental set whi#h, )y 'rofessional arti#le of faith, and almost )y way of refle/, e4uated si# ness with the somati#. Bany #hose, as suggested a)o"e, for their 'atients8 'ea#e of mind, surre'titiously to translate #om'laints into somati# ailments 9ner"ous stoma#h, and so forth<, )elie"ing this re#ourse o'timal, for all #on#erned, for negotiating tri# y #onditions. - few, howe"er, )ro e out of this #on"ention, 'erha's this 'ious fraud. Lhy this ha''ened in the 'arti#ular #ase is generally im'ossi)le to de#i'her. =he #onse4uen#es were, howe"er, 4uite radi#al: translating hysteria into a malady of the mind drasti#ally #hanged the rules of the game. 3t ty'i#ally redu#ed hysteria from a disease into a de#eitJ e/#ul'ation turned to indi#tmentJ and a dar er 'sy#ho'athology emerged of the 'retend hysteri#, almost without e/#e'tion female. Hys0 + 5:5 + teria as the disease0mimi# ing disease made way for the hysteri# as the woman 9or the woman8s unconscious < 'retending to )e ill. =hese mo"es a''ear most star ly in the writings of Ro)ert Carter, a man 'raised )y 7eith for his H#lear insight into the 'sy#ho'athology of hysteriaH and his Had"an#edH dis#o"ery of se/ual etiology.1$>;2 Carter was a young general 'ra#titioner in the leafy London su)ur) of Leytonstone when he 'u)lished his /n the athology and Treatment of Hysteria in $>;&.1$>:2 3n it, he re"iewed all a"aila)le somati# theories of the #onditionACullen8s and Pinel8s "iew that it was a mor)id #ondition of the uterine ner"esJ Cheyne8s and Cale) Parry8s indi#tment of the stoma#hJ Highmore8s #laim that it was #onse4uent u'on lung and heart #ongestionJ the notion, asso#iated with Lhytt, =issot, Boerhaa"e, and Boissier de

Sau"ages, that it was a disease of the ner"ous systemJ Lillis8s theory, re"i"ed )y Etienne Georget, that it was a mor)id #ondition of the )rainJ Gerard 7an Swieten8s Hmor)id #ondition of the s'inal #ord,H and so forth. -ll without e/#e'tion he Iudged as la# ing authenti#ated foundationJ for Hthe disease itself is too shifting and "aria)le to de'end u'on any definite #hange in any indi"idual organ.H1$>C2 -)o"e all, attem'ts to ground hysteria in Hirritation of the uterus and o"aria 1were2 . . . utterly untena)leHAindeed, merely #ir#ular.1$>>2 Hysteria, in short, was not somati# at all, )ut 'sy#hologi#al: H=he emotional do#trine affords an easy and #om'lete solution of the diffi#ulty.H 3ndeed, its etiology lay s'e#ifi#ally in Hthe se/ual feelings,H these )eing H)oth more uni"ersal and more #onstantly #on#ealed than any others.H1$>%2 Lhat was the me#hanism of the 'sy#hologi#al theory of hysteriaN Krawing u'on the writings of L. B. Car'enter, =homas Lay#o# , and other British 'sy#ho'hysiologists, he e/'lained that, within the regular self0adIusting system of the meta)olism, strong emotions 9fear, Ioy, et#.< should 'ro'erly find healthy outlet in 'hysi#al release su#h as tears, laughter, flight, and so on. @)"iously, #entral among the emotions were the se/ual 'assions. 3deally these found natural fulfillment in eroti# a#ti"ity, ultimately in orgasm. Kis#harging su#h desires rarely 'osed 'ro)lems for males.1$%*2 3n modern #i"ili6ation, howe"er, the dou)le standard #ommonly denied su#h relief to womenAa result of high moral e/'e#tations and the Hha)itual restraintH im'osed u'on ladies )y res'e#ta)ility. Kenied the Hsafety "al"eH1$%$2 of su#h dire#t, 'hysiologi#al outlets, women were for#ed to )ottle u' their amatory longings and suffer what Carter #alled re'ression. 3ntense 'ersonal #rises 9e.g., a )ro en engagement< #ould easily #ause that dam to )urst, howe"er, whereu'on indire#t tension release was unintentionally gained in hysteriaAe/'ressed in out)rea s of un0 + 5:& + #ontrolla)le so))ing, sha ing, fits, tem'er, and the li e. Su#h hysteriaAHa disease starting with a #on"ulsi"e 'aro/ysmH1$%52 ACarter #alled H'rimaryHJ it was, in a sense, a s'ontaneous #om'ensatory me#hanism designed to ma e the )est of a )ad situation. Some salutary tension0dis#harge was at least a#hie"ed, and e"entually the so))ing or tantrum would 'lay itself out and #alm would )e restored. Primary hysteria of this ind did not re4uire the 'hysi#ian8s ser"i#es. Hysteria did not sto' there, howe"er. ,or unfortunately, Hthe suggested or s'ontaneous remem)ran#e of the emotionsH1$%&2 attending the 'rimary fit #ould easily 'ro"o e further atta# s, whi#h Carter du))ed Hse#ondary hysteria.H Sufferers, relati"es, and do#tors ali e #ould hel' forestall su#h se#ondary atta# s )y 'ro"iding a''ro'riate distra#tions. Su#h 're"ention was 'rudent, for 'atients 4ui# ly ha)ituated themsel"es to se#ondary hysteria, finding it 'ro"ided them with #om'ensatory 'leasuresAnot least, attention. Lorse, su#h indire#t gratifi#ations readily deteriorated into Htertiary hysteria,H whi#h Carter defined as a #ondition Hdesignedly e/#ited )y the 'atient herself through the instrumentality of "oluntary re#olle#tion, and with 'erfe#t nowledge of her own 'ower to 'rodu#e them.H1$%?2 3n short, tertiary hysteriaACarter8s 'rime #on#ernAwas an ego0tri', mo)ili6ed )y the 'atient8s will, for tyranni6ing others. =he tertiary hysteri#, in Carter8s "iew, had thus sun to a''alling de'ths of moral de'ra"ity, #ontri"ing to mani'ulate all around her, so as to gratify her whims and domineering s'irit, and ena)le her to )as in the Hfuss and 'arade of illness.H1$%;2 Be#ause this e/er#ise of will was wholly #amouflaged in somati# e/'ressions, it naturally #om'elled sym'athy 9the 'atient, after all, a''eared dramati#ally si# <, without ris ing sus'i#ions of shamming. =he greater the sym'athy it won, the more tyranni#al it )e#ame. Hysteri#s grew e/'ert in their art. =hus, to #reate an effe#t, Carter noted, Hhair will often )e so fastened as to fall at the slightest tou#h,H and other histrioni# effe#ts would testify to the

Hingenuity of the 'erformer.1$%:2 Su#h a min/, mani'ulating a Hself0'rodu#ed diseaseH in whi#h the 'atient herself had full H'ower o"er the 'aro/ysm,H1$%C2 #ould )e o"er#ome only )y a )attle royal engaged )y the 'hysi#ian, willing to enter into a war of wills. Kefeating the Htri# sH of su#h a monster of Hselfishness and de#e'ti"ity,H 'ossessed of a Hmenda#ity that "erges on the su)lime,H1$%>2 was not, howe"er, an easy matterJ for the sym'toms of 'hysi#al illness 9in#luding in the e/treme #ase the ta#it threat of fasting unto death< were 'owerful wea'ons to ha"e in one8s armory. Carter new medi#al means were utterly irrele"ant 9no Besmeri# magnets for him<. Psy#hologi#al warfare was needed to defeat Hthe ends whi#h she 'ro'oses to + 5:? + herself for attainment.H1$%%2 ,irst, the hysteri# had to )e se'arated from her 'arents and friends and in#ar#erated in the 'hysi#ian8s home. @n#e there, under no #ir#umstan#es should the do#tor Hminister to the hysteri#al desire.H15**2 E"ery )id of the 'atient to use hysteri#al tantrums to #ommand attention had to )e steadfastly ignored and thus 'ro"en futile: no noti#e was to )e ta en of #on"ulsions, self0 star"ing, or a#ts of self0mutilationJ a)o"e all, the hysteri#8s #ra"ings for surrogate se/ual gratifi#ation, es'e#ially through demands for "aginal e/aminations with a s'e#ulum, had to )e resisted.15*$2 Dormal, so#ia)le )eha"ior was, )y #ontrast, to )e en#ouraged and rewarded. Do holds were )arred. =he hysteri# was mistress of du'li#ity, and, in res'onse, the 'hysi#ian would often find it ne#essary to H#om'letely de#ei"e her.H15*52 His most diffi#ult tas was to find ta#tful ways of #ommuni#ating to the hysteri# that her wiles had )een rum)led and the game was u'. Ki'lomati#ally done, this would afford her the o''ortunity to surrender with honor, and 'ut herself H#om'letely in the 'ower of her interlo#utor,H15*&2 whereu'on she might ma e a #lean )reast of things, 're'aratory to )eing rein#or'orated, as the 'rodigal daughter, into normal, )ourgeois life 9that life whose #onstraints and dou)le standards, Carter himself had initially a# nowledged, were res'onsi)le for hysteria in the first 'la#e<. Se"eral as'e#ts of Carter8s a##ount of how to tame a hysteri#al shrew and )ring her to Hhumiliation and shameH are worth noting.15*?2 ,or one thing, his 'sy#hologi#al reading of hysteria drew hea"ily u'on the idiom and 'remises of early nineteenth0#entury 'sy#hiatryJ Carter e/'li#itly "alued Hmoral managementH and Hmoral thera'y.H15*;2 He 'ro'osed turning his own a)ode into a hysteri#s8 asylum, in whose gothi# isolation the )attle for the mind #ould )e waged. @ne might gloss this )y noting that as a young general 'ra#titioner, Carter was in no 'osition to #ontem'late the la)orious in"estigation of the laws of hysteria as underta en )y Professor Char#ot at the Sal'WtriGre. E#onomi#s for#ed CarterAas to some degree ,reud after himAto )e #on#erned with #ure rather than s#ientifi# e/'loration, and to ha"e an eye to fees. Krawing u'on #ontem'orary asylum 'sy#hiatry, Carter forged a #on#e'tual triangle of ele#ti"e affinities, 'rofoundly 'regnant for the future, lin ing 9$< 'sy#hologi#al e/'lanation with 95< female nature and 9&< a se/ual etiology 9Hse/ual emotions are those most #on#erned in the 'rodu#tion of the diseaseH<.15*:2 3n other words, in its gra"e forms, hysteria was a matter of mental a#ts 9frauds<, 'er'etrated )y %omen , in order to a#hie"e surrogate se#ual gratifi#ation. By #ontrast, howe"er, to earlier uterine theories, Carter8s hy'othesis did not lay )lame at the door of + 5:; + female anatomy: rather what Ha# =u e later #alled a H'aralysis of the willH was at fault. -lthough

Carter noted that Hif the state of so#iety 'ermitted free e/'ressionH15*C2 of female se/ual desires, hysteria might dissol"e away, he 'rodu#ed not a #riti#al so#iology of hysteria )ut a morali6ing indi#tment of self0indulgent women. 3n this, his idiom e/'li#itly e#hoed the wit#h0hunt, as when he remar ed that the hysteri# who made a hash of fa ing disease there)y H)etrays the #lo"en foot.H15*>2 =he so#ial histories of 7i#torian medi#ine on the one hand, and of women on the other, lea"e it surely no a##ident that the 'rototy'i#al 'sy#hogeni# theory of hysteria was misogynisti# and "i#tim )laming. ,or the raison d'Btre of 'sy#hologi6ing hysteria was 're#isely to deny its authenti#ity as a malady, e/'osing it as fraud in"ol"ing a terri)le Hdegree of 'er"ersion of the moral sense.H15*%2 3n the history of hysteria, se/ual etiologies, genderedness, and "i#tim )laming ha"e e"er gone together.

$on.lusion
=his #ha'ter has )een highly sele#ti"e. 3n #on#entrating u'on the "iew'oint of do#tors, it has had little to say a)out how sufferers re'resented hysteria to themsel"es, nor indeed a)out why 'eo'le Hsomati6e.H15$*2 3t has had nothing to say a)out intriguing su)sets of hysteriaAmass hysteria, the hysteri#al 'ersonalityAin whi#h mind()ody issues also signifi#antly under'in the #ontro"ersies. 3t has neither e/amined the intri#a#ies of ,reud8s formulations o"er a 'eriod of some twenty years, nor sur"eyed ,reud8s #ontem'oraries su#h as Eanet and Ba)ins i.15$$2 3t would, howe"er, seem that the dissolution of the hysteria diagnosis in the wa e of ,reud may )e seen, in 'art at least, in terms of those shifts in modern ontology mentioned earlier in the dis#ussion of S6as68s #ontri)ution. Boni4ue Ka"id0 BFnard, for instan#e, has suggested that the La#anian translation of the lo#ation of the 'sy#he from the ,reudian mental underground to the domain of language has in effe#t rendered utterly o)solete most of the mind()ody issues so fier#ely dis'uted )y the eighteenth0 and nineteenth0#entury do#tors dis#ussed in this #ha'ter. Dot sur'risingly. =he 'sy#hoanalyti#al enter'rise, unli e the 7i#torian family or the Lorld Lar 3 tren#h, unli e the ner"e sanatorium or the gyne#ologi#al o'erating ta)le, is entirely a theater of words.15$52 -nd this is the 'oint. 3n the #ase of hysteria, disease formulations, 3 ha"e )een arguing, go with #ir#umstan#es: do#tors, 'atients, 'hysi#al milieu/, intelle#tual and #ultural lands#a'es. By #on#ern has )een to argue that hysteria #ould )e fashioned as a disorder, 're#isely )e#ause the #ulture0at0large sustained tense and am)iguous relations )etween + 5:: + re'resentations of mind and )ody, whi#h were, in turn, re'rodu#ed in the hierar#hi#al yet intera#ti"e ontologies of morality and medi#ine, and, yet again, refle#ted )y the so#iologi#al inter'lay of #lini#al en#ounters. 3n hysteria, as with other disorders, different fields of for#e )rea in distin#ti"e ways, and medi#ine 'lays dou)le games. Sometimes its mission is redu#tionist, resol"ing hysteria now into the wom), now into mere willfulness. 3n other #ir#umstan#es, medi#ine see s to render hysteria real, 'rote#ting its mysteries. 3n hysteria, mind and )ody may )e seen as su)limated re'resentations of do#tors and 'atients. + 5>: +

FourHysteria8 Feminism8 and Gender

Elaine Showalter' Hysteria has ta en many strange turnings in its long #areer, )ut one of the most sur'rising is the modern marriage of hysteria and feminism, the fas#ination among feminist intelle#tuals, literary #riti#s, and artists with what Bary Kelly #alls Hthe #ontinuing roman#e of hysteria.H1$2 ,eminist understanding of hysteria has )een influen#ed )y wor in semioti#s and dis#ourse theory, seeing hysteria as a s'e#ifi#ally feminine 'rotolanguage, #ommuni#ating through the )ody messages that #annot )e "er)ali6ed. ,or some writers, hysteria has )een #laimed as the first ste' on the road to feminism, a s'e#ifi#ally feminine 'athology that s'ea s to and against 'atriar#hy. ,or others, the famous women hysteri#s of the nineteenth #entury ha"e )een ta en to e'itomi6e a uni"ersal female o''ression. -s the ,ren#h no"elist and theorist HF$Gne Ci/ous melodramati#ally in4uires, HLhat woman is not KoraNH152 =his ardent re#laiming of hysteria in the name of feminism is a new twist in the history of the disorder. =hroughout its history, of #ourse, hysteria has always )een #onstru#ted as a Hwoman8s disease,H a feminine disorder, or a distur)an#e of femininity, )ut this #onstru#tion has usually )een hostile. Hysteria has )een lin ed with women in a num)er of unflattering ways. 3ts "ast, shifting re'ertoire of sym'toms reminded some do#tors of the la)ility and #a'ri#iousness they asso#iated with female nature. HButa)ility is #hara#teristi# of hysteria )e#ause it is #hara#teristi# of women,H wrote the 7i#torian 'hysi#ian Edward =ilt. H84a donna C mobile .8H1&2 Ko#tors ha"e tended to fa"or arguments from )iology that lin hysteria with femaleness: HLomen are 'rone to hysteria )e#ause of something fundamental in their nature, something innate, fi/ed or + 5>C + gi"en that o)"iously re4uires intera#tion with en"ironmental for#es to )e#ome manifest )ut is still a 'rimary and irremedia)le fate for the human female.H1?2 H-s a general rule,H wrote the ,ren#h 'hysi#ian -uguste ,a)re in $>>&, Hall women are hysteri#al and . . . e"ery woman #arries with her the seeds of hysteria. Hysteria, )efore )eing an illness, is a tem'erament, and what #onstitutes the tem'erament of a woman is rudimentary hysteria.H1;2 =he hysteri#al sei6ure, grande hystArie , was regarded as an a#ting out of female se/ual e/'erien#e, a Hs'asm of hy'er0femininity, mimi# ing . . . )oth #hild)irth and the female orgasm.H1:2 3n the twentieth #entury, these "iews a)out an essential and organi# female )iology that 'rodu#es hysteria ha"e mutated into more 'sy#hologi#al 'ortraits that lin hysteria with femininity Awith a range of HfeminineH 'ersonality traits. 3n a 'sy#hoanalyti# #onte/t, women ha"e )een seen as disad"antaged in mastering oedi'al tas s and thus dis'osed to hysteri#al )eha"iors. =hus, a##ording to the British analyst Gregorio Kohon, H- woman at heart always remains a hysteri#.H1C2 Paul Chodoff notes that hysteri#al )eha"iors Hmay 'resent as . . . unattra#ti"e, noisy, emotional dis'lays . . . or as the hysteri#al 9histrioni#< 'ersonality disorderAa KSB0333 diagnosti# la)el, referring to ha)itual and sustained 'atterns of )eha"ior #hara#teristi# of some women.H1>2 =he diagnosis )e#omes Ha #ari#ature of femininityH )ut also an e/aggeration of the #ogniti"e and 'ersonal styles that women are en#ouraged to de"elo' as attra#ti"ely Hfeminine.H1%2 !ntil re#ently, stories a)out hysteria were told )y men, and women were always the "i#tims in these stories rather than the heroines. 3n the 'ast few de#ades, howe"er, the story of hysteria has )een told )y women historians as well as )y male do#tors and 'sy#hoanalysts. =hey ha"e argued that hysteria is

#aused )y women8s o''ressi"e so#ial roles rather than )y their )odies or 'sy#hes, and they ha"e sought its sour#es in #ultural myths of femininity and in male domination. Lhat we might #all the HherstoryH of hysteria is the #ontri)ution of feminist so#ial historians to this 'roIe#t, in wor s that #on#entrate on the misogyny of male 'hysi#ians and the 'erse#ution of female de"iants in wit#h0hunts.1$*2 But as Bar Bi#ale notes, HDo line of e"olution within the historiogra'hy of hysteria is more #om'li#ated than the feminist one.H1$$2 =he feminist roman#e with hysteria )egan in the wa e of the women8s li)eration mo"ement of the late $%:*s and the ,ren#h AvAnements of Bay $%:>, when a young generation of feminist intelle#tuals, writers, and #riti#s in Euro'e and the !nited States )egan to loo to ,reudian and La#anian 'sy#hoanalysis for a theory of femininity, se/uality, and se/ual differen#e. =hey )egan with the 7iennese women who were treated )y + 5>> + ,reud and Breuer for hysteria, and who had in a sense gi"en )irth to the 'sy#hoanalyti# method, the Htal ing #ure.H ,eminist inter'retations of hysteria in women offered a new 'ers'e#ti"e that de#oded 'hysi#al sym'toms, 'sy#hothera'euti# e/#hanges, and literary te/ts as the 'resentations of #onfli#t o"er the meaning of femininity in a 'arti#ular histori#al #onte/t. Hysteria #ame to figure as what Euliet Bit#hell #alls Hthe daughter8s disease,H a syndrome of 'hysi#al and linguisti# 'rotest against the so#ial and sym)oli# laws of the ,ather.1$52 Bany La#anian feminist #riti#s inter'ret hysteria as a women8s language of the )ody, or 're0oedi'al semioti#s. Still others see )ise/uality as the signifi#an#e of the syndrome. =hus Eane Gallo' writes, H,reud lin s hysteria to )ise/ualityJ the hysteri# identifies with mem)ers of )oth se/es, #annot #hoose one se/ual identity. . . . 3f feminism is the #alling into 4uestion of #onstraining se/ual identities, then the hysteri# may )e a 'rotofeminist.H1$&2 Similarly, Claire Kahane defines Hhysteri#al 4uestionsH as 4uestions a)out )ise/uality and se/ual identity: H-m 3 a manN -m 3 a womanN How is se/ual identity assumedN How re'resentedNH1$?2 But #ould hysteria also )e the son's disease, or 'erha's the disease of the 'owerless and silen#edN -lthough male hysteria has )een do#umented sin#e the se"enteenth #entury, feminist #riti#s ha"e ignored its #lini#al manifestations, writing as though Hhysteri#al 4uestionsH a)out se/ual identity are only women8s 4uestions. 3n order to get a fuller 'ers'e#ti"e on the issues of se/ual differen#e and identity in the history of hysteria, howe"er, we need to add the #ategory of gender to the feminist analyti# re'ertoire. =he term HgenderH refers to the so#ial relations )etween the se/es, and the so#ial #onstru#tion of se/ual roles. 3t stresses the relational as'e#ts of mas#ulinity and femininity as #on#e'ts defined in terms of ea#h other, and it engages with other analyti#al #ategories of differen#e and 'ower, su#h as ra#e and #lass. Rather than see ing to re'air the histori#al re#ord )y adding women8s e/'erien#es and 'er#e'tions, gender theory #hallenges )asi# dis#i'linary 'aradigms and 4uestions the fundamental assum'tions of the field.1$;2 Lhen we loo at hysteria through the lens of gender, new feminist 4uestions )egin to emerge. 3nstead of tra#ing the history of hysteria as a female disorder, 'rodu#ed )y misogyny and #hanging "iews of femininity, we #an )egin to see the lin ed attitudes toward mas#ulinity that influen#ed )oth diagnosis and the )eha"ior of male 'hysi#ians. Con"ersely, )y a''lying feminist methods and insights to the sym'toms, thera'ies, and te/ts of male hysteria, we #an )egin to understand that issues of gender and se/uality are as #ru#ial to the history of male e/'erien#e as they ha"e )een in sha'ing the history of women.

+ 5>% + 3n 'arti#ular, we need to see how hysteria in men has always )een regarded as a shameful, HeffeminateH disorder. 3n many early studies the male hysteri# was assumed to )e unmanly, womanish, or homose/ual, as if the feminine #om'onent within mas#ulinity were itself a sym'tom of disease. Eohn Russell Reynolds wrote in $ "ystem of !edicine that hysteri#al men and )oys were Heither mentally or morally of feminine #onstitution.H1$:2 in his #ase studies of male hysteria at the end of the nineteenth #entury, Emile Batault o)ser"ed that hysteri#al men were thought to )e Htimid and fearful men. . . . Co4uettish and e##entri#, they 'refer ri))ons and s#ar"es to hard manual la)or.H =hese e/'e#tations made it diffi#ult for do#tors to a##e't the hysteria diagnosis in men who seemed #on"entionally "irile. Lhile it might )e 'ossi)le to Himagine a 'erfumed and 'omaded femmelette suffering from this )i6arre malady,H Batault noted, Hthat a ro)ust wor ing man has ner"es and "a'ours li e a woman of the worldH strained #redulity.1$C2 =he 'reIudi#es and stereoty'es Batault 'rotested at the Sal'WtriGre are ali"e and well in the twentieth #entury. H@ne gets the im'ression,H an analyst notes, Hthat a male hysteri# is one who )eha"es 8li e a woman.8H1$>2 Lilhelm Rei#h des#ri)ed the male hysteri# as #hara#teri6ed )y Hsoftness and o"er0 'oliteness, feminine fa#ial e/'ression and feminine )eha"ior.H1$%2 =he image of the hysteri# in 'sy#hiatri# literature is su#h that Hthe man who would most #losely fit the des#ri'tion would )e a 'assi"e homose/ual.H15*2 =hus dis#ussions of male hysteria, rather than transforming the dis#ourse of hysteria as re'resenting the worst as'e#ts of femininity, a#tually reinfor#e the stereoty'e that it is the disease of wea , 'assi"e, o"erly emotional 'eo'le, whether female or male. Gender #onstru#ts, moreo"er, are not restri#ted to the medi#al 'rofession. =hey also infle#t the way we write the history of medi#ine and 'sy#hiatry. Lhile feminist literary #riti#s often seem narrow in their use of history, limiting their te/tual inter'retations to a tiny grou' of famous do#tors and 'atients, historians are rarely sensiti"e to figurati"e language and to the ins#ri'tions of gender ideology in medi#al te/ts. History #an show us where to loo for a more a##urate and #om'lete 'i#ture of hysteria, )ut literary #riti#ism #an show s#ientists and historians how to read the te/ts and gender su)te/ts of medi#ine, 'sy#hiatry, and history itself. ,or while so#ial historians of hysteria ha"e )een sensiti"e to the ways that attitudes toward women sha'ed and distorted the wor of do#tors li e Ro)ert Brudenell Carter, Char#ot, or ,reud, they ha"e written as if they too were not influen#ed )y gender #onstru#ts. 3ssues of se/ual differen#e are rele"ant to historiogra'hy as well as medi#ine. Boreo"er, writing a)out hysteria is different for women than it is for + 5%* + men. Be#ause of traditional )eliefs a)out the 'otential hysteria of all women, women s#holars are more #ons#ious of the need to find an o)Ie#ti"e, im'ersonal, and s#ientifi# language and dis#ourse a)out the su)Ie#t. How #an one who is 'otentially hysteri#al, Hat heart always a hysteri#,H trans#end her nature to write a)out the disorderN Sin#e feminism has often )een inter'reted as hysteria )y male 'hysi#ians and so#ial #riti#s, women writing a)out hysteria in the early 'art of the twentieth #entury may ha"e a"oided feminist inter'retations of hysteri#al 'henomena. @n the other hand, men writing a)out hysteria, in males or females, #an mas4uerade their own emotions as reason, or disguise feeling and 'reIudi#e )ehind other terminologies and self0definitions. 3n his study 4'hystAri:ue3 le se#e3 et le mAdecin , the ,ren#h 'sy#hiatrist Lu#ien 3sraXl dis#usses the Hun#ons#ious #om'li#ity )etween si# men and male do#tors to a"oid the shameful and infamous diagnosis of hysteria.H But when he tal s a)out what he terms Hsu##essful hysteri#s,H 'eo'le who in their adult li"es seemed to outgrow their adoles#ent hysteria, or transformed what had )een hysteri#al

sym'toms into so#ial #auses, 3srael mentions only women, su#h as Bary Ba er Eddy, the founder of Christian S#ien#e, and Bertha Pa''enheim, or -nna @., who )e#ame a German feminist leader. He sees their dedi#ation as an e"olutionary form of feminine hysteria itself, an o)sessi"e desire to )e#ome the maDtre rather than su)mit to him, an a#ting out of fantasies of de"otion. =hus female a#ti"ism )e#omes merely a #onstru#ti"e 'athology, and feminism only a healthier form of hysteria. 3t does not o##ur to 3sraXl to la)el ,lau)ert or Sartre a su##essful hysteri#, let alone to s'e#ulate on the way this s#enario might e/'lain the #areer de#isions of male 'sy#hoanalysts.15$2 Language has 'layed a maIor role in the history of hysteriaJ to 'ry a'art the )ond )etween hysteria and women, to free hysteria from its feminine attri)utes, and to li)erate femininity from its )ondage to hysteria, means going against the grain of language itself. =o )egin with, as Helen King shows in #ha'ter $, hysteria has always )een etymologi#ally lin ed with women and the feminine )e#ause of its name. Le #an argue that when ,reud8s 7iennese #olleague dismissed ,reud8s tal on male hysteria )e#ause men didn8t ha"e wom)s, he was 'atheti#ally out of dateJ nonetheless, the word itself has )e#ome so generi#ally lin ed with the feminine in 'o'ular understanding that we need to s'e#ify male hysteria the way we s'e#ify women writers, whereas to say female hysteria sounds redundant. Be#ause of this understanding and the stigma it has #arried, throughout the #enturies do#tors ha"e sought to find other names for hyste0 + 5%$ + ria in men. -s 3srael e/'lains, H=he hysteria diagnosis )e#ame for a man . . . the real inIury, a sign of wea ness, a #astration in a word. =o say to a man 8you are hysteri#al8 )e#ame under these #onditions a form of saying to him 8.ou are not a man.8H1552 =o a"oid su#h a #onfrontation, do#tors sought un#ons#iously to mas the hysteria diagnosis under other termsJ in ,ran#e in the nineteenth #entury, for e/am'le, it was nown as Hneuros'asme,H Htarassis,H Hdidymalgie,H Hen#F'halie s'asmodi4ue,H or Hneuro'athie aigue #FrF)ro0'neumogastri4ue.H ,urthermore, hysteria is in"aria)ly re'resented as feminine through the figures of medi#al and histori#al s'ee#h. E"elyn ,o/ Keller, Ludmilla Eordano"a, Emily Bartin, and Cynthia Russett, among others, ha"e )egun in re#ent years to analy6e the gendered rhetori# and e'istemology of s#ientifi# in4uiry, through #lose reading of the figures, meta'hors, and re'resentations that ha"e always )een 'art of medi#al dis#ourse.15&2 Su#h images are not merely de#orati"e or a##idental, they argue, )ut are a fundamental 'art of the gendered language that s#ien#e shares with other human dis#ourses. -s Eordano"a notes, Hthe )iomedi#al s#ien#es de'loy, and are themsel"es, systems of re'resentation. 3f de"i#es li e 'ersonifi#ation and meta'hor ha"e )een #entral to s#ientifi# thin ing, then the notion of re'resentation )e#omes a #entral analyti#al tool for historians.H15?2 Helen King 'oints out that the history of hysteria de'ends on a series of te/ts, on the way language was de'loyed and translated within these te/ts, and on the narrati"es of female 'ower and 'owerlessness that were )ased u'on them. 3n order to understand the longe"ity and #ultural for#e of these narrati"es, we need to loo at terminology, meta'hor, and narrati"e te#hni4ues as well as at statisti#s and theories. 3n his re#ent study, for e/am'le, Etienne =rillat dis#usses the theories of male hysteria that ha"e flourished for se"eral #enturies. But his images tell a different story. H-ll 'sy#hoanalyti# theory was )orn from hysteria,H he writes, H)ut the mother died after the )irth.H E"en in denying the se/ual etiology of hysteria, thus historiogra'hy reins#ri)es it through language e#hoing the traditional terminology for hysteria, the Hsuffo#ation of the motherH or the Hmother.H15;2 Le #ould also loo at the stri ing meta'hor Breuer used in "tudies on Hysteria when he #alled hysteri#s Hthe flowers of man ind, as sterile, no dou)t, )ut as )eautiful as dou)le flowers.H15:2 =he

image is )otani#al, se/ual, and aestheti#. 3n #ulti"ated flowers, dou)ling #omes from the re'la#ement of the stamens )y 'etals. Li e the dou)le flower, Breuer im'lies, the hysteri# is the for#ed )ud of a domesti# greenhouse, the 'rodu#t of lu/ury, leisure, and #ulti"ation. Her re'rodu#ti"e 'owers ha"e )een sa#rifi#ed to her intelle#t and imagination. Li e the #ur"ed flowers + 5%5 + of -rt Dou"eau, or the 2Engenstihl , she is also an aestheti# o)Ie#t, standing in relation to a more so)er Hman indH as feminine and de#orati"e. ,inally, the hysteri# is sedu#ti"e and attra#ti"e, )ut in#a'a)le of maternity or #reati"ity. ,rom Breuer8s 'oint of "iew, as the #ase studies ma e #lear, the hysteri#8s sterility and her intense a)normal flowering go together, as if to e#ho 7i#torian stereoty'es a)out the in#om'ati)ility of uterine and #ere)ral de"elo'ment. But from the woman8s 'oint of "iew, sterility may result from )eing in ad"an#e of one8s time and una)le to find a 'artner. =he same meta'hor is used )y @li"e S#hreiner, herself an e/am'le of the Dew Loman who o"er#ame hysteri#al disorders to lead an im'ortant #areer as a feminist and writer. S#hreiner imagined that if se/ and re'rodu#tion #ould )e se'arated, human se/uality, es'e#ially female se/uality, might )e#ome li e the #ulti"ated rose, whi#h Hha"ing no more need to seed turns all its se/ual organs into 'etals, and dou)les, and dou)lesJ it )e#omes entirely aestheti#.H15C2 ,or S#hreiner, the hysteri# is thus a mem)er of the se/ual a"ant0garde. Bale homose/uals too #an )e read, 'erha's more 're#isely than women, into Breuer8s meta'hor of the dou)le flower. =hey are S#hreiner8s highly e"ol"ed )eings who ha"e 'erfor#e se'arated se/uality from re'rodu#tion, and who must 'our their #reati"ity into art. 3n his study of @s#ar Lilde, for e/am'le, Deil Bartlett #alls Lilde8s green #arnation the sym)oli# flower of the gay man: H- homose/ual, li e a hothouse flower, de#lares his su'eriority to the merely natural. . . . Homose/uals are sterile . . . they )lossom in the form of wor s of art.H15>2 3t is not sur'rising that the meta'hors of hysteria should #ontain dou)le se/ual messages a)out femininity and mas#ulinity, for throughout history, the #ategory of feminine HhysteriaH has )een #onstru#ted in o''osition to a #ategory of mas#uline ner"ous disorder whose name was #onstantly shifting. 3n the Renaissan#e, these gendered )inary o''ositions were set u' as hysteria(melan#holyJ )y the se"enteenth and eighteenth #enturies, they had )e#ome hysteria(hy'o#hondriaJ in the late nineteenth #entury they were transformed into hysteria(neurastheniaJ during Lorld Lar 3, they #hanged yet again to hysteria(shell sho# J and within ,reudian 'sy#hoanalysis, they were #oded as hysteria(o)sessional neurosis. But whate"er the #hanging terms, hysteria has )een #onstru#ted as a 'erIorati"e term for femininity in a duality that relegated the more honora)le mas#uline form to another #ategory. 3f we go )a# to medi#al re#ords from the early se"enteenth #entury, we find a differentiation )etween hysteria, a disorder that was )elie"ed to ha"e its origins in dis'la#ement of the uterus and the a##umulation + 5%& + of 'utrid humorsJ and melan#holy, a 'restigious disorder of u''er0#lass and intelle#tual men. 7ieda S ultans has 'ointed out that Hthe e'idemi#s of melan#holy whi#h swe't the fashiona)le #ir#le of London from $;>* onwards #uriously )y'assed women.H15%2 She sees a #onne#tion )etween the misogynisti# literature that flourished during the late se"enteenth #entury and the emergen#e of hysteria as a signifi#ant diagnosti# #ategory. By the end of the se"enteenth #entury, melan#holy and hysteria had )een Ioined )y new fashiona)le diseases: the s'leen, "a'ours, and hy'o#hondriaJ and these disorders

were also differentiated )y gender. S'leen and "a'ours were seen as a in to hysteria, female maladies that #ame from the 'oisonous fumes of a disordered wom). -s Roy Porter has dis#ussed in #ha'ter &, late se"enteenth0#entury a##ounts of the neurologi#al as'e#ts of hysteria that mo"ed away from the uterine theory also ad"an#ed theories of male hysteria. 3n these a##ounts 'hysi#ians were agreed that hysteri#al men were mu#h rarer than hysteri#al women, that they )eha"ed in womanish ways, and that their affli#tion should )e #alled Hhy'o#hondriasis.H -##ording to =homas Sydenham, for e/am'le, hy'o#hondria#al sym'toms were as similar to hysteri#al sym'toms Has one egg is to anotherH and #ould )e seen in Hsu#h male su)Ie#ts as lead a sedentary or studious life, and grow 'ale o"er their )oo s and 'a'ers.H1&*2 3n the eighteenth #entury, there was a gender s'lit in the re'resentation of the )ody, with the ner"ous system seen as feminine, and the mus#ulature as mas#uline.1&$2 Ko#tors made a firm gender distin#tion )etween forms of ner"ous disorder, assigning hysteria to women and hy'o#hondria to men. -##ording to the ,ren#h 'hysi#ian Eean0Ba'tiste Louyer07illermay, these #ategories also #orres'onded to a 'sy#hology of se/ differen#es. =ur)ulent 'assions, am)itions, and hate, whi#h were natural to men, 'redis'osed them towards hy'o#hondria, while in women the dominant emotion was that of lo"e.1&52 Con#ern with the femini6ing la)el of hysteria o)"iously affe#ted diagnosisJ when Edward Eenner had hysteri#al sym'toms, he noted that Hin a female 3 should #all it hysteri#alA)ut in myself 3 now not what to #all it )ut )y the old swee'ing term ner"ous.H 3n England, most 7i#torian medi#al men Hhad the idea that there was a mental disease for ea#h se/A hy'o#hondriasis for the male and hysteria for the female.H1&&2 By the nineteenth #entury, the se/ual s'e#ifi#ity of hysteria and hy'o#hondriasis had )e#ome a medi#al dogma, so that Hwhen hysteria is admitted in men, it is understood ne"ertheless as a female affli#tion.H1&?2 =hus the 7iennese do#tor Ernst "on ,eu#htersle)en in $>5? argued that if women showed signs of hy'o#hondriasis they + 5%? + must )e Hmas#uline -ma6onian women,H while hysteri#al men Hare for the most 'art effeminate men.H1&;2 But whereas hy'o#hondriasis had started as a dignified illness that a man might e"en #laim with some mas#uline self0res'e#t, during the nineteenth #entury it too gradually )e#ame esta)lished as a form of mental disorder that #arried its own stigma. 3n the eighteenth #entury, the man of #ulti"ation and intelle#t who suffered from a "ariety of affli#tions was uni"ersally admired, )ut when it )e#ame em)arrassing for men to a# nowledge that they were hy'o#hondria#s, and su#h 'eo'le, li e Eane -usten8s Br. Loodhouse, )e#ame figures of fun, a new mas#uline term was re4uired to set alongside hysteria. 3n $>C&, this ga' in the medi#al le/i#on was filled )y the term neurasthenia . H!ndou)tedly the disease of the male su)Ie#t in the late nineteenth #entury,H1&:2 neurasthenia was first identified in the !nited States and lin ed with the nation8s ner"ous modernity. 3n $merican ,ervousness , George B. Beard, who named the new disorder, defined neurasthenia as a #ondition of ner"ous e/haustion, an Him'o"erishment of ner"ous for#e.H He )elie"ed that neurasthenia was #aused )y industriali6ed ur)an so#ieties, #om'etiti"e )usiness and so#ial en"ironments, and the lu/uries, demands, and e/#esses of life on the fast tra# . 3n a sense then, neurasthenia was a sour#e of 'ride and a )adge of national distin#tion and ra#ial su'eriority. =o )e stressed was Hone of the #ardinal traits of e"olutionary 'rogress mar ing the in#reased su'rema#y of )rain for#e o"er the more retarded so#ial #lasses and )ar)arous 'eo'les.H =o Beard, re'orts of missionaries, e/'lorers, and anthro'ologists seemed to show that 'rimiti"e, sa"age, and heathen grou's were sim'ler and less sensiti"e than middle0#lass -meri#ans.1&C2 Bushmen and Siou/ 3ndians did not )e#ome neurastheni# li e Boston )an ers and Dew .or lawyers.

Li e hysteria, neurasthenia en#om'assed a staggering range of sym'toms, from )lushing, neuralgia, "ertigo, heada#he, and tooth de#ay to insomnia, de'ression, #hroni# fatigue, fainting, and uterine irrita)ility. But unli e hysteria, neurasthenia was an a##e'ta)le and e"en a "alua)le illness for men. Lhile it affe#ted )oth men and women )etween the ages of fifteen and forty0fi"e, it was most fre4uent Hamong the well0to0do and the intelle#tual, and es'e#ially among those in the 'rofessions and in the higher wal s of )usiness life, who are in deadly earnest in the ra#e for 'la#e and 'ower.H1&>2 it was definitely, in short, the neurosis of the male elite. Bany ner"e s'e#ialists, in#luding Beard himself, had e/'erien#ed #rises of ner"ous e/haustion in their own #areers, and they were highly sym'atheti# to other middle0#lass male intelle#tuals tormented )y "o#ational inde#ision, o"erwor , se/ual frustration, internali6ed #ultural + 5%; + 'ressure to su##eed, and se"erely re'ressed emotional needs. Lhen Her)ert S'en#er "isited the !nited States in $>>5, he was stru# )y the wides'read ill health of -meri#an men: H3n e"ery #ir#le 3 ha"e met men who had themsel"es suffered from ner"ous #olla'ses, due to stress of )usiness, or named friends who had #ri''led themsel"es )y o"erwor .H1&%2 But ,ren#h and English men, do#tors from these #ountries were 4ui# to argue, #ould )e ner"ous too. 3n Paris, Char#ot noted that Hthe young men who graduate from the E#ole Polyte#hni4ue, who intend to )e#ome heads of fa#tories and ra# their )rains o"er mathemati#al #al#ulations, often )e#ome "i#tims of these affli#tions.H1?*2 =he male 'atients in Char#ot8s 'ri"ate 'ra#ti#e, who #ame from the middle and u''er #lasses, were more li ely to )e #alled Hneurastheni#H than Hhysteri#al.H1?$2 =he so#ial #onstru#tion of neurasthenia refle#ted the roman#e of -meri#an #a'italism and the identifi#ation of mas#ulinity with money and 'ro'erty. Beard8s meta'hors re'eatedly em'hasi6ed the e#onomi# and te#hnologi#al #onte/ts of -meri#an ner"ousness. Deurastheni#s were in Hner"ous )an ru't#y,H 'er'etually o"erdrawing their a##ount, rather than Hmillionaires of ner"e for#e.H1?52 =he neurastheni# man is a dam with a small reser"oir )ehind it, that often runs dry or nearly so through the torrent as the slui#eway, )ut s'eedily fills again from many mountain streamsJ a small furna#e, holding little fuel, and that inflamma)le and #om)usti)le, and with strong draught, #ausing 4ui# e/haustion of materials and im'arting une4ual, in#onstant warmthJ a )attery with small #ells and little 'otential for#e, and whi#h with little internal resistan#e 4ui# ly )e#omes a#tual for#e, and so is an in#onstant )attery, re4uiring fre4uent re'airing and refillingJ a day#lo# , whi#h if it )e not wound u' e"ery twenty0four hours, runs utterly downJ e"ol"ing a for#e sometimes wea , sometimes strong, and an engine with small )oiler0'ower, that is soon em'tied of its steamJ an ele#tri# light atta#hed to a small dynamo and fee)le storage a''aratus, that often fli# ers and s'eedily wea ens when the dynamo #eases to mo"e.1?&2 =his e'i# meta'hor "i"idly suggests the s'e#ter of the mas#uline engine wearing out, the de'letion of s'erm #ells, the la# of eIa#ulatory for#e. 3t refle#ts late nineteenth0#entury male se/ual an/ieties of im'oten#e #aused )y mental or 'hysi#al o"erwor . Her)ert S'en#er 'ut this idea forward 4uite straightforwardly in an arti#le written for the )estminster -evie% in $>;5. H3ntense mental a''li#ation,H S'en#er argued, His a##om'anied )y a #essation in the 'rodu#tion of s'erm0#ells,H while #orres'ondingly, Hundue 'rodu#tion of s'erm0#ells in"ol"es #ere)ral ina#ti"ity,H )eginning with heada#he and 'ro#eeding to im)e#ility.1??2 =his theory #ut )oth ways. @n the one hand, la# of desire for women

+ 5%: + #ould )e e/'lained )y de"otion to intelle#tual tas sJ on the other hand, o"erindulgen#e in se/ #ould lead to intelle#tual de#line. =hus for some male intelle#tuals, the neurasthenia diagnosis relie"ed an/iety a)out la'ses from #on"entional mas#uline se/uality )y #lassifying them under the manly heading of o"erwor . S'en#er himself was #ited )y Beard as one of the world8s most distinguished neurastheni#s, Hdoing original wor on a small reser"e of #a'ital for#e.H 3n $>;&, after a "igorous #lim)ing e/'edition in the -l's, S'en#er had noti#ed odd sym'tomsA'al'itations, insomnia, H#ardia# enfee)lement,H a Hsensation in the head.H -lthough he li"ed another fifty years, he treated himself as an in"alid, 'am'ering himself with rest and re#reation, 'utting in ear'lugs when a #on"ersation threatened to )e#ome too e/#iting, H ee'ing u' the #ere)ral #ir#ulationH )y wetting his head with saltwater and en#asing it in flannel and a ru))er night#a'. Kes'ite what one might regard today as real so#ial handi#a's, S'en#er was seen )y his male friends as a great marital #at#h, and with shrewd 're0,reudian insight into his 'ro)lem, they urged him to ta e a wife, re#ommending Hgynoe'athyH as a #ure for his ills. S'en#er howe"er resisted, and as Gordon Haight wisely remar s, with neurasthenia Hhe )ought safety from the 'erils of marriage.H1?;2 But the #onstru#tion of neurasthenia as mas#uline was an illusion. 3n the !nited States, e4ual num)ers of male and female 'atients were re'orted in the medi#al Iournals.1?:2 Howe"er, #ases were differentiated in terms of )oth gender and #lass. 3n middle0#lass men, the disorder was attri)uted to o"erwor , se/ual e/#ess, an/iety, am)ition, sedentary ha)its, or the use of al#ohol, to)a##o, or drugs. Beard estimated that one out of e"ery ten neurastheni#s was a do#tor. 3n wor ing0#lass men, se/ual e/#ess, trauma, and o"erwor were #ited as the main #auses of the disease. -nd in all women, #hild)irth and re'rodu#ti"e distur)an#es #ame at the to' of the list, with o"erwor a fa#tor for wor ing0 #lass women and attending #ollege a fa#tor for middle0#lass women.1?C2 Gosling notes that the #ase histories of male 'atients are mu#h more interesting, detailed, and "aried than those of womenJ H)e#ause men normally led more "aried li"es than most women, in"ol"ing themsel"es in #areer, family, and so#ial a#ti"ities )oth within and outside the domesti# #ir#le, 'hysi#ians made greater distin#tions in the #auses to whi#h they attri)uted male ner"ousness. Physi#ians also 4uestioned men in more detail a)out their ha)its and 'ersonal affairs, 'artially )e#ause they were more li ely to sus'e#t men of hidden "i#e and 'artially )e#ause of the deli#a#y of raising intimate issues with mem)ers of the o''osite se/.H1?>2 3n England, neurasthenia 4ui# ly lost its sheltering 'ower for men + 5%C + and )e#ame a female malady li e hysteria. 3ndeed, Ha"elo# Ellis estimated that there were fourteen neurastheni# women for e"ery neurastheni# man. E/'lanations for neurasthenia in women drew on some of the same sour#es as the e/'lanations a)out men, )ut with a different moral em'hasis. Edward Clar e in the !nited States and Henry Baudsley in England drew on new theories of the #onser"ation of energy to argue that mental and 'hysi#al energy were finite and #om'eting. Lomen8s energy, 'ost0 Karwinian s#ientists )elie"ed, was naturally intended for re'rodu#ti"e s'e#iali6ation. =hus women were hea"ily handi#a''ed, e"en de"elo'mentally arrested, in intelle#tual #om'etition with men. Der"ous disorder would #ome when women defied their HnatureH and sought to ri"al men through edu#ation and wor , rather than to ser"e them and the ra#e through maternity. Lhile #om'etition was a healthy stimulus to male am)ition, it was disastrous for women, who furthermore did not ha"e the outlet of athleti#s to relie"e their strained ner"es. =he higher edu#ation of women in uni"ersities was

o)"iously then a threat not only to their health )ut to their re'rodu#ti"e #a'a#ities. HLhat Dature s'ends in one dire#tion, she must e#onomise in another dire#tion,H Baudsley wrote, and thus the young woman who ga"e herself o"er to learning would find her se/ual and re'rodu#ti"e organs atro'hying, her H'el"i# 'owerH diminished or destroyed, and her fate one of se/lessness and disease.1?%2 =he neurastheni# Girton or 7assar girl was o"erwor ing her )rain and uterus into sterility. =he standard treatment for neurasthenia was the rest #ure, de"elo'ed )y the -meri#an Kr. Silas Leir Bit#hell 9$>5%0$%$?< after his e/'erien#e in the Ci"il Lar. ,irst des#ri)ed in $>C&, the rest #ure in"ol"ed se#lusion, massage, immo)ility, and He/#essi"e feeding.H ,or si/ wee s the 'atient was isolated from her friends and family, #onfined to )ed, and for)idden to sit u', sew, read, write, or do any intelle#tual wor . She was e/'e#ted to gain as mu#h as fifty 'ounds on a ri#h diet that )egan with mil and )uilt u' to se"eral su)stantial daily meals. Bit#hell was well aware that the sheer )oredom and sensory de'ri"ation of the rest #ure made it a 'unishment to the 'atient: HLhen they are )idden to stay in )ed a month, and neither to read, write, nor sew, and ha"e one nurseAwho is not a relati"eA then rest )e#omes for some women a rather )itter medi#ine, and they are glad enough to a##e't the order to rise and go a)out when the do#tor issues a mandate whi#h has )e#ome 'leasantly wel#ome and eagerly loo ed for.H =he rest #ure e"ol"ed from Bit#hell8s wor with HmalingeringH soldiers in the Ci"il Lar, whom he had assigned to the most disagreea)le Io)s, so that after a few wee s in the latrines they were eager to return + 5%> + to the front.1;*2 But it also de'ended on his feelings on the differen#es )etween men and women and their so#ial meaning: ,or me the gra"e signifi#an#e of se/ual differen#e #ontrols the whole 4uestion, and if 3 say little of it in words, 3 #annot e/#lude it from my thought of them and their diffi#ulties. =he woman8s desire to )e on a le"el of #om'etition with man and to assume his duties is, 3 am sure, ma ing mis#hief, for it is my )elief that no length of generations of #hange in her edu#ation and modes of a#ti"ity will e"er really alter her #hara#teristi#s. She is 'hysiologi#ally other than man. 3 am #on#erned with her now as she is, only desiring to hel' her in my small way to )e in wiser and more healthful fashion what 3 )elie"e her Ba er meant her to )e, and to tea#h her how not to )e that with whi#h her 'hysiologi#al #onstru#tion and the strong ideals of her se/ual nature threaten her as no #ontingen#ies of man8s #areer threaten in li e measure or li e num)er the fee)lest of the mas#uline se/.1;$2 - determined o''onent of higher edu#ation for women, a #riti# of 7assar and Rad#liffe and es'e#ially of Hthe horri)le system of #oedu#ation,H1;52 Bit#hell, li e other 7i#torian 'hysi#ians, )elie"ed that the female re'rodu#ti"e system and the )rain deri"ed their nourishment from the same sour#e, and that women should not try to learn too mu#h during adoles#en#e when the menstrual fun#tion was )eing esta)lished. H3 firmly )elie"e,H he wrote, Hthat as #on#erns the 'hysi#al future of women they would do )etter if the )rain were "ery "ery lightly tas ed and the s#hool0hours )ut three or four a day until they rea#h the age of se"enteen at least.H1;&2 He also ad"ised mothers not to allow their 'u)es#ent daughters to ta e strenuous e/er#ise. =he 4uest for nowledge, he felt, destroyed that su)tle and tender feminine #harm whi#h was the only sour#e of mas#uline lo"e: H,or most men, when she sei6es the a''le, she dro's the rose.H1;?2 Lhile Bit#hell was aware that hysteria in women of the middle and u''er #lasses was largely #aused )y Hthe daily fret and wearisomeness of li"es whi#h . . . la# those distin#t o##u'ations and aimsH that

sustained their )rothers and hus)ands, he did not seem to ma e the #onne#tion )etween his 'rogram of female ignoran#e and 'assi"ity, and women8s later ina)ility to lead healthy li"es.1;;2 He 'referred women 'atients who were silent and a#4uies#ent to those with in4uiring minds. HLise women #hoose their do#tors and trust them,H he wrote in Doctor and atient . H=he wisest as the fewest 4uestions. =he terri)le 'atients are ner"ous women with long memories, who 4uestion mu#h where answers are diffi#ult, and who 'ut together one8s answers from time to time and torment themsel"es and the 'hysi#ian with the a''arent in#onsis0 + 5%% + ten#ies they dete#t.H1;:2 3n his no"el -oland Bla(e , Bit#hell #reated su#h a terri)le 'atient in the figure of @#ta'ia Karnell, a re'ugnant hysteri# whose si# ly tenta#les wound themsel"es a)out her ha'less family. He 'referred to use women8s trust in him in effe#ting a #ure: H3f you #an #ause su#h hysteri# women as these to )elie"e that you #an #ure them, you enlist on your side their own troo's, for as you #an #reate sym'toms, so you #an also #reate a)sen#e of sym'toms.H1;C2 ,urthermore, the treatment assumed that the 'atient )e H'liant and wealthyH: one who did not wor , or at least did not need to wor . Biddle0#lass women were thus the )est #andidates for the rest #ure, sin#e men and the 'oor were unli ely to )e willing to s'end si/ to eight wee s in idleness. Ko#tors thus modified the treatment for their male 'atients, who might sim'ly )e ad"ised to get to )ed early and to tra"el first0#lass. -s the Chi#ago neurologist -r#hi)ald Chur#h o)ser"ed, HLe #annot 'ut 1men2 to )ed with any e/'e#tation that they will stay there. 3 ha"e tried it re'eatedly and ha"e nearly always failed. Ben do not ta e to the re#um)ent 'osition for any #onsidera)le length of time with e4uanimity. =he fa#t of their )eing in )ed #onstitutes an aggra"ationJ and irritation is what we wish to e/#lude.H1;>2 Lomen were Iust as irritated )y isolation and enfor#ed idleness as men. Bit#hell8s 'atients indeed in#luded many of the leading feminist intelle#tuals, a#ti"ists, and writers of the 'eriod, in#luding Eane -ddams, Linifred Howells, Charlotte Per ins Gilman, and Edith Lharton. ,or them, feminist s#holars ha"e argued, the rest #ure seemed li e a regression to infan#y, in whi#h the 'atient was for#ed )a# into Hwom)li e de'enden#eH on the 'arental team of godli e male do#tor and su)ser"ient female nurse, and reedu#ated to Hma e the will of the male her ownHJ1;%2 or a dis#i'linary treatment that 'unished un#on"entional as'irationsJ or e"en a 'seudo0'regnan#y that sym)oli#ally 'ut the de"iant woman )a# in her )iologi#al 'la#e. ,or)idden )y Bit#hell to write or draw, Gilman #ame #lose to a )rea down: H3 would #rawl into remote #losets and under )edsAto hide from the grinding 'ressure of that 'rofound distress.H1:*2 Casting Bit#hell8s ad"i#e to the winds, she went to wor again, Hwor , in whi#h is Ioy and ser"i#e, without whi#h one is a 'au'er and a 'arasite.H ,or Gilman, hysteria was the result of 'assi"e a#4uies#en#e to the stri#tures of a 'atriar#hal so#iety, )ut it #ould )e o"er#ome )y 'ur'oseful a#ti"ity, in her #ase writing. She wrote the #hilling short story H=he .ellow Lall'a'erH 9$>%5<, a Gothi# tale of a young mother suffering from a Htem'orary ner"ous de'ressionAa slight hysteri#al tenden#y,H who goes mad during a rest #ure, as a 'rotest against Bit#hell, )ut there is no e"iden#e that he e"er read or res'onded to it. Similarly, + &** + Kr. Bargaret Clea"es insisted on the im'ortan#e of wor for women8s mental health, and the dangers of the rest #ure: H=he hardest #ases 3 ha"e had to ta e #are of 'rofessionally,H she wrote, Hare those who ha"e a#4uired the rest #ure ha)it. 3 ha"e a 'hysi#ian under #are now, this time a woman, who regrets 'iteously that she was not gi"en something to feed her intelligen#e instead of an un4ualified rest #ure.H1:$2

But e"en women do#tors did not ha"e the #ultural authority to #ontest medi#al dogmas. Later ,reud did ha"e the authority to #riti#i6e Bit#hell. 3n "tudies on Hysteria , in a 'assage that might )e seen as a medi#al a# nowledgment of Gilman8s e/'erien#e, he ad"ised #om)ining the rest #ure with analysis: H=his gi"es me the ad"antage of )eing a)le . . . to a"oid the "ery distur)ing introdu#tion of new 'sy#hi#al im'ressions during a 'sy#hothera'y, and . . . to remo"e the )oredom of a rest0#ure, in whi#h the 'atients not infre4uently fall into the ha)it of harmful daydreaming.H1:52 Still, the rest #ure was not really dis#redited until Lorld Lar 3, when it was dis#arded as ina''ro'riate and e"en harmful as a thera'y for men. =he rest #ure was one form of fin0de0siG#le thera'y that asserted male medi#al domination o"er the ner"ous woman. =reatments for hysteri#al women in the late nineteenth #entury were e"en more tyranni#al, and do#tors found reasons not to a''ly them to men. 3n England the model for this a''roa#h, )ased on esta)lished notions a)out the #harismati# male 'hysi#ian and the mani'ulati"e si# ly woman, had )een 'ioneered )y Ro)ert Brudenell Carter and des#ri)ed in his )oo /n the athology and Treatment of Hysteria 9$>;&<. @nly twenty0fi"e when he wrote his )oo , Carter ado'ted the tone of a mu#h more mature and esta)lished man, a 'ersona that was "ery mu#h 'art of his whole 'rogram for asserting se/ual and medi#al authority o"er the wayward hysteri#al girl. Lhile Carter re#ogni6ed that there were also #ases of hysteria in men, he insisted that they were rare and anomalous. Dot only were emotional derangements Hmu#h more #ommon in the female than the male,H )ut also women were for#ed )y so#ial 'ressure to #on#eal their feelings and desires, es'e#ially se/ual ones. Boreo"er, the Hmor)id and insatia)le . . . #ra"ing for sym'athyH that led to si# )eha"ior was Hten times stronger in women than in men.H1:&2 Kuring a season when he ser"ed as the dire#tor of an agri#ultural wor house, Carter had to #ontend with a num)er of young married women who had )een se'arated from their hus)ands and #hildren. =hese women had no real outlet for their feelings of loneliness and an/iety, and some had )egun to ha"e daily fits of #rying and s#reaming. Carter found the atta# s an administrati"e nuisan#e and set out to sto' + &*$ + them. Lhene"er a woman had an atta# , he made a large grou' of the others nurse her, insisting that none of them #ould ha"e any food until all the sym'toms of the atta# had su)sided. 7ery 4ui# ly the Hhysteri#alH women )e#ame so un'o'ular with the others that the fits #eased to o##ur. Carter8s attitude toward middle0#lass hysteri#s was e4ually antagonisti#, )ut his methods of managing them had to )e more su)tle. 3n his "iew, the hysteri#al girl is a #le"er, 'ersistent, and des'erate 'erson who has entered into a sustained de#e'tion, and would Hlose #asteH if e/'osed. =herefore she is 're'ared for a long siege against the do#tor who would ma e her wellAthat is, ma e her gi"e u' her sym'toms. Lhile he thoughtfully #onsiders the effi#a#y of rough treatments for hysteri#s, su#h as un'leasant medi#ines, )lows, or )u# ets of #old water, Carter #on#ludes that most hysteri#al girls would )e a)le to tolerate su#h atta# s and turn them against the do#tor, undermining his authority: Hyoung woman who is li"ing at home will ha"e too mu#h #ourage and enduran#e to )e )eaten )y the torture, and . . . a #ertain amount of 'erse"eran#e on her 'art will e/alt her into a martyr in the eyes of her family, and will ena)le her to )id defian#e to 'rofessional denun#iations.H1:?2 =hus he ad"o#ated remo"ing the 'atient from her family to the do#tor8s home, where she #ould )e under #onstant sur"eillan#e. =he 'lan for treatment he outlines is )asi#ally a form of )la# mail, threatening the hysteri# that if she does not reform her ways, the do#tor will e/'ose her malingering and disgra#e her in the eyes of her

family and friends. 3n fa#t, )y the time this threat is 'ronoun#ed, the do#tor has already se#retly told the family his diagnosis and sworn them to se#re#y, so the hysteri# is o'erating in the midst of a #ons'ira#y or game in whi#h e"eryone is #olla)orating to tri# her. =elling the family of the 'lot is ne#essary to effe#t the 'atient8s se'aration from them. Lhen she is remo"ed from all her a##ustomed sour#es of sym'athy and su''ort, the do#tor #an ha"e full 'ower o"er her ha)its and treatment. British attitudes toward the understanding and management of the hysteri#al woman followed Carter8s e/am'le. 3n general, 7i#torian do#tors saw hysteria as a disorder of female adoles#en#e, #aused )oth )y the esta)lishment of the menses and )y the de"elo'ment of se/ual feelings that #ould ha"e no outlet or #atharsis. -doles#en#e was a ris y time for girls, many do#tors o)ser"ed, not only )e#ause the re'rodu#ti"e organs had so great an influen#e on their entire well0)eing )ut also )e#ause Hthe range of a#ti"ity of women is so limited, and their a"aila)le 'aths of wor in life so few . . . that they ha"e not, li e men, "i#arious outlets for feelings in a "ariety of healthy aims and 'ursuits.H1:;2 Lhile men, wrote + &*5 + Charles Ber#ier, had the Hsafety0"al"eH of e/er#ise, women8s feelings were )ottled u', so that in adoles#en#e, Hmore or less de#ided manifestations of hysteria are the rule.H1::2 H-ll inds of . . . )arriers to the free 'lay of her 'ower are set u' )y ordinary so#ial and ethi#al #ustoms,H wrote Kr. Bryan Kon in. H8=hou shalt not8 meets a girl at e"ery turn.H1:C2 ,. C. S ey, who deli"ered a series of le#tures on hysteria to the medi#al students at St. Bartholomew8s Hos'ital in $>::, noti#ed that his 'atients were 'rimarily adoles#ent girls with domineering 'arents, girls who He/hi)ited more than usual for#e and de#ision of #hara#ter.H1:>2 Kes'ite their sym'athy for the 'light of 7i#torian girls, 7i#torian do#tors found their hysteri#al 'atients selfish, de#eitful, and mani'ulati"e. Henry Baudsley denoun#ed the Hmoral 'er"ersionH of hysteri#al young women who Hlie in )edH all day, Hwhen all the while their only 'aralysis is a 'aralysis of the will.H1:%2 S ey followed Carter8s lead in re#ommending Hfear and the threat of 'ersonal #hastisementH for hysteri#al women.1C*2 3n the title of one -meri#an medi#al te/t, hysteria was a matter of Htrials, tears, tri# s, and tantrums.H1C$2 3n ,ran#e, wor ing0#lass hysteri#al women 'atients at the Sal'WtriGre were regarded with the same hostility )y su#h do#tors as Eules ,alret. ,alret denoun#ed the women as H"erita)le a#tressesJ they do not now a greater 'leasure than to de#ei"e . . . all those with whom they #ome in tou#h. =he hysteri#s who e/aggerate their #on"ulsi"e mo"ement . . . ma e an e4ual tra"esty and e/aggeration of the mo"ements of their soul, their ideas, and their a#ts. . . . 3n a word, the life of the hysteri# is nothing )ut one 'er'etual falsehoodJ they affe#t the airs of 'iety and de"otion, and let themsel"es )e ta en for saints while at the same time a)andoning themsel"es to the most shameful a#tionsJ and at home, )efore their hus)ands and #hildren, ma ing the most "iolent s#enes in whi#h they em'loy the #oarsest and often most o)s#ene language and gi"e themsel"es u' to the most disorderly a#tions.H1C52 Lhy did hysteria )e#ome su#h a fre4uent 'henomenon in the late nineteenth #enturyN Lhy were do#tors li e Carter, Bit#hell, ,alret, and S ey so #ontem'tuous of their female 'atients and so di#tatorial in their treatmentsN - num)er of theories ha"e )een ad"an#ed to e/'lain the 'henomenon of fin0de0siG#le hysteria. =he feminist historian Carroll Smith0Rosen)erg gi"es an answer that is sym'atheti# to )oth hysteri#al women and their male 'hysi#ians. She sees female hysteria as stemming from se/0role #onfli#ts that emerged in the nineteenth #entury. She has argued that the -meri#an hysteri# was ty'i#ally the idle middle0#lass woman, )oth H'rodu#t and indi#tment of her #ulture.H Reared to )e wea , de'endent, flirtatious, and unasserti"e, many -meri#an girls grew

+ &*& + u' to )e #hild0women, una)le to #o'e with the 'ra#ti#al and emotional demands of adult life. =hey defended themsel"es against the hardshi's and o)ligations of adulthood H)y regressing towards the #hildish hy'er0femininity of the hysteri#.H ,a#ed with real res'onsi)ilities and 'ro)lems, these women fled from stress )y #hoosing a si# role in whi#h they won #ontinued sym'athy and 'rote#tion from the family. =hus hysteria 'ro"ided a solution to the feminine #onfli#t )etween ideali6ed se/ roles and 4uotidian realities: H=he dis#ontinuity )etween the roles of #ourted young woman and 'ain0)earing, self0sa#rifi#ing wife and mother, the realities of an unha''y marriage, the loneliness and #hagrin of s'insterhood, may all ha"e made the 'etulant infantilism and nar#issisti# self0assertion of the hysteri# a ne#essary so#ial alternati"e to women who felt unfairly de'ri"ed of their 'romised so#ial role and who had few strengths with whi#h to ada't to a more trying one.H Bale 'hysi#ians li e Bit#hell dealing with these women may sometimes ha"e )een harsh and insensiti"e, Smith0Rosen)erg #on#ludes, )ut they were not ne#essarily more misogynisti# than other men of their time. =heir 'rofession made it ne#essary for them to ma e analyti# statements a)out femininity, while their gender demanded that they esta)lish an authoritati"e relationshi' with their 'atients. =hus the 'hysi#ian too was a 'rodu#t of his gender and #ulture, Hstanding at the Iun#tion where the #ultural definitions of femininity, the needs of the indi"idual female 'atient, and mas#ulinity met.H1C&2 3f hysteri#al women were "i#tims of a #ulture that did not 're'are them to meet the res'onsi)ilities of adulthood, their do#tors too were "i#tims of a se/0role #onfli#t that re4uired them )oth to identify with the fathers and hus)ands of their 'atients, and to 'ro"ide answers and #ures for the 'ro)lems of the women in a way that threatened to femini6e them. 3n The History of "e#uality , Bi#hel ,ou#ault suggests that hysteria was a la)el )estowed on female se/uality )y male 'hysi#ians. Rather than seeing hysteria as a solution to the dou)le )inds and dilemmas of fin0de0siG#le women, ,ou#ault des#ri)es the Hhysteri6ation of women8s )odiesH as one of the #ru#ial features of 'sy#hiatri# and medi#al 'ower. Hysteri6ation was Ha three0fold 'ro#ess where)y the feminine )ody was analy6ed . . . as )eing thoroughly saturated with se/ualityJ where)y it was integrated into the s'here of medi#al 'ra#ti#es, )y means of a 'athology intrinsi# to itJ where)y, finally, it was 'la#ed in organi# #ommuni#ation with the so#ial )ody . . . the family s'a#e . . . and the life of #hildrenJ the Bother, with her negati"e image of 8ner"ous woman,8 #onstituted the most "isi)le form of this hysteri6ation.H1C?2 Lomen8s needs, roles, #onfli#ts, feelings, and "oi#es ha"e little to do + &*? + with the s#enario of 'ower outlined )y ,ou#ault. 3nstead, women are 'assi"e and a''arently 'owerless )odies and figures who are ins#ri)ed )y unnamed for#es. H3t is worth remem)ering,H he insists, Hthat the first figure to )e 8se/uali6ed8 was the 8idle8 woman. She inha)ited the outer edge of the 8world8, in whi#h she always had to a''ear as a "alue, and of the family, where she was assigned a new destiny #harged with #onIugal and 'arental o)ligations. =hus there emerged the 8ner"ous8 woman. . . . 3n this figure the hysteri6ation of woman found its an#horage 'oint.H1C;2 =hrough his use of 4uotation mar s, ,ou#ault #asts ironi# dou)t on the reality of the hysteri#al woman8s idleness or se/uality, )ut sin#e his fo#us is on the large anonymous for#es of 'sy#hiatri# 'ower, he does not su''ly an e/'lanation for the hysteri#8s #ollusion or hel'lessness )efore su#h la)eling. Dor, unli e Smith0Rosen)erg, does he attem't to e/'lain some of the moti"es do#tors might ha"e had for e/erting su#h 'ower o"er the definition of female hysteria, or the reasons why it )e#ame e'idemi# in the last de#ades of the #entury. Deither of these influential theories #an really a##ount for the "arieties and #auses of hysteria in their

res'e#ti"e #onte/ts. =o )egin with, 3 need to em'hasi6e on#e again that they e/#lude male hysteria from their analysis, although )oth are aware of its e/isten#e. Smith0Rosen)erg #omments in a footnote that male hysteria does not undermine her arguments a)out its relation to female e/'erien#e for four reasons. ,irst, Hto this day hysteria is still )elie"ed to )e 'rin#i'ally a female 8disease8 or )eha"ior 'attern.H Se#ond, the male hysteri# is HdifferentHAhomose/ual or wor ing #lass. =hird, Hone must hy'othesi6e that there was some degree of female identifi#ation among the men who assumed a hysteri#al role.H ,inally, she argues, male hysteria had its most ty'i#al form in shell sho# .1C:2 =hese #ir#ular arguments, whi#h Smith0Rosen)erg did not re#onsider when she re"ised her original essay for 'u)li#ation in the )oo , ma e it im'ossi)le for the Hdifferen#eH of male hysteria to modify her #on#e't of the Hhysteri#al role.H Bale hysteria is sim'ly a su)set of female hysteria, and mimi#s its moti"es and )eha"iors. -''lying Smith0Rosen)erg8s model to male hysteri#s, then, one would see them as #hildish, wea , and es#a'ist. =he alternati"e a''roa#hAanaly6ing hysteri#al sym'toms as a res'onse to 'owerlessnessAdoes not #ome u'. Kes'ite his interest in forms of dis#ursi"e 'ower, ,ou#ault too does not #onsider hysteria from the 'oint of "iew of the 'atient, although some of his referen#es hint at the dilemma of young hysteri#s, )oth male and female, #aught )etween domineering 'arents and domineering do#tors. He 4uotes Char#ot8s insisten#e that hysteri#al girls and )oys must )e se'arated from their mothers and fathers and hos'itali6ed.1CC2 But the + &*; + idea that these 'ower struggles might ha"e #ontri)uted to the 'ro)lems of adoles#ent 'atients is e/traneous to ,ou#ault8s #on#erns. He is interested instead in ma''ing the elements )y whi#h do#tors too #ontrol of the definition of se/uality. Both Smith0Rosen)erg and ,ou#ault identify the )ourgeois mother as the re'resentati"e fin0de0siG#le hysteri#. But this 'i#ture does not #orres'ond to the realities they ea#h des#ri)e, nor to the #lini#al 'i#ture. Smith0Rosen)erg a# nowledges that hysteria #rossed #lass and e#onomi# )oundaries, and that it also affe#ted wor ing0#lass and farm women, immigrants and tenement dwellers. 3n her "iew these women too had failed Hto de"elo' su)stantial ego strengths.H1C>2 But -meri#an do#tors who treated 'oor women in their hos'itals and dis'ensaries had a different "iew. E. H. 7an Keusen, who saw many hysteri#al farm women at his asylum in Bi#higan, )lamed the so#ial isolation and intelle#tual de'ri"ation of their lonely li"es.1C%2 Similarly, most of the girls and women ,alret and Char#ot were treating for hysteria at the Sal'WtriGre #ame from 'oor families and had wor ed sin#e #hildhood to su''ort themsel"es. =hey were neither idle nor, for the most 'art, mothers. 3n #ase after #ase, they were the "i#tims of 'o"erty, se/ual and finan#ial e/'loitation, and ignoran#e. =he wor ing0#lass men Char#ot treated in his ward, whose hysteria was usually 're#i'itated )y some ind of "iolent a##ident, seem li e the )rothers of the women. ,ou#ault8s highly s#hemati# and a)stra#t a##ount of dis#ursi"e 'ower ignores )oth #onte/t and agen#yJ it neither e/'lains why 'atients manifested sym'toms of distress nor e/'lains why 'hysi#ians were so eager to fo#us on these #om'laints in women and to see them as threats to the family and the state. =he HhysterisationH of women8s )odies whi#h ,ou#ault des#ri)es #an also )e seen from a feminist 'ers'e#ti"e as Ha reassertion of women8s essentially biological destiny in the fa#e of their in#reasingly mo)ile and transgressi"e so#ial roles.H1>*2 =hat hysteria )e#ame a hot to'i# in medi#al #ir#les at the same time that feminism, the Dew Loman, and a #risis in gender were also hot to'i#s in the !nited States and Euro'e does not seem #oin#idental. Kuring an era when 'atriar#hal #ulture felt itself to )e under atta# )y its re)ellious daughters, one o)"ious defense was to la)el women #am'aigning for a##ess to the uni"ersities, the 'rofessions, and the "ote as mentally distur)ed. Lhether or not women

who were la)eled Hhysteri#alH were asso#iated with the women8s mo"ement, they were often seen )y do#tors as resistant to or #riti#al of marriage, and as strangely inde'endent and asserti"e. =hese #hara#teristi#s are most "i"idly 'resent in the 7iennese women disse#ted )y Breuer and ,reud, )ut English 'hysi#ians li e S ey and Bryan Kon in also #ommented on + &*: + the intelligen#e and am)ition of their hysteri#al 'atients. -ny woman manifesting sym'toms of hysteria aroused sus'i#ions of a silent re"olt against her domesti#, #lass, and re'rodu#ti"e role. =hus ner"ous women re#ei"ed mu#h more attention than ner"ous men, and were la)eled as Hhysteri#alH or Hneurastheni#H in the #onte/ts of a highly #harged rhetori# a)out the dangers of higher edu#ation, women8s suffrage, and female self0assertion in general. 3n e"ery national setting where female hysteria )e#ame a signifi#ant issue, there were 'arallel #on#erns a)out the ways that new o''ortunities for women might undermine the )irthrate, the family, and the health of the nation. 3ntelle#tually #om'etiti"e women, do#tors warned, were sterile flowers doomed to )ring forth only )lossoms of hysteria and neurasthenia. 3n the !nited States, gyne#ologists warned against the )rain0fag, heada#he, )a# a#he, s'ine0a#he, and all0around se/ual in#om'eten#e that Dew Lomen would 'rodu#e.1>$2 in ,ran#e, the femme nouvelle was )lamed for the de#lining )irthrateJ new di"isions of la)or seemed to threaten the sta)ility of the family and the state. -s women made their first inroads into 'u)li# and 'rofessional s'a#e, a fas#inating allian#e of artists, traditional women, and neuro'sy#hiatrists li e Char#ot united in a #am'aign to #ele)rate maternity and the interiority of Loman.1>52 in England the Dew Loman as neuroti# feminist intelle#tual had )e#ome a re#ogni6a)le ty'e )y the $>%*sJ Hthe Dew Loman ought to )e aware that her #ondition is mor)id, or at least hysteri#al,H wrote one Iournalist.1>&2 She had also )e#ome a standard figure in literature, whether =homas Hardy8s Sue Bridehead in 2ude the /bscure 9$>%;< or George Gissing8s -lma Rolfe in The )hirlpool 9$>%C<, whom 3an ,let#her #alls Ha new ty'e of woman, the nAvrose , the modern hysteri#.H1>?2 Lhile hysteri#al girls were "iewed as #loset feminists and re'rogrammed into traditional roles, feminist a#ti"ists were denigrated as hysteri#s, si# and a)normal women who did not re'resent their se/. By the $>>*s in England, it had )e#ome #ustomary for the term Hhysteri#alH to )e lin ed with feminist 'rotest in the news'a'ers and in the rhetori# of antisuffragists. -s Lisa =i# ner notes in her study of the British suffrage mo"ement, Hfor half a #entury and more, feminism and hysteria were readily ma''ed on to ea#h other as forms of irregularity, disorder, and e/#ess, and the #laim that the women8s mo"ement was made u' of hysteri#al females was one of the 'rin#i'al means )y whi#h it was 'o'ularly dis#redited.H1>;2 Lomen who found a 'u)li# "oi#e for their #on#erns were lam'ooned as Hthe shrie ing sisterhood,H a term #oined )y the antifeminist writer Eli6a Lynn Linton, who wrote in $>>& that Hone of our 4uarrels with the -d"an#ed Lomen of our generation is the hysteri#al + &*C + 'arade they ma e a)out their wants and their intentions. . . . ,or e"ery hysteri#al ad"o#ate 8the #ause8 loses a rational adherent and gains a disgusted o''onent.H1>:2 Eean0Bartin Char#ot8s #lini# at the Sal'WtriGre offered the )est o''ortunity to e/amine the different ways that women and men were diagnosed and treated for hysteria at the turn of the #entury. Studies of hysteria at the Sal'WtriGre too their form from Char#ot8s #harismati# style. So 'owerful was his influen#e in the $>>*s that the Sal'WtriGre was often #alled the HH\'ital Char#ot,H and the grou' of

dis#i'les and admirers around him was nown as the charcoterie .1>C2 =hey were strongly influen#ed )y his wor on male hysteri#sJ although the Sal'WtriGre had traditionally )een a women8s hos'ital, under Char#ot8s dire#tion a small men8s ward was o'enedJ male 'atients were also seen at the out'atients8 #lini#. Char#ot too 'ride in his resear#h on male su)Ie#ts and regarded the study of male hysteria as one of the s'e#ialties of his #lini# and of late nineteenth0#entury ,ren#h medi#ine. By his death in $>%&, he had 'u)lished si/ty0one #ase studies of male hysteri#s, and he left notes on many more. 3n a le#ture0'resentation on hysteria in men, Char#ot noted that: 3n some ways, this 4uestion of male hysteria is the order of the day. 3n ,ran#e it has 'reo##u'ied 'hysi#ians for the 'ast se"eral years. Between $>C; and $>>*, there ha"e )een fi"e dissertation defenses on male hysteria at the ,a#ultF de Paris, and B. Klein, the author of one of these theses, done under the su'er"ision of B. le Kr. @li"ier, was a)le to #atalog >* #ases. Sin#e then ha"e a''eared the im'ortant 'u)li#ations of B. Bourne"ille and his studentsJ of BB. Ke)o"e, Raymond, Kreyfus, and se"eral othersJ and all these wor s tend to demonstrate, among other things, that #ases of male hysteria #an )e found fairly fre4uently in #ommon 'ra#ti#e.1>>2 He de#ried the 'o'ular )elief that Hthe #hara#teristi# trait of hysteria is the insta)ility and the mo)ility of the sym'toms.H E"en in women, he e/'lained, there Hwere hysterias of sturdy, 'ermanent 'henomena . . . whi#h sometimes resist all medi#al inter"ention.H ,urthermore, men too were sometimes emotionally errati# or e/hi)ited de'ression and melan#holy. Char#ot8s #lini# was noted for the large num)er of female 'atients who, under hy'nosis, 'rodu#ed s'e#ta#ular atta# s of grande hystArie or Hhystero0e'ile'sy,H a 'rolonged and ela)orate #on"ulsi"e sei6ure. =he atta# #ould )e indu#ed or relie"ed )y 'ressure on #ertain areas of the )odyAwhat Char#ot #alled hysterogenic 6onesAand these were es'e#ially to )e found in the o"arian region. #om'lete sei6ure in"ol"ed three + &*> + 'hases: the e'ile'toid 'hase in whi#h the 'atient lost #ons#iousness and foamed at the mouthJ the 'hase of H#lownismH 9Char#ot was a great fan of the #ir#us<, in"ol"ing e##entri# 'hysi#al #ontortionsJ and the 'hase of Hattitudes 'assionnelles,H or se/ual 'oses. =he atta# ended with a )a# 0)end #alled the arc* en*cercle . 3t was #ru#ial to Char#ot8s theory of hysteria that it too the same #ourse in men and women. =hus he insisted that there were Hnumerous stri ing analogiesH )etween male and female grande hystArie . Char#ot8s dis#i'le Emile Batault re'orted with 'leasure that a hysteri#al young man named Gui H'resents the sym'toms most #hara#teristi# of grande hystArie . =he atta# s are always 're#eded )y the 'henomena of testi#ular auraJ he feels something whi#h mounts from the inguinal region towards the eso'hagusJ he has then a feeling of thora#i# #onstri#tion whi#h o''resses him, his tem'les thro) "iolently, he has ringing in his ears and hears hea"y noises li e the fire of distant #annons. His head s'ins, he loses #ons#iousness, and the atta# )egins.H Be#ause he was young and athleti#, Gui8s arc*en* cercle was also a s'lendid affair, whi#h im'ressed Batault "ery mightily, as an Ha#ro)ati# 'erforman#e as )eautiful as it was "aried.H1>%2 Batault also found a hysterogeni# 6one on Gui8s )ody lo#ated around the right testi#le. Eust as it was 'ossi)le to sto' a hysteri#al atta# )y #om'ressing the woman8s o"aries, do#tors at the Sal'WtriGre were #on"in#ed that it should )e 'ossi)le to affe#t the #ourse of a man8s atta# )y 'utting 'ressure on the testi#les. But this 'ro#edure did not always ha"e the desired effe#ts. =he do#tors found that the atta# s were relie"ed )y the #om'ression of the testi#les. @thers, howe"er, o)tained no effe#t

from 'utting 'ressure on the seminal gland, and one do#tor dis#o"ered, 'erha's not to our sur'rise, that s4uee6ing the 'atient8s testi#les made the #on"ulsions stronger. @ne of Char#ot8s most original #ontri)utions to the theory of male hysteria was his insisten#e that it should not #arry the stigma of effemina#y. He em'hasi6ed the fa#t that hysteria often a''eared among tough manual la)orersJ most of the #ases had o##urred in the aftermath of a traumati# a##ident, either at wor or in tra"el. ,urthermore, he stressed the wor ing0#lass status, 'hysi#al strength, and "irile emotions of his male 'atients, and he mo# ed other do#tors who had 'ro)lems a##e'ting )oth the #lass and gender of 'atients who #lashed with their stereoty'es of hysteria: H@ne is willing to #on#ede that a young, effeminate man may, after indulging in e/#essi"e )eha"ior, suffering hearta#he, or e/'erien#ing dee' emotions, e/hi)it se"eral hysteri#al 'henomenaJ )ut that a manly artisan, solid, unemotional, a railway engineer, for e/0 + &*% + am'le, might, following a railway a##ident, a #ollision, a derailing, )e#ome hysteri#, the same way as a womanAthis, it a''ears, sur'asses the imagination.H1%*2 Donetheless, there were signifi#ant se/ual differen#es in Char#ot8s #on#e't of male hysteria. 3n terms of language, it was often #alled HhystFrie "irileH or HhystFrie traumati4ueH to mar its distin#tion from female hysteria. -lthough it followed the same #ourse of )eha"ior in men and women, Char#ot )elie"ed hysteria had different #auses that de'ended on gender. -s Bar Bi#ale o)ser"es, HLomen in his writings fell ill due to their "ulnera)le emotional natures and ina)ility to #ontrol their feelings, while men got si# from wor ing, drin ing, and forni#ating too mu#h. Hysteri#al women suffered from an e/#ess of 8feminineH )eha"iors, hysteri#al men from an e/#ess of 8mas#uline8 )eha"iors.H1%$2 Boreo"er, although some of Char#ot8s male hysteri#s were as #olorful and dramati# as the women, they did not attra#t as mu#h attention from do#tors, writers, artists, and Iournalists. =he Hwild manH La' . . . sonne, for e/am'le, was #o"ered with sym)oli# tattoos, su#h as a "eiled woman he #alled Hthe night,H and he earned his li"ing eating li"e ra))its in fairs. But while Blan#he Littmann )e#ame the HSueen of Hysteri#sH 'erforming at the Sal'WtriGre #lini#, La' . . . sonne is remem)ered only as a #ase study. =he a#tual num)ers of male hysteri#s were fewJ o"erall, male 'atients #om'rised no more than fi"e to ten 'er#ent of the whole immense hos'ital 'o'ulation.1%52 @n the other hand, during the $>C*s, the 'er#entage of women 'atients at the Sal'WtriGre diagnosed as Hhysteri#alH rose as high as twenty 'er#ent.1%&2 3n addition to the theoreti#al and statisti#al differen#es )etween male and female hysteria, there were differen#es in its re'resentation. -s Sander Gilman e/'lains in #ha'ter ; in this )oo , the hysteri#al #lini# of Char#ot was organi6ed 'rimarily around the "isual, the 'hotogra'hi#, the theatri#al, and the s'e#ta#ular. He was famed for his 'ro)ing ga6e that seemed to 'enetrate not only to the heart of the 'atient )ut also to the souls of his assistants, interns, and asso#iates. His student and )iogra'her Georges Guillain des#ri)ed the e/amination sessions in whi#h the na ed 'atient sat li e an artist8s model while Char#ot silently studied e"ery detail of the )ody.1%?2 Roger Bartin du Gard wrote a)out Char#ot8s H'ier#ing, 'rying ga6eH and his Htyranni#al way of fi/ing you with his stare.H1%;2 Ha"elo# Ellis too re#alled Char#ot8s Hdisdainful e/'ression, sometimes e"en it seemed, a little sour.1%:2 =his intensely s#rutini6ing male ga6e mingled the mesmeri6ing 'ower of the hy'notist and the #ommanding eye of the artist with the 'enetrating "ision of the s#ientist 'ier#ing the "eil of nature. 3t was "ery mu#h

+ &$* + asso#iated with mas#ulinity itself. Char#ot8s stare was #ontrasted with the down#ast eyes of his hysteri#al women 'atients, and with the Hsoft, 'oeti# and languorousH ga6e of his hysteri#al male 'atients.1%C2 =hrough his theatri#al le#ture0demonstrations 9Sarah Bernhardt, a#ting in #ross0dressed 'arts at the same time, was often #om'ared to the hysteri#al 4ueens of Char#ot8s am'hitheater1%>2 <, and e"en more through the 'hotogra'hi# atelier that #a'tured images of the hysteri#al women for the "olumes of iconographies , Char#ot em'hasi6ed the "isual manifestations of hysteria and the hysteri#al )ody as an art o)Ie#t. His re'resentations of gender were allied to aestheti# #on"entions a)out the female )ody, whether in 'ainting, 'hotogra'hy, or drama. Char#ot not only )orrowed from art in ma ing the female )ody the fo#us of his in"estigation, )ut through his 'hotogra'hi# atelier also #ontri)uted to the histori#al emergen#y of a Hregime of re'resentationH in whi#h, a##ording to the art #riti# Griselda Pollo# , Hthe hysteri6ed )ody of woman. . . was made the o)Ie#t of 'athologi#al s#rutiny and de#i'hered in terms of mas#uline ga6e and s'ee#h.H1%%2 =he fas#ination with the female )ody as art and sym)ol e/tended also to Char#ot8s influen#e on his family. His wife and daughters were artists who wor ed with him in the family atelier. 3n $>%5, Badame Char#ot showed her wor in the E/hi)ition of the -rts of Loman in Paris, #ontri)uting a large #ar"ed and de#orated #offer, whose dar surfa#es and fantasti#ally 'ainted inner 'anels suggested )oth the stru#ture of the mind her hus)and had studied in hysteriaAHa rational fa#ade and an irrational interiorHAand the image of woman 'romoted )y the Central !nion of the Ke#orati"e -rts and the Lomen8s Committee of whi#h she was a mem)er.1$**2 -s Ke)ora Sil"erman has shown, Ha 'rominent 'art of the Central !nion 'rogram in the $>%*s was the definition of interior s'a#e as distin#ti"ely feminine and the 'romotion of . . . woman as the 4ueen and artist of the interior,H in res'onse to Hthe #hallenge of the femme nouvelle or 8new woman,8 who was 'er#ei"ed as threatening to su)"ert women8s roles as de#orati"e o)Ie#ts and de#orati"e artists.H1$*$2 =hrough the 'erforman#es of Blan#he Littmann, the HSueen of Hysteri#s,H and other famous hysteri#s at the Sal'WtriGre, Char#ot too 'romoted women as artists of the interior, and 'arado/i#ally returned them to the status of de#orati"e o)Ie#ts. E"en Char#ot8s #ontem'oraries, howe"er, were #riti#al of the #allous way that Char#ot e/hi)ited his hysteri#al stars and of his e/'osure of their se#rets. 3n his antimedi#al satire 4es !orticoles 9$>%?<, Leon Kaudet #ari#atured Char#ot as the "oyeuristi# neurologist H,outange,H who sadisti#ally interrogates a hysteri#al girl: H-nd so, in front of two hun0 + &$$ + dred sniggering 'ersons, these wret#hes must dis'lay their shame, their own, and their families8 taints, and re"eal their intimate se#rets. . . . ,outange 'enetrates with dia)oli#al s ill to the de'ths of these stunted #reatures.H1$*52 -/el Bunthe, a Swedish do#tor 'ra#ti#ing in Paris at the time, ga"e a "i"id des#ri'tion of Char#ot8s =uesday le#tures, when Hthe huge am'hitheatre was filled to the last 'la#e with a multi#oloured audien#e drawn from tout Paris, authors, Iournalists, leading a#tors and a#tresses, fashiona)le demimondaines.H =he hy'noti6ed women 'atients 'ut on a s'e#ta#ular show )efore this #rowd of #uriosity see ers. HSome of them smelt with delight a )ottle of ammonia when told it was rose water, others would eat a 'ie#e of #har#oal when 'resented to them as #ho#olate. -nother would #rawl on all fours on the floor, )ar ing furiously when told she was a dog, fla' her arms as if trying to fly when turned into a 'igeon, lift her s irts with a shrie of terror when a glo"e was thrown at her feet with a suggestion of )eing a sna e. -nother would wal with a to' hat in her arms ro# ing it to and fro

and issing it tenderly when she was told it was her )a)y.H1$*&2 ,eminists were indignant at Char#ot8s treatment of women, often #om'aring it to the atro#ities of "i"ise#tion. Lriting in the English anti"i"ise#tionist Iournal 6oFiphilist , one woman #ondemned the Hno less disgusting e/'eriments 'ra#ti#ed on the lunati#s and hysteri#al 'atients in the Sal'WtriGre. =he nurses drag these unfortunate women, notwithstanding their #ries and resistan#e, )efore men who ma e them fall into #atale'sy. =hey 'lay on these organisms. . . on whi#h e/'eriment strains the ner"ous system and aggra"ates the mor)id #onditions, as if it were an instrument. . . . @ne of my friends told me that she. . . had seen a do#tor of great re'utation ma e one unha''y 'atient 'ass, without transition, from a #elestial )eatitude to a #ondition of infamous sensualment. -nd this )efore a #om'any of literary men and men of the world.H1$*?2 3n an essay in the -evue scientifi:ue des femmes 9$>>><, C. Reno6 a##used Char#ot of a Hsort of "i"ise#tion of women under the 'retense of studying a disease for whi#h he nows neither the #ause nor the treatment.H1$*;2 ,urthermore, the te/tual #ase studies of the hysteri#al women 'atients lend themsel"es to feminist inter'retation of o''ression and e/'loitation. -ugustine, who s'ent fi"e years as a 'atient at the Sal'WtriGre, is a 'arti#ularly dramati# e/am'le. She #ame to the Sal'WtriGre at the age of fifteen in @#to)er $>C;, suffering from 'ains in the stoma#h and #on"ulsi"e atta# s during the night whi#h sometimes left her 'araly6ed. -lthough she had not yet )egun to menstruate, -ugustine had the a''earan#e of a se/ually mature woman. @ne does not ha"e to sear#h far for + &$5 + the traumati# e/'erien#es that had 're#i'itated her hysteri#al atta# s. Beginning at 'u)erty, she had )een su)Ie#ted to se/ual atta# s )y men in the neigh)orhood, and at the age of thirteen, had )een ra'ed )y her mother8s lo"er, who had threatened to slash her with a ra6or if she did not #om'ly. Kuring the sei6ures whi#h )egan immediately thereafter, she imagined that she was )eing )itten )y wild dogs or surrounded )y ratsJ sometimes she had hallu#inations of the ra'ist with a nife. =reated with ether and amyl nitrate, -ugustine s'o e in#essantly a)out her "isions, )ut while the do#tors re#orded her words, they were not interested in the #onte/ts of her e/'erien#e. 3nstead she was re'eatedly 'hotogra'hed in re"ealing hos'ital gowns demonstrating the "arious stages of grande hystArie . 3n $>C%, her #ondition im'ro"ed and she was ta en on as a nurse in the hos'ital. But the res'ite was )riefJ )y -'ril $>>* she was on#e again ha"ing fre4uent atta# s, to whi#h the do#tors res'onded with in#reasingly se"ere measures: ether, #hloroform, strait0Ia# ets, and finally, #onfinement in a 'added #ell. -lthough she was suffi#iently im'ro"ed to attend a #on#ert on the Sal'WtriGre grounds in Eune, she used the o''ortunity to run away, )ut she was #aught on the )oule"ard outside. Her health grew worseJ in addition to the atta# s, she inIured herself in futile efforts at freedom. =he last entry a)out -ugustine is Se'tem)er %, $>>*: she Hes#a'ed from the Sal'WtriGre, disguised as a man.H1$*:2 @ne #annot hel' reIoi#ing at -ugustine8s es#a'e, and her male disguise seems li e a #oded statement a)out hysteria and genderJ des'ite Char#ot8s insisten#e on the e4uality of male and female hysteria, men had an easier time getting out of the Sal'WtriGre. 7i#timi6ed )y se/ual 'redators, she endured sym)oli# ra'es at the hands of her do#tors, who endlessly re#orded her menstrual 'eriods, her "aginal se#retions, her 'hysi#al #ontortions, and her se/ual fantasies, )ut 'aid no attention to her sense of )etrayal )y her mother and )rother, as well as )y the men who had a)used her. 3n $%5>, -ugustine )e#ame the 'in0u' girl of the ,ren#h surrealists, who re'rodu#ed her 'hotogra'hs to #ele)rate the fiftieth anni"ersary of hysteria, whi#h they #alled Hthe greatest 'oeti# dis#o"ery of the end of the nineteenth #entury.H ,or Louis -ragon and -ndrF Breton, -ugustine was the Hdeli#iousH em)odiment of the se/y Hyoung hysteri#sH they so mu#h admired.1$*C2 3n $%>5, Georges Kidi0

Hu)erman made -ugustine the martyred heroine of his study of Char#ot, the Hmaster'ie#eH of Char#ot8s hysteri#al museum.1$*>2 She is also )e#oming an e/em'lary figure for feminists. 3 wrote a)out her in The Female !alady in $%>;J a grou' of feminist s#holars, #horeogra'hers, and dan#ers )ased at =rin0 + &$& + ity College in Conne#ti#ut ha"e 'rodu#ed a 'erforman#e wor a)out her #alled HKr. Char#ot8s Hysteria ShowsHJ and a su##essful 'lay, $ugustine: Big Hysteria , was staged in London in $%%$.1$*%2 But we need to )e #autious a)out seeing Char#ot as a misogynist. Lhile he was famous for these 'erforman#es with women, Char#ot also too a li)eral 'osition on women8s rights. =he Sal'WtriGre Iournal rogrCs !Adical #am'aigned for women8s admission to medi#al s#hool, and some of Char#ot8s students and e/terns were women. =he first ,ren#h dissertation on hysteria )y a female 'hysi#ian, HFlGne Golds'eigel8s &ontribution G l'Atude de l'hystArie che. les enfants 9$>>>< was written under Char#ot8s su'er"ision at the Sal'WtriGre.1$$*2 3ndeed, one of the earliest histories of hysteria was Glafira -)ri#osoff8s 4'hystArie au# H7''e et H7'''e siCcles 9$>%C<. -)ri#osoff had )een a student of Char#ot8s and dedi#ated her )oo to the memory of Hmy illustrious master, E.0B. Char#ot.H -s she e/'lained in her introdu#tion, H3t is to him that 3 owe my medi#al nowledge, and it is, in a sense, out of gratitude for my dear de'arted master that 3 ha"e wished to retra#e the histori#al "ariations of a malady on whi#h his )rilliant 'ers'i#a#ity and his 'enetration ha"e shed so mu#h light.1$$$2 -)ri#osoff8s history ma es no s'e#ial #ase for women, )ut rather stresses the e/isten#e of male #ases. =hroughout her )oo -)ri#osoff drew attention to those writers su#h as Eose'h Raulin who had o)ser"ed and des#ri)ed male hysteria, and who had insisted that it #ould not )e an e/#lusi"ely female disorder. Her )oo is an e/am'le of one form of early feminist history of hysteria. -nother effort )y a woman do#tor to deal with hysteria was the )oo of Kr. Georgette KFga, who had studied at the medi#al fa#ulty of Bordeau/. KFga attri)uted hysteria to the inade4ua#ies of women8s edu#ation. Hysteria, she wrote, was Hthe "i#tory of the lower #enters o"er the higher,H and mathemati#s was the )est dis#i'line for hysteri#al women.1$$52 @ne #an imagine that she )elie"ed medi#al training to )e e"en )etter. 3t is interesting to s'e#ulate on the reasons why Char#ot8s wor on male hysteria did not ha"e a lasting effe#t on medi#al dis#ourse, why history has remem)ered -ugustine and forgotten the hysteri#al men Char0#ot des#ri)ed. 3n the British medi#al #ommunity, there had always )een resistan#e to the idea of male hysteria, whi#h had )een #amouflaged under other terminologies, organi# e/'lanations, and forms of denial and 'roIe#tion. -s Bi#ale #on#ludes, HChar#ot8s hysteri6ation of the male )ody in the $>>*s was shar'ly at "arian#e with dominant medi#al models of mas#ulinity, and it ran #ounter to reigning 7i#torian #odes of manliness. 3t re4uired from 7i#torian 'hysi#ians the a''li#ation of an an#ient and denigratory la)el to mem)ers of their own se/. -nd 'er0 + &$? + ha's most distur)ing, it suggested the 'ossi)ility of e/'loring the feminine #om'onent in the male #hara#ter itself.H1$$&2 ,urthermore, Char#ot8s death in $>%& 're#i'itated a long 'eriod of Hdismem)ermentH of his wor during whi#h the #on#e't of hysteria fell into disre'ute, and some #laimed that he had )een a #harlatan who #oa#hed his hysteri#al female 'atients in their 'erforman#es or 'rodu#ed their sym'toms through

suggestion.1$$?2 Ben were omitted from the re#ord. E"en Pierre Eanet reinfor#ed the )elief that all the hysteri#s were women when he remar ed in his le#tures at the Har"ard Bedi#al S#hool in $%5* that H)y a ind of international irony, 'eo'le were willing to admit, after the innumera)le studies made )y ,ren#h 'hysi#ians, that hysteria was fre4uent only among ,ren#h women, whi#h astonished no)ody, on a##ount of their )ad re'utation.H1$$;2 3roni#ally, the wor of Sigmund ,reud, Char#ot8s most famous student, also 'layed a maIor role in the su''ression of male hysteria after Char#ot8s death. ,reud #ame to Paris to study at the Sal'WtriGre from @#to)er $>>; to Bar#h $>>:. His original 'lan for the resear#h tri' was 4ui# ly #hanged, as he )e#ame o"erwhelmed )y the 'ersonality, a##essi)ility, and orginality of Char#ot, who )e#ame a 'rofessional role model as well as a mentor. =he am)ian#e of Char#ot8s #lini# was "ery different from that whi#h ,reud had )een used to in Berlin. Char#ot was s'ontaneous, generous, and o'en to #riti#ism and argument, and ,reud found the demo#rati# atmos'here )oth sur'rising and stimulating: H=he Professor8s wor 'ro#eeded o'enly, surrounded )y all the young men a#ting as his assistants as well as )y the foreign 'hysi#ians. He seemed, as it were, to )e wor ing with us, to )e thin ing aloud and to )e e/'e#ting to ha"e o)Ie#tions raised )y his 'u'ils. -nyone who "entured might 'ut a word in the dis#ussion and no #omment was left unnoti#ed )y the great man. =he informality of the 're"ailing terms of inter#ourse, and the way in whi#h e"eryone was treated on a 'olite footing of e4ualityAwhi#h #ame as a sur'rise to foreign "isitorsAmade it easy e"en for the most timid to ta e the li"eliest share in Char#ot8s e/am'les.H1$$:2 ,ollowing Char#ot8s lead, ,reud )egan )y em'hasi6ing that hysteria #ould affe#t )oth se/es, a 'osition that was a##e'ta)le to his medi#al #olleagues. @n @#to)er $;, $>>:, when he read his 'a'er H@n Bale HysteriaH to the 7ienna Psy#hiatri# So#iety, se"eral of the do#tors 'resent testified that male hysteria was already well nown. =heodor Beynert, who 'u)li#ly e/'ressed s e'ti#ism a)out Char#ot8s sym'tomatology, later H#onfessed to ,reud that he had himself )een a #lassi#al #ase of male hysteria, )ut had always managed to #on#eal the fa#t.H1$$C2 3n $>>C0>> ,reud translated Char#ot8s 4e+ons de !ardi , whi#h #ontained most of + &$; + Char#ot8s #ase studies of men. 3n HHystFrie,H an essay he 'u)lished in a medi#al en#y#lo'edia in $>>>, he further #ondemned the H'reIudi#e, o"er#ome only in our own days, whi#h lin s neuroses with diseases of the female se/ual a''aratus.H Here he also noted the in#iden#e of hysteria in )oth )oys and girls, as well as in adult men. -lthough rarer in men than in women, hysteria, ,reud argued, is more disru'ti"e for men, )e#ause it ta es them away from their wor : H=he sym'toms it 'rodu#es are as a rule o)stinateJ the illness in men, sin#e it has the greater signifi#an#e of )eing an o##u'ational interru'tion, is of greater 'ra#ti#al im'ortan#e.H1$$>2 3n his wor on hysteria, ,reud too Char#ot8s theories to their logi#al e/tremes. Lhereas Char#ot had maintained that male and female hysteria had different #auses, )ut similar effe#ts, ,reud argued that all hysteria #ame from traumati# origins. But the trauma did not ha"e to )e a railway a##ident or an inIury in the wor 'la#eJ it #ould )e a distur)ing se/ual e/'erien#e that had )een forgotten and re'ressed. ,urthermore, hysteria #ould )e #ured )y ha"ing the 'atient re#all and reli"e, or a)rea#t, the originating trauma, whether )y hy'nosis or through the 'ro#ess of dream analysis and free asso#iation. =he sym'toms of hysteria, ,reud noted, were #reated through a 'ro#ess of sym)oli6ation, and e/'ressed emotional states. -lthough he #ontinued to a# nowledge the e/isten#e of male hysteria, ,reud8s wor on hysteria in 7ienna #on#entrated on women. 3n #ontrast to Char#ot, who e/amined, measured, and o)ser"ed

hysteri#s, )ut 'aid no attention to what they said, ,reud and his #olleague Eose'h Breuer were the first to a#tually listen to hysteri#al women and to heed their #om'laints. 3n "tudies on Hysteria 9$>%;<, he and Breuer wor ed out the fundamental te#hni4ue of 'sy#hoanalysis. Bost of their 'atients were middle0#lass Eewish women who found themsel"es im'risoned in traditional roles as dutiful daughters. ,rustrated in their intelle#tual am)itions, e/'e#ted to stay home and #are for their )rothers and father until they married, these )right and imaginati"e young women de"elo'ed a wide range of sym'tomsA lim's, 'aralyses, #ri''ling heada#hes, and most signifi#antly, a'honia, or loss of "oi#e. By en#ouraging them to tal , to re#ount their dreams, to re#all re'ressed memories of se/ual traumas and desires, ,reud and Breuer found that they #ould #ure the women8s sym'toms. "tudies on Hysteria thus seemed to lay the groundwor for a #ulturally aware thera'y that res'e#ted women8s words and li"es. 3n the #ase of -nna @., or Bertha Pa''enheim, the #onne#tions )etween hysteria and feminism seemed 'arti#ularly #lear )e#ause after her analysis with Breuer in $>>5, she went on to )e#ome a feminist + &$: + a#ti"ist. She translated Bary Lollstone#raft8s 7indication of the -ights of )oman into German, wrote a 'lay #alled )omen's -ights , and was the #ofounder and dire#tor of the Eudis#her ,rauen)und, the League of Eewish Lomen. 3n her hysteri#al sei6ures, -nna )e#ame una)le to s'ea her nati"e German, and instead s'o e either .iddish, whi#h she #alled Hthe woman8s German,H or a Ium)le of English, 3talian, and ,ren#h. =hese linguisti# sym'toms ha"e )een read sym)oli#ally )y feminist #riti#s as the re'ression of women8s language or its im'ossi)ility within 'atriar#hal dis#ourse. Kianne Hunter analy6es Pa''enheim8s hysteri#al sym'toms as a linguisti# 'rotest against the German father tongue. 3n -nna @.8s #ase, Hs'ea ing German meant integration into a #ultural identity 1she2 wished to reIe#t,H the 'atriar#hy in whi#h she was an immo)ili6ed daughter.1$$%2 Hunter #on#ludes that -nna @.8s hysteria was a Hdis#ourse of femininity addressed to 'atriar#hal thought,H signifying )oth through the )ody and through non"er)al language the 'rotest that #ould not )e 'ut into words.1$5*2 -s she )egan to "er)ali6e this 'rotest in her #on"ersations with Breuer, and to reli"e some of her dreams and hallu#inations, -nna8s sym'toms were relie"ed. But she was not #ured until she too #om'lete #ontrol of language and su)Ie#ti"ity in her own writing. She remained ill for se"en years after her treatment with Breuer, "isiting sanatoriums during rela'ses. -nna @. re#o"ered #om'letely only with the 'u)li#ation of her first )oo , 'n the -ummage "tore , in $>%*. Rather than #ontinuing her role as the 'assi"e hysteri#al 'atient, through writing she )e#ame one who #ontrolled her own #ure.1$5$2 By the turn of the #entury, the sym'athy with women8s intelle#tual and #reati"e frustrations and the o'enness to their words so mar ed in "tudies on Hysteria had )e#ome #odified in the interests of ,reud8s emerging 'sy#hoanalyti# system, a system that de'ended "ery mu#h on domination o"er the 'atient. Le see this in#reased rigidity in his famous #ase history of 3da Bauer, the young 7iennese girl he #alled HKora.H Kora was )rought to ,reud )y her father when she was eighteen. 3ntelligent and am)itious, Kora was stifled )y the re4uirements of her role as the marriagea)le daughter of a )ourgeois family, when she longed to go to the uni"ersity and to ha"e a #areer rather than a hus)and. Kora was a 7iennese "ersion of the Dew Loman of the $>%*s, the feminist who see s higher edu#ation and wishes to a"oid marriage. ,reud ne"er met Kora8s mother, whom he regarded as a )oring #ase of Hhousewi"es8 neurosis.H -lthough Kora felt #ontem't for her mother8s monotonous domesti# life, it was the life for whi#h she too was destined as a woman. Her mother was H)ent u'on drawing her into ta ing a share in the wor of the house.H Kora #ould find no su''ort for her intelle#tual as'irations + &$C +

from either 'arent. -lthough she had a go"erness who was Hwell0read and of ad"an#ed "iews,H Kora )elie"ed that the go"erness was negle#ting her and was really in lo"e with her father. She arranged to ha"e the woman dismissed. -fterward, she struggled alone with the effort to ee' u' her serious reading, and she attended le#tures s'e#ially gi"en for women. Her older )rother, howe"er, went off to the uni"ersity, and later )e#ame a 'rominent -ustrian 'oliti#ian. Boreo"er, Kora was treated li e a 'awn or a 'ossession )y her father and denied the rights to 'ri"a#y or 'ersonal freedom. He was ha"ing an affair with the wife of a friend, Herr K., who had attem'ted to sedu#e Kora when she was only fourteen, and she felt that Hshe had )een handed o"er to Herr K.H )y her father in e/#hange for Herr K.8s #om'li#ity in the adultery. Professing to )e an/ious a)out her de'ressi"e state of mind, )ut really, Kora )elie"ed, afraid that she would )etray his se/ual se#rets, her father then Hhanded her o"erH to ,reud for 'sy#ho0thera'euti# treatment. He wanted ,reud to 'ersuade Kora that her 'er#e'tions were sim'ly adoles#ent fantasies. He hired ,reud ho'ing for an ad"o#ate to H)ring her to reason.H1$552 -s Eeffrey Basson o)ser"es, Kora had good reason to )e u'set: HShe felt #ons'ired against. She was #ons'ired against. She felt lied to. She was lied to. She felt used. She was used.H1$5&2 Boreo"er, ,reud8s determination to la)el her as a hysteri# did not de'end u'on the se"erity of her sym'toms. 3ndeed, unli e the other women treated for hysteria )y Breuer and ,reud, Kora8s Hsym'tomsH were few and slight. She had a ner"ous #ough, heada#hes, de'ressions. Lhile he a# nowledged that Kora8s #ase was no more than H'etite hystFrie,H ,reud )elie"ed that the "ery ordinariness of her sym'toms made her an ideal su)Ie#t. Sin#e he was #ommitted from the start to the hysteria diagnosis, ,reud inter'reted all of Kora8s )eha"iors and statements in a##ordan#e with his theories a)out the origins of hysteria in #hildhood se/ual trauma and re'ressed desires. Bany of his "iews, su#h as the )elief that Hgastri# 'ains o##ur es'e#ially often in those who mastur)ateH and that mastur)ation was related to hysteria, are now seen as 7i#torian se/ual su'erstition. But ,reud8s inter'retations of Kora8s fantasies, whi#h ha"e as little )asis as his statements a)out her 'hysi#al sym'toms, are still a##e'ted in 'sy#hoanalysis. He told her that she was really attra#ted to Herr K., in lo"e with her father, and in lo"e with himself. He ignored the a''alling #ir#umstan#es of Kora8s family situation, and she finally )ro e off the thera'y. =he #on#lusion of Dora e#hoes the endings of many 7i#torian no"els a)out women: H.ears ha"e gone )y sin#e her "isit. 3n the meantime the + &$> + girl has married . . . she had )een re#laimed on#e more )y the realities of life.H 3n fa#t Kora8s 'ro)lems were not resol"ed )y marriage, although ,reud )orrows it as a literary de"i#e to signify a ha''y resolution of the thera'euti# 'lot. 3n the #ase histories of male 'atients, howe"er, Susan Kat6 'oints out, these #losed marriage 'lots are signifi#antly a)sentJ Hthe forms of ,reud8s #ase histories refle#t his ideologi#al 'ositions toward women and men.H1$5?2 Similarly, =oril Boi reminds us, when ,reud writes a)out Little Hans, he Hne"er #eases to e/'ress his admiration for the intelligen#e of the little )oy,H while Kora8s intelligen#e is re'resented as a form of neuroti# resistan#e.1$5;2 3n addition to its 'lot and themes, Kora8s #ase had other literary #hara#teristi#s. Lhile Breuer, in the #ase of -nna @., #ommented on the )ro en language and multilingual nature of the hysteri#8s s'ee#h, ,reud himself first drew attention in the Kora #ase to the fragmentary and dis#ontinuous nature of the hysteri#8s narrati"e, and to the 'hysi#ian8s res'onsi)ility for reorgani6ing it into a #oherent whole. -s he e/'lained, hysteri#s li e Kora were una)le to tell an Hintelligi)le, #onsistent, and un)ro enH story a)out themsel"es. =hey re'ressed, distorted, and rearranged informationJ their "olu)ility a)out one 'eriod of their li"es was sure to )e followed H)y another 'eriod in whi#h their #ommuni#ations run dry, lea"ing

ga's untilled and riddles unanswered.H -nd this in#a'a#ity to gi"e an Hordered history of their lifeH was not sim'ly #hara#teristi# of hysteri#s, ,reud #laimedJ it was in a sense the meaning of hysteria. 3f the hysteri# #ould )e )rought to remem)er what was re'ressed, and to 'rodu#e a #oherent narrati"e, she would )e #ured. =hus the thera'ist8s tas was to #onstru#t su#h a narrati"e for the 'atient. ,reud was #onfident that no matter how elusi"e and enigmati# the hysteri#8s story, the analyst #ould re#onstru#t a logi#al, s#ientifi#, and #om'lete narrati"e. H@n#e we ha"e dis#o"ered the #on#ealed moti"es,H he wrote, Hwhi#h ha"e often remained un#ons#ious, and ha"e ta en them into a##ount, nothing that is 'u66ling or #ontrary to rule remains in hysteri#al #onne#tions of thought, any more than in normal ones.H1$5:2 3n doing so, moreo"er, he had not only to fill in the ga's in the hysteri#8s own story )ut to o"er#ome her resistan#e to his narrati"e inter'retations. 3n order for the thera'y to wor , the hysteri# had to a##e't and )elie"e the narrati"e of the analyst. 3n his later 'a'ers on 'sy#hoanalyti# te#hni4ue, ,reud des#ri)ed the 'ro#ess as one of #om)at in whi#h Hthe 'atient )rings out of the armory of the 'ast the wea'ons with whi#h he defends himself against the 'rogress of the treatmentAwea'ons whi#h we must wrest from him one )y one.H1$5C2 =he analyst, ,reud insisted in H=he Kynami#s of =ransferen#e,H must win Hthe "i#tory whose e/0 + &$% + 'ression is the 'ermanent #ure of the neurosis.H1$5>2 But Kora was 4uite un#oo'erati"e in this regard. She flatly denied ,reud8s narrati"e em)ellishments of her story, would not a##e't his "ersion of her a#ti"ities and feelings, and either #ontradi#ted him or fell into stu))orn silen#e. ,inally she wal ed out on ,reud )y refusing to #ontinue with thera'y at all. ,reud "iewed this resistan#e as the 'ro)lem of her transferen#eJ Kora, he argued, had 'roIe#ted onto him her feelings of eroti# attra#tion for her father and Herr K. and was 'unishing him with her reIe#tion. 3f ,reud is a relia)le narrator, what ha''ened in his e/#hange with Kora was that he su##eeded in 'enetrating the mystery of her hysteri#al sym'toms. 3n his terminology, he unlo# ed her #ase and e/'osed her se/ual se#rets. !na)le to fa#e the truth, Kora ran away from her thera'y and remained si# for the rest of her life. ,reud was a heroi# 'ioneer who was disa''ointed in his efforts to hel'. But if ,reud is an unrelia)le narrator, a "ery different 'lot emerges. 3n this #ase, Kora is a "i#tim of ,reud8s un#ons#ious eroti# feelings a)out her that affe#ted his need to dominate and #ontrol her. 3t8s signifi#ant that Kora has no "oi#e in ,reud8s te/t, that we get nothing of her dire#t dialog, and that her histori#al and Eewish identity are )oth su''ressed. !nli e -nna @., she ne"er )e#ame a su)Ie#t, only the o)Ie#t of ,reud8s narrati"e. His inter'retations of her 'ro)lem refle#t his own o)sessions with mastur)ation, adultery, and homose/uality. He ne"er understands her story at allJ he sim'ly tries to )ully her into a##e'ting his "ersion of e"ents. His "aunted 'enetration of her se#rets is really a ind of "er)al ra'e. Kora8s de'arture is then a heroi# gesture of self0assertion and defian#e. Her unha''y su)se4uent life was the result of ,reud8s failing her and lea"ing her defenseless in a so#ial en"ironment hostile to intelle#tual women. His inter'retation of her story is more a)out himself than a)out her. Contem'orary analysts agree that for a "ariety of reasons 'sy#hoanalysis #ould only ha"e )een de"elo'ed out of wor with hysteri#s. H3 thin . . . that 'sy#hoanalysis had to start from an understanding of hysteria,H Euliet Bit#hell writes. H3t #ould not ha"e de"elo'ed. . . from one of the other neuroses or 'sy#hoses. Hysteria led ,reud to what is uni"ersal in 'sy#hi# #onstru#tion and it led him there in a 'arti#ular wayA)y the route of a 'rolonged and #entral 'reo##u'ation with the differen#e )etween the se/es. . . . =he 4uestion of se/ual differen#eAfemininity and mas#ulinityAwas

)uilt into the "ery stru#ture of the illness.H1$5%2 Be#ause hysteri#s formed strong and e/'li#it transferen#es to their do#tors, they were analy6a)le and thus were an ideal grou' from whi#h to gen0 + &5* + erate a 'sy#hoanalyti# theory. Kurt Eissler has hy'othesi6ed that Hthe dis#o"ery of 'sy#hoanalysis would ha"e )een greatly im'eded, delayed, or e"en made im'ossi)le if in the se#ond half of the nineteenth #entury the 're"ailing neurosis had not )een hysteria.H1$&*2 Lhat is left unsaid in these #laims, howe"er, is that only female hysteri#s offered these o''ortunities. =he gender of the hysteri# was #ru#ial in leading ,reud to the theory of se/ual etiology of the neuroses. Had his 'atients 'rimarily )een men, had he written a #ase study of HKorianH rather than HKora,H the history of 'sy#hoanalysis would loo "ery different. =he gender differen#e de'ends in 'art on ,reud8s relian#e on #ultural myths of mas#uline and feminine de"elo'ment in sha'ing his inter'retation of hysteria. -t the turn of the #entury, hysteria was still 'o'ularly and medi#ally #onIoined with female de"ian#e. 3n ,ran#e, des'ite the Hdismem)ermentH of Char#ot, the hysteri# was still seen in a theatri#al #onte/t as a 'erformer: H=he hysteri# is an a#tress, a #omedienne,H wrote P. C. Ku)ois in $%*?, H)ut we ne"er re'roa#h her, for she doesn8t now that she is a#ting.1$&$2 =he most "ehement negati"e statements asso#iating feminism with hysteria #ame during the militant suffrage #am'aign. H@ne does not need to )e against women suffrage,H the London Times editoriali6ed in $%*>, Hto see that some of the more "iolent 'artisans of that #ause are suffering from hysteria. Le use the word not with any s#ientifi# 're#ision, )ut )e#ause it is the name most #ommonly gi"en to a ind of enthusiasm that has degenerated into ha)itual ner"ous e/#itement.H 3n a notorious arti#le #alled H@n Bilitant Hysteria,H Kr. -imwroth Lright tra#ed feminist demands to the H'hysiologi#al emergen#iesH that #onstantly threatened women. Suffragist 'rotest, es'e#ially when it in"ol"ed wor ing0#lass women, wrote the Daily &hronicle , was sim'ly Hhysteri#al hooliganism.H1$&52 =he re'resentations of the militant feminist and the hysteri# were #onflated in the 'o'ular 'ress, refle#ting the "iew that ner"ous disorders were "isi)le and dete#ta)le through study of the 'hysiognomy. -s Sander Gilman shows in #ha'ter ; in this )oo , the fa#e of the hysteri# had )een 'resented as the #hief sign of hysteri#al Hdifferen#eH through the 'o'ulari6ed images and 'hotogra'hs of Char#ot8s atelier, and through his studies of religious tran#e and 'ossession in art as hysteri#al manifestations. =hus, the Daily !irror wrote on 5; Bay $%$?, the Hhysteri#al e#stasyH of the suffragettes #ould )e seen Hunmista a)ly in the e/'ression of the fa#e.H1$&&2 But with the out)rea of war and the a)ru't end of the suffrage #am'aign, there were e/'e#tations that hysteria was dying out. H@ne doesn8t dare any longer to s'ea of hysteria,H wrote one do#tor in $%$?. 1$&?2 But + &5$ + the Great Lar #hanged all this #onfident 'redi#tion with a great e'idemi# of hysteria among men. =here had )een s#attered warnings of hysteria among soldiers )efore $%$?. Kuring the Boer Lar, the British surgeon C. -. Borris noted neurastheni# 'ro)lems among the troo's, whi#h he attri)uted to 'ri"ation, e/haustion, and mental strain. =here were similar instan#es during the Russo0Ea'anese Lar of $%*?0$%*;, and in $%*C, the term Hwar neurosisH was introdu#ed at the CongrGs -llemand de BFdi#ine 3nternationale.1$&;2 But Lorld Lar 3, in the words of SVndor ,eren#6i, offered Ha "erita)le museum of hysteri#al

sym'toms.H1$&:2 3n all the Euro'ean armies, war neurosis was e/tensi"e. 3n England )y $%$:, ner"ous #ases a##ounted for as mu#h as ?* 'er#ent of the #asualties in the #om)at 6one. By $%$> there were o"er twenty war hos'itals for mental 'atients in the !nited Kingdom. -nd )y the end of the war, eighty thousand #ases had 'assed through army medi#al fa#ilities. @ne0se"enth of all dis#harges were for ner"ous disorders. H3t is a wonderful turn of fate,H mar"eled the British 'sy#hologist L. H. R. Ri"ers, Hthat Iust as ,reud8s theory of the un#ons#ious and the method of 'sy#ho0analysis founded u'on it should )e so hotly dis#ussed, there should ha"e o##urred e"ents whi#h ha"e 'rodu#ed on an enormous s#ale Iust those #onsiderations of 'aralysis and #ontra#ture, 'ho)ia and o)session, whi#h the theory was designed to e/'lain.H1$&C2 =he 'sy#hiatri# theories that de"elo'ed around war neurosis refle#t the am)i"alen#e of the medi#al esta)lishment u'on #onfronting hysteri#al )eha"ior in fighting men. =he first 'ro)lem was in naming the disorder. Lhen Kr. Charles S. Byers saw #ases of amnesia, im'aired "ision, and emotional distress among British soldiers in ,ran#e, he noted Hthe #lose relation of these #ases to hysteria.H But li e do#tors )efore him, Byers did not want to use the femini6ing term Hhysteria,H and thus he argued that the sym'toms #ould )e tra#ed to a 'hysi#al inIury to the #entral ner"ous system #aused )y 'ro/imity to an e/'loding shell. He #hristened the disorder Hshell0sho# .H Later Byers would #on#ede that the la# of e"iden#e of any organi# relation )etween e/'loding shells and neuroti# sym'toms made shell sho# Ha singularly ill0#hosen term,H )ut its sim'li#ity, alliteration, and military sound made it the la)el that won out o"er su#h other alternati"es as Han/iety neurosis,H Hwar strain,H and Hsoldier8s heart.H1$&>2 =he effi#a#y of the term Hshell sho# H lay in its 'ower to 'ro"ide a mas#uline0sounding su)stitute for the effeminate asso#iations of hysteria, and to disguise the trou)ling 'arallels )etween male war neurosis and the female ner"ous disorders e'idemi# )efore the war. ,ren#h do#tors were also relu#tant to identify war neuroses as hys0 + &55 + teria, 'artly )e#ause of the internal struggle o"er the re'utation of Char0#ot. =hey #alled war neuroti#s pthiati:ues , in Ba)ins i8s term, or, more harshly, simulateurs . Bilitary authorities, indeed, regarded shell sho# as a form of #owardi#e or malingering, and some senior army offi#ers thought that 'atients should )e #ourt0martialed and shot.1$&%2 @ne of the stri ing as'e#ts of shell sho# was the #lass differen#e in sym'tomsJ Hshell0sho# ed offi#ers tended to suffer from #hroni# an/iety states while men in the ran s generally suffered from a#ute hysteri#al disorders.H1$?*2 3n the ran s, sym'toms tended to )e 'hysi#al: 'aralyses, lim's, )lindness, deafness, mutism. 3n offi#ers, sym'toms tended toward the emotional: nightmares, insomnia, de'ression, an/iety atta# s. Se/ual im'oten#e was wides'read in all ran s. E/'lanations for the differen#es were #lass0)ased. Byers e/'lained that Hthe for#e of edu#ation, tradition, and e/am'le ma e for greater self0#ontrol in the #ase of the @ffi#er. He, moreo"er, is )usy throughout a )om)ardment, issuing orders and su)Ie#t to worry o"er his res'onsi)ilities, whereas the men #an do nothing during the shelling )ut wat#h and wait until the order is re#ei"ed for an ad"an#e.H1$?$2 Some British do#tors saw a one0to0one #ause0and0effe#t relationshi' )etween the hysteri#al #on"ersion sym'tom and the trauma that had #aused it. -##ording to =homas Salmon, H- soldier who )ayonets an enemy in the fa#e de"elo's a hysteri#al ti# of his fa#ial mus#lesJ a)dominal #ontra#tions o##ur in men who ha"e )ayonetted enemies in the a)domenJ hysteri#al )lindness follows 'arti#ularly horri)le sightsJ hysteri#al deafness a''ears in men who find the #ries of the wounded un)eara)le, and the men deta#hed to )urial 'arties de"elo' amnesia.H1$?52 =here were two maIor ways of treating shell sho# during the war, )oth designed to get men fun#tioning and )a# to the tren#hes as fast as 'ossi)le, and these treatments were differentiated

a##ording to ran . Shell0sho# ed soldiers were treated with the hostility and #ontem't that had )een a##orded hysteri#al women )efore the war. -s in the nineteenth #entury, wor ing0#lass men were lin ed with hysteri#al women as the antagonists of do#tors. H=he #ase of a 'sy#ho0neuro'ath,H wrote ,rederi# Bott, Hreally #onsists of a mental #ontest, resulting in the "i#tory of the 'hysi#ian.H1$?&2 Dot only in England )ut in all Euro'ean #ountries, shell0sho# ed ordinary soldiers were su)Ie#ted to forms of dis#i'linary treatment, su#h as isolation, restri#ted diet, 'u)li# shaming, and 'ainful ele#tri# faradi6ation, or sho# s to the affli#ted 'arts of their )odies. =he treatments nown as H4ui# #ure,H H4ueen s4uareH 9for the London hos'ital where it was 'ra#ti#ed<, Htor'edoing,H Htor'illage,H HmaniGre forte,H Hterrorism,H or H!)err[m'lungH 9hustling< were in fa#t + &5& + semi0tortures designed to ma e the hysteri#al sym'tom more un'leasant to maintain than the threat of death at the front. German 'hysi#ians, for e/am'le, were di"ided )etween those who loo ed for the organi# lesions of ner"ous trauma and those who )elie"ed the sym'toms manifested a wish to es#a'e that was inde'endent of any s'e#ifi# traumati# in#ident. Lhile in the short term these methods did terrori6e 'atients into dro''ing their sym'toms, when they were returned to the front, more disa)ling and 'ermanent #onditions emerged. H. Stern estimated that out of three hundred soldiers H#uredH and sent to the front, less than two 'er#ent #ould )e maintained.1$??2 -fter the war, a s'e#ial -ustrian #ommission was a''ointed to in"estigate the treatment of war neuroti#s in the 7ienna General Hos'ital under Professor Eulius Larner0Eauregg, who )elie"ed all shell0sho# #ases to )e malingerers. 3n his re'ort for the #ommission, ,reud testified that Hthere were #ases of death during the treatment and sui#ides as a result of it,H )ut Larner0Eauregg was a#4uitted.1$?;2 Bore ad"an#ed 'sy#hiatrists ado'ted 'sy#hothera'euti# te#hni4ues in the treatment of shell0sho# ed offi#ers, using a)rea#ti"e or #atharti# methods su#h as hy'nosis, dream analysis, and free asso#iation. @ffi#ers were gi"en "arious inds of rest #ures similar to those assigned to neurastheni#s. Lhen men were the 'atients, howe"er, the rest #ure had to )e re"ised. Bilitary do#tors felt that intense a#ti"ity was ne#essary for the restoration of mas#uline self0esteem. -s H. Cri#hton0Biller ad"ised, HRest in )ed and sim'le en#ouragement is not enough. . . . Progressi"e daily a#hie"ement is the only way where)y manhood and self0res'e#t #an )e regained.H1$?:2 =he treatment of isolation and rest, G. Elliot0Smith and =. H. Pear reminded do#tors, had )een de"elo'ed in #i"ilian life for Hwell0to0do women li"ing in the la' of lu/uryH and #ould not )e good for hardy military men.1$?C2 -lthough the men of the first grou' of neurastheni# #ases treated in English military hos'itals were gi"en the Leir Bit#hell rest #ure, it was later re'orted that these 'atients remained ill throughout the war.1$?>2 3n dealing with shell sho# , do#tors seemed to ha"e forgotten or ignored Char#ot8s wor with male hysteri#s. =hey la# ed a neutral "o#a)ulary for dis#ussing the #ases in the #onte/ts of mas#ulinityJ instead, shell sho# was des#ri)ed as the 'rodu#t of womanish, homose/ual, or #hildish im'ulses in men. L. H. R. Ri"ers had argued that war neurosis was a form of regression to an earlier form of de"elo'ment, either to animal instin#ts, 'rimiti"e defenses, or infantile )eha"iors. Hugh Cri#hton0 Biller also o)ser"ed that, es'e#ially among the ran s, war neurosis 'rodu#ed Ha #ondition whi#h is essentially #hildish and infantile in its + &5? + nature.H1$?%2 =. -. Ross suggested that the training of a soldier Htended to ma e him regress to a #hildish attitude. . . . =he soldier is a)o"e all things to learn what he is told at on#e without argument as a #hild is.H1$;*2 Lartime regression to a lower le"el of maturity also seemed to e/'lain the

'roliferation of su'erstitions, magi#al )eliefs, rituals, and rumors that, as Paul ,ussell has shown, made the Great Lar a Hnew world of myth.H1$;$2 Lhen do#tors dismissed shell0sho# #ases as malingerers or simulateurs , they were often hinting at the effemina#y that had always )een 'art of the male hysteria diagnosis. ,reudians shared this "iew. Karl -)raham, among the ,reudians, was one who argued that war neuroti#s were 'assi"e, nar#issisti#, and im'otent men to )egin with, whose latent homose/uality was )rought to the surfa#e )y the all0male en"ironment.1$;52 3n London, the tiny grou' 'ra#ti#ing ,reudian 'sy#hothera'yAKa"id Eder, Ka"id ,orsyth, and Ernest EonesAalso argued for a se/ual etiology for shell sho# . =heir inter'retations, howe"er, were greeted with 'redi#ta)le outrage )y su#h anti0,reudian mem)ers of the older generation as Charles Ber#ier. Re'orting in The 4ancet on a shell0sho# 'atient, ,orsyth des#ri)ed him as Ha #ase of un#ons#ious homose/uality with mar ed anal eroti#ism.H Ber#ier made an angry res'onse: !n#ons#ious 'ain, un#ons#ious homose/uality, un#ons#ious @edi'us #om'le/, and other un#ons#ious states of #ons#iousness of the 'sy#hoanalysts. . . were a great mystery to me until 3 learnt from one of their "i#tims what these e/'ressions meant. =his 'oor man had suffered many things for many months from many 'sy#ho0analysts, until at last he turned u'on his tormentors . . . with these words: H3t is true . . . that 3 now ha"e these filthy thoughts, but it is you that have put them into my mind .H =he following wee , Ber#ier was se#onded )y Kr. Ro)ert -rmstrong0Eones, who #alled for the 'rofessional outlawing of 'sy#hoanalysis. =hen #ame a re)uttal from ,orsyth, wondering how Hthose who still re'udiate 'sy#ho0analysis and the se/ual etiology of the neuroses #an remain )lind to what must long ha"e )een re#ogni6ed )y e"ery thoughtful reader of your 'a'erAnamely, that the se/ual instin#t is #lean and 'ure. 3t will not do nowadays to dress it u' in mid07i#torian 'reIudi#es as a re'ulsi"e and disre'uta)le )ogie to frighten our intelligen#e.H1$;&2 Some famous shell0sho# 'atients, su#h as Siegfried Sassoon, Lilfred @wen, and Ro)ert Gra"es, were indeed homose/ual or )ise/ual. ,or most, howe"er, the anguish of shell sho# in#luded more general )ut intense an/ieties a)out mas#ulinity and fears of homose/uality, e"en as + &5; + they refused to #ontinue the mas4uerade of mas#ulinity. Lhat Eohn Lyn#h has #alled Hthe e/'loitation of #ourageH in the Great Lar may )e more a##urately #alled the e/'loitation of manliness.1$;?2 Soldiers were re#ruited and so#iali6ed through a''eals to Htraditional mas#uline "irtuesH and through 'romises of Hthe fulfillment of mas#ulinity on the )attlefield.H1$;;2 3n #om)at, dis'lays of manly stoi#ism and heroi#s were e/'e#ted and en#oded. -s Paul ,ussell notes in his glossary of the romanti# "o#a)ulary of Lorld Lar 3, to )e HmanlyH meant not to #om'lain.1$;:2 Bartin Stone 'oints out that shell sho# was thus generated )y the military ethos of mas#ulinity: H=he soldier was en#ouraged to ill at the e/'ense of unleashing infantile sadisti# im'ulses that had 're"iously )een su##essfully re'ressed. He was en#ouraged to form #lose emotional )onds with other men and yet homose/uality was for)idden.H1$;C2 3f the essen#e of manliness was not to #om'lain, then shell sho# was the )ody language of mas#uline #om'laint, a 'rotest against the #on#e't of HmanlinessH as well as against the war. =he im'a#t of male hysteria in the field of 'sy#hologi#al medi#ine was #om'le/. @n one hand, 'sy#hologists who had wor ed with shell sho# #hallenged ,reud8s "iew that se/ual fa#tors were )asi# to the understanding of hysteria. !na)le to re"ise a theory )ased on female hysteria in the light of male e/'erien#e, these men instead argued that Hshell sho# had effe#ti"ely 8dis'ro"ed8 ,reud8s theory of

se/uality.H1$;>2 @n the other hand, the ,reudian esta)lishment did not ta e the lessons of shell sho# as a #lue to e/'anding the theory of hysteria. 3ndeed, the theory only rigidified, with 'sy#hoanalysts insisting that the #ause of hysteria had to )e sought in infant traumas and re'ressed family e/'erien#es, rather than modifying their 'osition to ta e immediate so#ial fa#tors into a##ount. =he one or two "oi#es who might ha"e had something new and im'ortant to add to the #on"ersation were 'rematurely stilled. L. H. R. Ri"ers was one of these. Ri"ers was a Cam)ridge 'sy#hologist and anthro'ologist who had studied in Germany, and who too an interest in the wor of ,reud. 3n his early fifties and unmarried when he )e#ame a military do#tor, he found in the study of shell sho# )oth a ri#h sour#e of material for his theories of the un#ons#ious and a 'ersonal in"ol"ement that #hanged the #ourse of his #areer. =he war, he wrote in 'nstinct and the Unconscious , had )een Ha "ast #ru#i)le in whi#h all our 're#on#ei"ed "iews #on#erning human nature ha"e )een tested.H1$;%2 3n his thera'euti# 'ra#ti#e, Ri"ers relied on what he #alled Hautognosis,H or self0understanding, whi#h in"ol"ed the dis#ussion of traumati# e/'erien#esJ and reedu#ation in whi#h Hthe 'atient is led to understand how his newly + &5: + a#4uired nowledge of himself may )e utili6ed . . . and how to turn energy, mor)idly dire#ted, into more healthy #hannels.H1$:*2 Ri"ers8s wor was tragi#ally a))re"iated )y his death in $%55. Ri"ers may ha"e )een 'arti#ularly effe#ti"e as a thera'ist )e#ause he shared some of the #hara#teristi#s of his 'atients. S'ee#h disorders, es'e#ially stammering, were the most #ommon neurastheni# sym'tom among offi#ers and 'layed a 'rominent role in the #ase studies of his 'atients.1$:$2 Ri"ers, the son of a s'ee#h thera'ist who s'e#iali6ed in the treatment of stutterers, had stammered all his life, although his )iogra'her s'e#ulates that he did not stammer in German. He was also se/ually re'ressed and almost #ertainly homose/ual. 3n his 'ostwar writings, Ri"ers e/'lored the 'sy#hoanalyti# issues of fear and an/iety whi#h had #ome out of his war wor at Craiglo# hart Hos'ital. Pro'osing Hsuggestion0neurosisH as a term for hysteria, he argued that military training reinfor#ed suggesti)ility, es'e#ially in 'ri"ate soldiers. 3n his "iew, Hthe sym'toms of hysteria are due to the su)stitution, in an im'erfe#t form, of an an#ient instin#ti"e rea#tion in 'la#e of other forms of rea#tion to danger.H 3n e/'laining the mutism that was a fre4uent feature of shell sho# , Ri"ers made #onne#tions to Hthe su''ression of the #ry or other sound whi#h tends to o##ur in res'onse to danger.H He also )egan to a''ly to female hysteria, or as he #alled it, Hthe hysteria of #i"ilian 'ra#ti#e,H some of the ideas a)out gender an/iety he had de"elo'ed in wor ing with men. HLe ha"e to dis#o"er why hysteria should )e so fre4uent in women, and so rare in men, under the ordinary #onditions of #i"il life . . .,H Ri"ers wrote. HLomen are always lia)le to dangers in #onne#tion with #hild)irth to whi#h men are not e/'osed, while the danger element, real or imaginary, is more 'ronoun#ed in them than in the male in #onne#tion with #oitus.H1$:52 But theories a)out women8s fears seemed less im'ortant )y this time )e#ause after the war and the 'assage of women8s suffrage in England and the !nited States, it was )elie"ed that female hysteria de#lined and e"en disa''eared. Edward Shorter has noted that Hthe image of the dynami# 8Dew Loman8 of the $%5*s . . . 'lays an o)"ious role in the de#line of the hysteri#al 'aralyses that on#e were 4uite #ommon among young women: the Dew Loman, who rode motor#y#les and smo ed in 'u)li#, sim'ly did not de"elo' a 'aralysis as a legitimate way of #ommuni#ating her distress.H1$:&2 @ther s#holars ha"e also 'ointed to so#ial #hanges as determinants of the de#line. Lith the gradual eman#i'ation of women, they ha"e argued, the so#ial #onditions that had 'rodu#ed hysteria were no longer o'erati"e. -##ording to the 'sy#hoanalyst Boni4ue Ka"id0BFnard, for e/am'le, Hthe re'ression of se/uality at

the end of the nineteenth #enturyH was the #ause of hysteriaJ Hthrough the + &5C + s'e#ta#ular side of hysteria, women e/'ressed what was im'ossi)le to say #on#erning se/uality.H1$:?2 3f hysteria was the result of the se/ual re'ression of the 'ast, it made sense that it would "anish in our more li)erated age.1$:;2 -nd indeed for mu#h of this #entury, female hysteria seemed to )e on the wane, as feminism was on the rise. 3t is stri ing as well that ,reud8s female dis#i'les were "irtually silent on the 4uestion of hysteria. 3t is not a to'i# in the wor s of Karen Horney, Belanie Klein, -nna ,reud, or other mem)ers of the 'ostwar generation. Lhen a woman analyst, Eli6a)eth Rosen)erg Pet6el, finally did deal with hysteria, she did not 4uestion ,reudian assum'tions and shi))oleths. - student of Ernest Eones and K. L. Linni#ott, Pet6el trained in 'sy#hiatry at Baudsley Hos'ital during $%&>0&% and then ser"ed for si/ years during the war in the Emergen#y Bedi#al Ser"i#e and -rmed ,or#es. Pet6el wor ed with hysteri#al soldiers and des#ri)ed her e/'erien#es in her first analyti# 'a'er, HLar Deurosis: - Clini#al Contri)ution,H 'u)lished in $%?&. =he three #ase studies, she later o)ser"ed, ser"ed Has a model or )lue'rintH for her maIor wor . Pet6el is 4uite a''ro"ing of her male 'atients: H=hey were all ha''ily marriedJ they all had a steady wor re#ordJ they had all shown am)ition, so#ial #ons#ien#e, and a good #a'a#ity for su)limation.H1$::2 3n #ontrast, when she wor ed with female hysteri#s in Boston after the war, Pet6el was mu#h more #riti#al. -lthough the women she #alled Htrue good hysteri#sH were Hnota)ly su##essful in the area of wor ,H they had Hfailed to a#hie"e a mature heterose/ual relationshi'.H Pet6el e#hoed ,reud in her indifferen#e to the dou)le messages in the li"es of her hysteri#al women 'atients, most of whom were intelle#tuals and students at "arious Boston uni"ersities. Lhile she noted that Hall of these 'atients ha"e, in addition, )een a)le to ma e and ee' friends,H she was #ertain that their diffi#ulties with men #ame from their unresol"ed oedi'al #onfli#ts and 'enis en"y, rather than from men8s dis#omfort with gifted am)itious women.1$:C2 3nstead of 'ursuing the 'arado/es of their li"es, and the a''arent uselessness of ,reudian thera'y in sol"ing them, she fo#used instead on their analy6a)ility and suita)ility for treatment. ,or, she wrote, =here are many little girls Lhose #om'laints are little 'earls @f the #lassi#al hysteri#al neuroti#. -nd when this is true -nalysis #an and should ensue, But when this is false 8=will )e #haoti#.1$:>2 + &5> + 3n su#h #ontem'orary 'sy#hoanalyti# writing )y women as deals with hysteria, ,reudian dogma has made it diffi#ult for women analysts to a##e't hysteri#al sym'toms in their male 'atients. Boni4ue Ka"id0BFnard studied 'sy#hoanalysis at the E#ole ,reudienne in Paris. 3n her 'ra#ti#e, li e most women analysts, she sees more women than men 'atients. Ka"id0BFnard #laims not to now Hwhat mas#uline hysteria is. Sometimes 3 say to myself when 3 hear a male 'atient who is "ery identified with a woman, 8Perha's that #ame from hysteria,8 )ut 3 always end u' saying, 83t8s not really that.8H1$:%2 Her )oo Hysteria from Freud to 4acan 9$%>&< is a densely argued 'hiloso'hi#al #om'arison of ,reud and

La#an, rather than a feminist reading of their wor . .et a feminist inter'retation of hysteria does not #ome naturally to women 'sy#hoanalysts or historians sim'ly )e#ause they are women. Ka"id0BFnard, for e/am'le, has said in an inter"iew, H3 don8t define myself as a feminist whether as a 'hiloso'her or as a 'sy#hoanalyst.H1$C*2 - feminist stand'oint is situated within a 'arti#ular #ultural and intelle#tual framewor , whi#h offers an inter'retati"e "o#a)ulary and a su''ort networ for those who 'ut it to use. =hus we need to read and e"aluate women8s writings a)out hysteria within their own histori#al #onte/t and with an understanding of the im'a#t of gender at a 'arti#ular moment for 'rofessional women. 3l6a 7eith8s Hysteria 9$%:;< is an e/#ellent #ase in 'oint. -##ording to Bar Bi#ale, the )oo Hesta)lished the 8standard8 histori#al "iew of the su)Ie#t for an entire generation of ,ren#h, British, and Dorth -meri#an readers.H1$C$2 3l6a 7eith is one of the 'ioneering s#holars of the history of medi#ine in the !nited States. Born in Germany in $%$;, she studied medi#ine in Gene"a and 7ienna )efore #oming to the !nited States in $%&C. Lhile she had ho'ed to )e#ome a 'lasti# surgeon, Hthere was no thought in the thirties that a woman #ould re#ei"e a residen#y or assistantshi' in surgery.H1$C52 3nstead she trained with Henry Sigerist at Eohns Ho' ins and in $%?C re#ei"ed the first do#torate in the history of medi#ine in the !nited States. ,or #ontem'orary historians sensiti6ed )y feminist s#holarshi', 7eith may seem indifferent to or unaware of the feminist 4uestions in hysteria. She a##e'ts wholeheartedly the ,reudian "iew of hysteria and uses it as the resolution of the )oo , #rediting 'sy#hoanalysis with the #on4uest of hysteriaJ it was the intensified understanding of the #ause of hysteria )y leading 'sy#hiatrists during this #entury, she wrote, that H#ontri)uted to the near0disa''earan#e of the illness.H1$C&2 Roy Porter in #ha'ter & 4uestions 7eith8s un#riti#al a##e'tan#e of ,reud and her )lindness to the misogyny of 're'sy#hoanalyti# thera'ists li e Carter. Bar Bi#ale, too, + &5% + 'oints out that although she Hmight ha"e )een e/'e#ted to res'ond differently,H 7eith Hmaintained a studied silen#e on the interse/ual as'e#ts of the disorder.H1$C?2 .et su#h a Iudgment #arries its own assum'tions a)out gender, ignores the #ir#umstan#es in whi#h the )oo was written, and misses the way that 7eith, li e many women writing a)out hysteria, felt 'ressured to a"oid a feminism traditionally lin ed with the disorder itself. 7eith does indeed 'oint out a num)er of the interse/ual issues of hysteria, al)eit in a restrained language. 3n one of the few meta'hors of her )oo , she #omments that Hthe s#arlet thread of se/ualityH runs throughout the Htangled s einH of the history of hysteria.1$C;2 She thus 'resents the issue as se/uality rather than femininity, although the allusion to the s#arlet letter 9and to the great -meri#an heroine S#arlett @8Hara< suggests that this se/uality was in fa#t related to women. ,or mu#h of the )oo , when 7eith des#ri)es or 4uotes a##ounts that lin hysteria with female se/uality and re'rodu#tion, she generali6es from them to dis#uss a more uni"ersal and ungendered Hse/uality.H Lith regard to the Gree origins of the term, for e/am'le, she notes that Hthe asso#iation of hysteria with the female generati"e system was in essen#e an e/'ression of awareness of the malign effe#t of disordered se/ual a#ti"ity on emotional sta)ility.H 7eith8s #areful neutrality e/tended also to her dis#ussion of wit#h#raft and the wit#h trials. H3t is e"ident from the forgoing that women were the #hief targets in the wit#h hunts,H she mildly o)ser"es, without s'e#ulating further on the #leri#al misogyny and 'rofound male an/ieties that were 'roIe#ted onto women during the wit#h trials.1$C:2 7eith is similarly tolerant with regard to nineteenth0#entury medi#ine. She attri)utes Ro)ert Brudenell Carter8s hostility toward women to his Hyouthful im'atien#eH with his female 'atients, and when she tal s a)out the H'uniti"eH

as'e#ts of 7i#torian treatment of hysteri#al women, #alls them Hmisanthro'i#H rather than Hmisogynisti#.H1$CC2 3n her most su)stantial dis#ussion of se/ roles and attitudes, howe"er, 7eith e/'lains that the Hmanifestations of this disease tended to #hange from era to era 4uite as mu#h as did the )eliefs as to etiology and the methods of treatment. =he sym'toms, it seems, were #onditioned )y so#ial e/'e#tan#y, tastes, mores, and religion, and were further sha'ed )y the state of medi#ine in general and the nowledge of the 'u)li# a)out medi#al matters.H Lomen #reated or re'rodu#ed hysteri#al sym'toms in a##ordan#e with their age8s ideas a)out femininity: H=hroughout history, the sym'toms were modified )y the 're"ailing #on#e't of the feminine ideal. 3n the nineteenth #entury, es'e#ially, young women and girls were e/'e#ted to )e deli#ate and "ulnera)le )oth 'hysi#ally and emo0 + &&* + tionally, and this image was refle#ted in their dis'osition to hysteria and the nature of its sym'toms. =heir deli#a#y was enhan#ed )y their illness, and as a result, the in#iden#e of o"ert manifestations was further in#reased.H1$C>2 =his #omes "ery #lose to #ontem'orary feminist analyses of hysteria. .et to Iudge 7eith8s wor )y #ontem'orary feminist standards is to misunderstand the histori#al nature of gender ideology. Lomen historians and 'sy#hoanalysts of 7eith8s generation, in#luding Eli6a)eth Pet6el, had a "ery different #onte/t than our own for their thin ing a)out se/ual differen#e, as se"eral re#ent studies ha"e illustrated. Eoan S#ott shows in her o"er"iew of -meri#an women historians that the 'ost0Lorld Lar 33 'eriod saw the emergen#e of Ha new dis#ourse . . . that em'hasi6ed the mas#uline 4ualities of historians, asso#iating them with the 'reser"ation of national traditions and demo#ra#y.H 7eith, li e other women historians re#ei"ing their do#torates during this 'eriod, Hhad the further #hallenge of re'udiating the disa)ilities assumed to #ome with womanhood.H1$C%2 Serious historians were Iudi#ious, unemotional, o)Ie#ti"e, im'ersonal. Similarly, in a series of inter"iews with women 'sy#hoanalysts who trained during the $%5*s, $%&*s, and $%?*s, Dan#y Chodorow found a "ery different gender #ons#iousness from that of the $%>*s o'erati"e in their "iews of feminism and 'sy#hoanalysis. Gender was not a meaningful or salient #ategory to themJ few had noti#ed dis#riminatory treatmentJ they had not thought a)out the #onfli#ts )etween ,reudian "iews of femininity and their own 'rofessional #areers. But rather than a##using them of )ad faith, )lindness, or re'ression, Chodorow #on#luded that Hgender0em'hasisH or the Hrelati"e down'lay of gender issuesH are Hnot only o)Ie#ti"ely determined )y a stru#tural situationH )ut are also Hsu)Ie#ti"e features of identity and #ulture.H =he Hsalien#e of meaning of genderH was not a histori#al #onstant )ut rather Ha highly #onstru#ted 'rodu#t of one8s time and 'la#e.H1$>*2 3n 7eith8s #ase, her 'osition as a woman a#ademi# in a male0dominated 'rofession may ha"e led her to em'hasi6e o)Ie#ti"ity, neutrality, and indire#tion rather than to ha"e ta en a for#eful and e/'li#it feminist stand. Her )oo a''eared in the last moments of #alm )efore the storm of the women8s li)eration mo"ementJ se/ual 'oliti#s, howe"er, was a term still to )e in"ented )y Kate Billett, and feminist s#holarshi' did not yet e/ist. 3l6a 7eith8s auto)iogra'hi#al writings #ast mu#h light on the #ir#umstan#es under whi#h she wrote Hysteria and ma e #lear that she was not unaware of se/ism and its effe#ts on the female 'sy#he. 3n des#ri)ing herself for )ho's )ho , she wrote, H3n a long and se"erely handi#a''ed + &&$ + life 3 ha"e had to li"e with #hroni# illness and 'ain. =han s to my hus)and8s endless 'atien#e and

hel'fulness, 3 ha"e learned to a##e't what #annot )e #hanged, and to #hange what #an )e altered. 3 ha"e had a su##essful and highly satisfa#tory a#ademi# #areer in s'ite of endless o)sta#les that lie in the way of a woman s#holar.H Some of the details )ehind this summation #an )e found in 7eith8s most re#ent )oo , &an 9ou Hear the &lapping of /ne Hand0 9$%>%<. Here she des#ri)es the se"ere stro e that she suffered in $%:? while she was #om'leting Hysteria . Eust fifty years old, and ha"ing mo"ed to California to ta e u' a 'rofessorshi' at the !ni"ersity of San ,ran#is#o, 7eith wo e u' one morning to find that her entire left side was 'araly6ed. She had )een e/'erien#ing odd sym'toms for o"er a month, in#luding migraine heada#hes, distur)ed "ision, and olfa#tory hallu#inations. .et, des'ite her training as a medi#al historian, 7eith had not #onsulted a do#tor. LhyN Be#ause sym'toms li e these were fre4uently attri)uted in the medi#al literature to women with Hhysteri#al 'ersonality.H 7eith was em)arrassed to thin that she herself might )e a hysteri#, and thus she ignored the warning signals of a serious stro e. Boreo"er, when she e/'erien#ed 'aralysis of the left sideAthe side usually affli#ted in #ases of hysteriaA7eith was 'ersuaded that she was only hysteri#al and Hdeluded myself that if 3 admitted the hysteri#al nature of my hemi'lagia to myself and others, it would sim'ly go away.H Patroni6ed and su)tly 'unished )y do#tors in the hos'ital when she refused to )eha"e li e a suita)ly ignorant and do#ile female 'atient, 7eith learned more a)out se/ism in medi#ine than has e"er )een re"ealed in her 'rofessional writing. She has ne"er re#o"ered the use of her left arm. 3n #ontrast to 7eith8s em'hasis on the ungendered nature of hysteria, #ontem'orary feminist #riti#s ha"e argued that while H,reud8s assertion that hysteria affli#ted )oth men and women was a li)erating gesture in the nineteenth #entury,H the most li)erating gesture for feminists today is to re#laim hysteria Has the dis0ease of women in 'atriar#hal #ulture.H1$>$2 Some ha"e argued for a #ontinuity or e"en a similarity )etween hysteria and feminism. 3n the $%C*s, it )e#ame an im'ortant strategy of radi#al feminism to redefine as terms of female 'ower the hostile la)els that had )een atta#hed to re)ellious or de"iant women through history. =hus early women8s grou's were #alled the Lit#hes, the highly su##essful English feminist 'u)lishing #om'any is #alled 7irago, and a maIor ,ren#h feminist Iournal was #alled "orciCres . ,eminists saluted the hysteri#s of the 'ast as heroines of resistan#e to the 'atriar#hal order. Kora has indeed )e#ome a 'aradigmati# figure for #ontem'orary feminist #riti#ism. Be#ause she wal ed out on her 'sy#hoanalysis, she has + &&5 + a''eared to some as a defiant figure and 're#ursor, what Bary Ea#o)us #alls Hthe first feminist #riti# of ,reud.H1$>52 3n her manifesto on women8s writing, H=he Laugh of the Bedusa,H HFlGne Ci/ous ta es Kora8s story as a re"olutionary dis#ourse of the feminine, saluting Kora as Hthe indomita)le, the 'oeti# )ody . . . the true 8mistress8 of the Signifier.H1$>&2 3n The ,e%ly*Born )oman 9$%C;<, Ci/ous too the 'osition that hysteria was the Hnu#lear e/am'le of women8s 'ower to 'rotest,H and that Kora )elonged to the 'antheon of feminist history: HKora seemed to me to )e the one who resists the system, the one who #annot stand that the family and so#iety are founded on the )ody of women, on )odies des'ised, reIe#ted, )odies that are humiliating on#e they ha"e )een used.H1$>?2 Ci/ous8s 'lay ortrait de Dora 9$%C:< tries to restore Kora8s su)Ie#ti"ity and to re#onstitute the other )uried female figure in ,reud8s #ase history, the mother. 3nter'retations of ,reud8s #ase history are now legion, and the )oo 'n Dora's &ase )rings some of these feminist readings together. 3t8s im'ortant to note, howe"er, that the fas#ination with Kora and hysteria has also )een #ontro"ersial within feminist theory. 3n her de)ate with Ci/ous in The ,e%ly*Born )oman , Catherine Clement was

more s e'ti#al a)out the ultimate 'ower of hysteria as a form of feminine su)"ersion. She maintained that the hysteri# is una)le to #ommuni#ate )e#ause she is outside of reality and #ultureAthat, in La#anian terms, her e/'ression remains in the 3maginary, outside the Sym)oli#. =hus Hhysteri#al sym'toms, whi#h are meta'hori#ally ins#ri)ed on the )ody, are e'hemeral and enigmati#. =hey #onstitute a language only )y analogy.H Hysteri#s should )e #lassed not with feminist heroines, )ut with de"iants and marginals who a#tually reinfor#e the so#ial stru#ture )y their 'reordained 'la#e on the margin. 3ndeed, their roles are ultimately #onser"ati"e: HE"ery hysteri# ends u' inuring others to her sym'toms, and the family #loses round her again, whether she is #ura)le or in#ura)le.H Lith regard to Kora, ClFment is #ool and le"el0headed: H.ou lo"e Kora, )ut to me she ne"er seemed a re"olutionary #hara#ter.H1$>;2 3n order to affe#t the sym)oli# order, or the material world, she argues, the hysteri# must somehow )rea through her 'ri"ate language and a#t. =hus for ClFment, the Hsu##essful hysteri#H is one, li e -nna @.(Bertha Pa''enheim, who )e#omes a writer, so#ial wor er, and feminist leader. @"erall it seems 'arado/i#al that Kora, a notoriously unsu##essful hysteri#, should ha"e emerged as a feminist heroine in the $%C*s, singled out )y women writers and intelle#tuals who had )een a)le to ha"e the edu#ation and a#ti"ity 3da Bauer sought in "ain. 3t is )i6arre to find Kora 'ut forward as a feminist ideal and saluted )y su##essful writers li e Ci/ous, when Kora8s own as'irations were to )e#ome a woman of learning, + &&& + 'erha's a writer. Histori#ally, Kora ne"er found her own "oi#e. Lhile feminist artists and #riti#s #an attem't to re0imagine her story, we must re#ogni6e, with ClFment, that her re)ellion ultimately turned )a# on the self. Kora8s feminist 'ower, 'arado/i#ally, is as a tragi# literary figure. ,eminist #riti#s ha"e ta en u' the #on#e't of Hhysteri#al narrati"eH to des#ri)e a story that is fragmented and in#oherent, li e ,reud8s #ase studyJ or the La#anian #on#e't of Hhysteri#al dis#ourseH to des#ri)e the meta'hori# language of the )ody.1$>:2 =he im'asse o"er Kora, feminism, and hysteri#al narrati"e, howe"er, needs to )e 'la#ed within the )roader #onte/ts of gender. -s =oril Boi has 'ointed out, what ,reud des#ri)es as the Hin#oheren#eH of the hysteri#8s story has less to do with the nature of hysteria or with the nature of woman than with the so#ial 'owerlessness of women8s narrati"es: H=he reason why the neuroti# fails to 'rodu#e #oheren#e is that she la# s the po%er to im'ose her own #onne#tions on her reader(listener.H1$>C2 How #an Kora8s story ha"e 'lausi)ility for male ears in a #ulture when women8s 'lots are so limitedN Lhen narrati"e #on"entions assign women only the 'la#e of o)Ie#t of desire, how #an a woman )e#ome the su)Ie#t of her own storyN 3n order to understand the gender issues in hysteri#al narrati"e, we need to ha"e #ase studies of male hysteri#s )y women analysts. Sin#e Hthe dominant narrati"e of a male do#tor treating a woman 'atient maintains the normati"e stru#ture of men o##u'ying 'ositions of authority o"er women, the im'ortan#e of the gender of the 'arti#i'ants in the thera'euti# dialogue is o)s#ured.H1$>>2 @nly in the 'ast few years ha"e women 'sy#hoanalysts )egun to loo at the 'ro)lem of male hysteria and to e/amine issues of transferen#e and #ountertransferen#e )etween male 'atients and female thera'ists. Su#h studies re4uire a Hnew narrati"e line that s'e#ifi#ally addresses the relationshi' of )oys to their mothers and the 4uite different meanings of 'ower and se/uality for men and women in our #ulture.H1$>%2 Lhen their #ase studies are 'u)lished, we will )e a)le to as whether the )ody language, s'ee#h, and narrati"e of the hysteri# is a dis#ourse of femininity or a narrati"e im'osed )y the man who tells the story. @ther #ontem'orary feminist theories lo#ate in hysteria an attem't to gi"e weight and meaning to as'e#ts of the feminine whi#h are des'ised or nonfun#tional in the 'atriar#hal so#ial order. -s Kiane

Herndl e/'lains, hysteria Hhas #ome to figure as a sort of rudimentary feminism and feminism as a ind of arti#ulate hysteria.H1$%*2 Euliet Bit#hell des#ri)es hysteria as a H're0'oliti#al manifestation of feminism,H an un#ons#ious 'rotest )y women Hin terms of their definitional and denigrated #hara#0 + &&? + teristi#Aemotionality. 3f femininity is )y definition hysteri#al, feminism is the demand for the right to )e hysteri#al.H1$%$2 =his romanti#i6ation and a''ro'riation of the hysteri# nostalgi#ally assumes that she is a heroine of the 'ast. H@] sont0elles 'assFes les hystFri4ues de Iadis,H as ed Ea#4ues La#an in $%CC, H#es femmes mer"eilleuses, les -nna @., les Emmy "on D.N . . . Su8est0#e 4ui rem'la#e auIourd8hui les sym't\mes hystFri4ues d8autrefoisNH1$%52 Le might answer that the des'ised hysteri#s of yesteryear ha"e )een re'la#ed )y the feminist radi#als of today, )y #ontem'orary women artists and 'oets, and )y gay a#ti"ists. 3n the 'o'ular mind, the 'eIorati"e asso#iation of feminism with hysteria and mor)idity has not died yet. 3n $%>&, for e/am'le, a #ontro"ersy eru'ted in the Times 4iterary "upplement o"er the use of Hhysteri#alH as a #riti#al term for the 'oetry of Syl"ia Plath and other Hman0hatingH feminist 'oets. Kefending her 'osition, -nne Ste"enson wrote, HHysteria is the "ery stuff of re"olutionsAand not only female re"olutions . . . a 'assionate single0minded 'sy#hologi#al #ondition whi#h, immune to humour as to reason, fails to a#hie"e the deta#hment essential for self0#riti#ism.H1$%&2 Boreo"er, those re"olutions #onne#ted to gender and ra#e #ontinue to seem more Hhysteri#alH than others. 3n Ke#em)er $%>%, when the -3KS a#ti"ist grou' -C=0!P and the a)ortion rights grou' LH-B staged a demonstration at Saint Patri# 8s Cathedral in Dew .or City, interru'ting the Sunday Bass, the ,e% 9or( Times editoriali6ed: H-rguments o"er -3KS, homose/uality and a)ortion are not going to )e ad"an#ed )y hysteri#s, threats or the disru'tion of religious ser"i#es.H1$%?2 Lhat had )een hysteri#al hooliganism in the suffrage #am'aigns was now attri)uted to other grou's. Bla# a#ti"ists and radi#als ha"e also )een stigmati6ed as hysteri#s and neuroti#s, leading to distrust of 'sy#hothera'y in the $%:*s and $%C*s among -fri#an0-meri#ans.1$%;2 .et, from another 'ers'e#ti"e, ,reudian insights #an illuminate the e/'erien#e of ra#ism and its effe#ts on the 'sy#he. 3n his auto)iogra'hy Dus( of Da%n 9$%?*<, L. E. B. Ku Bois des#ri)ed the gradual effe#ts of ra#ial segregation on the )la# mind: 3t is as though one, loo ing out from a dar #a"e in a side of an im'ending mountain, sees the world 'assing and s'ea s to itJ s'ea s #ourteously and 'ersuasi"ely . . . 1)ut2 it gradually 'enetrates the minds of the 'risoners that the 'eo'le 'assing do not hearJ that some thi# sheet of in"isi)le )ut horri)ly tangi)le 'late glass is )etween them and the world. =hey get e/#itedJ they tal louderJ they gesti#ulate. 1=hen some 'ersons may )e#ome Hhysteri#al.H2 =hey may s#ream and hurl themsel"es against the )arriers. . . . =hey may e"en, here and there, )rea through in )lood + &&; + and disfigurement, and find themsel"es fa#ed )y a horrified, im'la#a)le, and 4uite o"erwhelming mo) of 'eo'le frightened for their "ery own e/isten#e.1$%:2 Ku Bois8s des#ri'tion of the so#ial origins of hysteri#al )eha"ior in ra#ism has rele"an#e for other o''ressed grou's, 'arti#ularly )e#ause it does not minimi6e the #osts of hysteria. Lhen unha''iness and 'rotest go unheard for a long time, or when it is too dangerous for these negati"e emotions to )e o'enly e/'ressed, 'eo'le do lose their sense of humor and their 'owers of self0#riti#ism, whether they

are feminists, 'eo'le with -3KS, )la# a#ti"ists, or East Germans, Rumanians, and Bulgarians. -nger that has so#ial #auses is #on"erted to a language of the )odyJ 'eo'le de"elo' disa)ling sym'toms, or may e"en )e#ome "iolent or sui#idal. HHysteria,H as Ku Bois new, is 'ainful and disfiguringJ rather than )eing a romanti# ideal, it is a des'erate )eha"ior for women or men. 3t is mu#h safer for the dominant order to allow dis#ontented men and women to e/'ress their dissatisfa#tion through 'sy#hosomati# illness than to ha"e them agitating for e#onomi#, legal, and 'oliti#al rights. 3t is thus that Kianne Hunter #alls hysteria Hfeminism la# ing a so#ial networ in the outer world.H1$%C2 Lhat a)out hysteria nowN 3n $%>:, Etienne =rillat de#lared, HHysteria is dead, that8s for sure. 3t #arried its mysteries with it to the gra"e.H1$%>2 Philli' Sla"ney des#ri)es his study erspectives on =Hysteria= 9$%%*< as H'erha's the last )oo with hysteria in its title written )y a 'sy#hiatrist.H =he terms Hhysteria3 hysteric and hysterical ,H he argues, Hare on the "erge of )e#oming ana#hronisms.H1$%%2 =hese announ#ements of hysteria8s death are surely 'remature, for they negle#t the #ultural and sym)oli# meanings of the term, whi#h #annot )e o)literated )y 'rofessional fiat. =o write a history of hysteria at the end of the twentieth #entury we need also to re#ogni6e the #orres'onden#e that has de"elo'ed )etween the two words. Lhile for #enturies the etymologi#al lin )etween HhysteriaH and hystera di#tated #ertain assum'tions a)out female se/uality, today the #orres'onden#e )etween HhysteriaH and histoire seems mu#h more im'ortant. -)o"e all, the hysteri# is someone who has a story, a histoire , and whose story is told )y s#ien#e. Hysteria is no longer a 4uestion of the wandering wom)J it is a 4uestion of the wandering story, and of whether that story )elongs to the hysteri#, the do#tor, the historian, or the #riti#. =he stories of ra#e and gender in hysteria still remain to )e told, and thus this )oo #annot )e the final narrati"e, )ut is only another installment in the long and unfinished history of hysteria in Lestern #i"ili6ation. + &&: + + &?; +

Fi+e!he Image o* the Hysteri.

Sander L. Gilman

!he Fun.tion o* the 7Real7 Image o* the Hysteri. in ,e*ining the Nature o* Hysteria
3n the history of hysteria one image haunts the eye. 3t is an $>>C 'ainting )y -ndrF Brouillet of Eean0 Bartin Char#ot 'resenting his 'et hysteri#, HBlan#heH 9Blan#he Littman<, to the mem)ers of his neurologi#al ser"i#e at the Sal'WtriGre.1$2 =his 'ortrait, #learly standing within the great tradition of Rem)randt8s anatomies and e#hoing the $>C: 'ortrait, inel Freeing the 'nsane , )y =ony Ro)ert0 ,leury, whi#h hung in the main le#ture hall at the Sal'WtriGre, has one rather anomalous moment. 9Brouillet 1$>5?0$%*>2 was after all a student of GFr\me, whose history 'aintings always hide a mystery.< -ll of Char#ot8s staff are men, with the e/#e'tion of the one nurse, who is a)out to #at#h the somnam)ulisti# 'atient. @nly these two women are 'la#ed in su#h a manner so as to see the rear of the hallJ all of the male figures ha"e their )a# s 9or sides< to the rear. -nd on the rear wall is an enlarged

drawing )y Char#ot8s #olleague Paul Ri#her of the arc*en*cercle stage of HgrandH hysteria. Char#ot des#ri)ed this stage in an $>CC le#ture: H=he 'atient suddenly falls to the ground, with a shrill #ryJ loss of #ons#iousness is #om'lete. =he tetani# rigidity of all her mem)ers, whi#h generally inaugurates the s#ene, is #arried to a high degreeJ the )ody is for#i)ly )ent )a# wards, the a)domen is 'rominent, greatly distended, and "ery resisting.H152 3n Broulliet8s engra"ing, Ri#her literally sits at Char#ot8s right hand, s et#hing the 'atient who is re'li#ating his own drawing.1&2 @nly the women see 9and H now,H that is, a#t u'on< the image of the hysteri#. =heir image of the hysteri#, )oth as 'atient and as health0 #are 'ra#titioner is #on0 + &?: +

-ndrF Brouillet8s image of Eean0Bartin Char#ot 'resenting his H'etH hysteri#, HBlan#heH 9Blan#he Littman<, to the mem)ers of his neurologi#al ser"i#e at the Sal'WtriGre 9$>>C<. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< s#iously formed )y the "isual image of the hysteri# as #reated )y a male 'hysi#ian. =he late nineteenth #entury understood su#h a 'attern as the "ery model for nowing the world. @s#ar Lilde suggested that we learn a)out nature from the wor of art. HE/ternal nature,H a##ording to Lilde, Himitates -rt. =he only effe#ts that she #an show us are effe#ts that we ha"e already seen through 'oetry, or in 'aintings.H1?2 -nd, we might add, in 'hotogra'hs.1;2 =his is 're#isely what Blan#he Littman did at the Sal'WtriGre, as she learned from the re'resentations of the hysteri# how to a''ear as a hysteri#.1:2 =his image does not stand alone )ut is re'resentati"e of a series of re'resentations of the hysteri# during the latter half of the nineteenth #entury. 3n the Ea#4ues0Eose'h Boreau de =ours $>%* image, Hysterics of the &haritA on the "ervice of Dr. 4uys , a wider range of re'resenta0 + &?C +

=ony Ro)ert0,leury8s inel Freeing the 'nsane 9$>C:<, whi#h hung in the main le#ture hall at the Sal'WtriGre. 9Paris: =he Li)rary of the Sal'WtriGre.< + &?> +

Ea#4ues0Eose'h Boreau de =ours, Hysterics of the &haritA on the "ervice of Dr. 4uys 9$>%*<. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< Photo #ourtesy .ale Bedi#al Li)rary.

+ &?% + tions of the hysteri# is 'resent.1C2 Kr. E.0B. Luys 9$>?>0$>%C<, the author of an early 'hotogra'hi# medi#al atlas,1>2 stands to the rear of the room, with his white mutton0#ho' whis ers, as his female 'atients 'erform. 9Boreau de =our had himself )een an intern under E.0^.0K. Es4uirol, the #reator of the first modern 'sy#hiatri# atlas, at Charenton.1%2 < Luys had des#ri)ed and 'hotogra'hed the hysteri#s of the Sal'WtriGre for his $>>C study of the effe#ts of hy'notism as thera'y.1$*2 -ll of the 'atients in Boreau de =ours8s image are seemingly o)li"ious to what immediately #a'tures the eye of the "iewer. @n the rear wall of this ward, a 'ermanent fi/ture of the room inha)ited )y the 'atients, is a #hart re#ording the different 'hases of hy'nosis, the stages that the 'atient is e/'e#ted to 'ass through as she 'erforms for her male audien#e. 3t is 'art of the world of the 'atient, a means through whi#h to learn how to stru#ture one8s hysteria so as to ma e one an e/em'lary 'atient. 3ndeed, this is 'aralleled within the images that are so #entral to Eules Luys8s own wor , )y the 'hotogra'hs of his 'et 'atients, es'e#ially HEsther,H ta en )y his )rother Georges, whi#h illustrate his0$>>C study of the emotions of the hysteri#.1$$2 =hese 'atients are seen. =here is no attem't to mas their identity. 3n the #ase studies of the 'eriod 9e"en as early as Pinel< there is the use of initials or mas ed names. But in the "isual images that Es4uirol )rings there is the assum'tion that the fa#e 9its stru#ture or its e/'ression< is so im'ortant that it does not need to )e mas ed. But there is also the understanding, gi"en the artisti# li#ense of the engra"ing and the lithogra'h, that there would )e suffi#ient differen#e )etween the image of the 'atient and the final re'resentation as to mas the 'atient8s identity. 9=his is not always the #ase, as one #an see in Georges0,ran_ois0Barie Ga)riel8s admittedly un'u)lished image of EugFne Hugo, the )rother of the author.1$52 < =he e/#e'tion to this seems to 'ro"e the rule. 3n the ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBtriCre , Char#ot8s house organ, there are rarely images of 'atients that are intentionally mas ed, usually na ed women, su#h as the image of a young anore/i# female re'rodu#ed in the fifth "olume. 1$&2 9=he ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBtriCre is not the only Iournal of its ty'e. =he -evue photographi:ue des HIpitau# des aris flourished in the $>C*s.< =he im'ortan#e of the image of the hysteri# re'resented as learning from the medi#al images that surround her #an )e gleaned from the following ane#dote. 3n an a##ount of Char#ot8s e/'eriments with hy'notism in the British !edical 2ournal of ; @#to)er $>C>, -rthur Gamgee, Professor of Physiology at @wens College, Ban#hester, o)ser"ed: @ne of the 'atients was sus'e#ted of stealing some 'hotogra'hs from the hos'ital, )ut she indignantly denied the #harge. @ne morning 1Br.2 + &;* +

=he mas ed image of the hysteri#. ,rom Louis Battaille, HKeu/ Cas d8-nore/ie HystFri4ue,H ,ouvelles 'conographie de la "alpBtriCre J 9$>%5<, 'late o''osite '. 5CC. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. Ri#her, after ha"ing made some e/'eriments u'on other su)Ie#ts, found the sus'e#ted thief with her hand in the drawer #ontaining the 'hotogra'hs, ha"ing already #on#ealed some of them in her 'o# et. 1Br.2 Ri#her a''roa#hed her. She did not mo"eJ she was fi/edAshe was transformed into a statue, so to s'ea . =he )lows on the gong made in the adIoining ward had rendered her #atale'ti# at the "ery moment when, away from the o)ser"ation of

all, she #ommitted the theft.1$?2 3t is Paul Ri#her, the #reator of the ar#hety'al image, the ornament of the le#ture room in whi#h rounds were held, who #a'tures the H#atale'ti#H woman, a figure so mired in her internali6ation of his idea of the hysteri# that she literally free6es as an in#idental o##urren#e to the He/'erimentH ta ing 'la#e Iust )eyond her en.1$;2 =his is not the world of Char#ot in the role of Pinel Hfreeing the insane,H whose image gra#ed the 'u)li# le#ture hall in whi#h the so0#alled =uesday le#tures too 'la#e. ,or here the HinsaneH 'atient is #a'tured rather than freed )y the inter"ention, no matter how in#idental, )y the 'hysi#ian. But why is this woman stealing 'hotogra'hsN1$:2 -nd whose 'hotogra'hs are theyN =he 'hotogra'hs are those of the e/em'lary 'atient ta en )y -l)ert Londe, the head of the 'hotogra'hi# ser"i#e at the Sal'WtriGre, indeed + &;$ +

=he hy'noti6ed 'atient and the tuning for . ,rom Paul Ri#her, HGonflement du #ou #he6 un hystFri4ue,H ,ouvelles 'conographie de la "alpBtriCre K 9$>>%<, 'late &?. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. + &;5 + the first 'rofessional 'hotogra'her to ha"e a full0time a''ointment in any hos'ital in Euro'e. His Io) was to do#ument the 'rogress and manifestation of the 'atient8s disease, to #a'ture the stages and 'ro#esses as they re'resented themsel"es on the "isi)le surfa#e of the 'atient, on the 'atient8s 'hysiognomy, 'osture, a#tions, as a means of #ataloging the disease 'ro#ess. =his Linnaean means of des#ri)ing illnesses through their "isi)le signs and sym'toms 9to use Eean0Bartin Char#ot8s term, ta en from the wit#h0hunting manuals of the 3n4uisition, the stigmata of the illness, from the stigmata diaboli that mar ed the )ody of the wit#h< dominated nineteenth0#entury Euro'ean, )ut es'e#ially ,ren#h, 'sy#hiatry. =o des#ri)e was to understand, to des#ri)e in the most a##urate manner meant to a"oid the am)iguity of words, and to rely on the immediate, real image of the sufferer. But the mallea)ility of the sym'toms in hysteria trou)led the fin0de0siG#le s#ientist. -s Char#ot noted, HSym'toms . . . ha"e their destiny: Habent sua fata .H Sym'toms, Hafter ha"ing enIoyed a #ertain degree of fa"our, dou)tless on a##ount of the theoreti#al #onsiderations #onne#ted with 1them, ha"e2 gone somewhat out of fashion . . .H But this is to )e understood from the stand'oint only of the 'hysi#ian0nosologistJ from the stand'oint of the 'atient, the sym'toms are real, e"en if the 'atients are du'li#itous: H.ou will meet with 1simulation2 at e"ery ste' in the history of hysteria, and one finds himself sometimes admiring the ama6ing #raft, saga#ity, and 'erse"eran#e whi#h women, under the influen#e of this great neurosis, will 'ut in 'lay for the 'ur'oses of de#e'tionAes'e#ially when the 'hysi#ian is to )e the "i#tim. . . . 3t is in#ontesta)le that, in a multitude of #ases, they ha"e ta en 'leasure in distorting, )y e/aggerations, the 'rin#i'al #ir#umstan#es of their disorder, in order to ma e them a''ear e/traordinary and wonderful.H1$C2 =his de#e'tion is, for Char#ot and his time, an a)solute sign of the hysteri#, and it #an only )e read #orre#tly )y a good diagnosti#ian. ,or hysteria must )e HseenH to ha"e o)ser"a)le sym'toms, su#h as the #hanges of the s in or the wasting of the )ody, to )e understood as a real disease: HHysteria is a real disease, as real as small0'o/ or #an#er, and . . . it has a 'hysi#al )asis, 'ro)a)ly of a #hemi#al nature, although this is yet "ery

im'erfe#tly understood.H1$>2 -s an early re"iew of the first maIor Iournal from the Sal'WtriGre de"oted to the "isual re'resentation of the insane noted, the #amera was as ne#essary for the study of hysteria as the mi#ros#o'e was for histology.1$%2 =his fantasy of realism #a'tured the )elief of the nineteenth #entury, )oth the do#tor8s and the 'atient8s. ,or the do#tor, the image is the 'atient, as it is for the 'atient. =his sear#h for an ontologi#al re'resentation of illness 'arallels the underta 0 + &;& + ing of the e/em'lary fin0de0siG#le s#ientist, Louis Pasteur, whose germ theory of #ontagious disease relied on the "isi)ility of the germ for its 'ower.15*2 -s Georges Canguilhem notes: H-fter all, a germ #an )e seen, e"en if this re4uires the #om'li#ated mediation of a mi#ros#o'e, stains and #ultures, while we would ne"er )e a)le to see a miasma or an influen#e.H15$2 =o see the 'atient means to de"elo' the te#hni4ue for seeing, a te#hni4ue that is Hs#ientifi#HJ the 'atient, in turn, as the o)Ie#t of the medi#al ga6e )e#omes 'art of the 'ro#ess of the #reation of an ontologi#al re'resentation of the disease, a re'resentation that is la)eled hysteria. =his does not deny the underlying 'athology of the hysteri#J it refle#ts only the meaning attri)uted to the sym'toms #reated to re'resent the 'athology as a disease. @ne #an s'e#ulate on whether the offi#ial nosology of -meri#an 9and in#reasingly, world< #lini#al 'sy#hiatry, the KSB0333R 9soon to )e KSB037<, in its restru#turing of hysteri#al neurosis into #on"ersion disorder, disso#iati"e disorder, histrioni# 'ersonality disorder, and )rief rea#ti"e 'sy#hosis, did more than rela)el an e/isting disease or whether these new la)els are the self0#ons#ious des#ri'tion of the manifestation of the hysteri# in the $%>*s.1552 But at least the #om'ilers of KSB0333R saw their underta ing as the des#ri'tion of the disease, rather than as the sear#h for its etiology. =his does not mean, howe"er, that the 'hysi#ian and the 'atient 'la#e any less relian#e on the meaning of these definitions in order to sha'e our #ontem'orary sense of the 'atient. How many 'atients today learn to ha"e H#on"ersion disordersH or Hfa#titious disorders with 'sy#hologi#al sym'tomsH from the medi#ali6ed world in whi#h theyAthe sufferers from the dis0ease of hysteriaAmust fun#tionN ,or the 'atient nows how to )e a 'atient, as we see mirrored so well in -ndrF Brouillet8s image of Char#ot, only from the re'resentation of the way the 'hysi#ian wishes to see 9and therefore to now< the 'atient as the "essel of a disease, not any disease, )ut the disease of images and imagining, hysteria. 3t is this shared sense of the im'ortan#e of the image, for the do#tor as well as for the 'atient, whi#h is refle#ted in the image of the hysteri#.

!oward a !heory o* 7Realisti. Re/resentation7 in Nineteenth;$entury !hought

3n my wor on Hugh L. Kiamond8s mid0nineteenth0#entury introdu#tion of 'hotogra'hy into the treatment of the mentally ill, 3 was stru# )y the fa#t that Kiamond )elie"ed he #ould #ure at least some of his 'atients )y e/'osing them to 'hotogra'hs of themsel"es. =he HrealismH + &;? +

Hugh L. Kiamond, a 'ortrait of a #ase of Hreligious melan#holy.H 9London: Royal So#iety of Bedi#ine.< of the 'hotogra'h was assumed to ha"e a thera'euti# fun#tion )e#ause of its mode of re'resentation.

Su#h a "iew underlined the im'ortan#e of all images for the alienists of the nineteenth #entury. =hus there was a #onstant stri"ing for "erisimilitude, not only for nosologi#al 'ur'oses 9that is, in order to #ategori6e the illness< )ut also for thera'euti# reasons. Seeing one8s own differen#e 'ro"ided the HhealthyH as'e#t of the mind with the Iu/ta'osition )etween the HnormalH and the Ha)normal.H =he desire to see the a)solute )order )etween these states en#ouraged the nineteenth0#entury s#ientist to see out and HseeH the differen#e. -s ,riedri#h Diet6s#he 'ut it 9'ara'hrasing Claude Bernard<: H3t is the + &;; + "alue of all mor)id states that they show us under a magnifying glass #ertain states that are normalA )ut not easily "isi)le when normal.H15&2 Kisease itself is seen as a means of HseeingH the normal. -nd normality is an unself0#ons#ious state li e that of o)ser"ers, who are ne"er aware of that role until they self0#ons#iously )egin to thin of themsel"es as o)ser"ers through their training as Hs#ientistsH and, therefore, )e#ome aware of the meaning atta#hed to the a#t of seeing. But it was only with the introdu#tion of the 'hotogra'h that the 'ower of su#h #ontrastAfor the 'atient Awas #learly arti#ulated. Kiamond stated in his $>;: 'a'er H@n the -''li#ation of Photogra'hy to the Physiognomi# and Bental Phenomena of 3nsanity,H read )efore the Royal So#iety, that Hthere is another 'oint of "iew in whi#h the "alue of 'ortraits of the insane is 'e#uliarly mar edA"i6. in the effe#t whi#h they 'rodu#e u'on the 'atients themsel"esA3 ha"e had many o''ortunities of witnessing this effe#tA3n "ery many #ases they are e/amined with mu#h 'leasure and interest, )ut more 'arti#ularly in those whi#h mar the 'rogress and #ure of a se"ere atta# of Bental -)erration.H15?2 Kiamond8s #ourse of treatment was straightforward. He 'resented his 'atients with images of themsel"es that seemed to startle them into an awareness of their madness, )e#ause of the radi#ally realisti# image of them as demented. =hrough this #onfrontation with a Hrealisti#H image of their insane 'hysiognomy, they )egan to reali6e their own altered 'er#e'tion of reality. 3n his tal , he 'resented the #ase of H-. K., aged 5*,H whose Hdelusions #onsisted in the su''osed 'ossession of great wealth and of an e/alted station as a 4ueen.H15;2 He 'hotogra'hed her. Her rea#tion to the images she saw refle#ted the HstartleH effe#t inherent in the newness of the medium of 'hotogra'hy: HHer su)se4uent amusement in seeing the 'ortraits 1of herself in "arious stages of her illness2 and her fre4uent #on"ersation a)out them was the first de#ided ste' in her gradual im'ro"ement, and a)out four months ago she was dis#harged 'erfe#tly #ured, and laughed heartily at her former imaginations.H15:2 3f we #an e/tend Kiamond8s argument, we #an su''ose that the nineteenth0#entury alienist saw the 'atient0o)ser"er as sharing the im'li#ation of the 'hotogra'hi# image, the startle effe#t that a##om'anied the introdu#tion of this new medium of re'resentation. 3n further wor on the use of 'hotogra'hy as a means of 'sy#hothera'y, 3 dis#o"ered that other alienists of the 'eriod, su#h as Sir Lilliam Charles Hood, the dire#tor of the Bethlem -sylum, undertoo similar a''li#ations of 'hotogra'hy. 3 initially e/tra'olated #ertain )roader generalities a)out the rea#tion to the 'hotogra'h )y the first generation to see 'hotogra'hs after their in"ention in $>&%. 9=his first 'eriod o#0 + &;: + #urred a full de#ade later in Great Britain than in the rest of Euro'e )e#ause )oth Kaguerre8s and ,o/ =al)ot8s methods of fi/ing images were under 'atent during the $>?*s only in Great Britain. 3n the rest of Euro'e, the daguerreoty'e at least was in the 'u)li# domain )y the early $>?*s.< 3 )elie"ed that the

earliest 'hotogra'hs were su#h a radi#al mode of re'resenting the reality of the self as different that they had some ty'e of 'sy#hologi#al sho# effe#t. =hat is, they so disoriented 'atients as to where the already distorted line )etween what is real or unreal lay, that 'atients were for#ed to ree/amine their own 'sy#hologi#al #onfusions. 3 was #on"in#ed, howe"er, that it was the 'er#e'tion of the self, the image of the self as the mad 'erson, whi#h #aused the HstartleH effe#t.15C2 -nd that was the radi#al differen#e of the 'hotogra'h, as 'er#ei"ed )y those in this first generation to see 'hotogra'hs. George S. Layne, in an essay in $%>$, #ontradi#ted this finding, while still su''orting my sense of the radi#al )rea with e/isting models of 'er#e'tion.15>2 He un#o"ered the fa#t that the )rothers Lilliam and ,rederi# Langenheim 'ro"ided lantern slides for the HmoralH treatment of the 'atients in the Philadel'hia Hos'ital for the 3nsane a year )efore 9$>;$< Kiamond e/'osed his 'atients to their own images in the Surrey County Lunati# -sylum. But the Langenheim images were not of the 'atients, )ut rather were general images su#h as lands#a'es and street s#enes, yet they had sho# "alue in treating the 'atients. So it seemed to )e not the image of the self )ut the radi#al newness of the medium that #aused the HstartleH effe#t. @ne of the reasons that the HstartleH effe#t was so 'ronoun#ed as to )e useful in thera'y in the 'u)li# asylums was that the wor ing0#lass inmates of the asylums did not share the )ourgeois and u''er0#lass tradition of seeing and understanding "isual o)Ie#ts whi#h had de"elo'ed out of the Hrealisti#H 'hiloso'hy of Enlightenment art. E"en 'rints and engra"ings, understood as aestheti# o)Ie#ts, had )een, for the most 'art, out of the finan#ial rea#h of the 'roletariat. =heirs was a world with limited a##ess to imagesAthe a)sen#e of #hea' illustrated news'a'ers 9soon to a''ear in Great Britain in the middle0#lass form of the Graphic and the 'llustrated 4ondon ,e%s < meant that their world of images was the #rude )roadside with its lithogra'hed 9or indeed wood#ut< image. But the middle and u''er #lasses had a tradition of seeing and s'ea ing a)out art, at least in terms of the re'rodu#tion of the wor of art as engra"ings 9su#h as the Broulliet and Boreau de =ours images<. ,or them, e"en if the HstartleH effe#t o##urred 9or 'erha's )e#ause it o##urred<, the o)Ie#ts re#orded were understood in terms of a histori#al #ontinuity of 'er#ei"ing aestheti# images. -nd, indeed, the entire history + &;C + of early 'hotogra'hy is full of referen#es to the #ontinuity of the 'hotogra'h with earlier modes of re'resentation. - letter from Eli6a)eth Barrett Browning as late as $>?& refle#ts )oth the HstartleH effe#t and the language in whi#h it was arti#ulated: By dearest Biss Bitford, do you now anything a)out that wonderful in"ention of the day, #alled the Kaguerreoty'eNAthat is, ha"e you seen any 'ortraits 'rodu#ed )y means of itN =hin of a man sitting down in the sun and lea"ing his fa#simile in all its full #om'letion of outline and shadow, steadfast on a 'late, at the end of a minute and a halfQ =he Besmeri# disem)odiment of s'irits stri es one as a degree less mar"ellous. -nd se"eral of these wonderful 'ortraits . . . li e engra"ingsAonly e/4uisite and deli#ate )eyond the wor of the engra"erAha"e 3 seen latelyAlonging to ha"e su#h a memorial of e"ery Being dear to me in the world. 3t is not merely the li eness whi#h is 're#ious in su#h #asesA)ut the asso#iation, and the sense of nearness in"ol"ed in the thing . . . the fa#t of the "ery shadow of the 'erson lying there fi/ed for e"erQ 3t is the "ery san#tifi#ation of 'ortraits 3 thin and it is not at all monstrous in me to say what my )rothers #ry out against so "ehemently . . . that 3 would rather ha"e su#h a memorial of one 3 dearly lo"ed, than the no)lest -rtist8s wor e"er 'rodu#ed.15%2 Su#h 'hotogra'hi# images were 'er#ei"ed as a #lear #ontinuation of other, older means of the

re'rodu#tion of images. Eli6a)eth Barrett Browning8s "o#a)ulary is initially ta en from that of one of the fine arts, engra"ing. She is startled )y the 'er#ei"ed realism of the image, )ut she 'la#es it within the 7i#torian model of 'rogress in the re'rodu#tion of "isual images. =he 'hotogra'h seems to her to )e He/4uisite and deli#ate )eyond the wor of the engra"er.H -nd yet her 'er#e'tion of this new medium is su#h that it draws on the s#ien#e of the day, mesmerism, with its own HstartleH effe#t, as its initial analogy. -nd, indeed, the HartH of engra"ing is the most highly me#hani#al of all the fine arts of the 'eriod. =hese asso#iations, first )etween the "arious modes of #reating and re'rodu#ing images, and then )etween the aestheti# and the s#ientifi#, dominate the dis#ourse of the first generation to "iew 'hotogra'hs. -le/ander "on Hum)oldt, in a letter dated C Eanuary $>&% to the Ku#hess ,riederi e "on -nhalt0 Kessau, stresses this admi/ture: H@)Ie#ts that e/'ress themsel"es in inimita)le fidelity, light fi/ed )y the art of #hemistry to lea"e enduring tra#es within a few minutes and to #ir#ums#ri)e #learly e"en the most deli#ate 'arts of #ontoursAto see all of this magi# 9admittedly without #olor< . . . #ertainly s'ea s in#ontro"erti)ly for reason and the 'ower of imagination.H1&*2 =he mi/ of the language of s#ien#e and the language of art is #lear here with Hum)oldt8s + &;> + 'er#e'tion of the 'hotogra'h as the 'rodu#t of a s#ien#e rooted in the imagination, )ut 'rodu#ing aestheti# o)Ie#ts 9whi#h he sees as flawed in 'art )e#ause of their #olorlessness<. Edgar -llan Poe, in one of his $>?* essays on the daguerreoty'e, ma es many of the same "er)al asso#iations.1&$2 =hus the arti#ulation of the HstartleH effe#t in the middle and u''er #lasses 'oints to a #onfusion in the "o#a)ulary in whi#h this effe#t was to )e addressed: 3s it a #ontinuation of the older forms of re'resentation 9and therefore to )e #onsidered HartH< or is it a new and different mode of re'resentation 9and therefore to )e #onsidered Hs#ien#eH<N Lhat all were agreed u'on in that first generation was that the images were Hreal.H 3t was that Hrealism,H 'refigured )y the aestheti# theory of the Enlightenment, whi#h framed the 'er#e'tion of the 'hotogra'h and whi#h 'ro"ided the "o#a)ulary in whi#h the HstartleH effe#t was arti#ulated. =he 'resen#e of the HstartleH effe#t would seem to )e a uni"ersal among those indi"iduals e/'osed to the first 'hotogra'hs. 3t is no sur'rise that the first 'hotogra'her0 'hysi#ians, su#h as Hugh Kiamond, who in#or'orated the HimageH within their mode of treatment, were also #onstrained to see 9and to now< the 'hotogra'h in terms of its HstartleH effe#t. 3t is with the general understanding of the fun#tion of the 'hotogra'h that the aestheti# tradition of re'resenting the mentally ill )egins to )e su)merged and there e"ol"es a sense of #olla)orationA already im'li#it in the meaning gi"en to the realism of the 'hotogra'h )y do#tor and 'atient ali eA a)out the edu#ati"e fun#tion of images. But it is in the different fun#tion of images of the 'atient and images of the 'hysi#ian that the a''li#ation of this 'ro)lem in the history of seeing is to )e found. ,or with the #ra6e for the #arte0de0"isite, whi#h )egan in the $>;*s, all gentlemen and gentlewomen had to ha"e their 'i#tures ta en. 3ndeed, as 3 ha"e argued elsewhere, the "ery a)sen#e of 'hotogra'hs of those who understood themsel"es to )e 'art of the world of so#iety is an inter'reta)le fa#t.1&52 How "ery different for those whose images are ta en from them, the mentally ill, the #riminal, the maimed. ,or their images do not gra#e the storefronts of the 'hotogra'hersJ their images )e#ome ersat6 re'resentations of the nosology that they re'resent. =hese HrealH images, these images that startle, are images of the disease and not of the 'atient. -nd again it is the mo"ement from the aestheti# to the real, from the artisti# to the thera'euti#, from the image of the 'atient to the definition of the 'atient8s reality that lies at the #enter of this world of images. =he image is the essen#e of the 'atient, it gi"es the 'atient form. =he 'atient, or at least the 'resentation of the 'atient, 4ui# ly )e#omes the #reation of the 'hysi#ian8s sense of the #or0

+ &;% + re#tness of the 'atient8s disease. Lith the hysteri#, the "ery nature of the illness 'ro"ides for the 'atient a demand for the forming tou#h of the authority, for the #ontrol im'li#it in the world"iew that generates HrealH images. ,or hysteria is the #lassi# disease of the imaginationAnot of the uterusAas Char#ot 9and then ,reud1&&2 < understood. But the sha'ing of the imagination through the HrealismH of the 'hotogra'h lies )ehind the 'ilferage des#ri)ed in Gamgee8s a##ount of the Sal'WtriGre in#ident. ,or #an we imagine that the 'atient in the Sal'WtriGre is stealing )a# her identity, her sense of self, in remo"ing the image of the hysteri# from the gras' of the 'hysi#iansN

6edi.al and %estheti. 6odels *or the Re/resentation o* the Hysteri.

=he image of the hysteri# does not sim'ly arise out of Eean0Bartin Char0#ot8s 'ersonal interest in the "isual re'resentation of the hysteri# at the Sal'WtriGre.1&?2 Char#ot does not in"ent the a#t of HseeingH hysteria. His own interests in #a'turing the "isual as'e#t of his 'atients #om)ined with his own 'er#e'tion of his hysteri#al 'atients to re#ord the image of his 'atients as early as his first years at the Sal'WtriGre, the $>:*s. Char#ot #omes to his tas of understanding his 'atient with a long 'ersonal need to see and re'resent the 'atient. But his "iew is not uni4ue, it is 'art of a long0standing Euro'ean tradition of re'resenting the insane, into whi#h the image of the hysteri# must )e fitted. 3ndeed, it is a tradition whi#h is as mu#h 'o'ular as it is s#ientifi#. ,or Boreau de =ours8s image 'ro"ides us with another #onte/t for the stru#turing of the hysteri#Athe world of the hy'noti6a)le 'atient, the image of the mesmeri6a)le female. ,or hysteria, from the eighteenth #entury, is a disease of the imagination, not a disease of the wom). =he image of the 'atients of the 7iennese 'hysi#ian ,ran6 -nton Besmer and his students during the $C>*s 'ro"ides one of the eys to the re'resentation of the hysteri# at the end of the $>**s.1&;2 -fter his arri"al in Paris in the winter of $CC>, the re'resentation of Besmer )e#omes 'art of the tradition of re'resenting the insane. 3n a #ontem'orary #artoon refle#ting a mesmerist session, it is not merely that the 4ua# 'hysi#ian is indi#ated )y his ass8s ears. Bore im'ortant is that the 'atients gathered a)out the mesmerist8s Htu)H are re'resented in the traditional 'ose of the melan#holi# 9with head on hand on nee< and the lo"esi# 9swooning in the #hair<. =he latter )e#omes identified retros'e#ti"ely with the arc*en*cercle 'osition of the hysteri# 9in some of the histori#al writing of the mid0twentieth #entury<, )e#ause of the asso#ia0 + &:* +

=he image of the mesmerist. 9Paris: Bi)liothG4ue nationale: Ca)inet of Prints.< tion of the hysteri# with the se/ual 9in many different ways<, while the melan#holi# "anishes from any #onsideration as a forerunner of the image of the hysteri#. =he "isual re'resentation of the mesmerist and the 'atient are all means of limiting the s#o'e of the diseased to the identifia)le indi"idual. =he su''ression of the 'oliti#al radi#alism asso#iated with one of the most influential grou's under Di#olas Bergasse after the ,ren#h Re"olution meant that there was a general tenden#y to see the mesmeri# 'atient as an aso#ial )eing who only shammed illness out of a sense of so#ial uselessness.

Li ewise, the mesmerist was understood, not as a for#e for #hange, )ut as a 4ua# . =he #artoons of the 'atient and the 'hysi#ian from the $C>*s had already #arried that message. 3n one su#h image a mesmeri# healer, wearing an ass head, )egins to mesmeri6e a young, female sufferer.1&:2 Her 'osition e#hoes the asso#iation of disease and se/0 + &:$ +

=he Hass0mesmerists.H 9Paris: Bi)liothG4ue nationale: Ca)inet of Prints.< uality in the arc*en*cercle 'osition of the grand hysteri#, as she )egins to lie )a# in her #hair as her moral sedu#tion )egins. Birrored in the )a# ground is the re'resentation of the se/ual e/'loitation of the female 'atient )y the mesmerist, warned against in the se#ret a''endi/ to the Re'ort of the Royal Commission on Besmerism. Here the 'hysi#ian is as hy'erse/ual as the 'atient. 3n another image the #on#eit of the ass0mesmerists is re'eated.1&C2 =hey are )eing dri"en out of the s#ene )y the shining truth of the re'ort of the Royal Commission held )y BenIamin ,ran lin. Lhat is #entral to this image is that the mesmerists are re'resented as a #om'ound sign. =hey are )oth madmen and de"ils. =hey are "iewed as a 'arody of the images of the demoni# e"il s'irits released from the mad as healed )y Christ 9and his saints< in the traditional i#onogra'hy of madness. Here the s'lit0hoofed image of the de"il as well as the )roomsti# s asso#iated with flying wit#hes are em'loyed. But this image of the healer is also that of the insane, for the s'lit0hoofed figure is )randishing a s#ourge, whi#h is one of the traditional i#ons of the insane. =he figure of the arc*en*cercle in the re'resentation of the 'atient is here re"ersed. =he )lindfolded, na ed 'atient is seen in the #losed mesmeri# tu), not ar#hed )ut #olla'sing inward. =his #an )e seen as antitheti#al to another image of the mes0 + &:5 + merist healing 'ro#ess, the #ir#le of Hmagneti6edH hands, in whi#h a seemingly un#ons#ious female is re'resented in the left foregroundJ )alan#ing the 'ortrait of Besmer, the healer, in the right foreground. 1&>2 =he imagery of this re'resentation is tied to an understanding of the HmeaningH of mesmerism and the mesmerist treatment in the #ourse of the nineteenth #entury. =he disre'ute of the mesmerist, la)eled as insane or demoni#ally 'ossessed, and thus in need of the sort of #ontrol re'resented )y ,ran lin, -ntoine0Laurent La"oisier, and the Royal Commission, is #arried o"er into the disre'ute asso#iated with the "ery naming of the treatment. =he image of the 'hysi#ian, as well as the 'atient, is drawn into 4uestion in these asso#iations. Su#h images remain asso#iated with the idea of the hysteri# through the "isual re'resentation of the 'atient. =he mesmerism 'atient is understood at the #lose of the nineteenth #entury to )e one of the 're#ursors of the fin0de0siG#le hysteri#. =he image of the 'hysi#ian, as in the 'ortraits of Char#ot and Luys, must )e 4uite different from that of the mesmeristJ it must )e se'arated from the image of the 4ua# . Rather this image must )e asso#iated with the heroi# image of the alienist, the image of Pinel as a for#e of so#ial #hange 9li e ,ran lin<. Berely #hanging the la)el of the mode of treatment from mesmerism to hy'notism or ele#troli6ation was not suffi#ient. =he "ery relationshi' )etween the hysteri# and the 'hysi#ian must )e merged into the highest le"el of institutionali6ed medi#al re'resentationAthat of the image of s#ien#e in the s#ien#e of #reating images. =he image of the hysteri# in the medi#al literature of the nineteenth #entury is an essential image of

de"ian#e. 3t is an image that is ta enAat least in its most radi#al formAout of another #onte/t. =he #entral image of the hysteri#, the essential attitudes passionnelles in Char#ot8s "o#a)ulary of images, is a sign of 4uite a different diseaseAtetanus. =he arc*en*cercle stage of Ri#her8s image of grand hysteria 9and its retros'e#ti"e reading of the image of the swooning mesmerist 'atient< was #ons#iously modeled on an image ta en from the literature on the re'resentation of anatomy and 'athology for artists, rather than from a 'urely medi#al sour#e.1&%2 =a en from the se#ond edition of Sir Charles Bell8s 1ssays on the $natomy and hilosophy of 1#pression 9$>5?<, this image is rooted in a s'e#ifi# understanding of the nature of medi#al semioti#s. Bell notes: 3 throw in this s et#h to remind the 'ainter that in convulsion , although there may a''ear to him an a##idental and deranged a#tion of the mus#ular frame, there is no su#h thing in nature. 3t is a disease he is re'resenting, whi#h has defina)le sym'toms, and it will e"er 'resent itself with the same #hara#ters.1?*2 + &:& +

=he range of the 'ositions of the hysteri#. Gi"en )est in Paul Ri#her, Ltudes clini:ues sur le grande hystArie ou hystAro*Apilepsie 9Paris: Kelahaye U Le#rosnier, $>>$<, 'late ;. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + &:? +

=he o'isthotoni# 'osition. ,rom Sir Charles Bell8s 1ssays on the $natomy and hilosophy of 1#pression 9London: Eohn Burray, $>5?<, '. $*$. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< Bell8s o)ser"ation may well hold true for tetanus, )ut the o'isthotoni# 'osition #hosen )y him to re'resent the unaltera)ility of the relationshi' )etween sign and #ausation is ada'ted )y Char#ot and later )y ,reud and gi"en s'e#ifi# meaning in regard to the re'resentation of the illness of the ner"es and mind in the hysteri#. @ne must note that Char#ot is not the first HmodernH s#ientist to #all u'on tetanus as his ontologi#al re'resentation for HseeingH the )ody. Eohn Brown 9$C&;0$C>><, in e"ol"ing the #on#e't of the irrita)ility of the mus#les from the wor of -l)re#ht "on Hailer, argues that health and disease are not at all different states sin#e the for#es that 'rodu#e ea#h ha"e the same a#tion.1?$2 His e/am'le is a #om'arison of the normal #ontra#tions of the mus#les and the 'athologi#al a''earan#e of the o'isthotonus in tetanus. =he o'isthotonus is one of the most stri ing manifestations of any disease. But it is also an almost infalli)le sign for the 'hysi#ian, sin#e its out#ome is almost surely negati"e. 3n a world in whi#h the 'ower of the 'hysi#ian lay, not in the a)ility to #ure, )ut in the a)ility to foretell the #ourse of a disease, the meaning of this sign for do#tor and 'atient ali e was #lear. =hus Brown, Bell, and Char#ot all #all u'on the image of the o'isthotonus as a sign of the "isual inter'reta)ility of disease and, therefore, the 'ower of the 'hysi#ian8s insight o"er the disease. -t the end of the nineteenth #entury there was still a #lear need to 'ro"ide differential diagnosis )etween tetanus and hysteria for the 'ra#titioner. -mong other signs, tetanus was des#ri)ed as 'resenting H'ersistent rigidity with

+ &:; + tenden#y to o'isthotonos . . .H while hysteria 'resented Ho'isthotonos 'ersistent, and intense rigidity )etween #on"ulsions.H1?52 3n seeing the 'atient, little distin#tion was made )etween organi# and fun#tional defi#its. Char#ot in seeing the hysteri# e"ol"es his own system of re'resenting the disease. He sees the hysteri# as suffering from a wea ness of the ner"es and the disease as )eing #aused )y a trauma 9su#h as an a##ident or "iolen#e<. =hus the hysteri# 'atient was 'redis'osed to the diseaseAat least on#e he or she was e/'osed to some traumati# e"ent. 3t is #lear that Char#ot e"ol"ed this "iew through his treatment of the 'atients at the Sal'WtriGreAe'ile'ti# and hysteri#al female 'atients who were as different from him 9and his #lass< as was 'ossi)le.1?&2 =he #ounterargument to this "iew was e"ol"ed )y Eohn Hughlings Ea# son, whose initial interest was s'ar ed )y his wife8s e'ile'sy. =his "iew was one of uni"ersal sus#e'ti)ility. Seeing the disease as a 'attern of the dissolution of the higher fun#tions of the ner"ous system through the 'resen#e of a lesion, Ea# son understands the sym'toms of the hysteri# as signs of the lower 9and therefore earlier< fun#tions of the ner"ous system. =his e"olutionary model sees the sym'toms of the hysteri# as signs of the stru#ture of the more 'rimiti"e 'sy#hi# organi6ation. Both "iewsAthe "iew that #alls u'on trauma and )iologi#al 'redeterminism as well as the "iew that #alls u'on the model of the ner"ous system )eing layered to re'resent the e"olutionary history of the mindA #ome to )e a)sor)ed in the fin0de0siG#le de)ates a)out hysteria.1??2 -s early as $>>>, Sigmund ,reud #alls u' the figure of the o'isthotonus in the #onte/t of atta# s of hystero0e'ile'sy.1?;2 He #ontinues this argument as late as $%*> when he understands #oition to )e a form of Hminor e'ile'sy.H ,or Ha hysteri#al atta# is the refle/ me#hanism of the a#t of #oitionAa me#hanism whi#h is ready to hand in e"ery)ody, in#luding women, and whi#h we see #oming into manifest o'eration when an unrestrained surrender is made to se/ual a#ti"ity.H1?:2 =hus ,reud e/'lains the o'isthotonus as the antithesis of the em)ra#eAthe internali6ed ena#tment of #oitus. But this is an image that does not "anish, )ut is rather #onsistently transmuted. ,reud uses the image of the o'isthotonus as the antitheti#al image to #oitus within his initial rewor ing of Char#ot8s nosologi#al #riteria. Seeing the reality of the o'isthotonus as the ey to the somati# nature of hysteria meant understanding the #on#e't of trauma as e/isting in real e/'erien#e rather than in fantasy. SVndor ,eren#6i, in his #lini#al diary of $%&5, #an #all u'on Ha #ase in whi#h in rela/ation 98tran#e8< o'isthotoni# 'ositions did a''ear: when #onta#t #ould )e esta)lished with the 'atient, she re'orted that the 'osition was a rea#tion to a feeling of + &:: + 'ainful e/#itation in the genital 'assage, whi#h the 'atient des#ri)ed as 'ainful hunger: in this 'osition, 'sy#hi# un'leasure and defense against ardent desire are simultaneously re'resented.H1?C2 ,eren#6i tra#es this rea#tion formation )a# to the a#tual sedu#tion of the female #hild )y her father. -ll of these referen#esAand Char#ot8s own "o#a)ulary of images, es'e#ially the o'isthotonusAstem from a "o#a)ulary of images whi#h #learly 9at least in the medi#al literature of the nineteenth #entury< defined the line )etween the healthy and the diseased. =he o'isthotonus is a sign of the 'resen#e of a diseaseA whether a form of hysteroe'ile'sy or a signifier of 'athologi#al se/uality or a real sedu#tion. =here is a one0to0one relationshi' )etween the sign and the meaning. Gi"en ,reud8s own #om'li#ated formulas for the generation of sym)oli# meaning, already do#umented in detail in his $%** 'nterpretation of Dreams , it is stri ing that in returning to the su)Ie#t matter of the hysteri#, whi#h he and Eosef Breuer had )egun to e/'lain in $>%; as the result of the su''ression of real traumati# e"ents Athat is, 're#isely the sort of sedu#tion of #hildren )y adults in authority 9'arents< to whi#h ,eren#6i,

4uite o''osed )y ,reud, returns some three de#ades laterAhe re"erts to a 'attern of e/'lanation that relies on the meaning of the "isual image. =he asso#iation )etween images of the tetanal o'isthotonus is in no way limited to the neurologi#al literature #oming out of the Sal'WtriGre or out of the 7iennese s#hools of 'sy#hoanalysis. Kuring Lorld Lar 3, -rthur ,. Hurst refle#ted on the relationshi' )etween the hysteri#al etiology of Hwar #ontra#turesH 9H)attle fatigueH or 'osttraumati# neurosis< as o''osed to those #ontra#tures whi#h ha"e their origin in a lo#ali6ed infe#tion.1?>2 ,or Hurst the 4uestion of the differential diagnosis of hysteri#al #ontra#ture 9here lo#ali6ed in #ontrast to the full0)ody o'isthotonus< as o''osed to lo#ali6ed tetanus is 4uestiona)le. 3t is #lear that in time of war the duration of the #ureAa Hsingle sitting )y 'ersuasion and reedu#ationH in the first #ase or Hmonths of treatmentH in the latterAwould 'la#e em'hasis on seeing the maIority of su#h #ases as 4ui# ly heala)le. =he assum'tion in Hurst8s 'resentation is that the #onfusion )etween real 9i.e., somati#< and hysteri#al #ontra#tures ad"o#ated )y #ontinental neurologists su#h as Eosef Ba)ins i and Eules ,roment mar s a faulty distin#tion )etween a )iologi#al and a 'sy#hologi#al illness.1?%2 Su#h an argument would )e 'arallel to ,reud8s attem't to #olla'se the distin#tion )etween real e'ile'sy and hysteri#al e'ile'sy. =he images of the #ase of tetanus as o''osed to the hysteri# are, howe"er, 4uite illuminating. ,or the half0)ody 'ortrait of the soldier with his wound 'rominently dis'layed relates the image of the #ontra#ted arm + &:C + to the entire indi"idualJ the hysteri#al arm stands alone. Here the role of the re'resentation of the arm #omes to 'lay a #entral role. =he #ase des#ri)ed, that of HSergt. BH who Hwas wounded in the right forearm on -'ril $*, $%$C,H is Hre#ogni6ed as hysteri#al. . . as the deformity was identi#al with that shown in a 'hotogra'h of a so0#alled refle/ #ontra#ture in Ba)ins i and ,roment8s )oo .H 3t is the re'resentation of the hysteri# whi#h defines the disease and whi#h defines )oth the treatment of the disease and the 'atient8s res'onse: H@n the day of admission the hand was #ontinuously mani'ulated, the 'atient )eing 'ersuaded at the same time that it would ra'idly rela/. 3n ten minutes #om'lete rela/ation was o)tained and the deformity disa''eared.H =he relationshi' )etween seeing #orre#tly and the 'atient8s res'onse is here made a)solute. -s Elaine Showalter notes, the transition from the image of the female 'et 'atient of nineteenth0#entury #lini#al 'sy#hiatry to the image of the male sufferer from traumati# neurosis 9shell sho# < meant a drasti# realignment of the 'resu''ositions of gender.1;*2 Hurst sees the male hysteri# as ill )ut as 4ui# ly #ura)le, a fa#tor that sets the soldier a'art from the long tradition of more or less 'rofessional 9i.e., long0term< female 'atients at the Sal'WtriFre. Lhat he tea#hes his hysteri#s is to see themsel"es as HmenHAto #onfront their illness and return to ser"i#e. Eean0Bartin Char#ot 9and his #olleague Paul Ri#her< 'ro"ide the reader 9and "iewer< of these late nineteenth0#entury images of the hysteri# with a set of ante#edent images from sour#es other than the uns'o en one of the mesmerist.1;$2 3n their study of the re'resentation of the insaneAs'e#ifi#ally the hysteri# in the art of the LestAthey #reate their own history and #on#lude it with a #lini#al #ha'ter outlining their Huni"ersalH nosologi#al #ategories of hysteria, whi#h they see as H"alid for all #ountries, all times, all ra#es.H1;52 Char#ot and Ri#her )egin )y outlining the re'resentation of 'ossession in religious art from the early middle ages through the se"enteenth #entury. =hey offer si/ty0se"en illustrations, often in line form, to 'ro"ide "isual 'roof of the #ontinuity )etween the images of the Catholi# mysti# and the modern hysteri#. Beginning with the fifth0#entury re'resentation of 'ossession in the Romanes4ue mosai#s of Ra"enna to images of Saint Catherine of Sienna, Char#ot and Ri#her )egin to )uild their #ase for the 'arallel 9and therefore the uni"ersality< of their "isual #ategories of hysteria. =he assum'tion is that there is an e/'li#it #ontinuity )etween Catholi# religious e/'erien#e, as

re'resented )y the 'ra#titioners, and the neurologi#al 'athologies of nineteenth0#entury ,ran#e.1;&2 =hus the aestheti# re'resentation of e#stasy )e#omes a #lini#al sign of 'sy#ho'athology. =heir mo"ement is howe"er not merely on the le"el of the e4uation of + &:> +

=he image of the 'ossessed as the hysteri#. ,rom E.0B. Char#ot and Paul Ri#her, 4es DAnonia:ues dans l'art 9Paris: -drien Kelahaye et Emile Le#rosnier, $>>C<, '. ?. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. the religious0aestheti# and the #lini#al. ,or they #ite one image 9and te/t< from the general realm of medi#ine, and that is Sir Charles Bell8s image of o'isthotonus. =he 'assage they 4uote is identi#al to the one #ited a)o"e. =heir argument is that the image of o'isthotonus is 'arallel to a num)er of the images of 'ossession that they offer, s'e#ifi#ally the early se"enteenth0#entury image of Saint Dilus )y Komeni#ho Pam'ieri #alled Komeni#hino 9$;>$0$:?$<. Li e their dis#ussion of a s et#h for the #hild in Ra'hael8s Transfiguration , there is a stated assum'tion that the reality of the sym'toms of hysteria are e/a#tly 'arallel to the immuta)le reality of the sym'toms of tetanus. 3n their final #ha'ter, on the #ontem'orary re'resentation of the hysteri#, Char#ot and Ri#her draw on the images of the stages of the Hhysteri#al #on"ulsionH whi#h Char#ot had esta)lished in the $>>*s. =he 'arodies of religious e/'erien#es, from the 'osition of 'rayer to the 'osition of #ru#ifi/ion find their "isual re'resentations in this #ha'ter,1;?2 as does the #lassi# arc*en*cercle 'osition of the o'isthotonus ta en from Bell.1;;2 Lhat is most stri ing from the "iew'oint of the history of the re'resentation of the hysteri# is that there is a #ontinuity to the o"erall re#e'tion of the image of the hysteri# whi#h trans#ends the s#hool of the + &:% +

@ne of the to'oi used to de'i#t the history of the hysteri# is this s et#h for the #hild in Ra'hael8s Transfiguration . ,rom E.0B. Char#ot and Paul Ri#her, 4es DAmonia:ues dans l'art 9Paris: -drien Kelahaye et Emile Le#rosnier, $>>C<, '. 5%. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. + &C* +

=he self0#ru#ified hysteri#. ,rom E.0B. Char#ot and Paul Ri#her, 4es DAmonia:ues dans l'art 9Paris: -drien Kelahaye et Emile Le#rosnier, $>>C<, '. $**, lower image. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London.

Sal'WtriFre. =hus if we return to the British images ta en from -rthur ,. Hurst8s study of hysteri#al #ontra#tures, we #an see that Char#ot and Ri#her, in #iting images from Louis Basile CarrF de Bontgeron8s a##ount of the Eansenist mira#les,1;:2 had already set the stage for the re'resentation of the nonfun#tional lim) as a 'rimary sign of hysteria. =he lin )etween the female and the "i#tim of shell sho# is made through the re'resentation of the )ody 'art that ma es them una)le to )e mo)ile in a so#iety that demands mo)ility as a sign of grou' identity. =he meaning as#ri)ed to mo)ility from the eighteenth #entury to the twentieth #entury is 4uite different 9the middle0#lass woman )e#omes a full mem)er of the new religious se#t when she is healedJ the soldier returns to his fighting unit when he is healed<. But #entral to the image of #ure is the image of mo)ility. =he "isi)ly nonfun#tional lim), with the alteration in gait or in 'osture, mar s the hysteri# as diseased. =he images ta en from the history of religion ha"e already 'ro"ided a model for the re'resentation of the affe#ted area as the target for healing. =he analogy )etween the mentally ill and the enthusiasti# and(or rigorous fundamentalism of religious s#hismati#s su#h as the Eansenists had already )een made )y Phili''e Pinel in the wa e of the ,ren#h Re"olution. Citing a range of British sour#es in a ,ren#h Catholi# #onte/t, Pinel was for#ed to see the hy'ermoralism of the Eansenists as setting them a'art from ,ren#h so#iety. He la)eled them the 'athologi#al e4ui"alents of the Bethodists.1;C2 Char#ot8s #itation of Eansenism as the #entral "isual #lue to the history of hysteria ties the image of the hysteri#, not merely + &C$ +

=he religious #ure of the Hhysteri#.H ,rom Louis Basile CarrF de Bontgeron, 4a veritA des miracles operAs par l'intercession de !. de Bris et autres appellans demontrAe contre !. 4'archevB:ue de "ens , & "ols. 9Cologne: Che6 les li)raires de la Cam'agie, $C?;0?C<, as re'rodu#ed in E.0B. Char#ot and Paul Ri#her, 4es DAmonia:ues dans l'art 9Paris: -drien Kelahaye et Emile Le#rosnier, $>>C<, '. >$. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. + &C5 + to HreligionH )ut to the religion of s'iritual e/#ess, to religions su#h as Bethodism and, in a s'e#ifi# manner that will )e dis#ussed )elow, to the mysti#al religion of the Eastern Eews.1;>2 =he religious rigidity and the enthusiasm of the Eansenists #ame to stand for the 'er"ersion of the s'irit whi#h was as 'athologi#al as the diseases of the hysteri#. Paul Regnard )rings a series of the attitudes passionnelles in his 'hotogra'hs of -ugustine from the se#ond "olume of the 'conographie de la "alpBtriAre .1;%2 =hese images mimi# the 'ositions of the Eansenists, )ut they are without dou)t images of 'athology. =he 'arallels ma e )oth sets of images 'athognomoni#.1:*2 -s with the images of the Eansenists, the images of the hysteri#s are #losely asso#iated with "isual hallu#inations, with the seeing of what is not there as a sign of the falsifi#ation of the imagination. Lilliam Hammond, in his $>C: history of hysteria, #ontinued this Hli)eralH dis#ourse of the Sal'WtriFre whi#h asso#iated disease and religion. He noted that Hin these unde"elo'ed forms of )oth diseases, as noti#ed among the Eansenist #on"ulsionnaires, the affe#ted indi"iduals a''eared as if stru# )y the sight of some o)Ie#t )efore unseen, and the #ontem'lation of whi#h filled them with the most ra"ishing Ioy.H1:$2 Here the 'athologi6ation of seeing is the mirror image of the #lini#al ga6e of Char#ot, who sees the disease, the disease of the fantasy, the disease of religion.

=hus Char#ot and Ri#her underta e what many s#ientists of the nineteenth and twentieth #enturies doA to write the history of their own dis#o"ery in order to show its uni"ersality a#ross time 9if not a#ross #ultures<. But this history of the re'resentation of hysteria, drawing on the 'ower of the new se#ulari6ed religion of s#ien#e in dis'la#ing its ante#edent Christianity, )e#omes the model through whi#h the hysteri# is "isually #ategori6ed. =his tradition does not sto' with Ri#her and Char#ot. Students of Char#ot8s 'ro"ide some of the later material. Henry Beige 9after $%*$ the editor of the ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriAre < and Eean Heit6 )oth #ontri)ute essays to the ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriAre on the artisti# image of the hysteri# well into the twentieth #entury.1:52 Lithin the German tradition, the 'hysi#ian0historian0art #riti# Eugen Holl`nder in#or'orates many of these images in writing his history of the image of the im'aired in #lassi#al art.1:&2 Holl`inder 4uotes li)erally from the same "isual sour#es as Char#ot and Ri#herA#iting Ra'hael and the "arious images of religious 'ossession. Eean Rousselot #ontinues this image in his study of medi#ine in art into the 'ost0Lorld Lar 33 era.1:?2 His wor )egins with the re'resentation of the Gree s, su#h as the Ba##hi# s#ene of Hdying Ba##hante,H now in the !ffi6i. He #omments in his #a'tion: H3n 'oint of fa#t, a de'i#tion of hysteria. -t + &C& +

=he re'resentation of religious e#stasy as 'athologi#al sign. ,rom Paul Regnard, 4es maladies ApidAmi:ues de l'esprit: sorcellerie magnAtisme3 morphinisme3 dAlire des grandeurs 9Paris: E. Plon, Dourrit et Cie., $>>C<, '. %;. =he image is an engra"ing of a 'hotogra'h ta en from the 'conographie de la "alpBtriAe . 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + &C? + the far right, a hysteri#al woman, her )ody )ent in the sha'e of an ar#.H -ll of these wor s assume a #ontinuity of the meaning of the image of the hysteri# from the an#ient Gree s to their #ontem'oraries. -nd all of them stress the #ontinuity )etween the an#ient re'resentation of religious e/'erien#e 9rather than images of 'athology< and modern e/'erien#es of disease 9rather than religion<. =his asymmetry 'ro"ides a 'owerful su)te/t for the asso#iation )etween images of religion and those la)eled in the 'o'ular mind as )eing asso#iated with #ategories #onstru#ted as or la)eled as religious onesAsu#h as the Catholi# 9or at least the Catholi# #leri#< and, in an e4ually #om'le/ manner, the Eew. =he Hwarfare )etween theology and s#ien#e,H to 'ara'hrase the title of -. K. Lhite8s #lassi# nineteenth0 #entury study,1:;2 whi#h is 'layed out within the se#ulari6ed Christian dis#ourse of late nineteenth0 #entury 'sy#ho'athology, is nowhere more #learly e"ident than in Paul Regnard8s $>>C monogra'h 9with $5* images< on the "isual relationshi' )etween magnetism, mor'hinism, and madness, whi#h )egins with the "isual e4uation )etween the wit#h and the mad.1::2 Regnard, a 'hysi#ian and the 'rofessor of 'hysiology at the Dational S#hool of -gronomy, was the #oeditor 9with KFsire0Bagloire Bourne"ille of the Bi#Wtre< of the original, three0"olume edition of the 'conographie photographi:ue de la "alpBtriAre1:C2 as well as a well0re#ei"ed medi#al atlas.1:>2 His study of $>>C, whi#h is dedi#ated to H#her maitre,H Char#ot, assumes the interrelationshi' of all forms of mass hysteria. His first e/am'le is the wit#h. He 'ro"ides a series of 'lates from -)raham Palingh8s study of wit#h#raft to do#ument the "isual re'resentation of the wit#h as the Hgrand hysteri#.H1:%2 3n this #onte/t Regnard

)rings in other images of demoni# 'ossession from the Renaissan#e to the se"enteenth #entury 9'. ?$<, in#ludingAas one of the images that )e#omes standard to the re'ertoire of "isual 'roofAthe figure of the )oy from Ra'hael8s Transfiguration 9P. ;%<. 3t is assumed that these 'athologi#al 'ositions are indi#ati"e of the asso#iation with other forms of 'ossession, su#h as hysteria. =o ma e this a)solutely #lear in the reader8s eye, he re'rodu#es, in the form of drawings whi#h thus resem)le the format of the earlier images he has re'rodu#ed, a series of 'hotogra'hi# images from the 'conographie photographi:ue de la "alpBtriAre . @f these the image of the ga6e, the hallu#ination as e/'erien#ed )y the o)ser"er rather than the hysteri#, stands as the i#on of 'athology 9'. >C<. Regnard ma es similar "isual #laims in asso#iating the image of the hysteri# with that of the slee'wal er, the drug addi#t, and the 'erson suffering from monomania. 3mages are 'rodu#ed that draw on the "isual asso#iation of a)normal statesAthere is + &C; +

=he image of the wit#h. ,rom -)raham Palingh, 't $fgeruc(t !om*$ansight der Tooverye: Daar in het bedrogh der ge%aande Toverye3 naa(t ontdec(t3 en emt ge.one -edenen en e#emplen de.er 1eu%e aange%e.en %ort 9-msterdam: -ndries "an Kamme, $C5;<, '. ;*, as used in Paul Regnard, 4es maladies BpidAmi:ues de l'esprit: sorcellerie magnAtisme3 morphinisme3 dAlire des grandeurs 9Paris: E. Plon, Dourrit et Cie., $>>C<, '. $%. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + &C: +

=he re'resentation of a "isual hallu#ination, the #entrality of the eye and the ga6e. ,rom Paul Regnard, 4es maladies BpidAmi:ues de l'esprit: sorcellerie magnAtisme3 morphinisme3 dAlire des grandeurs 9Paris: E. Plon, Dourrit et Cie., $>>C<, '. >C. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + &CC + always the assum'tion that there is a normal image of the 'rodu#ti"e, healthy human, and the de"iant is mar ed )y e/ternal signs, su#h as 'osition, #lothing, handwriting, and so on. =hese signs re'resent the sym'toms of mental disorder, and all are interrelated )e#ause the signs are interrelated. But more than this is shown )y mo"ing from the wit#h 9and the torture and #ruelty infli#ted on the wit#h 1'. &&2 to the mira#les asso#iated 1as in Char#ot2 with healing the hysteri#, to use his term 1''. $&&, $&;2. Religion and its hy'o#risy, its antitheti#al relationshi' to the a#t of modern medi#al healing, are #ited, and the #ures of the #hur#h are as#ri)ed to the nature of the disease entityAto hysteria. =he #ure of the disease of hysteria is the mass hysteria of religion. =he model for this is the anti4uated one of homeo'athi# medi#ineAli e #uring li e. 3t is #lear that Regnard, li e Char#ot and Ri#her, is loo ing for a more modern a''roa#h to thera'yAto ele#tri6ation or to the newly rela)eled s#ien#e of hy'notismAfor their

#ure, not to religion. ,or the #hur#h, re'resenting the institutionali6ation of religion in #ontem'orary so#iety, is the root #ause of the hysteria, not its #ure. =he other #entral model #ited )y Char#ot and Ri#her in their s#ientifi# wor is the model of the e'ile'ti#.1C*2 Stemming from Char#ot8s initial o)ser"ations on his 'atients in the Sal'WtriFre showing the sym'toms of Hhystero0e'ile'syH 9his own #om'osite #ategory, whi#h ,reud )orrowed<, the "isual image of the differen#e of the hysteri# stems to no little degree from the tradition of re'resenting the e'ile'ti#.1C$2 =he image of the e'ile'ti# is in many ways 'arallel to that of the hysteri#. =hus the HsimulationH of the hysteri# is 'aralleled )y the H#ontradi#tions and e/aggerations of sentiment 1whi#h2 are salient #hara#teristi#s of e'ile'ti#s,H a##ording to Cesare Lom)roso. He #ontinues: HE'ile'sy has a disastrous effe#t on the #hara#ter. 3t destroys the moral sense, #auses irrita)ility, alters the sensations through #onstant hallu#inations and delusions, deadens the natural feelings or leads them into mor)id #hannels.H1C52 =his need to see the 'athologi#al #hara#ter of the e'ile'ti# as 'arallel to his or her disease is re'li#ated in the "isual image of the e'ile'ti#. Lhile many of the "isual images of the e'ile'ti# in the medi#al literature of the nineteenth #entury deal with the 'ro)lems of lo#ali6ing the )rain lesion,1C&2 there is also a tradition of re'resenting the sym'toms of e'ile'sy through re'resenting the 'atient. Charles ,FrF, in the ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriAre , re'resents hysteria as literally written on the s in of the hysteri#.1C?2 =he 'arallel image is to )e found in the re'resentation of hysteri#al ul#eration.1C;2 3f one e/amines L. Pier#e Clar 8s argument from $>%> that there are Htetanoid sei6ures in e'ile'sy,H one #an see the argument #oming full #ir#le to the organi# model + &C> +

=he sensiti"e s in of the e'ile'ti# )e#omes a tabula rasa u'on whi#h the disease #an )e ins#ri)ed. ,rom Charles ,FrF, HDote sur un #as de mFlanodermie rF#urrente #he6 un F'ile'ti4ue a'athi4ue,H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBtriAre , $* D.,. 9$>%C<: &&50&&%. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + &C% + of tetanus.1C:2 3ndeed, the fas#ination with the mar ing of the signs and sym'toms of disease on the )ody 'ermeates the image of the e'ile'ti# in ways other than the sear#h for the Ea# sonian )rain HlesionH that must ne#essarily #ause the sei6ures.1CC2 =hus there are images of the malformed hands of an e'ile'ti# woman or of the #or'oreal asymmetry of the e'ile'ti# female.1C>2 =he image of the e'ile'ti# is also found within the tradition of re'resenting the 'hysiognomy of the insane. =hus Lilliam -le/ander 'ro"ides the reader with a 'hotogra'h of ea#h of the 'atients whose #ases he re'orts in his $>>% study in order to 'resent their 'hysiognomy.1C%2 3t is the "isual a''earan#e of the e'ile'ti# that 'ro"ides the #lue to his or her s'e#ial, hidden flaw. =he lesion must, in some o"ert way, write itself on the )ody. Some essays, su#h as on the )aldness1>*2 or the altered a''earan#e of the hair1>$2 of an e'ile'ti# man as a sign of his illness, are more than reminis#ent of the e/traordinary images of the H'lin#a 'oloni#aH or HEuden rat6e,H the fantasy s in disease attri)uted )y Lestern dermatologists to the Eews of the East. 3n some of the re#ent histori#al literature on the history of e'ile'sy, mu#h of the same tradition #ited )y Char#ot and Ri#her rea''earAnow in the #onte/t of do#umenting the ongoing history of e'ile'sy. =hus images of religious e#stasy and 'ossession from the

early Biddle -ges a''ear as 're#ursors of the image of the e'ile'ti#.1>52 -ll of these images relate to the idea of the hysteri# as #ontinuous o"er time and a#ross #ultures. =his is the )asi# assum'tion of the definition of a 'ositi"isti# disease entity at the #lose of the nineteenth #entury. Kisease is real only if it is uni"ersal. -nd it is uni"ersal only if it #an )e seen and the a#t of seeing re'rodu#ed. =his latter a/iom is rarely stated 9e/#e't )y the head of the Sal'WtriFre8s 'hotogra'hi# ser"i#e, -l)ert Londe<, )ut it is assumed. =hus the image of the im'aired 'atient is the tou#hstone for the reality of the disease.

$reating a $om/osite Image o* the Hysteri.

3t is "ital to understand that the #reation of a history of the image of the hysteri# is not the same thing as Char#ot and Ri#her8s attem't to 'la#e the diagnosti# #riteria a''lied to hysteria in the distant 'ast 9while ignoring the more re#ent 'ast<. Lhat #an )e underta en in a limited way 9)e#ause of the e/traordinary range of "isual sour#es< is to s et#h the "isual as'e#ts asso#iated with the idea of hysteria at the turn of the #entury as a means of delineating the s#o'e of the image. =hus this se#tion will )e de"oted to a #atalog of those "isual 4ualities as#ri)ed to the hys0 + &>* +

@n the image of asymmetry of the e'ile'ti#, see 'late ZL3: H-symetrie du #or's #he6 une e'ile'ti4ue,H in ,. Raymond and Pierre Eanet, HBalformations des mains en 8'in#es de humard,8H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBtriAe $* 9$>%C <: &:%0&C& 9an e/tra#t from their )oo DF#roses et idFes fi/es 1Paris: ,. -l#an, $>%>2<. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. teri#. Le shall see to s et#h the )oundaries of the re'resentation of the "isual nature of the hysteri# in fin0de0siF#le medi#al literature. 3t is #entral to any understanding of this #om'osite image that the desire of all of these studies, no matter what their national #onte/t, is to 'la#e themsel"es within the myth of the realism of the a#t of re'resen0 + &>$ +

=he fa#e of the e'ile'ti#. ,rom Lilliam -le/ander, The Treatment of 1pilepsy 9Edin)urgh and London: .oung E. Pentland, $>>%<, '. $*C. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. tation and the highly s'e#iali6ed role that the 'hysi#ian 9as inter'reter< 'lays in re'rodu#ing and HreadingH the image of the 'atient. -nd this reading has a #lear relationshi' with the means of re'rodu#ing and disseminating the image of the hysteri#. =he startle effe#t has now )lended into an idea of a realism that indi#ates a #ontrol )y the s#ientist and the s#ientist alone o"er the new medium. 9-s anyone #ould ma e and 'ossess 'hotogra'hs after the mid0$>%*s, it )e#ame more and more

im'ortant for the s#ientifi# 'hotogra'h to )e the o)Ie#t of s#ientifi# inter'retation. =his attitude 'ermitted many inter'reters of the 'hotogra'h of the 'atient seamlessly to )e#ome the inter'reters of the new hermeti#ism of the Z ray when it was introdu#ed in $>%;.< =he reading of the 'hotogra'h had also )lended in with the aestheti# 9or, 'erha's )etter, artisti#< tradition into whi#h the HnewH s#ien#e of re'resentation had 'la#ed the image of the hysteri#. Char#ot and Ri#her, in a 'a'er they first 'u)lished in the 2ournal of ,ervous and !ental Disease in $>>&, stated the #ase )est. 3n noting the Himmo)ileH 'hysiognomy of a hysteri#al 'atient whose fa#ial mus#les had )een ele#tri#ally stimulated, they + &>5 +

3mages of the alteration of the hair in the mentally ill are already e"o ed in Karwin8s study of the nature of e/'ression. Here the image of the altered a''earan#e of the hair e"o es older images of the diseases of the Eastern Eews. ,rom Kr. R`iu)er, HEin ,all "on 'eriodis#h wieder ehrender Haar"er`inderung )ei einem E'ile'ti er,H 17ir#hows2 $rchiv fEr pathologische $natomie und hysiologie %C 9$>>?<: ;*0>&, 'late no. 5. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + &>& + o)ser"e: H=he 'hysiognomy retained immo)ile, in a state of #atale'sy. =he same is true of the attitude and the gesture that a##om'anied it. =he su)Ie#t of this transformed into a sort of e/'ressi"e statue, a motionless model, re'resenting with stri ing a##ura#y most "aried e/'ressions, whi#h artists, without dou)t, might a"ail themsel"es of to a "ery great e/tent. =he immo)ility of the attitudes thus 'ro"o ed is eminently fa"ora)le to 'hotogra'hi# re'rodu#tion.H1>&2 =hey then re'rodu#e a series of these 'hotogra'hs. =his argument is similar to that #riti4ue )y Lalter BenIamin in his essay from the mid0 $%5*s on the re'rodu#i)ility of images in the age of te#hnology.1>?2 ,or it is im'ortant to understand that o)ser"ing is not suffi#ient. Char#ot 9and Ri#her< turn the o)Ie#t o)ser"ed 9the hysteri#< into the wor of art and then are a)le to #ommodify this wor of art through the re'rodu#tion of her image within the s#ientifi# te/t. =his is not 4uite li e the #inemati# e/am'les that BenIamin )rings. 3t is mu#h more similar to the e/tensi"e 'hotogra'hi# re'rodu#tions of Hgreat wor s of artH whi#h dominated the middle0#lass mar et for art during the $>>*s and $>%*s. BenIamin8s dis#ussion of the He/#hange of glan#esH )etween the o)ser"ed and the o)ser"er #reates a #riti#al #onte/t for the learning e/'erien#e of the hysteri#. ,or it seems that the e/#hange of glan#es in this system of re'resentation is one )etween an aware hysteri# and an unaware 'hysi#ian. But the Sal'WtriFre ga"e )irth to other means of seeing differen#e and also of re#ording it. 3n many of these images the #onfusion )etween a#4uired 'athognomoni# signs and inherent ones is manifest. =here e"ol"es in the finde0siF#le dis#ussion of the 'hysiognomy the assum'tion that there is an a)solute relationshi' )etween the form of the s ull and the sha'e of the fa#e.1>;2 -nd gi"en the em'hasis on #raniometri# measurements as a means of s'ea ing a)out the nature of the mind('sy#he it is #lear that the relationshi' )etween the stru#ture of the fa#e and the mind, already 'resent in the 'hysiognomy of Eohann Cas'ar La"ater 9and his 'rede#essors< )e#omes an easy one. ,ran#is Larner summari6es many of the dis#ussions of his #ontem'oraries, su#h as Charles Karwin, in The 1#pression of 1motions in !en and $nimals 9$>C5<.1>:2 Larner stresses the Hresults of #ere)ral a#tion u'on mus#lesH rather than the Hsha'e of the )rain #aseH in see ing to find the sour#e for the asymmetry on

the fa#e of the hysteri#. She des#ri)es, howe"er, the e/isten#e of fa#es that He/'ress intelle#tualityH and others that e/'ress H"ulgarity.H =he latter are an e/am'le of the H#oin#ident defe#ti"e or #oarse de"elo'ment of the )rain0#ase and fa#e.H =he former are the result of Hthe ner"e0mus#ular #ondition of the fa#eH and are Hmore dire#tly indi#ati"e of the intelle#tuality of the )rainJ hen#e we should study a fa#e as the inde/ of the )rain, when it + &>? + is seen in a#tion as well as when at rest.H =his "iew #an )e seen as re'resentati"e of the medi#al literature of 'hysiognomy at the turn of the #entury. =he stress on the asymmetry of the fa#e, an asymmetry #aused )y the for#es of the mind, rather than the mar ed H"ulgarityH of the mental defe#ti"e, #an )e tra#ed )a# to Phili''e Pinel and his re'resentation of the Hmani#H and the HidiotH at the "ery )eginning of the #entury. =he #on#e't of asymmetry 9indeed all fa#es )e#ome asymmetri#al with the 'assage of time< #an introdu#e the im'ortan#e of an aestheti#s of the fa#e of the hysteri#. Eames Shaw stresses the Hswelling of the u''er li'H in #ases of H#hroni# hysteri#al insanityH as well as a Hfa#ial e/'ression 1that2 often indi#ates the 'resen#e of migraine.H1>C2 =he fa#e of the hysteri#, s'e#ifi#ally the hemi'legia that mar s the fa#e of the hysteri# at the Sal'WtriFre, is an o"ert sign of differen#e. 3t is a distortion of the normal fa#eAthe )aseline for the H)eautyH of the indi"idual.1>>2 -nthro'ologi#al literature of the eighteenth and nineteenth #enturies had de)ated the meaning of the "arieties of )eauty, es'e#ially female )eauty, throughout the world.1>%2 =he #onsensus was that there was a Hgreat #hain of )eautyH running from the )eautiful down to the ugly ra#es whi#h was 'aralleled within ea#h ra#e )y a normati"eAthat is, healthyAa''earan#e as o''osed to a si# a''earan#e. =his 'athology of a''earan#e underlies the re'resentation of the asymmetri#al, unaestheti# fa#e of the hysteri#. 3n a 'a'er )y Hurst 9$%$>< on )attle fatigue, the fa#e of the hysteri# mar s the indi"idual who #an )e 4ui# ly #ured and sent )a# into )attle.1%*2 But if the fa#e is mar ed, it is the eyes that 'ro"ide the real #lue. =he stigmata that mar the fa#e are most a''arent in the re'resentation of the eyes. ,or )oth the Hloo H of the hysteri# and the ga6e of the 'hysi#ian mar the hysteri#. Building u'on the nosology of hysteri#al )lindness de"elo'ed )y Char#ot as well as the Philadel'hia o'hthalmologist George Edmund de S#hweinit6, Lalter Baer Leidler tra#es the 4ualities of the eyes from the H#ontra#tures, s'asms and 'alsiesH of the Heyelids and e/tra0o#ular mus#lesH 9i.e., the re'resentation of the a''earan#e of the eye< to the manifestation of hysteri#al )lindness 9am)lyo'ia or amaurosis, 'artial or #om'lete loss of "ision<.1%$2 3n the wor of L. Lattes and -. Sa#erdote from the $%5*s, similar #hanges in the 4uality of the fa#e are des#ri)ed in the #ase of a hysteri#al 'seudo0hemorrhage of the eye.1%52 3t is the 4uality of the ga6e in the 'hotogra'hs of the 'atients that is stri ing. =he 'hysi#al anomalies re'resented also 'ro"ide the signs for the meaning read into the 'hysiognomy. =he droo'ing lids or the )la# eye add a 4uality of the a)normal, of the 'athologi#al, to the ga6e of the 'atient, mar ing him or her as diseased. + &>; +

- s#ul'ture of a #ase of hemi'legia from the tea#hing #olle#tion of the Sal'WtriFre. 9Paris: =he Sal'WtriFre.< =he disease that is sought is not in the eye. 3t is in the #entral ner"ous system, in the neural networ

that #ontrols the eye. 3t is in the )rain, the sour#e of all hysteria, that the sour#e of hysteria is to )e found. =he image of the )rain )e#omes the image of the internal error of the hysteri#. Eules Luys, in a 'a'er of $>>$, stresses this in )oth his te/t and in the a##om'anying images of lo#ali6ation.1%&2 E. Siemerling and E. Grasset see H#ere)ral0s'inal degenera#yH as the sour#e of hysteria.1%?2 3n the wor of the Ham)urg 'hysi#ian Paul Steffens the lo#ali6ation of the lesion is re'resented in the 'ost0mortem image of the )rain.1%;2 -ll of these sear#hes e"o e the s'e#ter of the )rain mythology that dominated mu#h of the lo#ali6ation studies at the end of the #entury. =he sear#h after + &>: +

=he eyes and the sight of the hysteri#. ,rom Lalter Baer Leidler, HSome @#ular Banifestations of Hysteria,H 'nternational &linics , 55d ser. 5 9$%$5<: 5?%05:$. Plate 9fig. ;< o''osite '. 5;5. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. the sour#e of the anomalous a''earan#e of the hysteri# was 4uite 'arallel to the sear#h after the origins of other neurologi#al disorders. -. -l6heimer re'resented su#h a sear#h in his $%$$ 'a'er on #ere)ral 'la4ues, using 'hotogra'hs of dyed )rain s'e#imens as his "isual 'roof of their e/isten#e.1%:2 -ll of these images were seen as ha"ing 'arallel "alue. Ea#h of them demanded 9a##ording to their inter'reter< a trained eye to see and re'resent the sour#e of the error. =he interrelationshi' )etween the s#ientifi# drawing and the 'hotogra'h, )oth understood as "eridi#al in lo#ali6ing the sour#e of the 'athology, stressed the ga6e of the s#ientist, in seeing the nature of the )rain through the inter'retation of the sym'toms. ,or the hysteri#, the sym'toms are often written on the )ody. =he + &>C +

=he )rain of the hysteri#. ,rom Eules Luys, HRe#her#hes nou"elles sur les hFmi'lFgies Fmoti"es,H 4'1ncephale: 2ournal des !aladies !entales et ,erveuses $ 9$>>$<: &C>0&%>, 'late C. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + &>> +

=he )rain stru#ture of the hysteri#. ,rom C. "on Hab lin and -. -l6heimer, HEin Beitrag 6ur Klini und 'athologis#hen -natomie der Lest'hal0Str[m'ells#hen Pseudos lerose,H 6eitschrift fEr die gesamte ,eurologie und sychiatrie > 9$%$$<: 5*&. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London.

fun#tion of the s in as the ma' of the )ody is one of the oldest to'oi of medi#ine. Reading the s in meant reading into the nature of the 'atient, his or her a#tions, and his or her resultant diseases. =he nineteenth0#entury literature on mastur)atory disease is full of su#h images,1%C2 as is, not sur'risingly, the literature on hysteria. =he a)ility of the hysteri#s to re#ord written images on their s in, the hy'ersensiti"ity to tou#h, )e#ame one of the most fas#inating sym'toms for the fin0de0siF#le 'hysi#ian. 3n the HmodernH -evue de l'hypnotisme a stri ing image of su#h Hs in writingH a''ears.1%>2 3n Saint Peters)urg the fin0de0siF#le image of the hysteri# was )rought into the #onte/t of the stigmata, not Char#ot8s, )ut the stigmata of Christ.1%%2 =he dis#ussion of the 'atient 'resented in this Hdiffi#ult #ase of hysteriaH #entered on the suggesti)ility of young Roman Catholi# girls. =he sear#h after uni4ue or strange manifestations + &>% +

=he ul#erated s in of the hysteri#. ,rom S. Leir Bit#hell, HHysteri#al Ra'id Res'iration, Lith CasesJ Pe#uliar ,orm of Ru'ial S in Kisease in an Hysteri#al Loman,H Transactions of the &ollege of hysicians of hiladelphia $? 9$>%5<: 5&&. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< of hysteria led S. Leir Bit#hell, whose rest #ure had )een generally a##e'ted as the treatment of #hoi#e )y the end of the #entury, to e/amine a #ase of a hysteri#al ul#er in a twenty0four0year0old woman. 1$**2 =he differential diagnosis to this ul#er was to the ul#eration of sy'hilis, whi#h was H"erified )y the mi#ros#o'e.H S. Rbna #ontinued the wor that Bori6 Ka'osi had )egun in 7ienna, loo ing at s'e#ifi# forms of the manifestation of s in eru'tions whi#h #ould )e la)eled hysteri#.1$*$2 =homas K. Sa"ill, in London, undertoo a similar study of the s in of his #hild 'atients and saw their hysteria ins#ri)ed thereu'on.1$*52 3n $%** Kr. Bettmann from the Heidel)erg Clini# of Lilhelm Er) des#ri)ed a further #ase of Haty'i#alH s in inflammation in the hysteri#J in $%*$, a #ase of hysteri#al gangrene was des#ri)ed in BuffaloJ in $%$%, a similar #ase in Pisa. By $%&* a maIor sur"ey of the nature of hysteri#al s in diseases was 'rodu#ed )y Ro)erto Casa66a in Pa"ia.1$*&2 -ll of these studies 9and more< are e/tensi"ely illustrated. -ll of them relate, on one le"el or another, to the general assum'tion 9#ountered )y Eean0Bartin Char#ot in his theory of hysteria< that sy'hilis or the 'redis'osition to sy'hilis 'layed a maIor role in the ris for hysteria. Bany of these studies of the s in 9su#h as that of Leir Bit#hell< relate the a''earan#e of the s in to the state of the genitalia, either in + &%* +

=he asso#iation )etween the sy'hiliti# and the hysteri# was made as mu#h on dermatologi# e"iden#e 9as seen on the s in< as on 'sy#hologi#al e"iden#e. ,rom =homas K. Sa"ill, H- Clini#al Le#ture on Hysteri#al S in Sym'toms and Eru'tions,H The 4ancet 9Eanuary &*, $%*?<: 5C&05C>, '. 5C:. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.<

+ &%$ + terms of gyne#ologi#al e/aminations that are 'art of the #ase study or in terms of a dis#ussion of the a''earan#e of the s in in the genital regions. Char#ot asso#iated hysteria with the area of the o"aries, those areas of heightened sensiti"ity in the hysteri#, a tou#h u'on whi#h #ould a#tually #reate hysteri#al e'isodes. =his fas#ination with the #om'ression of the o"aries as thera'y as well as etiology is lin ed in the medi#al dis#ourse of the 'eriod with the fas#ination a)out hysteri#al is#huria, the retention of urine and fe#es. =he num)er of #harts of the genital regions are legion, yet the num)er of detailed 9and illustrated< studies of the form and stru#ture of the genitalia are few. Ke SinFty, a histologist at the College de ,ran#e, 'u)lished a series of unillustrated #ase studies of the genitalia of female hysteri#s in the mid0$>C*s, su''orting Char#ot8s thesis of the #entrality of se/ual stimulation for the #reation of the hysteri#al e'isode.1$*?2 Lith the introdu#tion of Z0ray analysis there was e"en an attem't to re'resent the 'el"i# stru#ture of the hysteri#al female, as a means of re'resenting the disease.1$*;2 =he Z ray was )ut a te#hni#al inno"ation. ,or the fantasies a)out internali6ed hysteria had e/isted 'rior to Char#ot. 1$*:2 3n $>?C Eliogoro Guitti had 'resented an illustrated study of the hysteri#al gut.1$*C2 =he re'resentation of the e/tremities, es'e#ially the hand and the foot, refle#t not only the im'ortan#e laid u'on the hand and foot as signs of religious 'ossession 9stigmata, 'aralysis< )ut also the 'hysi#al signs asso#iated with e'ile'sy. Paul Sollier 'resents a #ase of #ontra#ture of the hand in a male hysteri# in the fourth "olume of the ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriAre .1$*>2 Some of the studies, su#h as those of Hurst, #on#entrate on the 'ro)lem of hysteri#al #ontra#tures, su#h as Char#ot8s Hglo"e anaesthesiaH in the hysteri#al traumati# 'aralysis of the handJ others on the a''earan#e of the hand, its #oloration 9usually )lue, a##ording to Gilles de la =ourette1$*%2 < and mar ed swelling.1$$*2 =he legs are similarly e/amined for the #ontra#tures of Hhysteri#al 'ara'legiaH 9and their #ure<.1$$$2 =he images ta en from Char#ot8s s#hemati# re'resentation of areas of anesthesia rea''ear o"er and o"er again to illustrate #ases of the diminished a)ility to feel 9and often to mo"e< the lim)s.1$$52 =he "isual re'resentation of 'osture and 'aralysis is used as a mode of "isual 'roof of Char#ot8s nosologi#al #ategories.1$$&2 3n an essay from the "ery first issue of the ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriAre in $>>>, )y Georges Gilles de la =ourette, we are not only made to see the hemi'legi# 'atient )ut also his gait, through a s#hemati# re'resentation.1$$?2 3n this #ase, des#ri)ed )y Henri Lamar4ue and Emile Bitot, there is a #omment on the 'late that they had intended to use a 'hotogra'h )ut an a##ident at the last moment ruined the 'late and they were for#ed to + &%5 +

=he Z ray 'ermitted the 'hysi#ian to see within the hysteri#. ,rom Eose B. Eorge, HCo/algia histFri#a,H -evista de la $sociacion !edica $rgentina &5 9$%5*<: $>05%, 'late o''osite '. >*. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< use a 'hotolithogra'h. =he form of the re'resentation )e#omes #entral to its message. ,or the 'hotogra'h remains more real than any other mode of re'resenting the hysteri#. =hus in an essay )y Byrom BramwellAone of the leading S#ottish s'e#ialists on ner"ous diseases su#h as hysteria and, one #an add, one of the leading )elie"ers in a set 'athognomoni# re'resentation of diseaseAthe 'hotogra'h remains the #entral 'roof for the differential diagnosis )etween HhysteriaH and its #ontra#tures and other forms of organi# disease.1$$;2 But this 'hotogra'h has )een 4uite e"idently #ut to remo"e the 'resen#e of the 'hysi#ian or nurse whose hands remain su''orting the 'atient. - similar underta ing #an )e seen

in the 'hotogra'h #ontra#ture re'resented in the essay )y -. Steindler in 3owa City, e/#e't here the 'atient is gi"en a staff on whi#h to rest.1$$:2 =he realism of the 'hotogra'h #on#entrates the ga6e of the 'hysi#ian0reader on the re'resentation of the disease in the image of the 'atient. Peter Ka"idson follows this lead with his 'resentation of a #ase of hystero0#atale'sy from Li"er'ool.1$$C2 =he num)er and range of Ka"idson8s + &%& +

=he hysteri#al gut as an internal manifestation of the disease. Eliogoro Guitti, H@sser"a6ioni Clini#he,H Giornale per "ervire ai rogressi della atologia e della Terapeutica , 5d ser. 55 9$>?C<: 55%05;>, 'late following '. 5;>. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< #ases 9running from rheumatoid arthritis to hystero0#atale'sy< would ha"e ena)led the author to illustrate any 9or indeed all< of his #ases. He #hose to illustrate the #ase of hystero0#atale'sy. -s late as in $%&*, in an essay )y Prin#e P. Bar er, at the 7eterans8 Hos'ital in =us egee, -la)ama, the image of the hysteri# )la# #omes to re'resent the image of the hysteri# whose lim)s are fro6en.1$$>2 !sing Char#ot8s #ategories e/0 + &%? +

=he hand of the male hysteri#. ,rom Paul Sollier, HContra#ture 7olontaire #he6 un HystFri4ue,H ,ouvelles 'conographie de la "alpBtriAre ? 9$>%$<: $**0$*:, 'late o''osite '. $*:. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. + &%; +

=he 'osture of the s#hemati# H'atient.H ,rom Henri Lamar4ue and Emile Bitot, HSur un #as d8hystFrotraumatisrne #he6 l8homme,H Bulletins de la "ociAtA d'$natomie et de hysiologie ,ormales et athologi:ues de Bordeau# % 9$>>><: 5?505;C, 'late with figures : and >. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + &%: +

- Hdo#toredH 'hotogra'h of the hysteri#. ,rom Byrom Bramwell, HClini#al Le#ture on a Case of Hysteri#al Contra#ture,H 1dinburgh !edical 2ournal , ns $ 9$>%C<: $5>0$&>, 'late ;. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + &%C +

-)o"e and "erso: =he hysteri# 'osed. ,rom -. Steindler, H@n Hysteri#al Contra#tures,H 'nternational &linics , ?th ser. ?; 9$%&;<: 55$055%, fig. 5, o''osite '. 555. Photos #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. 'ressly, Bar er shows three images. ,irst, an image of the Hnormal,H that is, 'athologi#al, 'osture of the 'atientJ se#ond, an image that in its )lurred state is to re'resent the range of motion in the 'atientJ and finally, an image of the )ody restored through Hetheri6ation and suggestion.H Here the im'a#t of the #inema on the idea of realism is e"ident. Lhereas in the wor of Lamar4ue and Bitot su#h an image would )e understood as ruined, here it re"eals a further as'e#t of the realism asso#iated with the a#t of 'hotogra'hing. @ne last form of realisti# re'resentation of the hysteri# should )e dis#ussed. ,or throughout the "ast literature of hysteria 9and other forms of mental illness< in the nineteenth #entury there are un#ounta)le + &%> +

+ &%% +

=he illusion of mo"ement in re'resenting the hysteri#. ,rom Prin#e P. Bar er, H=he Kiagnosis and =reatment of Hysteri#al Paralysis,H United "tates 7eteran's Bureau !edical Bulletin : 9$%&*<: ::&0:C*, & 'lates following '. :C*. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + ?** +

+ ?*$ +

+ ?*5 + #harts, gra'hs, and statisti#al ta)les. 3t is "irtually unim'ortant what sour#e one uses. ,rom the medi#al 'eriodi#als in ,ran#e1$$%2 to those in Ea'an1$5*2 or Germany,1$5$2 one #onsistent image of the hysteri# is that of the s#ientifi# redu#tion of the sufferer and the disease to s#hemati# re'resentations. =he #ry of these images is that they are the real, trans#endent image of the hysteri#. Li e Galton8s #om'osite 'hotogra'hs 9whi#h will )e dis#ussed )elow<, they gi"e the o)ser"er an image of the totality of the disease. =his fantasy of redu#ing the #om'le/ity of hysteria to statisti#s or #harts rests on a notion of nineteenth0#entury s#ien#e that e"erything is redu#i)le to non"er)al form 9read: mathemati#al<, and that is 're#isely the #laim of the 'hotogra'h. ,or on#e, it is said, you eliminate narrati"e, you remo"e the su)Ie#ti"e as'e#t from the e"aluation of the disease and you ha"e a real re'resentation of the 'atient. =hus the use of #harts and statisti#s in re'resenting the hysteri# is another "isual means of #reating an image of the disease, as sure as the images of the s in, or )rain, or #ellular stru#ture of the hysteri#.

Hysteria8 Ra.e8 and Gender

Sigmund ,reud8s reading of the an#ient Gree myth of the wandering wom), whi#h, when lodged in the throat, #reated the globus hystericus , #an ser"e us as a detailed e/am'le of the 'ro)lems attendant to HseeingH the hysteri#. 3t is well nown that ,reud, in the auto)iogra'hi#al a##ount he wrote of the o##asion some forty years after the e"ent, re#alled the )ad re#e'tion that his initial 'a'er on male hysteria had when he 'resented it )efore the 7iennese So#iety of Physi#ians on $; @#to)er $>>:.1$552 Returning from his wor with Eean0Bartin Char#ot in Paris and desiring to 'resent his newly a#4uired insights a)out male hysteria to his home audien#e in 7ienna, ,reud 'resented his 'a'er. His 'owerful re#olle#tion was that his hearers thought that what he Hsaid was in#redi)le. . . . @ne of them, an old surgeon, a#tually )ro e out with the e/#lamation: 8But, my dear sir, how #an you tal su#h nonsenseN Hysteron 1si#2 means the uterus. So how #an a man )e hysteri#alN8H1$5&2 ,reud8s angry memory was aimed at the narrow0minded #laim of the 7iennese esta)lishment, that it, and it alone, had #ommand of Gree . 3t was the young, ,ren#h0trained ,reud who new that the #on#e't of hysteria was tied to uni"ersals 9whi#h, at that 'oint, he understood as trauma< and was not merely a refle/ of the )iologi#al uni4ueness of a su)grou'. 3t was hysteria 9the hallmar of the new s#ien#e< that ,reud wished to res#ue from the #ra))ed #laws of a 7iennese medi#al esta)lishment that #ould not e"en get its Gree #orre#t, for hystera is the #orre#t form of the Gree noun + ?*& +

=he #hart as the re'resentation of the male hysteri# in Ea'an, as in the image of 'sy#hi# for#es in H. Dishi, H1Bale Hysteria Cured )y Suggestion2,H &hugai ';i "hinpo ?*; 9$>%C<: ;0%J ?*: 9$>%C<: $$0$:, image on '. %. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.<

+ ?*? +

=he #hart as the re'resentation of the hysteri# in Germany, as in the e"aluation of o'erations on the heating of the hysteri# in K. Rudol'hy, H@hro'erationen )ei Hysteris#hen,H 6eitschrift fEr /hrenheil(unde und fEr die 5ran(heiten der 4uft%ege ?? 9$%*&<: 5*%055$, 'late $C, o''osite '. 55*. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< for uterus. =hus the young Eew 9and ,reud understood himself from his e/'osure to the "irulent Hs#ientifi#H anti0Semitism of the 7iennese !ni"ersity as a Eew< showed his #ommand o"er not only the language of s#ien#e 9re'resented )y Char#ot8s dis#ourse on hysteria< )ut also the language of #ulture 9Gree <. 9=he signifi#an#e of this fa#tor will )e shown in the #ourse of this analysis.< ,reud8s understanding, li e the understanding of his time, was that hysteria did not manifest itself as a disease of the wom) )ut of the imagination. =his did not a)sol"e the female from )eing the grou' most at ris , howe"er, for the idea of a 'athologi#al human imagination stru#turally re'la#ed the image of the floating wom) as the #entral etiology of hysteria. Lhat was remo"ed from the + ?*; + #ategory of hysteria as ,reud )rought it )a# to 7ienna was its insisten#e on another grou', the Eews, whi#h re'la#ed the woman as essentially at ris . =he idea of the hysteri# was a #entral one for the imaginati"e world of Sigmund ,reud as it was #lose to his self0definition. ,or at the #lose of the nineteenth #entury the idea of seeing the hysteri# was #losely )ound to the idea of seeing the EewAand "ery s'e#ifi#ally the male Eew.1$5?2 ,or if the "isual re'resentation of the hysteri# within the world of images of the nineteenth #entury was the image of the female, its su)0te/t was that femini6ed males, su#h as Eews, were also hysteri#s, and they too #ould )e Hseen.H =he fa#e of the Eew was as mu#h a sign of the 'athologi#al as was the fa#e of the hysteri#. But e"en more so, the fa#e of the Eew )e#ame the fa#e of the hysteri#. Let us 4uote from one of the defenders of the Eews against the #harge of )eing tainted )y hysteria. Bauri#e ,ish)erg8s The 2e%s: $ "tudy of -ace and 1nvironment 9$%$$< states the #ase )oldly: H=he Eews, as is well nown to e"ery 'hysi#ian, are notorious sufferers of the fun#tional disorders of the ner"ous system. =heir ner"ous organi6ation is #onstantly under strain, and the least inIury will distur) its smooth wor ings.H1$5;2 =he origin of this 'redis'osition is neither #onsanguineous marriage 9Hthe modern "iew . . . 1is that they2 are not at all detrimental to the health of the offs'ringH< nor the o##u'ations of the Eew 9Hhysteria 1is2 . . . met with in the 'oorer #lasses of Eews . . . as well as in the ri#her #lassesH<.1$5:2 3t is the result of the ur)an #on#entration of the Eews and Hthe re'eated 'erse#utions and a)uses to whi#h the Eews were su)Ie#ted during the two thousand years of the Kias'ora.H1$5C2 =hese influen#es, found at the turn of the #entury 'rimarily among Eastern Eews, a##ording to ,ish)erg show the 'redis'osition of these s'e#ifi# grou's of Eews to illnesses su#h as hysteria: H@rgani# as well as fun#tional derangements of the ner"ous system are transmitted hereditarily from one generation to another.H1$5>2 3t is not all Eews who are hysteri#s, )ut Eastern Eews, and 'rimarily Eastern male Eews, a##ording to ,ish)erg: H=he Eewish 'o'ulation of 1Larsaw2 alone is almost e/#lusi"ely the ine/hausti)le sour#e for the su''ly of s'e#imens of hysteri#al humanity, 'arti#ularly the hysteria in the male, for all the #lini#s of Euro'e.H1$5%2 Here ,ish)erg, an -meri#an Eew, mis4uotes the ,ren#h 'sy#hiatrist ,ulgen#e Raymond,

who had stated that Eews of Larsaw formed a maIor se#tor of the mentally ill of that #ity.1$&*2 3t was ,ish)erg8s mis4uote of Raymond that )e#ame the standard "iew in German 'sy#hiatry.1$&$2 3t a''eared within ,reud8s #ir#le when 3sidor Sadger noted at the $$ Do"em)er $%*> meeting of the 7ienna Psy#ho0 + ?*: + analyti# So#iety: H3n #ertain ra#es 9Russian and Polish Eews<, almost e"ery man is hysteri#al.H1$&52 3t is the male Eew from the East, from the 'ro"in#es, who is most at ris for hysteria. =his "iew had )een es'oused )y Char#ot, who diagnosed on $% ,e)ruary $>>% the #ase of a Hungarian Eew named Klein, Ha true #hild of -has"erus,H as a #ase of male hysteria. Klein had a hysteri#al #ontra#ture of the hand and an e/tended num)ness of the right arm and leg. 3t was Klein8s lim'ing that Char#ot stressed. Klein Hwandered si# and lim'ing on foot to ParisH where he arri"ed on $$ Ke#em)er $>>>. He a''eared at the Sal'WtriGre the ne/t day, Hhis feet so )loody that he #ould not lea"e his )ed for many days.H Klein Hlim'ed at the "ery )eginning of his illness.H Char#ot reminded his listeners that the 'atient His a Eew and that he has already re"ealed his 'athologi#al dri"es )y his wanderings.H His Htra"el0maniaH #ould )e seen in the fa#t that Has soon as he was on his feet again, he wanted to go to Bra6il.H1$&&2 Klein also suffered from the standard num)ness as#ri)ed to the hysteri# on half of his )ody. Landering and lim'ing mar the hysteri#al Eew as diseased, and diseased )e#ause of in#estuous intermarriage. H. Strauss of Berlin, in one of the most #ited studies of the 'athology of the Eews, 'ro"ides a )ar #hart re'resenting the ris of the Eews for hysteria.1$&?2 3t shows that male Eews suffer twi#e as often from hysteria as do male non0Eews. Lhile it is #lear that women still are the 'redominant sufferers from the disease, it shows a #lear Hfemini6ationH of the male Eew in the #onte/t of the o##urren#e of hysteria. ,reud8s tea#her, the li)eral0Eewish neurologist Bori6 Benedi t, also lin s the H-meri#anH 4uality of life with the a''earan#e of hysteria, a disease that he understood as Ha uni4uely feminine ner"ous diseaseHAin men.1$&;2 =he struggle for life in the #ity #auses the madness of the male Eew: HBental an/iety and worry are the most fre4uent #auses of mental )rea down. =hey are all e/#ita)le and li"e e/#ita)le li"es, )eing #onstantly under the high 'ressure of )usiness in town.H1$&:2 =he reason for this ina)ility to #o'e with the stresses of modern life lies in Hhereditary influen#es,H that is, their )eing Eews.1$&C2 -nd that is written on their fa#es, as on the fa#es of women. Lilliam =ha# eray, in &odlingsby , his 'arody of Kisraeli8s no"els, has his e'onymous 'rotagonist re"el in the aestheti#i6ed sight of the Hringlets glossy, and #urly, and IettyAeyes )la# as nightAmidsummer nightAwhen it lightensJ haughty noses )ending li e )ea s of eaglesAeager 4ui"ering nostrilsAli's #ur"ed li e the )ow of Lo"eH of the Eews.1$&>2 HE"ery man or maiden,H loo s Eewish, )ut also loo s feminineJ He"ery )a)e or matron in that English Eewry )ore in his #ountenan#e one or more of these + ?*C +

=he Eewish hysteri#, as re'resented )y a #hart from H. Strauss, HEr ran ungen dur#h -l ohol und Sy'hilis )ei den Euden,H 6eitschrift fEr Demographie und "tatisti( der 2uden , ? D.,. 9$%5C<: &&0&%J #hart on '. &;.

9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + ?*> +

=he ideali6ed HEewish fa#e,H in a drawing )y the famed fin0de0siG#le 7iennese Eewish artist E'hraim Boses Lilien, is that of the female. 3n Bauri#e ,ish)erg, The 2e%s: $ "tudy of -ace and 1nvironment 9London: Lalter S#ott Pu)lishing Co., $%$$<, '. %;. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. + ?*% + #hara#teristi#s of his 'eerless -ra) ra#e.H Codlings)y muses: HHow )eautiful they areQH when the Iarring "oi#e of Rafael Bendo6a )rea s his re"ery: HK8you "ant to loo at a nishe #oatNH But the a##ent is not a true sign of the Eew8s differen#e: H-ll tra#es of the a##ent with whi#h he first addressed Lord Codlings)y had "anished, it was disguise: half the He)rew8s life is a disguise. He shields himself in #raft, sin#e the Dorman )oors 'erse#uted him.H =he asso#iation )etween the falsity of the language of the Eews 9whi#h is not merely a##ented )ut du'li#itous< is )alan#ed )y the HtrueH sight of the EewsAa fa#tor that =ha# eray 'arodies. Lhat remains is that the HsightH of the EewAthe registration of the e/ternal signs of EewishnessAis a truer indi#ator of the nature of the Eew 9or at least the 'er#e'tion of the Eew8s nature in =ha# eray8s relati"isti# manner of re'resenting the Eew< than is the muta)le sign of the Eews8 language, a language that is #orru'ted )y as well as #orru'ting the world in whi#h the Eew in the Kias'ora li"es. ,ran#is Galton a#tually tries to #a'ture this HEewish 'hysiognomyH in his #om'osite 9i.e., multi'le e/'osure< 'hotogra'hs of H)oys in the Eews8 ,ree S#hool, Bell Lane.H Galton 'ro"ides ty'es generated )y multi'le e/'osures. =here he sees the H#old, s#anning ga6eH of the Eew as the sign of their differen#e, of their 'otential 'athology.1$&%2 3t is in the Eews8 ga6e that the 'athology #an )e found. =his "iew is at least as old as Ro)ert Burton8s $natomy of !elancholy , where Burton writes of the Hgoggle eyesH of the Eews, as well as Htheir "oi#e, 'a#e, gesture, 1and2 loo sH as a sign of Htheir #onditions and infirmities.H1$?*2 But it is not merely that Eews Hloo EewishH )ut that this mar s them as inferior: HLho has not heard 'eo'le #hara#teri6e su#h and su#h a man or woman they see in the streets as Eewish without in the least nowing anything a)out themN =he street ara) who #alls out 8Eew8 as some #hild hurries on to s#hool is un#ons#iously gi"ing the )est and most disinterested 'roof that there is a reality in the Eewish e/'ression.H1$?$2 =he ga6e of the non0Eew seeing the Eew is immediately translated into a#tion. =he #om'le/ity of the Eewish res'onse to this "iew #an )e measured in Eose'h Ea#o)8s dis#ussion of Galton8s finding of the a)solute Eewish0ness of the ga6e: Co"er u' e"ery 'art of #om'osite - )ut the eyes, and yet 3 fan#y any one familiar with Eews would say: H=hose are Eewish eyes.H 3 am less a)le to analy6e this effe#t than in the #ase of the nose. . . . 3 fail to see any of the #old #al#ulation whi#h Br. Galton noti#ed in the )oys at the s#hool, at any rate in the #om'osites -, B, and C. =here is something more li e the dreamer and thin er than the mer#hant in -. 3n fa#t, on my showing this to an eminent 'ainter of my a#4uaintan#e, he e/#laimed, H3 imagine that

+ ?$* +

,ran#is Galton8s H#om'ositeH and H#om'onentH images of the Eew 9here the Eewish male stands as re'resentati"e for the Eew<. ,rontis'ie#e to Eose'h Ea#o)s, "tudies in 2e%ish "tatistics 9London: K. Dutt, $>%$<. Photo #ourtesy Lell#ome 3nstitute Li)rary, London. is how S'ino6a loo ed when a lad,H a 'ie#e of artisti# insight whi#h is remar a)ly #onfirmed )y the 'ortraits of the 'hiloso'her, though the artist had ne"er seen one. =he #old, somewhat hard loo in #om'osite K, howe"er, is more #onfirmatory of Br. Galton8s im'ression. 3t is noteworthy that this is seen in a #om'osite of young fellows )etween se"enteen and twenty, who ha"e had to fight a hard )attle of life e"en )y that early age. ,or the Eewish so#ial s#ientist su#h as Ea#o)s the ine/'li#a)le nature of the Eewish ga6e e/ists 9e"en more than the HnostrilityH that #hara#teri6es the Eewish nose< to mar the Eew. His rationale is 4uite different than that of GaltonAhe see s a so#ial reason for the Hhard and #al#ulatingH glan#e seen )y Galton, )ut #laims to see it ne"ertheless. =his "iew rea''ears within the medi#al literature in the wor of Eewish 'hysi#ians, su#h as Boses Eulius Gutmann, who writes of the stru#ture of the Eewish fa#e, of its ty'i#al form, as )eing the result of a #om)ination of features that 'rodu#e Hthe melan#holy, 'ained e/'ressionH 9the ne))ish fa#e< that is asso#iated with the Eew. ,or Gutmann, and others, it is the result of the H'sy#hologi#al history of the Eew.H1$?52 + ?$$ + Sigmund ,reud8s own fas#ination for Galton8s HfamilyH 'hotogra'hs must also )e stressed. ,or ,reud the #om'osite 'hotogra'h is "irtually the re'resentation of the dream in his 'nterpretation of Dreams 9$%%*<. 3t is an o)sessi"e meta'hor, whi#h re#urs throughout the #ourse of his wor .1$?&2 =he #entrality of this meta'hor is a residue of ,reud8s earlier a##e'tan#e of Char#ot8s relian#e on the a#t of seeing as the 'ri"ileged form of diagnosis. 3t is not seeing the uni4ue )ut rather the uni"ersal. -nd yet hidden within those #laims for uni"ersality are the images of ra#e whi#h Galton 'rodu#es 'arallel to his other #om'osites, in whi#h the eyes of the Eew 9read: Sigmund ,reud< and his ga6e are 'athologi6ed. =he #lini#al ga6e of the Eewish 'hysi#ian now )e#omes the o)Ie#t of the ga6e of study. =he image of the eyes, found in the #al#ulating glan#e of the hysteri# and the e'ile'ti#, rea''ears in the #onte/t of ra#e. 3n Henry Beige8s dissertation of $>%& on the wandering Eew in the #lini#al setting of the Sal'WtriGre, the image of the Eew and the ga6e of the Eew )e#ome one.1$??2 Beige underta es to 'la#e the a''earan#e of Eastern Euro'ean 9male< Eews in the Sal'WtriGre as a sign of the inherent insta)ility of the Eastern Euro'ean Eew. He s et#hes the )a# ground to the legend of the wandering Eew and 'ro"ides 9li e his su'er"isor, Char0#ot< a set of "isual Himages of -has"erus.H He then 'ro"ides a series of #ase studies of Eastern 9male< Eews, two of whi#h he illustrates. =he first 'late is of HBoser C. #alled Boses,H a forty0fi"e0 or forty0si/0year0old Polish Eew from Larsaw who had already wandered through the #lini#s in 7ienna and elsewhereJ the se#ond 'late is of HGottlie) B.,H a forty0two0year0old Eew from 7ilnius, who li ewise had )een treated at many of the 'sy#hiatri# #lini#s in Lestern Euro'e. Gi"en the e/traordinary mo"ement of millions of Eastern Eews through Lestern Euro'e, )eginning in the early $>>*s, toward England and -meri#a, the a''earan#e of these few #ases of what #omes to )e #alled HBun#hausen syndromeH should not sur'rise. Lithout any goal, these Eews HwanderedH only in the sense that they were dri"en Lest, and that some should see the sola#e of the #lini# where they would

at least )e treated as indi"iduals, e"en if si# indi"iduals, should not ma e us wonder. Lhat is stri ing is that Beige 'ro"ides images and analyses that stress the 'athognomoni# 'hysiognomy of the EewA es'e#ially his eyes. =he images ga6e at us, informing us of their inherent hysteri#al 'athology. =he Eew is the hysteri#J the Eew is the femini6ed @therJ the Eew is seen as different, as diseased. =his is the image of the hysteri# with whi#h the Eewish s#ientist was #onfronted. His HstartleH effe#t was to see himself as the @ther, as the diseased, )ut most im'ortant as the femini6ed @ther, the altered form of his #ir#um#ised genitalia refle#ting the form of that of the woman. + ?$5 +

=he Hwandering EewH as the model for the 'sy#ho'athology of the Eastern Eew. ,rom Henry Beige, Ltude sur certains nAuropathes voyageurs: 4e ;uif*errant a la "alpBtriCre 9Paris: L. Battaille et #ie., $>%&<, '. $C. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< Do wonder that Eewish s#ientists su#h as Ea#o)s, ,ish)erg, and ,reudAin "ery different waysAsought to find the hysteri# outside of their own self0image. ,or that image was immuta)le within the )iology of ra#e. ,ish)erg 4uotes the a##e'ted wisdom 9in order to refute it for himself and 'roIe#t it onto the Eastern Eew< when he #ites Ri#hard -n0 + ?$& +

=he image of HBoser C. #alled Boses,H one of the modern Hwandering Eews,H ga6es at the reader. ,rom Henry Beige, Ltude sur certains nAuro*pathes voyageurs: 4e ;uif*errant a la "alpBtriCe 9Paris: L. Battaille et #ie., $>%&<, '. 5;. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< dree: HDo other ra#e )ut the Eews #an )e tra#ed with su#h #ertainty )a# ward for thousands of years, and no other ra#e dis'lays su#h a #onstan#y of form, none resisted to su#h an e/tent the effe#ts of time, as the Eews. E"en when he ado'ts the language, dress, ha)its, and #ustoms of the 'eo'le among whom he li"es, he still remains e"erywhere the same. -ll he ado'ts is )ut a #loa , under whi#h the eternal He)rew sur"i"esJ he is the same in his fa#ial features, in the stru#ture of his )ody, his tem'erament, his #hara#ter.H1$?;2 -nd this #onstan#y of #hara#ter, with its de0 + ?$? +

=he 'hysiognomy and the ga6e of HGottlie) B.,H a forty0two0year0old Eew from 7ilna, H'ro"esH the 'sy#ho'athology of the Eew. ,rom Henry Beige, Ltude sur certains nAuropathes voyageurs:

4e ;uif*errant a la "alpBtriCre 9Paris: L. Battaille et #ie., $>%&<, '. 5%. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< "iant se/ual nature, leads to the disease that mar s the Eew, that leads to hysteria. Be#ause the etiology of the Eew8s hysteria, li e the hysteria of the woman, was to )e sought in Hse/ual e/#ess.H1$?:2 S'e#ifi#ally in the Hin#estuousH in)reeding of this endogenous grou': HBeing "ery neuroti#, #onsanguineous marriages among Eews #annot )ut )e detrimental + ?$; + to the 'rogeny.H1$?C2 Eews 9es'e#ially male Eews< are se/ually differentJ they are hysteri#al and they loo it. =he #lini#al ga6e of the Eewish 'hysi#ian now )e#omes the o)Ie#t of the ga6e of study. =he image of the eyes attri)uted to the Eew rea''ears in the #onte/t of the s#ien#e of ra#e. 3t is this )iologi#al definition of all as'e#ts of the Eew that hel's form the fin0de0siG#le idea of the Eew. =he s#ientifi# ga6e should )e neutral. =he s#ientifi# ga6e should )e )eyond or a)o"e all of the "agaries of indi"idual differen#e.1$?>2 -s George Her)ert Bead 'ut it: HKnowledge is ne"er a mere #onta#t of our organisms with other o)Ie#ts. 3t always ta es on a uni"ersal #hara#ter. 3f we now a thing, e/'lain it, we always 'ut it into a te/ture of uniformities. =here must )e some reason for it, some law e/'ressed in it. =hat is the fundamental assum'tion of s#ien#e.H1$?%2 But ra#e is )ut one of the #ategories of the "isuali6ation of the hysteri# that 'layed a role in sha'ing the image of the hysteri# in the #ourse of the nineteenth #entury. ,or the #onstru#tion of seeing the hysteri# too many different forms in 'ro"iding a #om'osite image of the hysteri#, an image in )its and snat#hes, an image that re"ealed the HtruthH a)out the hysteri#8s differen#e to him0 or herself. =he nosology of the H#ategoriesH of differen#e are really 4uite analogous to Char#ot8s #onstru#tion of the "isual 'attern of the a#tions of the hysteri#. @ne #an argue that ,reud8s intelle#tual as well as analyti# de"elo'ment in the $>%*s was a mo"ement away from the meaning of "isual signs 9a s ill that he as#ri)es to Char#ot in his o)ituary of $>%&< and to the inter'retation of "er)al signs, from the #rudity of seeing to the su)tlety of hearing.1$;*2 Char#ot understands the realism of the image to trans#end the #rudity of the s'o en word. 3n a letter to ,reud on 5& Do"em)er $>%$ he #ommented #on#erning the trans#ri'tion of his famed =uesday le#tures that Hthe stenogra'her is not a 'hotogra'her.H1$;$2 =he assum'tion of the inherent "alidity of the ga6e and its me#hani#al re'rodu#tion forms the image of the hysteri#. =he #entral argument that #an )e )rought is that this "o#a)ulary of seeing remains em)edded in ,reud8s a#t of understanding the hysteri#, who must )e seen to )e understood. =his is not 'resent in the earliest 'a'ers on hysteria written dire#tly under Char#ot8s influen#e, su#h as ,reud8s differential diagnosis of organi# and hysteri#al 'aralysis written in $>>:.1$;52 ,or ,reud the reIe#tion of Char#ot8s mode of seeing the hysteri# is also a reIe#tion of the s'e#ial relationshi' that the Eew has with the disease. =he theme of the s'e#ifi#, inherited ris of the Eew for hysteria 9and other forms of mental illness< was refle#ted in the wor of Char#ot whi#h ,reud translated.1$;&2 But e"en more so this general #laim a)out the hereditary ris of the Eew was + ?$: + lin ed to a diagnosti# system rooted in )elief in e/ternal a''earan#e as the sour#e of nowledge a)out the 'athologi#al. ,or the seeing of the Eew as different was a to'os of the world in whi#h ,reud li"ed. Satiri#al #ari#atures were to )e found throughout the German0s'ea ing world, whi#h stressed the Eew8s

'hysi#al differen#e, and in the wor of Char#ot 9and his #ontem'oraries< these re'resentations too on 'athologi#al signifi#an#e. 3ndeed, ,reud8s 'ur#hase of a lithogra'h of Brouillet8s 'ainting of Char#ot in -ugust of $>>% #an well )e understood as a #om'ensation of ,reud8s reIe#tion of Char#ot8s mode of seeing and re'resenting the hysteri#. 3ndeed, it must also )e understood as a #om'ensation for his a)andonment of his identifi#ation with the anti0Semiti# Eean0Bartin Char#ot1$;?2 Afor whom Eews, as the essential Hmoderns,H were at s'e#ial ris as hysteri#sAand his new allian#e with the 'ro"in#ial Eew Hi''olyte Bernheim.1$;;2 Su#h a mo"ement 'arallels the a)andonment of ideas of traumaAstill for Char#ot the #ause of hysteria 9in women as well as in Eews<Aand its re'la#ement with the etiology of hysteria in the 'sy#he. -s ,reud states: ,or 1the 'hysi#ian2 will )e a)le to #on"in#e himself of the #orre#tness of the assertions of the s#hool of Dan#y 1Bernheim2 at any time on his 'atients, whereas he is s#ar#ely li ely to find himself in a 'osition to #onfirm from his own o)ser"ation the 'henomena des#ri)ed )y Char#ot as HmaIor hy'notism,H whi#h seem only to o##ur in a few sufferers from grande hysterie .1$;:2 3t is the s#ientifi# Ho)ser"ation,H the ga6e of the Eew rather than the ga6e dire#ted at the Eew, whi#h mar s the distin#tion )etween Char#ot and Bernheim. ,reud8s #on"ersion to Bernheim8s mode of seeing the HusualH rather than seeing the Huni4ueH also mar s the )eginning of his reIe#tion of redu#ing the origin of hysteria to the single, traumati# e"ent. =his returns us to the 'ro)lem of defining the "isual 're#ursors for Char#ot and for ,reud. Le must tra#e the image of the e'ile'ti# and the meaning of traumaAtwo #learly lin ed images in ,reud8s "o#a)ulary of the hysteri#Ato see how ,reud8s reading of the hysteri# is lin ed through these images of trauma to the #entral image of differen#e, the Eastern Euro'ean Eews as hysteri#s 9or 'erha's more a##urately, 'ro"in#ial Eews as 'ar"enus, out of their minds )e#ause they are out of their natural 'la#e<. 3t is the dis#ourse on the relationshi' )etween trauma and hysteria that 'ro"ides the ey to ,reud8sA and many of his #ontem'oraries8Aam)i"alen#e #on#erning models for thera'y. =rauma is not a neutral #on#e't. =here has )een a general a##e'tan#e + ?$C + of the histori#al model of the Hrailway s'ine,H hysteri#al trauma resulting from railway a##idents, as a means of understanding the traumati# nature of hysteria at the turn of the #entury.1$;C2 3ndeed, in mu#h of the early wor on hysteria these images haunt the literature. =he hysteri# is the sufferer from traumati# neurosis similar to that #aused )y e/'erien#ing a train a##ident, as outlined )y Her)ert Page in his #lassi# wor , 'n;uries of the "pine and "pinal &ord 9$>>&<, and a##e'ted in toto )y Char#ot in his wor on the neurosis of fright or sho# . Both men and women are therefore e4ually at ris for su#h forms of 'sy#ho'athology. Hysteria is thus merely the dire#t 9)rain or s'inal #ord lesion< or indire#t 9sho# < result of trauma. -nd here the #onfusion )etween the models of hysteria e"ol"ed )y Char#ot and Hughlings Ea# son must )e stressed. ,or the traumati# e"ent #auses hysteria only in those who are 'redis'osed to )eing hysteri# 9Char#ot<, )ut the lesion #aused )y trauma also releases those su)terranean as'e#ts of our earlier e"olution held in #he# )y the highest order of neurologi#al organi6ation 9Hughlings Ea# son<. =he Eew is 'redis'osed to hysteria )oth )e#ause of hereditary and #onsanguinity 9in#estuous in)reeding< and, as we shall see, )y the trauma of #i"ili6ation as re'resented )y the Eews8 'redis'osition to the somati# diseases lin ed to hysteria, su#h as sy'hilis. =he fin0de0siG#le image of trauma is one with modern #i"ili6ation, with the train. -s Sir Clifford -ll)utt, Professor of Bedi#ine at Cam)ridge !ni"ersity, stated in an essay in the &ontemporary

-evie% of $>%;: =o turn now . . . to ner"ous disa)ility, to hysteria . . . to the frightfulness, the melan#holy, the unrest due to li"ing at a high 'ressure, the world of the railway, the 'elting of telegrams, the strife of )usiness . . . surely, at any rate, these maladies or the #auses of these maladies are more rife than they were in the days of our fathersN =o this 4uestion . . . there is, 3 now, )ut one o'inion on the su)Ie#t in so#iety, in the news'a'ers, in the )oo s of 'hiloso'hers, e"en in the Iournals and treatises of the medi#al 'rofession.1$;>2 -nd thus the railroad, railway a##idents, and the s'eed of modern life all #olla)orate to #reate the hysteri#. But nineteenth0#entury HrailwayH medi#ine fa#ed a dilemma that later fa#ed Sigmund ,reud. =raumaAsu#h as in"ol"ement in a railway #rashAis the #ause of hysteria, )ut why do not all indi"iduals who are in"ol"ed in railway #rashes )e#ome hysteri#N =his 4uestion was answered in 'art )y the neurologist C. E. Brown0SF4uard, who, as early as $>:*, had argued that there were hereditary transmissions of a#4uired inIuries, as in the #ase of Hanimals )orn of 'arents ha"ing )een rendered e'ile'ti# )y an inIury to the s'inal + ?$> + #ord.H1$;%2 =his "iew 4ui# ly )e#omes a standard one in the literature on Hrailway s'ine.H1$:*2 =he image of the hysteri# )eing at ris )e#ause of his or her inheritan#e limited the field from whi#h the hysteri# #ould )e drawn. =hus the 'hysi#ian #ould, under most #ir#umstan#es, see him0 or herself as a se'arate #ategory, as distan#ed from the hysteri# as from the #hild of al#oholi#s or #riminals. But not the Eewish 'hysi#ian. ,or the Eewish 'hysi#ian is at ris no matter whi#h theory of hysteria one a##e'ted.1$:$2 Some "iews using the model of )iologi#al determinism had it that the Eew was at ris sim'ly from inheritan#eJ some "iews sought after a so#iologi#al e/'lanation. But )oth "iews, no matter what the etiology, saw a resultant ina)ility of the Eew to deal with the #om'le/ities of the modern world, as re'resented )y the Rousseauean #ity. =he trauma of Hmodern lifeH was #losely lin ed to the image of the #ity. ,or nineteenth0#entury medi#ine 9whether 'sy#hiatry or 'u)li# health<, #ities are 'la#es of disease and the Eews are the 4uintessential #ity dwellers, the -meri#ans of Euro'e. Ri#hard Krafft0E)ing )elie"ed that #i"ili6ation regularly )rings forth degenerate forms of se/uality )e#ause of the Hmore stringent demands whi#h #ir#umstan#es ma e u'on the ner"ous system,H #ir#umstan#es that manifest themsel"es in the H'sy#ho'athologi#al or neuro'athologi#al #onditions of the nation in"ol"ed.H1$:52 ,or him 9and for most #lini#al 'sy#hiatrists at the turn of the #entury< the Eew is the ultimate H#ity 'ersonH whose sensi)ilities are dulled, whose se/uality is 'athologi#al, whose materialisti#, money0gru))ing goals are H-meri#an,H whose life is without a #enter. 3t is also the #ity that triggers the wea ness hidden within the #orru'ted indi"idual. 3t is its tur)ulen#e, its e/#itement, what -ugust ,orel in The "e#ual 8uestion 9$%*;< #alls its H-meri#anism,H that leads to illnesses su#h as hysteria: -meri#anism.ABy this term 3 designate an unhealthy feature of se/ual life, #ommon among the edu#ated #lasses of the !nited States, and a''arently originating in the greed for dollars, whi#h is more 're"alent in Dorth -meri#a than anywhere else. 3 refer to the unnatural life whi#h -meri#ans lead, and more es'e#ially to its se/ual as'e#t.1$:&2 =his is an image seen )y 'hysi#ians of the 'eriod as HEewishH in its dimensions. Eews manifest an Ha)normally intensified sensuality and se/ual e/#itement that lead to se/ual errors that are of etiologi#al signifi#an#e.H1$:?2 Eewish s#ientists, when they address this 4uestion dire#tly, see for a de"elo'mental rather than a hereditary reason for this e"ident higher rate of hysteria. =hey see out the two0thousand0year Kias'ora as the origin of trauma.1$:;2 But this does not free them. Gi"en the "iews

+ ?$% + of Brown0SF4uard, there is really little es#a'e no matter what the #ause. =he Eew )e#omes the hysteri# and the hysteria is measured )y the se/ual a)normality of the Eew. =hus when we turn to ,reud8s #ase studies, either in the #olla)orati"e "tudies in Hysteria of $>%; or in his later and mu#h more #om'le/ studies, su#h as his study of Kora 9$%*; 1$%*$2<, we fa#e the 4uestion of ,reud8s 9and Breuer8s< re'resentation of the EewAof his HseeingH 9or, 'erha's )etter, HhearingH< the Eew. 3n an earlier study 3 argued that the image of -nna @. in Breuer8s #ase0study #ontri)ution to the "tudies in Hysteria mas ed the HEewishnessH of Bertha Pa''enheim.1$::2 3n ,reud8s own #ontri)utions 9su#h as the #ase of Katherina or Biss Lu#y R.< there is the attem't to uni"ersali6e the image of the hysteri# through the #itationAnot of #ases of male hysteriaA)ut those of non0Eewish hysteri#s. But the #ommon 4ualities as#ri)ed to the hysteri# and the Eastern, male Eew remain #entral to the re'resentation of this nosologi#al #ategory for ,reud. =his #an )e seen in a #lose reading of what has )e#ome the e/em'lary H#ase of hysteriaH for our #ontem'orary reading of the history of hysteria, ,reud8s #ase of Kora.1$:C2 Seen )y #ontem'orary feminist #riti#s, su#h as HFlGne Ci/ous, as Hthe #ore e/am'le of the 'rotesting for#e of women,H1$:>2 it is also the #lassi# e/am'le of the transmutation of images of gender and ra#e 9mas#ulinity and HEewishnessH< into the ra#eless image of the feminine. ,reud used the #ase of Kora to argue not only for the ne#essary 'u)li#ation of #ase studies, )ut also for the needed mas ing of the analysand. =he disguising of the identity of Kora is #om'lete. =here is no sign in the #ase study of the Hra#ialH identity of 3da Bauer, the Eastern Euro'ean Eewish daughter of Phili' Bauer, whose sy'hilis was treated )y ,reud some si/ years )efore the )eginning of Kora8s analysis. Char#ot 9and ,reud< had attem'ted to distan#e the diseases of sy'hilis and hysteria, and yet a relationshi' )etween the two 'atterns of illness remained. =his omission, su#h as Eosef Breuer8s omission of his 'atient8s Hra#ialH identity in his narrati"e of -nna @.8s #ase, while in#luding it in his #ase notes, mas s a salient as'e#t of the #ase. Le #an )est 4uote ,reud in this regard, when he returns to the $>%; #ase of Katherina in $%5? and o)ser"es #on#erning his re'la#ement of the relationshi' with the 'atient8s father with the word Hun#leH: HKistortions li e the one whi#h 3 introdu#ed in the 'resent instan#e should )e altogether a"oided in re'orting a #ase history.H1$:%2 Perha's as im'ortant for our reading of the su''ressed as'e#ts of the #ase of Kora 93da Bauer< is the fa#t that her )elo"ed )rother @tto Bauer was one of the founders of the -ustrian So#ialist Party. His attitude toward his Eewish identity is of im'ortan#e. ,or -ustro0Bar/ism + ?5* + ad"o#ated #ultural0national autonomy for all 'eo'le within the di"erse Ha's)urg Em'ireAe/#e't for the Eews. =hese Bar/ists saw assimilation as ine"ita)le and 'ositi"e, and they tied assimilation to a distin#t distaste for .iddish 9and su)se4uently He)rew< as linguisti# signs of a negati"e se'aratism 9a sign that too on 'ositi"e meaning when as#ri)ed to C6e#h or Hungarian as HnationalH languages<. Lhile @tto Bauer was an HEastern EewH himself, as he was )orn of Bohemian an#estry in 7ienna, he was am)i"alent a)out the idea of ra#e. HRa#eH was an a##e'ta)le la)el for the other national grou's, sin#e it was asso#iated )y them with 'ositi"e ideas of autonomy, )ut for the Eews 9es'e#ially Eastern Eews< it was always a sign of the 'athologi#al.1$C*2 Bertha Pa''enheim, Breuer8s -nna @., stated it 4uite )aldly in an essay 'u)lished at the turn of the #entury. Raised in an orthodo/ Eewish home, for her the German0language s#hools de"elo'ed in the Eastern rea#hes of the Ha's)urg Em'ire were Ha stronghold, often #on4uered in )attle, in the fight against the malaise from whi#h Gali#ian Eewry

suffers as from a hereditary disease.H1$C$2 3t is the #ure of this hereditary disease that ,reud underta es in treating Kora 9and thus treating an as'e#t of his own identity<. =his is, indeed, the hidden meaning of the de"elo'ment of the idea of transferen#e and #ountertransferen#e whi#h is nas#ent in the #ase of Kora and why ,reud8s own understanding of this 'ro#ess is )lo# ed in this #ase. =he #enter'ie#e of ,reud8s study of 3da Bauer is, a##ording to ,reud8s argument, the attem't to e/'lain the origin of a #ase of hysteria through the analysis of the @edi'al triangle as 'er#ei"ed )y a 'atient whose o)Ie#t of attra#tion is of the same se/. =he #om'le/ relationshi's are )etween her father 9Phili'<, her mother 9K`the<, and KoraJ the father8s lo"er 9,rau K.< and her hus)and 9Herr K.<, the attem'ted sedu#er of Kora, who has traditionally )een the fo#us of the inter'retation of the study. Bu#h time and effort has )een e/'ended to understand ,reud8s #om'le/ misreading of this #ase. Lhat is #lear is that there are a num)er of misreadings )y ,reud in the te/t. Ea#4ues La#an 'ointed out one of the #entral ones: that the globus hystericus manifested )y Kora is inter'reted )y ,reud as the sym)oli# re'resentation of orality within a s'e#ifi# #onte/t in the #ase study. =he lo"er8s sedu#tion of the im'otent father is des#ri)ed in ,reud8s analysis as an a#t of fellatio rather than )eing understood as #unnilingus.1$C52 =his dis'la#ement is, howe"er, not merely the shift of ,reud8s fo#us from the genitalia of the female to those of the male. Rather it is a dou)le dis'la#ementAfor the a#t of fellatio is also the em)lemati# a#t of male homose/ual #onta#t. Lhat su#h a dis'la#ement means #an )e found if the Hs#ientifi#H #onte/t of the meaning of the a#t of fellatio in the medi#al de)ates of the nineteenth + ?5$ + #entury are followed. =hrough su#h a #onte/tuali6ation we #an outline ,reud8s understanding of the transmission of a HdiseaseH 9the #olla'se of language as re'resented )y the sym'tom of the globus hystericus in 3da Bauer< as ne#essarily asso#iated with the a#t of su# ing a male8s 'enis. Let us )egin with this misreading as a sign of ,reud8s re'resentation of the idea of ra#e in the guise of the re'resentation of the feminine, as it re'la#es the male8s genitalia as the o)Ie#t of attra#tionAand, therefore, sightAwith the woman8s. ,or ,reud the a#t of seeing one8s genitalia is one whi#h is es'e#ially HfeminineH: H=he 'ride ta en )y women in the a''earan#e of their genitals is 4uite a s'e#ial feature of their "anityJ and the disorders of the genitals whi#h they thin #al#ulated to ins'ire feelings of re'ugnan#e or e"en disgust ha"e an in#redi)le 'ower of humiliating them, of lowering their self0 esteem, and of ma ing them irrita)le, sensiti"e, and distrustful.H1$C&2 =he s'e#ial 4uality of seeing the female8s genitalia, genitalia normally understood )y ,reud as 'resen#e in the fantasy of their a)sen#e, 'oints toward the other genitalia, the male genitalia, seen )y the male, whi#h when HdisorderedH 'oints toward 'athologi#al nature of the male. But what is this disorderN 3n the #ase study it is, on one le"el, the origin of 3da Bauer8s understanding a)out the diseased nature of her genitalia, the sy'hiliti# infe#tion of her father. @ne of the most interesting 4ualities as#ri)ed to the father from the "ery )eginning of the #ase study is the fa#t that he was sy'hiliti#. =he relationshi' )etween the 'hysi#al trauma of sy'hilis and the image of the sy'hiliti# is #entral to understanding the image of the hysteri# whi#h ,reud e"ol"es in his study. 3n the #ase of Kora8s father, his Hgra"est illness . . . too the form of a #onfusional atta# , followed )y sym'toms of 'aralysis and slight mental distur)an#e.H1$C?2 ,reud diagnoses this as a #ase of Hdiffuse "as#ular affe#tionJ and sin#e the 'atient admitted ha"ing had a s'e#ifi# infe#tion )efore his marriage, 3 'res#ri)ed an energeti# #ourse of antilueti# treatment.H1$C;2 ,our years later the father )rings his daughter to ,reud for treatment. ,reud argues in a footnote for the retention of the relationshi' )etween the etiology of hysteria in the offs'ring and the sy'hiliti# infe#tion of the father. HSy'hilis in the male 'arent is a "ery rele"ant fa#tor in the etiology of the neuro'athi# #onstitution of #hildren.H1$C:2 Here is the traumaAthis #ase of hysteria is a form of hereditosy'hilis transmitted )y the father. ,reud8s em'hasis on this line of inheritan#e is not solely )e#ause 3da Bauer8s

father had e"idently 9a##ording to the a##ount in the #ase study< infe#ted her mother 9and therefore his daughter<, )ut )e#ause the general laws of the inheritan#e of disease whi#h were a##e'ted during this 'eriod argued that the son inherits the diseases of the mother 9and therefore her father< while the daughter in0 + ?55 + herits the diseases of the father 9and therefore his mother<.1$CC2 ,reud later un#o"ers another sign of this )iologi#al 'redis'osition in the fa#t that Hshe had mastur)ated in #hildhood.H1$C>2 =his is the lin that )rings together the trauma 9the sy'hiliti# infe#tion of the father<, the mode of transmission 9se/ual inter#ourse with a #ir#um#ised 'enis<, the Eewishness of the father as re'resented in his 'athologi#al se/uality, and the hysteri#al neurosis of the daughter. =he merging of "arious forms of illness, from sy'hilis to hysteria, is through the model of inherited #hara#teristi#s. =he HrealH disease is the degenera#y of the 'arent, and its manifestation in s'e#ifi# illness #an "ary from indi"idual to indi"idual.1$C%2 =hus sy'hilis and hysteria are truly forms of the same 'attern of illness. @ne reading of the #ase would )e to say that hy'erse/ual Eewish males 'ass on their Eewish disease to their daughters in the form of hysteria. But this dis#ourse is 'resent in ,reud8s te/t only if we #onte/tuali6e the meaning of sy'hilis within the #onte/t of ,reud8s self0definition as a Eew and that of his 'atient, 3da Bauer. ,reud #reates "ery early on a differential diagnosis )etween ta)es dorsalis 9a la)el for one of the late manifestations of sy'hilis< and hysteria, at least when it a''ears in a woman who is infe#ted with sy'hilis. He underta es this in an e/tended footnote at the "ery )eginning of the study in whi#h he do#uments the #entral diagnosti# thesis of this #ase study: that it is the ordered narrati"e of the 'atient a)out her illness whi#h is disru'ted in the hysteri#. 3n other words, the hysteri# lies: H=he 'atient8s ina)ility to gi"e an ordered history of their life insofar as it #oin#ides with the history of their illness is not merely #hara#teristi# of the neurosis. 3t also 'ossesses great theoreti#al signifi#an#e.H1$>*2 =he relationshi' )etween the se/ual etiology of the hysteri# and the hysteri#8s dis#ourse re'resents the underlying shift from an image of ra#e to one of gender 9for as we shall see, the dis#ourse of the Eew is a 'rimary mar er of differen#e<. =he #ountere/am'le is )rought in ,reud8s notes, a #ase study of a 'atient who Hhad )een for years . . . treated without su##ess for hysteria 9'ains and defe#ti"e gait<.H She narrates her Hstory . . . 'erfe#tly #learly and #onne#tedly in s'ite of the remar a)le e"ents it dealt with.H ,reud #on#ludes this H#ould not )e . . . 1a #ase2 of hysteria, and immediately instituted a #areful 'hysi#al e/amination. =his led to the diagnosis of a fairly ad"an#ed stage of ta)es, whi#h later was treated with Hg inIe#tions 9@l. #inereum< )y Professor Lang with mar edly )enefi#ial results.H1$>$2 Here the image of the Hdefe#ti"e gait,H whi#h is one of the hallmar s of the Hhysteri#H in the nineteenth #entury 9and the history #reated for this image at the Sal'WtriGre<, re#urs, only to )e re"ealed + ?5& + as the final stages of sy'hilis. =he irony is that it is Eose'h Ba)ins i whose neurologi#al wor at the Sal'WtriGre 'ro"ided the #lue for su#h an analysis of the im'aired 'lantar refle/1$>52 and Char#ot himself, in his wor on intermittent #laudi#ation, who 'ro"ided the ra#ial #onte/t for su#h im'airment. 1$>&2 9-nd, indeed, there is a lin of intermittent #laudi#ation to the image of the hysteri#.<1$>?2 3n this #ase of Kora, it is re"ealed only at the "ery #lose of the #ase that one of Kora8s 'rimary sym'toms was that Hshe had not )een a)le to wal 'ro'erly and dragged her right foot. . . . E"en now her foot sometimes dragged.H1$>;2 ,reud sees this Hdisorder, the dragging of one leg,H as ha"ing a Hse#ret and 'ossi)ly se/ual meaning of the #lini#al 'i#ture.H1$>:2 ,reud inter'rets this as a sign of the Hfalse ste'H

that Kora had imaged herself to ha"e ta en during the attem'ted sedu#tion )y Herr K. at the la e. Later ,eli/ Keuts#h, who treated 3da Bauer after she )ro e off her analysis with ,reud, o)ser"ed with sur'rise that the Hdragging of her foot, whi#h ,reud had o)ser"ed when the 'atient was a girl, should ha"e 'ersisted twenty0fi"e years.H1$>C2 =his remained a #entral sign for her affli#tion, a sign that is not solely the asso#iation )etween the a##ident she had as a #hild and the )ed rest that a##om'anied it. ,or the in#a'a#ity of gait is also a ra#ial sign in 3da Bauer8s 7ienna and is asso#iated with the Him'airmentH of the Eew. ,or it is the Eew, in a long -ustrian tradition as old as the eighteenth #entury, who is at greatest ris in ha"ing )oth im'aired gait1$>>2 and sy'hilis. 3t is this image in the #ase of Kora that lin s the im'airment of the sy'hiliti# and the hidden image of the Eew. =he asso#iation of the sy'hiliti# infe#tion of the father and the neurosis of the daughter is lin ed )y ,reud in his analysis of the 'hysi#al sym'tom of leu orrhea, or genital #atarrh, an in#reased Hdisgust1ing2 . . . se#retion of the mu#ous mem)rane of the "agina.H1$>%2 Kora asso#iates this with her les)ian HdisgustH toward Herr K.8s attem'ted heterose/ual sedu#tion 9in ,reud8s reading< and the feeling of his Here#t mem)er against her )ody.H1$%*2 ,reud8s #on#lusion is that for 3da Bauer Hall men were li e her father. But she thought her father suffered from "enereal diseaseAfor had he not handed it on to her and to her motherN She might therefore ha"e imagined to herself that all men suffered from "enereal disease, and naturally her #on#e'tion of "enereal disease was modelled u'on her one e/'erien#e of itAa 'ersonal one at that. =o suffer from "enereal disease, therefore, meant for her to )e affli#ted with a disgusting dis#harge.H1$%$2 ,reud thus inter'rets one of two dreams narrated to him )y Kora in terms of the #onne#tion among the Hdisgusting #atarrh,H the wetness of )ed0wetting and mastur)ation, and her mother8s #om'ulsi"e #leanliness. H=he two grou's of ideas met in + ?5? +

Char#ot8s diagnosti# #ategory of intermittent #laudi#ation was used as a mar er for ra#ial differen#e. ,rom P. @li"ier and -. Hali'rF, HClaudi#ation intermittente #he6 un homme hystFri4ue atteint de 'ouls lent 'ermanen,H 4a ,ormandie !Adicale $$ 9$>%:<: 5&. 9Bethesda, Bd.: Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine.< + ?5; + this one thought: 8Bother got )oth things from father: the se/ual wetness and the dirtying dis#harge.8H1$%52 3n the re#urrent dream the #onne#tion 9right word< is made through the sym)oli# re'resentation of the Hdro's,H the Iewels that her mother wishes to res#ue from the fire that threatens the family.1$%&2 ,reud inter'rets the Hdro'sHAthe Iewelry 1"chmuc( 2Aas a swit#h0word, while HIewelryH 1"chmuc( 2 was ta en as an e4ui"alent to H#leanH and thus as a rather for#ed #ontrary of Hdirtied.H1$%?2 ,reud stresses that the HIewelsH )e#ome a HIewel#aseH in the dream and that this term 9"chmuc((asten < is Ha term #ommonly used to des#ri)e female genitals that are imma#ulate and inta#t.H1$%;2 @ne #an add another layer of misreading. -s 3 ha"e shown, there is a su)te/t in the hidden language of the Eews. 3n 7iennese ur)an diale#t, )orrowed from .iddish, "chmoc( has another meaning. "chmoc( e"en in German ur)an ideole#t had #ome to )e the standard slang term for the male genitals. =he hidden meaning of the language of the Eews is identi#al to the lying of the hysteri#, the #entral

sym'tom of hysteria, a##ording to ,reud. =his transferen#e #an )e seen in ,reud8s early des#ri'tion of the dis#ourse of two Eastern male Eews in a letter to his friend Emil ,luss on the return tri' from ,rei)urg to 7ienna in $>C5: Dow this Eew tal ed the same way as 3 had heard thousands of others tal )efore, e"en in ,rei)urg. His fa#e seemed familiarAhe was ty'i#al. So was the )oy with whom he dis#ussed religion. He was #ut from the #loth from whi#h fate ma es swindlers when the time is ri'e: #unning, menda#ious, e't )y his adoring relati"es in the )elief that he is a great talent, )ut un'rin#i'led and without #hara#ter. 3 ha"e enough of this ra))le.1$%:2 =he misreading of the te/t is a re'ression of the dis#ourse of the male Eastern EewAthe 'ar"enu mar ed )y his language and dis#ourse as different and diseased. Hidden within the female genitalia 9the "chmuc((asten < is the image of the male Eew as re'resented )y his genitalia 9the "chmoc( <. =he re'la#ement of the HEewishH 'enisAidentifia)le as #ir#um#ised and, as we shall see, as diseased, )y the HGermanH "agina stands at the #enter of ,reud8s re"ision of the identity of 3da Bauer. 3n my study 2e%ish "elf*Hatred , 3 ha"e e/tensi"ely shown that an an#ient Lestern tradition la)els the language of the Eew as #orru't and #orru'ting, as the sign of the inherent differen#e of the Eew.1$%C2 =his tradition sees the Eew as inherently una)le to ha"e #ommand of any HLesternHAthat is, #ulturalA language 9indeed, e"en the Hholy language,H He)rew<. =he Eew is not only Hnot of our )lood,H as Bonsignor Eose'h ,rings of Cologne e/'ressed it in $%?5, )ut also Hdoes not s'ea our language.H1$%>2 ,or the a##ulturated Eastern Eew in 7ienna, mauscheln , + ?5: + the s'ea ing of German with a .iddish a##ent, intonation, or "o#a)ulary, is the sign of this differen#e. -nd this is the language of ,reud8s mother, -malia ,reud nFe Dathanson, the in"isi)le woman in all of his auto)iogra'hi#al a##ounts. -s ,reud8s son Bartin noted, she was a Gali#ian Eew from Brody who remained a ty'i#al Polish Eew, Him'atient, self0willed, shar'0witted and highly intelligent.H She retained the language, manner, and )eliefs of Gali#ia: 1She was2 a)solutely different from Eews who had li"ed in the Lest for some generations. . . . =hese Gali#ian Eews had little gra#e and no mannersJ and their women were #ertainly not what we should #all Hladies.H =hey were highly emotional and easily #arried away )y their feelings. . . . =hey were not easy to li"e with, and grandmother, a true re'resentati"e of her ra#e, was no e/#e'tion. She had great "itality and mu#h im'atien#e. 1$%%2 3t is in the image of the mother that the 4ualities as#ri)ed to the hysteri#, to 3da Bauer, #an )e found. 3n su''ressing the shift of language, ,reud also su''resses the HhiddenH referen#e to the HEewishH 'enis. =he hidden dis#ourse of the Eew, hidden within the high German #ulture dis#ourse, is ignored. =his HmisreadingH of the female for the male organ is in truth a HmisseeingH of the genitalia as ,reud tra#es the origin of 3da Bauer8s nowledge of the a#t of fellatio, the HseeingH as well as su# ing of the male mem)er. ,reud understands this Hso0#alled se/ual 'er"ersionH as )eing H"ery widely diffused among the whole 'o'ulation, as e"eryone nows e/#e't medi#al writers u'on the su)Ie#t. @r, 3 should rather say, they now it tooJ only they ta e #are to forget it at the moment when they ta e u' their 'ens to write a)out it. So it is not to )e wondered at that this hysteri#al girl of nineteen, who had heard of the o##urren#e of su#h a method of se/ual inter#ourse 9su# ing at the male organ<, should ha"e de"elo'ed an un#ons#ious 'hantasy of this sort and should ha"e gi"en it e/'ression )y an irritation in her throat and )y #oughing.H15**2 ,reud re'orts that Kora8s go"erness, to whom she was e"idently as attra#ted as she was to ,rau K., Hused to read e"ery sort of )oo on se/ual life and similar o)Ie#ts, and tal ed to the

girl a)out them, at the same time as ing her 4uite fran ly not to mention their #on"ersations to her 'arents, as one #ould ne"er tell what line they might ta e a)out them.H15*$2 But it is #lear a##ording to 3da Bauer8s a##ount that she did not only HhearH a)out su#h se/ual a#ti"ity )ut learned a)out it in 4uite another way. Later in the #ase study, after ,reud had )egun to e/'lain the homose/ual attra#tion whi#h Kora felt for ,rau K., this narrati"e shifts. + ?5C + -fter Kora8s father writes to Herr K. to demand an e/'lanation of his a#tions toward his daughter, Herr K. Hs'o e of her with dis'aragement, and 'rodu#ed as his trum' #ard the refle#tion that no girl who read su#h )oo s and was interested in su#h things #ould ha"e any title to a man8s res'e#t. ,rau K. had )etrayed her and had #alumniated herJ for it had only )een with her that she had read Bantega66a and dis#ussed for)idden to'i#s.H15*52 3t is the )oo , a foreign )oo , that Hinfe#tsH her, and ma es her Hsi# ,H that is, Hhysteri#.H Li e her go"erness, ,rau K. had used her to get a##ess to her father. =his HerrorH in ,reud8s image of the etiology of hysteria is a dis'la#ement of the image of the infe#ted and the infe#ting onto the world of high #ultureAnot HGermanH high #ulture 9Bildung <, of #ourse, )ut the medi#al #ulture of the se/ologist. Paolo Bantega66a 9$>&$0$%*$< was one of the standard ethnologi#al sour#es for the late nineteenth #entury for the nature of human se/uality. His three0"olume study of the 'hysiology of lo"e, the hygiene of lo"e, and the anthro'ology of lo"e was the standard 'o'ular introdu#tion to the a##e'ta)le so#ial dis#ourse on se/uality in late nineteenth0#entury Euro'e.15*&2 His im'ortan#e for ,reud should not )e underestimated. @ne of a grou' of 'hysi#ian0anthro'ologists 9su#h as Cesare Lom)roso<, Bantega66a had 'ioneered the introdu#tion of the study 9and enIoyment< of 1rthro#ylon coca and its deri"ati"e, #o#aine, in the late $>;*s. ,ollowing the 'u)li#ation of Karwin8s Descent of !an , Bantega66a )e#ame one of Karwin8s most a"id #orres'ondents 9and sour#es<, su''lying Karwin with a series of Hanthro'ologi#alH 'hotogra'hs that Karwin used for his later wor . Bantega66a8s wor , li e that of Char#ot, em'hasi6ed the HseeingH of differen#e, a "iew that is e'itomi6ed in Bantega66a8s )asi# study of 'hysiognomy and e/'ression of $>>;. But for late nineteenth0#entury s#ien#e the #ontro"ersial #enter'ie#e of Bantega66a8s wor is his trilogy on lo"e and se/: Fisiologia dell' amore 9$>C5<, 'giene dell' amore 9$>CC<, and Gli amori degli uomini 9$>>;<. 15*?2 Cited widely )y se/ologists from Cesare Lom)roso, Ri#hard Krafft0E)ing, Ha"elo# Ellis, and 3wan Blo#h to Bagnus Hirs#hfeld, Bantega66a remained one of the a##essi)le, H'o'ularH sour#es for s#ientifi# nowledge 9and misinformation< for the edu#ated 'u)li# at the turn of the #entury. 3t is #lear that 3da Bauer #ould ha"e read 9and 'ro)a)ly did read< either Bantega66a or similar te/ts, whether under the tutelage of her #om'anion or on her own initiati"e. Lhat is of interest is how ,reud reads this #ontradi#tion in her a##ount: Kid she read them, or only hear a)out their #ontentN Lhat is inherently dangerous a)out Bantega66a from the stand'oint of ,reud8s refusal to relate to the a##usation that 3da Bauer had read himN 3f we turn to + ?5> + the trilogy, it is #lear 9and Badelon S'regnether agrees15*;2 < that the te/t that )est fits the 'eIorati"e des#ri'tion of Herr K. is the final te/t in this series, on the anthro'ology of se/uality.15*:2 =here one finds an e/tended dis#ussion of Hthe 'er"ersions of lo"e,H in#luding Hmutual onanism,H Hles)ianism and tri)adism,H as well as HhistoriesH of these 'ra#ti#es. 9Howe"er, there are similar dis#ussions in the se"enth #ha'ter of Bantega66a8s study on the Hhygiene of lo"e,H whi#h details the Herrors of the se/ual dri"e.H<

Dow this is #learly what ,reud should ha"e understoodAgi"en his readingAas of im'ortan#e to 3da Bauer, )ut what in this "olume would ha"e )een of im'ortan#e to Sigmund ,reudN 3f we turn to the #ha'ter after the one on H'er"ersions,H we #ome to a detailed dis#ussion of the Hmutilation of the genitals,H whi#h re#ounts the history of these 'ra#ti#es among Hsa"age tri)esH in#luding the Eews. 3ndeed, it is only in Bantega66a8s dis#ussion of the Eews that the te/t turns from a titillating a##ount of Hunnatural 'ra#ti#esH into an Enlightenment 'olemi# against the 'er"erse 'ra#ti#es of that 'eo'le out of their #orre#t Hs'a#eH and HtimeHAthe Eews: Cir#um#ision is a shame and an infamyJ and 3, who am not in the least anti0Semiti#, who indeed ha"e mu#h esteem for the 3sraelites, 3 who demand of no li"ing soul a 'rofession of religious faith, insisting only u'on the )rotherhood of soa' and water and of honesty, 3 shout and shall #ontinue to shout at the He)rews, until my last )reath: Cease mutilating yoursel"es: #ease im'rinting u'on your flesh an odious )rand to distinguish you from other menJ until you do this, you #annot 'retend to )e our e4ual. -s it is, you, of your own a##ord, with the )randing iron, from the first days of your li"es, 'ro#eed to 'ro#laim yoursel"es a ra#e a'art, one that #annot, and does not #are to, mi/ with ours. 3t is #ir#um#ision that sets the 9male< Eew a'art. 3n his dissertation of $>%C -rmand0Louis0Eose'h BFraud notes that the Eews needed to #ir#um#ise their young males )e#ause of their inherently unhygieni# nature, )ut also )e#ause the H#limate in whi#h they dweltH otherwise en#ouraged the transmission of sy'hilis.15*C2 =he Eew in the Kias'ora is out of time 9ha"ing forgotten to "anish li e the other an#ient 'eo'les<J is out of #orre#t s'a#e 9where #ir#um#ision had "alidity<. His Eewishness 9as well as his disease< is ins#ri)ed on his 'enis. But what does #ir#um#ision mean for a 7iennese Eewish s#ientist at the end of the $>**sN =he de)ates within and without the Eewish #ommunities #on#erning the nature and im'li#ation of #ir#um#ision surfa#ed again in Germany during the $>?*s. German Eews had )e#ome + ?5% + a##ulturated into German middle0#lass "alues and had #ome to 4uestion the a)solute re4uirement of #ir#um#ision as a sign of their Eewish identity. Led )y the radi#al reform ra))i Samuel Holdheim in Germany and res'onding to a Christian tradition that denigrated #ir#um#ision, the de)ate was #arried out as mu#h in the s#ientifi# 'ress as in the religious one.15*>2 =here were four HtraditionalH "iews of the HmeaningH of #ir#um#ision sin#e the rise of Christianity. ,ollowing the writings of Paul, the first saw #ir#um#ision as inherently sym)oli# and, therefore, no longer "alid after the rise of Christianity 9this "iew was es'oused )y Euse)ius and @rigen<J the se#ond saw #ir#um#ision as a form of medi#al 'ro'hyla/is 9as in the writing of Philo )ut also in the wor of the #entral German #ommentator of the eighteenth #entury, Eohann Ka"id Bi#haelis<J the third saw it as a sign of a 'oliti#al identity 9as in the wor of the early eighteenth0#entury theologian Eohann S'en#er<J the fourth saw it as a remnant of the early Eewish idol or 'hallus worshi' 9as in the wor of the anti4uarian Georg ,riedri#h KaumerAthis "iew rea''ears 4uite often in the literature on Eewish ritual murder<. 3n the medi#al literature of the time, two of these "iews dominated. =hey were the "iews that )ra# eted the images of HhealthH and Hdisease.H =hese "iews saw #ir#um#ision either as the sour#e of disease or as a 'ro'hyla/is against diseaseAand in )oth #ases sy'hilis and mastur)ation, the two HdiseasesH that dominate the #ase of Kora, 'lay a maIor role. Bantega66a notes that Hthe hygieni# "alue of #ir#um#ision has )een e/aggerated )y the historians of Eudaism. 3t is true enough that the #ir#um#ised are a little less dis'osed to mastur)ation and to "enereal infe#tionJ )ut e"ery day, we do ha"e Eewish mastur)ators and Eewish sy'hiliti#s. Cir#um#ision is a mar of ra#ial distin#tionJ . . . it is a sanguinary

'rotest against uni"ersal )rotherhoodJ and if it )e true that Christ was #ir#um#ised, it is li ewise true that he 'rotested on the #ross against any sym)ol whi#h would tend to 'art men asunder.H =he o''osing "iew of #ir#um#ision in the s#ientifi# literature of the time saw #ir#um#ision as a mode of 're"ention that 're#luded the transmission of se/ually transmitted diseases )e#ause of the in#reased #a'a#ity for H#leanliness.H15*%2 3t is #lassified as an as'e#t of Hhygiene,H the fa"orite word to #riti4ue or su''ort the 'ra#ti#e. 9=his "iew is #losely asso#iated with the thera'euti# use of #ir#um#ision throughout the nineteenth #entury as a means of H#uringH the diseases #aused )y mastur)ation, with, of #ourse a similar s'lit in the idea of effi#a#y: #ir#um#ision was either a #ure for mastur)ation, as it eliminated the stimulation of the 're'u#e and deadened the sensiti"ity of the 'enis, or it was the sour#e of Eewish male hy'erse/uality.< - detailed medi#al literature lin s the "ery a#t of #ir#um#ision with + ?&* + the transmission of sy'hilis, so that the 'ro'hyla/is )e#omes the sour#e of infe#tion. =he literature that dis#usses the transmission of sy'hilis to newly #ir#um#ised infants through the ritual of metsitsah , the su# ing on the 'enis )y the mohel , the ritual #ir#um#iser, in order to staun#h the )leeding, is e/tensi"e and detailed.15$*2 =he metsitsah was understood )y the s#ientifi# #ommunity of the nineteenth #entury as a H'athologi#alH one, as it was la)eled as the sour#e of the transmission of disease from the adult male to the male #hild. 3n the esta)lishment of the 7iennese Eewish #ommunity during the #ourse of the early nineteenth #entury the de)ate on the a)olition of #ir#um#ision was heard as loudly as anywhere else in Central Euro'e. 3saa# Doah Bannheimer, the ra))i of the Seitenstettengasse synagogue and the de fa#to H#hief ra))iH of 7ienna 9although this title did not offi#ially e/ist<, while a follower of Reformed Eudaism, o''osed the more radi#al HreformsH of theologians su#h as Samuel Holdheim. He strongly ad"o#ated the retention of He)rew as the language of 'rayer 9e"en though he had 'rea#hed in Kanish during his tenure in Co'enhagen< and o''osed mi/ed marriages and the a)olition of #ir#um#ision. 9=he lin among these three #entral issues in the self0definition of 7iennese Eewry at mid0#entury should )e stressed.< Lhile no #om'romise was found on the first two issues 9He)rew was maintained as the language of the liturgy and mi/ed marriages were not authori6ed<, a stri ing #om'romise was found in the third #ase. =ogether with Ra))i La6ar Horowit6, the s'iritual leader of the orthodo/ #ommunity in 7ienna, they a)olished the 'ra#ti#e of the metsitsah .15$$2 -lthough Horowit6 was a follower of the ultraorthodo/ Press)urg Ra))i Boses Sofer, the a)olition of the metsitsah )e#ame a mar er )etween the 'ra#ti#es of 7iennese Eewry 9whi#h did not 'ermit it for Hhygieni#H reasons< and the tradition of Eastern Eewry, su#h as the Eews of Press)urg and ,rei)urg 9where ,reud was #ir#um#ised<. Here is the lin )etween the em'hasis on fellatio in ,reud8s reading of the #ase of Kora and the sy'hilis that haunts the image of the 9male< Eew in the #ase. 3t is the male su# ing the 'enis of a male in the a#t of #ir#um#ision. Es'e#ially in the 7iennese de)ates #on#erning the retention or a)olition of #ir#um#ision, this Ha#tH 'layed a s'e#ial role. ,or ,reud the a#t of fellatio would )e a sign not only of H'er"ersionH )ut also of the transmission of diseaseJ it would also )e a sign that in#or'orated his own relationshi' )etween his ra#ial identity with his #oreligionists and, indeed, with other male authority figures. =hus the a#t of the female su# ing on the 'enis of the male, a H'athologi#alH a#t as it re'resents the s'read of disease 9hysteria< to the daughter, is a su)0 + ?&$ +

limation of the a#t of the male su# ing on the 'enis of the male and s'reading another disease, sy'hilis. 3t also re'resents, in the 'eriod during whi#h ,reud was writing and rewriting the #ase of Kora, ,reud8s own arti#ulation of the end of his Hhomose/ualH 9i.e., homoeroti#< relationshi' with Lilhelm ,liess, whose theories a)out the relationshi' )etween the nose and the 'enis are e#hoed in this #ase study as well as elsewhere in the fin0de0siG#le wor of ,reud.15$52 But reading Bantega66a, we #an go one ste' farther in our analysis of ,reud8s understanding of the meaning of se/ually transmitted disease and its relationshi' to hysteria. ,or Bantega66a introdu#es his dis#ussion of the e/#lusi"ity of the Eews with the following dis#ussion: 3t is altogether li ely that the most im'ortant reason that has led men of "arious ages and of "arying #i"ili6ations to ado't the #ustom of #utting off the 're'u#e has )een that it was felt to )e ne#essary to im'rint u'on the human )ody a #lear and indeli)le sign that would ser"e to distinguish one 'eo'le from another and, )y 'utting a seal of #onse#ration u'on nationality, would tend to im'ede the mi/ture of ra#es. - woman, )efore a##e'ting the em)ra#es of a man, must first ma e sure, with her eyes and with her hands, as to whether he was of the #ir#um#ised or the un#ir#um#isedJ nor would she )e a)le to find any e/#use for mingling her own )lood0stream with that of the foreigner. 3t had, howe"er, not o##urred to the legislator that this same indeli)le #hara#teristi# would ins'ire in the woman a #uriosity to see and to handle men of a different sort. =he sedu#tion of the Eewish woman )y the @therAwhether the non0Eew or the les)ianAis the result of the HseeingH of the differen#e in the form of the genitalia. =he need to HseeH and Htou#hH the @ther is the fault of the #ir#um#ised 9male< Eew, whose "ery 'hysi#al form tem'ts the female to e/'lore the @ther. Here we ha"e another form of the dis'la#ement of the a#t of tou#hing 9se/ual #onta#t< with the 'ermitted 9indeed, ne#essary< a#t of seeing, )ut gi"en a 'athologi#al inter'retation. =he reIe#tion of mi/ed marriage and #on"ersion )y e"en HgodlessH Eews su#h as Sigmund ,reud at this time is a sign of the need to understand the se'arateness of the Eew as ha"ing a 'ositi"e "alen#e. =he la)eling of #on"erts as Hsi# H )e#omes a widely used fin0de0siG#le tro'e.15$&2 3da Bauer8s a#t of seeing her father is the a#t of seeing the 9male< Eew. Central to the definition of the EewAhere to )e understood always as the HmaleH EewAis the image of the male Eew8s #ir#um#ised 'enis as im'aired, damaged, or in#om'lete and therefore threatening. =he literature on sy'hilisAwhi#h #ertainly 'layed a role in ,reud8s understanding of her father8s illness as well as that of the daughterA #ontains a su)stantial dis#ussion of the s'e#ial relationshi' of Eews to the transmission and + ?&5 + meaning of sy'hilis. ,or it is not only in the a#t of #ir#um#ision that this asso#iation is madeAit is in the general ris of the Eews as the #arriers of sy'hilis and the generali6ed fear that su#h disease would undermine the strength of the )ody 'oliti#. Central to the #ase of 3da Bauer is a su)te/t a)out the nature of Eews, a)out the transmission of sy'hilis, and a)out the a#t of #ir#um#ision.15$?2 Both are asso#iated with the image of the hysteri#. 3t is Eewishness that is the #entral #ategory of ra#ial differen#e for the German reader and writer of the turn of the #entury.15$;2 ,or the Eew in Euro'ean s#ien#e and 'o'ular thought was #losely related to the s'read and in#iden#e of sy'hilis. Su#h "iews had two readings. =he first model saw the Eews as the #arriers of se/ually transmitted diseases who transmitted them to the rest of the world. -nd their lo#ation is the #ityA 7ienna. Here the lin )etween the idea of the Eew as #ity dweller, as the disease that lur s within the #onfinement of the ur)an en"ironment, )e#omes manifest. =he sour#e of the hysteria of the #ity is the diseased se/uality of the Eew. =his "iew is to )e found in -dolf Hitler8s dis#ussion of sy'hilis in turn0

of0the0#entury 7ienna in !ein 5ampf 9$%5;<. =here he 9li e his 7iennese #om'atriot Bertha Pa''enheim15$:2 < lin s it to the Eew, the 'rostitute, and the 'ower of money: Parti#ularly with regard to sy'hilis, the attitude of the nation and the state #an only )e designated as total #a'itulation. . . . =he in"ention of a remedy of 4uestiona)le #hara#ter and its #ommer#ial e/'loitation #an no longer hel' mu#h against this 'lague. . . . =he #ause lies, 'rimarily, in our 'rostitution of lo"e. . . . =his Eewifi#ation of our s'iritual life and mammoni6ation of our mating instin#t will sooner or later destroy our entire offs'ring. 15$C2 Hitler8s "iews also lin ed Eews with 'rostitutes and the s'read of infe#tion. Eews were the ar#h'im'sA Eews ran the )rothelsA)ut Eews also infe#ted their 'rostitutes and #aused the wea ening of the German national fi)er.15$>2 But also, Eews are asso#iated with the false 'romise of a medi#al #ure se'arate from the so#ial #ures that Hitler wishes to see im'osedAisolation and se'aration of the sy'hiliti# and his or her Eewish sour#e from the )ody 'oliti#. Hitler8s referen#e is to the )elief that es'e#ially the s'e#ialty of dermatology and sy'hilology was dominated )y Eews, who used their medi#al status to sell 4ua# #ures. =he se#ond model that asso#iated Eews and sy'hilis seemed to 'ostulate e/a#tly the o''ositeAthat Eews had a statisti#ally lower rate of sy'hiliti# infe#tionA)e#ause they had )e#ome immune to it through #enturies of e/'osure. 3n the medi#al literature of the 'eriod, rea#hing a#ross all of Euro'ean medi#ine, it was assumed that Eews had a nota)ly + ?&& + lower rate of infe#tion. 3n a study of the in#iden#e of tertiary lues in the Crimea underta en )etween $%*? and $%5%, the Eews had the lowest #onsistent rate of infe#tion.15$%2 3n an eighteen0year longitudinal study H. Budel demonstrated the e/traordinarily low rate of tertiary lues among Eews in Estonia during the 'rewar 'eriod.155*2 -ll these studies assumed that )iologi#al differen#e as well as the so#ial differen#e of the Eews were at the root of their seeming immunity. Eewish s#ientists also had to e/'lain the statisti#al fa#t of their immunity to sy'hilis. 3n a study of the rate of tertiary lues, the final stage of the sy'hiliti# infe#tion, underta en during Lorld Lar 3, the Eewish 'hysi#ian Ba/ Si#hel res'onded to the general "iew of the relati"e lower in#iden#e of infe#tion among Eews as resulting from the se/ual differen#e of the Eews.155$2 He res'ondsAout of ne#essityA with a so#ial argument. =he Eews, a##ording to Si#hel, show lower in#iden#e not only )e#ause of their early marriage and the 'atriar#hal stru#ture of the Eewish family, )ut also )e#ause of their mu#h lower rate of al#oholism. =hey were, therefore, a##ording to the im'li#it argument, more rarely e/'osed to the infe#tion of 'rostitutes, whose attra#ti"eness was always asso#iated with the greater loss of se/ual #ontrol in the male attri)uted to ine)riety. =he relationshi' )etween these two Hso#ialH diseases is made into a #ause for the higher in#iden#e among other Euro'eans. =he Eews, )e#ause they are less li ely to drin hea"ily, are less li ely to )e e/'osed to )oth the de)ilitating effe#ts of al#ohol 9whi#h in#rease the ris for tertiary lues< as well as the o##asion for infe#tion. 3n $%5C H. Strauss loo ed at the in#iden#es of sy'hiliti# infe#tion in his hos'ital in Berlin in order not only to demonstrate whether the Eews had a lower in#iden#e )ut also to see 9as in the infamous =us egee e/'eriments among )la# s in the !nited States< whether they had HmilderH forms of the disease )e#ause of their life0style or )a# ground.15552 He found that Eews had indeed a mu#h lower in#iden#e of sy'hilis 9while ha"ing an e/traordinarily higher rate of hysteria< than the non0Eewish #ontrol. He 'ro'oses that the disease may well ha"e a different #ourse in Eews than in non0Eews. =he mar er for su#h a "iew of the heightened sus#e'ti)ility or resistan#e to sy'hilis is the )asi# sign of differen#e of the Eews, the #ir#um#ised 'hallus.

=he need to HseeH and Hla)elH the Eew at a time when Eews were )e#oming more and more assimilated and therefore Hin"isi)leH in Germany made the asso#iation with so#ially stigmati6ing diseases that )ore s'e#ifi# "isi)le Hsigns and sym'tomsH es'e#ially a''ro'riate. Bantega66a8s "iew lin s the a#t of HseeingH the Eew se/ually with the defamed 'ra#ti#e of #ir#um#ision. 3n the German em'ire of the late nineteenth #entury all of the arguments 'la#ed the Eew in a s'e#ial relationshi' to + ?&? + sy'hilis and, therefore, in a "ery s'e#ial relationshi' to the healthy )ody 'oliti# that needed to ma e the Eew "isi)le. 9=he #entral medi#al 'aradigm for the esta)lishment of the healthy state was the 'u)li# health model that e"ol"ed s'e#ifi#ally to #om)at the e"ils of se/ually transmitted disease through so#ial #ontrol.< Lestern Eews had )een #om'letely a##ulturated )y the end of the nineteenth #entury and thus )ore no e/ternal signs of differen#e 9uni4ue #lothing, grou' language, grou'0s'e#ifi# hair and(or )eard style<. =hey had to )ear the stigma of this s'e#ial relationshi' to their diseased nature literally on the s in, where it #ould )e seen. Dot only on the 'enis where 9)e#ause of so#ial 'ra#ti#e< it #ould )e HseenH only in the se/ual a#t. -nd then, )e#ause of the gradual a)andonment of #ir#um#ision, )e HseenH not to e/ist at allQ Eust as the hysteri# is #onstru#ted out of the 'er#ei"ed a)ility to #ategori6e and #lassify #ategories of differen#e "isually, the sy'hiliti# Eew has his illness written on his s in. =he s in of the hysteri#, li e the 'hysiognomy of the hysteri#, refle#ts the essen#e of the disease. =hus the s in )e#omes a "erita)le #an"as onto whi#h the illness of the hysteri# is ma''ed. Seeing the hysteri# means reading the signs and sym'toms 9the stigmata diaboli < of the disease and re'resenting the disease in a manner that #a'tures its essen#e. 3t is the redu#tion of the am)iguous and fleeting signs of the #onstru#ted illness of the hysteri# 9#onstru#ted )y the "ery nature of the definition of the disease in the nineteenth #entury<. 3f the idea of the hysteri# is tied to the idea of the femini6ation of the healthy -ryan male, or his HEewifi#ationH 9to use one of Hitler8s fa"orite terms<, then the re'resentation of the disease must )e in terms of models of illness that are #on"erti)le into the images of the femini6ed male. But these images of femini6ation are also tied to other, salient, fin0de0siG#le images of ra#e. ,or Eews )ear the salient stigma of the )la# s in of the sy'hiliti#, the sy'hiliti# rupia . =he Eews are )la# , a##ording to nineteenth0#entury ra#ial s#ien#e, )e#ause they are Ha mongrel ra#e whi#h always retains this mongrel #hara#ter.H =hat is Houston Stewart Cham)erlain arguing against the H'ureH nature of the Eewish ra#e.155&2 Eews had Hhy)ridi6edH with )la# s in -le/andrian e/ile. =hey are, in an ironi# re"iew of Cham)erlain8s wor )y Dathan Birn)aum, the 7iennese0Eewish a#ti"ist who #oined the word 6ionist , a H)astardH ra#e the origin of whi#h was #aused )y their in#estuousness, their se/ual sele#ti"ity.155?2 But the Eews were also seen as )la# . -dam Gurows i, a Polish no)le, Htoo e"ery light0#olored mulatto for a EewH when he first arri"ed in the !nited States in the $>;*s.155;2 Eews are )la# )e#ause they are different, )e#ause their se/uality is different, )e#ause their se/ual 'athology is written u'on their s in. Gurows i8s + ?&; + HGerman0EewishH #ontem'orary, Karl Bar/, asso#iates le'rosy, Eews, and sy'hilis in his des#ri'tion of his ar#hri"al ,erdinand Lassalle 9in $>:$<: HLa6arus the le'er, is the 'rototy'e of the Eews and of La6arus0Lassalle. But in our La6arus, the le'rosy lies in the )rain. His illness was originally a )adly #ured #ase of sy'hilis.H155:2 =he 'athognomoni# sign of the Eew is written on the s inJ it is e"ident for all to see.

=he 'athologi#al image of the Eew was 'art of the general #ultural "o#a)ulary of Germany. Hitler used this image o"er and o"er in !ein 5ampf in des#ri)ing the Eew8s role in German #ulture: H3f you #ut e"en #autiously into su#h an a)s#ess, you found, li e a maggot in a rotting )ody, often da66led )y the sudden lightAa i eQ . . . =his was 'estilen#e, s'iritual 'estilen#e, worse than the Bla# Keath of olden times, and the 'eo'le were )eing infe#ted )y it.H HPlagueH 9"euche < and 'estilen#e 9 estilen. <Aa disease from without, whi#h, li e sy'hilis, rots the )odyAwas the model used to see the role of the Eew. =he sy'hiliti# wea ening of the ra#ially 'ure Germans )y the Eews was li ened )y Hitler to the #orru'tion of the )lood of the ra#e through another form of Hmammoni6ation,H interra#ial marriage: Here we ha"e )efore us the results of 'ro#reation )ased 'artly on 'urely so#ial #om'ulsion and 'artly on finan#ial grounds. =his one leads to a general wea ening, the other to a 'oisoning of the )lood, sin#e e"ery de'artment store Eewess is #onsidered fit to augment the offs'ring of His HighnessAand indeed the offs'ring loo it. 3n )oth #ases #om'lete degeneration is the #onse4uen#e. 3f the Germans 9-ryans< are a H'ureH ra#eAand that is for turn0of0the0#entury s#ien#e a 'ositi"e 4uality Athen the Eews #annot )e a H'ureH ra#e. =heir status as a mi/ed ra#e )e#ame e/em'lified in the i#on of the !ischling during the $%&*s. =he Eewishness of the !ischling , to use the term from ra#ial s#ien#e that is 'arallel to H)astardH 9the offs'ring of a HBla# H and a HLhiteH Hra#eH<, Hloo sH and sounds degenerate. =hey #an ha"e HEewish0DegroidH 1;Edisch*negroid 2 features.155C2 -nd this is often asso#iated with their fa#ile use of language, Hthe use of innumera)le foreign words and newly #reated words to enri#h the German language in shar' #ontrast to the ne#essary sim'li#ity of the language of Germani# students.H155>2 =he Eew8s language refle#ts only the #orru'tion of the Eew and his or her dis#ourse. 3t is the sign of the H'athologi#al early de"elo'mentH of the !ischling , who, as an adult, is una)le to fulfill the 'romise of the mem)er of a 'ure ra#e. =he wea ness, )ut also the degenerate fa#ility, of the !ischling is analogous to the image of the offs'ring of the sy'hiliti#. -nd thus we #ome full #ir#le. ,or the Eew is #ontaminated + ?&: + )y hysteria, whether it is the result of the trauma of infe#tion or of heredity. -nd this wea ness of the ra#e is hidden within the #orru'ted 9and #orru'ting< indi"idual. =hus Hitler8s image of the !ischling is on the offs'ring of a HEewishH mother and an H-ryanH fatherAhidden within the name and Germani# lineage of the #hild is the true #orru'tion of the ra#e, the maternal lineage of the Eew. -nd as Eews #laimed their lineage through the mother 9rather than through the father as in German law< the !ischling )e#omes the e/em'lary hidden Eew Iust waiting to #orru't the )ody 'oliti#. =he image of the !ischling , the 'erson im'aired )e#ause of his or her heritage, )rings us )a# full #ir#le to the world of 3da Bauer. ,or here we ha"e all of these themes of Eewish dis'osition and ra#ial diagnosis summari6ed. =he images that haunt ,reud8s re'resentation of 3da BauerAher language, the se/ual a#ts of her imagination, their sour#e, the relationshi' )etween 'athology and infe#tionAare all Hra#iallyH mar ed 9at least notionally< in turn0of0the0#entury medi#al #ulture. ,or ,reud, a)andoning the a#t of seeing, an a#t made #anoni#al in the wor of his anti0Semiti# mentor Char#ot, is an a)andonment of the asso#iations of sight within this dis#ourse of se/ual differen#e. =he #ase of Kora is an e/am'le of the 'ower o"er language, of ,reud8s #ontrol o"er the language of his te/t, whi#h re"eals him not to )e an Eastern Eew. Li e his #riti4ue of the )ad Gree of his #riti#s when he held his first tal on male hysteria in 7ienna, ,reud is the master of the dis#ourse of s#ien#e and #ulture. ,reud is a s#ientist who uses language as a s#ientist. 3n introdu#ing the 4uestion of the nature of 3da Bauer8s

attra#tion to ,rau K. he remar s: H3 must now turn to #onsider a further #om'li#ation, to whi#h 3 should #ertainly gi"e no s'a#e if 3 were a man of letters engaged u'on the #reation of a mental state li e this for a short story, instead of )eing a medi#al man engaged u'on its disse#tion.H =he a#t of writing the story is the sign of his s'e#ial #ontrol of a HneutralH language, one that, as we ha"e shown, is hardly neutral when it #omes to 'la#ing ,reud, the Eastern male Eew, at its #enter of ris . =he meaning of the a#t of seeing for the Eewish 'hysi#ian shows the inherent truth of Ro)ert Reininger8s #laim that H!nser Lelt)ild ist immer 6uglei#h ein Lert)ild,H155%2 that we #onstru#t our understanding of the world from our internali6ed system of "alues.

Notes
IN!R#,U$!I#N- !HE ,ES!INIES #F H"S!ERI%
$. See Ean Goldstein, &onsole and &lassify: The French sychiatric rofession in the ,ineteenth &entury 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>><. 5. See H. Ellen)erger, The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and 1volution of Dynamic sychiatry 9Dew .or : Basi# Boo s, $%:5<J Ellen)erger was, not ironi#ally, one of the 'rin#i'al re"iewers of 7eith8s )oo 9see n. &<. &. =hese are the two mentioned, and there ha"e )een no histories of hysteria sin#e $%**. =he last one in ,ren#h )efore =rillat8s was G. -)ri#ossoff8s 4'hysterie au# MN et MO siCcles 9Paris: G. Steinhill, $>%C<. @f interest here is =rillat8s )rief )ut "alua)le dis#ussion of the methodologi#al issues in"ol"ed in writing the traditional history of hysteriaJ see E. =rillat, H=rois itinFraires a tra"ers 38histoire de l8hysterie,H Historie des "ciences !Adicales 5$ 9$%>C<: 5C0&$. ?. -n idea of the dis#i'linary milieu among medi#al historians in whi#h 7eith wrote is gained )y #onsulting Edwin Clar e, ed., !odern !ethods in the History of !edicine 9London: -thlone, $%C$<, who wrote )efore the ideologies of #lass, ra#e, and gender held any sway in the history of medi#ineA his 'lea was for a )alan#e )etween medi#al training and nowledge of history, )ut it was a nominalisti#, realisti# history of 'ersons, 'la#es, and things in whi#h gender and se/, #lass and ra#e, language and re'resentation, 'layed a small role. -nother #ontem'orary a''roa#h not "ery different from 7eith8s is found in 3. Ba#al'ine and Ri#hard Hunter, George ''' and the !ad Business 9Dew .or : Pantheon Boo s, $%:%<, whi#h sheds further light on the dis#i'line of the history of medi#ine at the time and the e'istemologi#al 'ro)lems in"ol"ed in the 'er#e'tion of writing the history of madness during the $%:*s. ,or the historiogra'hy of medi#ine, itself a s#ant dis#ourse in the last half #entury, and as it would ha"e a''eared in the mindset of s#holars li e 7eith and others of her generation, see R. H. Shyro# , H=he Historian Loo s at Bedi#ine,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine ; 9$%&C<: >>C0>%?J G. Rosen, H- =heory of Bedi#al Historiogra'hy,H i)id., > 9$%?*<::;;0::;J idem, HLe"els of 3ntegration in Bedi#al Historiogra'hy,H 2ournal of the History of !edicine ? 9$%?%<: ?:*0?:CJ George Bora, sychiatry and 'ts History: !ethodological roblems in -esearch 9S'ringfield, Bass.: C. C. =homas, $%C*<, wor s that re'resent a 'ortion of the methodologi#al atmos'here in whi#h 7eith wrote. &. =hese are the two mentioned, and there ha"e )een no histories of hysteria sin#e $%**. =he last one in ,ren#h )efore =rillat8s was G. -)ri#ossoff8s 4'hysterie au# MN et MO siCcles 9Paris: G. Steinhill, $>%C<. @f interest here is =rillat8s )rief )ut "alua)le dis#ussion of the methodologi#al issues in"ol"ed in writing the traditional history of hysteriaJ see E. =rillat, H=rois itinFraires a tra"ers 38histoire de l8hysterie,H Historie des "ciences !Adicales 5$ 9$%>C<: 5C0&$. ?. -n idea of the dis#i'linary milieu among medi#al historians in whi#h 7eith wrote is gained )y #onsulting Edwin Clar e, ed., !odern !ethods in the History of !edicine 9London: -thlone, $%C$<,

who wrote )efore the ideologies of #lass, ra#e, and gender held any sway in the history of medi#ineA his 'lea was for a )alan#e )etween medi#al training and nowledge of history, )ut it was a nominalisti#, realisti# history of 'ersons, 'la#es, and things in whi#h gender and se/, #lass and ra#e, language and re'resentation, 'layed a small role. -nother #ontem'orary a''roa#h not "ery different from 7eith8s is found in 3. Ba#al'ine and Ri#hard Hunter, George ''' and the !ad Business 9Dew .or : Pantheon Boo s, $%:%<, whi#h sheds further light on the dis#i'line of the history of medi#ine at the time and the e'istemologi#al 'ro)lems in"ol"ed in the 'er#e'tion of writing the history of madness during the $%:*s. ,or the historiogra'hy of medi#ine, itself a s#ant dis#ourse in the last half #entury, and as it would ha"e a''eared in the mindset of s#holars li e 7eith and others of her generation, see R. H. Shyro# , H=he Historian Loo s at Bedi#ine,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine ; 9$%&C<: >>C0>%?J G. Rosen, H- =heory of Bedi#al Historiogra'hy,H i)id., > 9$%?*<::;;0::;J idem, HLe"els of 3ntegration in Bedi#al Historiogra'hy,H 2ournal of the History of !edicine ? 9$%?%<: ?:*0?:CJ George Bora, sychiatry and 'ts History: !ethodological roblems in -esearch 9S'ringfield, Bass.: C. C. =homas, $%C*<, wor s that re'resent a 'ortion of the methodologi#al atmos'here in whi#h 7eith wrote. ;. ,or medi#ine and meta'hor see Susan Sontag, 'llness as !etaphor 9Dew .or : Random House, $%C%<J C. B. -nderson, -ichard "el.er and the -hetoric of "urgery 9Car)ondale: Southern 3llinois !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J P. Radests y, The 'nvisible 'nvaders: The "tory of the 1merging $ge of 7iruses 9Dew .or : Little, Brown :. =he newer a''roa#hes had )een anti#i'ated in the $%:*s )y E. L. Entralgo in Doctor and atient 9London: Leidenfeld U Di#holson, $%:%<J )ut see also C. Le)ster, HBedi#ine as So#ial History: Changing 3deas on Ko#tors and Patients in the -ge of Sha es'eare,H in $ &elebration of !edical History , ed. L. Ste"enson 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<J Roy and Korothy Porter, atient's rogress: Doctors and Doctoring in 1ighteenth &entury 1ngland 9@/ford: Polity Press, $%>%<J Roy and Korothy Porter, 'n "ic(ness and in Health: The British 1#perience3 MPJQ*MOJQ 9London: ,ourth Estate, $%>><J Roy Porter, Health for "ale: 8uac(ery in 1ngland3 MPPo*MOJQ 9Ban#hester: Ban#hester !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. C. ,or the )road histori#al a''roa#h, see G. S. Rousseau, ed., The 4anguages of syche: !ind and Body in 1nlightenment Thought 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%%*<. >. =he most thorough histori#al )a# ground remains Goldstein8s &onsole and &lassify , )ut another good 'la#e to start, within the realm of theory, is the di"erse dis#ourse of 'ost0La#anian feminist theory as found in E. Gros6, 2ac:ues 4acan: $ Feminist 'ntroduction 9Dew .or : Routledge, Cha'man U Hall, $%%*<J E. Pagels, $dam3 1ve and the "erpent 9Dew .or : 7intage Boo s, $%>%<J C. E. -dams, The "e#ual olitics of !eat 9@/ford: Polity Press, $%%*<, themsel"es immensely di"erse and astute and lin ed only )y their #on#ern for the female 'light in the world of 'oststru#turalism and 'ostmodernism. -n im'ortant statement of the e'istemologi#al 'ro)lems in"ol"ed is found in 'n Dora's &ase: Freud A Hysteria A Feminism , ed. C. K. Bernheimer and Claire Kahane 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<. ,or i#onogra'hy and hysteria, see H. S'eert, 'conographia Gyniatrica: $ ictorial History of Gynecology and /bstetrics 9Dew .or : Ba#millan, $%C&<J for feminism and ,reud, K. Sil"erman, $rt ,ouveau in Fin*de*"iCcle France: olitics3 sychology3 and "tyle 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>%<. -n a''roa#h to some of these 'ro)lems grounded in Romanti# literature is found in K. L. Hoe"eler, -omantic $ndrogyny: The )oman )ithin 9!ni"ersity Par , Pa.: Penn State !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<. %. ,or language and so#ial history as they im'inge on the dis#ourses of hysteria and on "arious theories of medi#ine, see G. S. Rousseau, H=owards a Semioti#s of the Der"e: =he So#ial History of Language in a Dew Key,H in 4anguage3 "elf3 and "ociety: $ "ocial History of 4anguage , ed. Peter Bur e and Roy Porter 9@/ford: Polity Press, $%%$<, 5$&05C;J Rousseau, HLiterature and Bedi#ine: =he State of the ,ield,H 'sis ;5 9$%>$<: ?*:0?5?.

$*. 3lluminating for )ringing together many of the ideas of these theorists is E. Gros6, "e#ual "ubversions: Three French Feminists 9Sydney, Boston: -llen U !nwin, $%>%<. $$. -s e"iden#ed in the wide attention gi"en to this Iun#ture in #ontem'orary 'sy#hoanalyti# literature and in the #ontem'orary Iournal 4iterature and !edicine as well as in su#h )oo s 9#hronologi#ally arranged and a mere sam'ling< as E. B. Lyons, 2ames 2oyce and !edicine 9Ku)lin: Kolmen Press, $%C&<J R. -ntonioli, -abelais et la medecine 9Gene"a: Kros, $%C:<J E. Pes#hel, !edicine and 4iterature 9Dew .or : Deale Latson -#ademi# Pu)li#ations, $%>*<J S. S. Lanser, H,eminist Criti#ism, 8=he .ellow Lall'a'er,8 and the Politi#s of Color in -meri#a,H Feminist "tudies $; 9$%>%<: ?$;0??$J =. Caramagno, 7irginia )oolf 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%%$<, a study of her de'ression and mental maladiesJ R. Lut6, ,eurasthenia 9Dew .or : $%%$<. ,or more 'o'ular statements a)out the real and re'resentational affinities of the two realms, see 3. B#Gil#hrist, HKisease and the Do"el, $>>*0$%:*,H T4" , Eanuary $C, $%>:: :$, and Leon Edel, HKisease and the Do"el,H T4" , Bay &*, $%>::;%$, #ontri)utions to a de)ate on the su)Ie#t. $5. Howe"er signifi#ant the Karwinian meta'hors of rise and fall, e"olution and flow, are in this #onte/t, they are less "ital than the so#ial #onstru#tion of hysteria. 3ndeed, the de)ate )etween so#ial #onstru#tionists and realists or essentialists has rea#hed e'i# 'ro'ortions, as grou' after grou' de#odes the strengths of ea#h method, some #oming down on the side of the one, some on the other, and some 9su#h as Eohn Boswell, the .ale historian of homose/uality in early modern #i"ili6ation< for a )lending of the two. But the 'oliti#s of re'resentation also 'ose #ru#ial 4uestions: do we #hoose our re'resentations )e#ause they are 'ower0influen#ed and there)y #a'a)le of enhan#ing our own 'ositions 9as Bi#hel ,ou#ault argued< or )e#ause they are in some a)stra#t ontologi#al sense true 9as in the ongoing #urrent de)ates in the newly de"elo'ing field of literature and s#ien#e<N =he antagonisms of realism and so#ial #onstru#tionism ha"e emerged as a field in itself, 'osing new 'ro)lems for the de#ade of multi#ulturalism, and not without genuine im'li#ations for the #onstru#tion of the #ategory hysteria. ,or anti#i'ations of the de)ate in )oth medi#ine and 'hiloso'hy, see P. Lright and -. =rea#her, eds., The roblem of !edical 5no%ledge: 1#amining the "ocial &onstruction of !edicine 9Edin)urgh: Edin)urgh !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<J @. Bos#u##i, The "cience of )oman: Gynecology and Gender in 1ngland MOQQ*MRKR 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<J C. E. Russett, "e#ual "cience: The 7ictorian &onstruction of )omanhood 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J 3. Pa'erno, &hernyshevs(y and the $ge of -ealism: $ "tudy in the "emiotics of Behavior 9Stanford, Calif.: Stanford !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J E. Le'lin, ed., "cientific -ealism 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>?<J K. ,. Green)erg, The &onstruction of Homose#uality 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%>%<. $&. -n essential tas of this )oo , for e/am'le, is the #harting of these gains and losses in some detail during the #enturies that form the )asis of modern Euro'ean #ulture from the Renaissan#e to the end of the Enlightenment, "ital e'o#hs whose medi#ine, and #ertainly whose hysteria, ha"e )een dis#ussed mu#h less than they deser"e. $?. @ne #orre#ti"e to this histori#ally false "iew is found in the im'ortant wor of Ean GoldsteinJ see es'e#ially her &onsole and &lassify . $;. =he Hme#hani#al re"olutionH has 'rofited from three de#ades of su'erior s#holarshi', )ut the study of the Hner"ous re"olutionH #ontinues to lie in a more 'rimiti"e state within the history of s#ien#e and medi#ine. 3t has )een the su)Ie#t of re#ent s#holarshi' among neuro#hemists, neuro'hysiologists, medi#al historians, and historians of s#ien#eJ for a #om'rehensi"e statement of the 'ro)lem see G. S. Rousseau, HCultural History in a Dew Key: =owards a Semioti#s of the Der"e,H in 'nterpretation in &ultural History , ed. Eoan Pitto# and -ndrew Lear 9London: Ba#millan, $%%$<, 5;0>$J E. Bullan, 88Hy'o#hondria and Hysteria: Sensi)ility and the Physi#ians,H 5; 9$%>?<: $?$0$CCJ within the history of ideas, B. Kalli#h, The $ssociation of 'deas and &ritical Theory in 1ighteenth &entury 1ngland 9=he

Hague: Bouton, $%C*<J B. H. -)rams, The !irror and the 4amp: -omantic Theory and the &ritical Tradition 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%;&<J for the 7i#torians, E. @''enheim, H "hattered ,erves=: Doctors3 atients3 and Depression in 7ictorian 1ngland 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<. $:. =hese #onsisten#ies and #ontradi#tions, and their 'arti#ular #ultural and histori#al a''earan#es, form one of the #entral themes of this )oo . =hey #onstitute a further reason that we do not #laim to write here 'rimarily as Hhistorians of medi#ineH )ut as students of the interse#tion of dis#ourse and #ulture. ,or as'e#ts of this interse#tion see S. Bensto# , Te#tuali.ing the Feminine: /n the 4imits of Genre 9Dorman: !ni"ersity of @ lahoma Press, $%%$<J and =imothy Reiss, The Discourse of !odernism 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<. $C. ,or an e/am'le of what the a)stra#t 'oint means for the 'ra#ti#ing historian, see Londa S#hie)inger, The !ind Has ,o "e#0 )omen in the /rigins of !odern "cience 9Cam)ridge: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. $>. -nother e/am'le 'ro#eeding in this #areful 'hilologi#al manner for the Biddle -ges is the wor of Caroline Bynum in Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The -eligious "ignificance of Food to !edieval )omen 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>C<J idem, Gender and -eligion: /n the &omple#ity of "ymbols 9Boston: Bea#on Press, $%>:<. $%. ,or these later in"entions see Simon Bennett, B.K., !ind and !adness in $ncient Greece 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%C><J L. ,. Calmeil, De la folie considerAe sous le point de vue pathologi:ue3 philosophi:ue3 histori:ue et ;udiciare 9Paris: BailliFre, $>?;<J an anonymous wor attri)uted to Ha so#iety of 'hysi#ians in LondonH and 'u)lished as HBedi#al @)ser"ations and 3n4uiries,H &ritical -evie% , Eune $C;C: ;?*0;?$, ;??0;?;J L. B. Kanforth, Fire%al(ing and -eligious Healing: The $nastenaria of Greece and the $merican Fire%al(ing !ovement 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<. 5*. ,or the two0)ody model see La4ueur, !a(ing "e# J for Dewtonianism and medi#ine, see three )oo s )y L. King: The !edical )orm of the 1ighteenth &entury 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%;><J The -oad to !edical 1nlightenment , MPPQ*MPRJ 9London: Ba#donald, $%C*<J The hilosophy of !edicine: The 1arly 1ighteenth &entury 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%C><, es'. ''. $;50$>$. ,or the 'hiloso'hi#al issues in"ol"ed in se/uality in general and their relation to histori#ism and so#ial #onstru#tion, see -. 3. Ka"idson, HSe/ and the Emergen#e of Se/uality,H &ritical 'n:uiry $$ 9$%>C<: $C0?>. 5$. ,or the eighteenth0#entury de)ate on female gender in relation to fun#tioning so#iety see: P. Hoffmann, 4a femme dans la pensAe des 4umiCres 9Paris: @'hrys, $%CC<J K. S'ender, ed., Feminist Theorists: Three &enturies of 5ey )omen Thin(ers 9Dew .or : Pantheon Boo s, $%>&<J B. Hill, )omen3 )or( and "e#ual olitics in MOth*&entury 1ngland $%%*<J L. S#hie)inger, The !ind Has ,o "e#0 )omen in the /rigins of !odern "cience 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J Bos#u##i, "cience of )oman J B. S. -nderson et al., $ History of Their /%n: )omen in 1urope from rehistory to the resent 9Dew .or : Har'er U Row, $%>><. 55. 7alid as the rein"igoration was, there is no mention of hysteria in some of the #lassi# inter'retations of the 'eriod, for e/am'le in P. Gay8s The 1nlightenment: $n 'nterpretation , 5 "ols. 9Dew .or : -lfred -. Kno'f, $%::0:%<, whi#h de"otes mu#h s'a#e to medi#ine. =he #an"as 'ainted )y Gay and other syntheti# historians of the Enlightenment 'ro"ides a further reason for our re"isionist treatment. 5&. -lthough there is no su#h su)genre as the historiogra'hy of Sydenham studies, it is #lear that o"er a #entury ago Sydenham8s signifi#an#e for hysteria was intuited )ut not demonstratedJ see E. Brown, B.K., Horae "ubsecivae: 4oc(e and "ydenham and /ther apers 9Edin)urgh: Ka"id Kouglas, $>%*<.

5?. -n early anti#i'ation of this a''roa#h within the British tradition is found in -le/ander =homson, $n 1n:uiry into the ,ature3 &auses3 and !ethod of &ure3 of ,ervous Disorders 9London, $C>$<J an e/am'le of the #ommonly found 'hysiologi#al dissertation in ,ran#e is H. Girard, &onsiderations physiologi:ues et pathologi:ues sur les affections nerveuses3 dites hysteri:ues 9Paris, $>?$<. 5;. See G. Kidi0Hu)erman, 'nvention de l'Hysterie: &harcot et l''conographie hotographi:ue 9Paris: Ba#ula, $%>5<J useful as this wor is, it la# s the swee' and erudition of Sander Gilman8s #ha'ter #on#luding this )oo . 5:. Paris: Ha#hette, $%C*J trans. in $%:> as The Fear of )omen 9Dew .or : Grune U Stratton, $%:><. 5C. See Lhite8s influential essay H=he ,orms of Lildness: -r#haeology of an 3deaADo)le Sa"age as ,etish,H in The )ild !an )ithin: $n 'mage in )estern Thought from the -enaissance to -omanticism , ed. E. Kudley and B. E. Do"a 9Pitts)urgh, Pa.: !ni"ersity of Pitts)urgh Press, $%C5<, &0&>. 5>. -n im'ortant e/#e'tion is Ean Goldstein8s wor , es'e#ially as found in H=he Hysteria Kiagnosis and the Politi#s of -nti#leri#alism in Late Dineteenth0Century ,ran#e,H 2ournal of !odern History ;? 9$%>5<: 5*%05&%, and her &onsole and &lassify J =. La4ueur8s H@rgasm, Generation and the Politi#s of Re'rodu#ti"e Biology,H -epresentations $? 9$%>:<: $0$?. =he matter is further su)stantiated )i)liogra'hi#ally in the thorough resear#hes of B. Bi#ale, referred to in many of the #ha'ters of this )oo . 5%. @thers who hel'ed retrie"e these lost "oi#es in#lude: Patri#ia ,edi ew, HBarguerite Kuras: ,eminine ,ield of Hysteria,H 1nclitic : 9$%>5<: C>0>:J Bernheimer and Kahane, eds., 'n Dora's &ase J =erry Castle, HLearned Ladies,H T4" , Ke#em)er $?05*, $%%*: $&?;0$&?:. &*. =hese traditions of learning are )rought together in Rousseau, ed., 4anguages of syche . &$. Porter8s dis#ussion should )e #om'lemented with the im'ortant writings on nineteenth0#entury hysteria of Bar Bi#ale. &5. Some of the theoreti#al #ru/es ha"e )een addressed in the #ontro"ersies surrounding Ri#hard Rorty and his influential )oo hilosophy and the !irror of ,ature 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%>*<, and others su#h as G. Le"ine, ed., /ne &ulture: 1ssays in "cience and 4iterature 9Badison: !ni"ersity of Lis#onsin Press, $%>C<J the 'ro)lem of meta'hor in )oth the realist and re'resentati"e domains )y B. B. Hesse, !odels and $nalogies in "cience 9Dotre Kame: !ni"ersity of 3ndiana Press, $%::<J The "tructure of "cientific 'nference 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%C?<J idem, HHa)ermas, ,ou#ault, and Beta'hor in S#ien#e,H roceedings of the 7on 4eer 'nstitute of the Hebre% University of 2erusalem 9$%%5, Eerusalem<. But see also an im'ortant statement )y Hayden Lhite, HHistori#al Em'lotments and the Pro)lem of =ruth,H 'resented to the Conferen#e on the Holo#aust, !ni"ersity of California, Los -ngeles, $%%*J and for the role of re'resentation as a 'residing #ategory in #ontem'orary sensi)ility, E. ,. Lyotard, The ostmodern &ondition: $ -eport on 5no%ledge 9Binnea'olis: !ni"ersity of Binnesota Press, $%>?<. &&. See S. Gilman, "eeing the 'nsane 9Dew .or : Eohn Liley U Sons, $%>5<J Difference and athology: "tereotypes of "e#uality3 -ace3 and !adness 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<J Disease and -epresentation: 'mages of 'llness from !adness to $ids 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>><, as well as many arti#les and re"iews. &?. @ne #an imagine Hans Bayer listening to the list of these 'ariahs and re#onsidering his omission of hysteri#s from his )rilliant study of the re'resentation of the outsiderJ see his /utsiders: $ "tudy in 4ife and 4etters 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: B3= Press, $%>?<. &;. 3f Lilliam B#Grath8s e"iden#e is #orre#t a)out the 'oliti#s of hysteria, we may ha"e enhan#ed the "alidity of our wor )y this e/#lusion rather than harmed itJ see L. E. B#Grath, Freud's Discovery of

sychoanalysis: The olitics of Hysteria 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<. &:. ,or another form of de#onstru#tion, see B#Grath, Freud's Discovery . &C. Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%%*. &>. See Bar S. Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy: - Re"iew of Past and Present Lritings,H History of "cience 5C 9Se'tem)er, Ke#em)er, $%>%<: 55&05:5J &$%0&;$J idem, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy: =he ,uture Pers'e#ti"e,H History of sychiatry $ 9Bar#h, $%%*<: &&0$5?J idem, HChar#ot and the 3dea of Hysteria in the Bale: Gender, Bental S#ien#e, and Bedi#al Kiagnosis in Late Dineteenth0Century ,ran#e,88 !edical History &? 9$%%*<: &:&0?$$J and idem, HHysteria Bale(Hysteria ,emale: Refle#tions on Com'arati"e Gender Constru#tion in Dineteenth0Century ,ran#e and BritainH in "cience and "ensibility: Gender and "cientific 1n:uiry3 MNOQ*MRSJ , ed. Barina BenIamin, 9@/ford, Basil Bla# well, $%%$<, 5**05&%. &%. -s e"iden#e we again suggest that the reader #onsult Goldstein8s &onsole and &lassify for e"iden#e of what the 'ost0,ou#aldian methodology does in 'ra#ti#e.

#ne- #n.e u/on a !e0t1 Hysteria *rom Hi//o.rates

Bany of the an#ient writers #ited hereAfor e/am'le, Hesiod, Bartial, and PlatoAare easily a##essi)le in translation. Lhere no 'arti#ular edition is s'e#ified, the Loe) Classi#al Li)rary "ersion may )e used. =his gi"es the an#ient te/t with an English translation on the fa#ing 'age. =he medi#al writers are less readily a"aila)le to the general reader. 3n 'arti#ular, few of the rele"ant wor s of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us ha"e )een translated into English. 3n the interests of #onsisten#y, all te/ts from the Hi''o#rati# #or'us are #ited from the standard Gree edition with ,ren#h translation of E. LittrF, /euvres completes d'Hippocrate , $* "ols. 9Paris: BailliGre, $>&%0:$<, a))re"iated L. Referen#es are gi"en in the form L "olume.'age num)erJ for e/am'le, L >.&?. =he s'e#ifi# lo#ations, in the LittrF edition, of the te/ts used, with the a))re"iations used in the notes, are as follows: $irs3 )aters3 laces , L 5.$50%& $phorisms , L ?.?;>0:*% &oan rognoses , L ;.;>>0C&& Diseases of )omen , L >.$*0?:& c D) Diseases of 9oung Girls , L >.?::0?C$ 1pidemics 5, L &.5?0$?%J :, L ;.5::0&;C c 1p . Generation , L C.?C*0?>? c Gen . Glands , L >.;;:0;C; ,ature of the &hild , L C.?>:0;&> c ,& /n 2oints , L ?.C>0&&% /n the "acred Disease , L :.&;50&%C rorrhetics $, L ;.;$*0;CC + :: + ,ature of !an , L :.&50:% ,ature of )oman , L C0&$50?&$ c ,) laces in !an , L :.5C:0&?% -egimen , L :.?::0:&C -egimen in $cute Diseases3 $ppendi# , L 5.&%?0;5% c $cut. "p . "uperfetation , L >.?C:0;*%

Generation and ,ature of the &hild are a"aila)le in an e/#ellent English translation )y 3. B. Lonie, The Hippocratic Treatises =/n Generation3= =/n the ,ature of the &hild3= =Diseases '7 H 9Berlin: Ke Gruyter, $%>$<. -nn Hanson is 're'aring an edition and English translation of Diseases of )omen for the Cor'us Bedi#orum Grae#orum series. =he following a))re"iations are used for the wor s of -rtistotle: G$ T Generation of $nimals H$ T History of $nimals $ T arts of $nimals !$ T !ovement of $nimals =he te/t referred to in the notes as HPs0-ristotle, /n "terility H is found in the Loe) Classi#al Li)rary as the tenth )oo of History of $nimals . 3ts authenti#ity as a wor of -ristotle has long )een dou)ted, although it is 'ossi)le that it was an early wor . 3t may date to the third #entury B.C . Ps0-ristotle, roblems is something "ery different, a #olle#tion of 4uestions and answersAon matters ranging from why the old ha"e white hair to why man snee6es more than any other animalA)rought together 'erha's as late as the fifth #entury -.K . and, with other wor s wrongly as#ri)ed to -ristotle su#h as the !asterpiece , highly 'o'ular in the early modern era. Se"eral medi#al writers of anti4uity are #ited in the editions of the Cor'us Bedi#orum Grae#orum 9hereafter CBG< and the Cor'us Bedi#orum Latinorum 9hereafter CBL<. =hey are referred to in the form CBG "olume num)er, 'age.line 9e.g., CBG "ol. 5, '.&?0C<. ,or the wor s of Galen, the standard edition remains that of C. G. Kuhn, &laudii Galeni /pera omnia , 5* "ols. 9Hildeheim: @lms, $%:?0; 1re'rint of the "ersion of $>5$0$>&&2<. Referen#es to Galen are gi"en in the form K "olume.'age 9e.g., K $?.$C:<. $. =he dates traditionally assigned to Hi''o#rates are #a. ?:*0#a. &C* B.C . Kes'ite a tradition, de"elo'ed se"eral #enturies after his death, #laiming to gi"e his )iogra'hy and family tree, little is nown of his life and wor . =he te/ts asso#iated with his nameAthe Hi''o#rati# #or'usA#o"er a 'eriod far longer than a lifetime, show wide "ariations in style and #ontent, and in many #ases are Hmulti0author #on#o#tionsH: see G. E. R. Lloyd, The -evolutions of )isdom 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>C<, $&5. @n the manus#ri't tradition and assem)ly of the "arious treatises into a HHi''o#rati# #or'us,H 'ossi)ly as late as the tenth #entury -.K ., see in general E. 3rigoin, H=radition manus#rite et histoire du te/te: Suel4ues 'ro)lGmes relatifs M la Colle#tion Hi''o#rati4ue,H -evue d'histoire des te#tes & 9$%C&<: $0$&, with ,. Pfaff, HKie !e)erlieferung des Cor'us Hi''o#rati#um in der na#hale/andrinis#hen Peit,H )iener "tudien ;* 9$%&5<: :C0>5. @n the 'a'yri so far found whi#h gi"e fragments of Hi''o#rati# te/ts, see B.0H. Barganne, 'nventaire analyti:ue des papyrus grecs de mAdecine 9Gene"a: Centre de re#her#hes d8histoire et de 'hilologie de la 37 e se#tion, E#ole 'rati4ue des Hautes Etudes &, $5, $%>$<, u'dated )y -. E. Hanson, 88Pa'yri of Bedi#al Content,H 9ale &lassical "tudies 5> 9$%>;<: 5;0?C. HGenuine Lor sH #omes from the title of ,ran#is -dams8s The Genuine )or(s of Hippocrates 9London: Sydenham So#iety, $>?%<. -lthough the sear#h for at least one se#tion of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us that #an se#urely )e attri)uted to Hi''o#rates Athe so0#alled HHi''o#rati# 4uestion,H on whi#h see G. E. R. Lloyd, H=he Hi''o#rati# Suestion,H &lassical 8uarterly 5; 9$%C;<: $C$0$%5Ais no longer the main aim of Hi''o#rati# studies, it still e/erts a 'owerful fas#ination. =hus, for e/am'le, e"en L. K. Smith, whose dis#ussion in The Hippocratic Tradition 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%C%< #hallenges the dominant 'aradigm in order to e/'ose the de"elo'ment from the third #entury B.C . onward of the myth of the life and wor s of Hi''o#rates, tries to 'ro"e that -egimen is a Hgenuine wor .H Shortly after the 'u)li#ation of Smith8s Hippocratic Tradition , Bansfeld 'rodu#ed an arti#le arguing the #ase for another te/t of the Hi''o#rati# #or'us, $irs3 )aters3 laces Ama ing use of 're#isely the same e"iden#e as Smith drew

on in defense of -egimen . See E. Bansfeld, HPlato and the Bethod of Hi''o#rates,H Gree(3 -oman and By.antine "tudies 5$ 9$%>*<: &?$0&:5. 5. 3n $%55 Charles Singer des#ri)ed 9imaginedN< Hi''o#rates as HLearned, o)ser"ant, humane . . . orderly and #alm . . . gra"e, thoughtful and reti#ent, 'ure of mind and master of his 'assionsHJ see his Gree( Biology and Gree( !edicine 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%55<. =he so#ial 'osition of the Hi''o#rati# do#tor is )est handled )y Lloyd in !agic3 -eason and 1#perience 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%C%<J "cience3 Fol(lore and 'deology 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<J and -evolutions of )isdom . Com'etition was an im'ortant so#ial "alue in the Gree world, seen as a normal 'art of human a#ti"ityJ see the 'oet Hesiod, )or(s and Days $$05*, where H'otter "ies with 'otter.H =his des#ri'tion of 're#lassi#al so#iety #ould )e used to suggest that the Hi''o#rati# do#tor 9Gree iatros < would normally )e in #om'etition not only with mages, 'urifiers, )egging 'riests, and 4ua# s 9literally Hde#ei"ersH<: for this list see the Hi''o#rati# te/t /n the "acred Disease $ 9L :.&;?0&;:<. &. Kr. Ro)), HHi''o#rates on Hysteria,H 2ohns Hop(ins Hospital Bulletin & 9$>%5<: C>0C%. ?. E. Slater, HKiagnosis of 8Hysteria,8H British !edical 2ournal 9$%:;<: $&%;0$&%%J 4uotation is ta en from '. $&%:. ;. 3. 7eith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%:;<, $*. ,or an a''re#iation of 7eith8s #onsidera)le #ontri)ution to the history of medi#ine, see Showalter 9#ha'. ?, this "olume< and B. Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy: - Re"iew of Past and Present Lritings 9$<,H History of "cience 5C 9$%>%<: 55&05:$, here ''. 55C055>. :. R. -. Loodruff, K. L. Goodwin, and S. B. Gu6e, HHysteria 9Bri4uet8s Syndrome<H 9$%C?<, in Hysteria , ed. -. Roy 9Chi#hester: Eohn Liley, $%>5<, $$C0$5% 94uotation, '. $$><J P. B. Bart and K. H. S#ully, H=he Politi#s of Hysteria: =he Case of the Landering Lom),H in Gender and Disordered Behavior: "e# Differences in sychopathology , ed. E. S. Gom)erg and 7. ,ran 9Dew .or : Brunner(Ba6el<, &;?0&>* 94uotation, '. &;?<J S. B. Gu6e, H=he Kiagnosis of Hysteria: Lhat -re Le =rying to KoNH $merican 2ournal of sychiatry $5? 9$%:C<: ?%$0?%> 94uotations, ''. ?%$, ?%&<J see also E. Sauri, HLa #on#e'#ion Hi'o#rati#a de la histeria,88 $ctas 4uso*1spanolas de ,eurologia si:uitria y &iencias $finas $ 1?2 9$%C&<: ;&%0;?:, es'. '. ;&%. 7eith8s #ontrol of the Gree material is 4uestioned )y H. Bers ey, HHysteria: =he History of a Kisease: 3l6a 7eith,H British 2ournal of sychiatry $?C 9$%>;<: ;C:0;C%. C. R. Satow, HLhere Has -ll the Hysteria GoneNH sychoanalytic -evie% :: 9$%C%(>*<: ?:&0?CC 94uotation, ''. ?:&0?:?<. >. Sauri, HCon#e'#ion Hi'o#rati#a de la histeria,H ;&%0;?:, following 7eith, attri)utes the )elief in a migratory wom) to the an#ient Egy'tians, who were su''osed to ha"e e/erted a 'arti#ularly strong influen#e on the HCnidianH te/ts of the Hi''o#rati# #or'usJ see es'. ''. ;?* and ;?5. =he traditional #lassifi#ation of the #or'us into HCnidianH and HCoan,H with its suggestion that the Cnidian te/ts re'resent an earlier, 'rerational strand in o''osition to the rational medi#ine of the s#hool of Cos with whi#h Hi''o#rates was asso#iated, is in#reasingly seen as an unne#essary #om'li#ation in the study of Gree medi#ine. See further R. Eoly, 4e niveau de la science hippocrati:ue: &ontribution G la psychologie de l'histoire des sciences 9Paris: Eds Belles Lettres, $%::<J 3. B. Lonie, HCos "ersus Cnidus and the Historians,H History of "cience $: 9$%C><: ?50C;, CC0%5J -. =hi"el, &nide et &os0 1ssai sur les doctrines mAdicales dans la collection hippocrati:ue 9Paris: Eds Belles Lettres, $%>$<. G. R. Lesley, $ History of Hysteria 9Lanham, Bd.: !ni"ersity Press of -meri#a, $%>*<, $0> 9whi#h gi"es Hi''o#rates H#redit for #oining this term 1hysteria2H )ut alleges an Egy'tian origin for the #lini#al des#ri'tionJ howe"er, )y attri)uting the words of Plato, Timaeus %$#, to the Egy'tian Pa'yrus E)ers he shoots himself in the foot<. Lloyd, "cience3 Fol(lore and 'deology , :; n. 5$ and >? n. $**, does not, howe"er,

a##e't the im'lied lin )etween Egy'tian and Gree theories of the wandering wom). See further on this 'oint Hanson, HPa'yri of Bedi#al Content,H 5;0?C, and the dis#ussion of the rele"ant 'a'yri in H. Bers ey and P. Potter, H=he Lom) Lay Still in -n#ient Egy't,H British 2ournal of sychiatry $;? 9$%>%<: C;$0C;&, whi#h #on#ludes that Hthe wandering wom) did not #ome from Egy't.H %. E. =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie 9Paris: Eds Seghers, $%>:<J see es'. '. $?. $*. -dams, Genuine )or(s of Hippocrates , ;*0;?J B. Chan#e, H@n Hi''o#rates and the -'horisms,H $nnals of !edical History 5 9$%&*<: &$0?:. ,or #riti#ism, see Smith, Hippocratic Tradition , es'. '. 5&>. @n the im'ortan#e of the $phorisms in the late anti4ue tradition and in the Biddle -ges, see 3. B[ller0Rohlfsen, Die 4ateinische -avennatische Uberset.ung der hippo(ratischen $phorismen aus dem J.VP. 2ahrhundert n. chr ., Geistes0 und so#ialwissens#haftli#he Kissertation ;;, Hartmut L[d e, Ham)urg, $%>*, '. /"iiiJ -. Be##aria, HSulle tra##e di un anti#o #anone latino di 3''o#rate e di Galeno 33. Gli -forismi di 3''o#rate nella "ersione e nei #ommenti del 'rimo medioe"o,H 'talia !edioevale e Umanistica ? 9$%:$<, $0C;J P. Ki)re, HHi''o#rates Latinus: Re'ertorium of Hi''o#rati# Lritings in the Latin Biddle -ges: 33,H Traditio &5 9$%C:<, 5;C05%5. $$. -. Rousselle, H3mages mFdi#ales du #or's. @)ser"ation fFminine et idFologie mas#uline: Le #or's de la femme d8a'rGs les mFde#ins gre#s,H $nnales 1.".& . &; 9$%>*<: $*>%0$$$;, es'. '. $$$; n. 5C. $5. 3ndeed, it is used in this way )y the se#ond0#entury -.K . writer -retaeus of Ca''ado#ia, who entitles #ha'ter $$ of his /n the &auses and "ymptoms of &hronic Diseases , )oo ?, HCon#erning Hysteri(a H 9CBG "ol. 5, C%0>5<. - se'arate #ha'ter in his wor on a#ute diseases, 5.$$, deals with hysteri(e pni# 9CBG "ol. 5, ''.&50&;<. $&. Pliny8s ,atural History gi"es many e/am'les of these uses: for mustard 9Pliny, ,atural History 5*.>C.5&C<, )la# or white helle)ore 95;.&$.;&<, and #astoreum 9)ea"er0oil, &5.$&.5><. -nd #f. the Hi''o#rati# $phorisms ;.?% 9L :.;;*<. -fter inter#ourse, snee6ing #ould #ause mis#arriage 9Pliny, ,atural History C.:.?5<. $?. Pliny, ,atural History 5*.>C.5&>. Dote that H#on"ersionH in this #onte/t has none of the later, 'ost0 ,reudian im'li#ations of Hhysteri#al #on"ersion,H sim'ly meaning a 'hysi#al turning. Bea"er0oil is also used )y Pliny as a fumigation or 'essary for women suffering Hfrom their wom)sH 9 ,atural History &5.$&.5><. 3n other words, the su)stan#es 'romoting snee6ing #an e/'el from a)o"e or from )elow, and from either lo#ation #an su##eed in returning wom)s to their #orre#t 'osition. $;. Pliny, ,atural History C.;5.$C;J see )elow 'age &? for the use of this #ase in the literature of hysteria. $:. 7eith, Hysteria , $*. 3n -ristotle, /n the Generation of $nimals CC:a$$, we are told that woman is the only hysteri(on animalJ the Loe) translation gi"es Halone of all animals women are lia)le to uterine affe#tions,H -. L. Pe# , $ristotle: Generation of $nimals 9London: Heinemann, $%?5<, ?:C. Cf. the Hi''o#rati# te/ts rorrhetics $.$$% 9L ;.;;*< and &oan rognoses &?& 9L ;.:;>< and ;?& 9L ;.C*><. $C. Gynai(eia is a word of some #om'le/ity, and hen#e diffi#ult to translate into one English wordJ literally Hwomen8s things,H it #an mean not only Hdiseases of womenH )ut also Hmenstruation,H 88lo#hia,H He/ternal female genitalia,H and H#ures for women8s diseases.H ,or e/am'les, see Diseases of )omen $.5* 9L >.;><J $.C? 9L >.$;:<J ,ature of )oman :C 9L C.?*5<J 1pidemics 5.$.> 9L &.>><J :.>.&5 9L ;.&;:<J &oan rognoses ;$$ 9L ;.C*5<J ;$: 9L ;.C*?<J Ps0-ristotle /n "terility :&?)$5. $>. Ro)), HHi''o#rates on Hysteria,H C>0C%. $%. Cf. =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie , $?. 5*. Rousselle, H3mages mFdi#ales du #or's,H $*%*.

5$. -dams, Genuine )or(s of Hippocrates , ". 55. Smith, Hippocratic Tradition , &$. 5&. B.0P. Kuminil, HLa re#her#he hi''o#rati4ue auIourd8hui,H History and hilosophy of the 4ife "ciences 5 9$%C%<: $;&0$>$, es'. '. $;? 9my translation<. 5?. L >.5C;, on Hi''o#rates8s Diseases of )omen 5.$5> 1hereafter D) 2J >.&5C, on D) 5.$;*J >.&*%, on D) 5.$&C. 5;. 7eith, Hysteria , $&. 5:. -dams, Genuine )or(s of Hippocrates J E. Chadwi# and L. D. Bann, The !edical )or(s of Hippocrates 9@/ford: Basil Bla# well, $%;*<, $::J L. H. S. Eones, Hippocrates 37 9Loe) Classi#al Li)rary, London: Heinemann, and Cam)ridge: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%&$<, $:C. 5C. Cited in =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie , 5C5. 5>. K. L. -)se, Hysteria and -elated !ental Disorders , 5d ed. 9Bristol: Lright, $%>C<, %$. 5%. G. Lewis, Day of "hining -ed 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>*<, C$0C5. &*. =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie , $*. &$. 3)id., 5C?. &*. =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie , $*. &$. 3)id., 5C?. &5. R. -. Loodruff, HHysteria: -n E"aluation of @)Ie#ti"e Kiagnosti# Criteria )y the Study of Lomen with Chroni# Bedi#al 3llnesses,H British 2ournal of sychiatry $$? 9$%:C<: $$$;0$$$%, es'. '. $$$%.$ &&. Gu6e, HKiagnosis of Hysteria,H ?%?0?%;. &?. See also Loodruff, Goodwin, and Gu6e, HHysteria 9Bri4uet8s Syndrome<,H in Hysteria , ed. Roy, $550$5&. &;. H. King, HSa#rifi#ial Blood: =he Role of the -mnion in -n#ient Gyne#ology,H Helios $&.5 9$%>C<: $$C0$5: 9 c -escuing &reusa , ed. B. B. S inner 1Lu))o# : =e/as =e#h !ni"ersity Press, $%>C2<. &:. Slater, HKiagnosis of 8Hysteria,8H $&%;0$&%%. &C. 3)id., $&%%J E. Slater, HLhat 3s HysteriaNH in Hysteria , ed. Roy, ?*. See also H. Bers ey, H=he 3m'ortan#e of Hysteria,H British 2ournal of sychiatry $?% 9$%>:<: 5&05>: HLhene"er we are at the margin of our a)ility to de#ide on a diagnosis, hysteria is a diagnosti# 'ossi)ilityH 9'. 5?<. &:. Slater, HKiagnosis of 8Hysteria,8H $&%;0$&%%. &C. 3)id., $&%%J E. Slater, HLhat 3s HysteriaNH in Hysteria , ed. Roy, ?*. See also H. Bers ey, H=he 3m'ortan#e of Hysteria,H British 2ournal of sychiatry $?% 9$%>:<: 5&05>: HLhene"er we are at the margin of our a)ility to de#ide on a diagnosis, hysteria is a diagnosti# 'ossi)ilityH 9'. 5?<. &>. E. Shorter, HLes dFsordres 'sy#hosomati4ues sont0ils 8hystFri4ues8N Dotes 'our une re#her#he histori4ue,H &ahiers internationau# de "ociologie C: 9$%>?<: 5*$055?, es'. '. 5*>. &%. C. K. Barsden, HHysteriaA- Deurologist8s 7iew,H sychological !edicine $: 9$%>:<: 5CC05>>, es'. ''. 5>505>&. ,or a general dis#ussion of retros'e#ti"e diagnosis and its 'erils, see Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy,H ?&0?:. ?*. Slater, HKiagnosis of 8Hysteria,8H $&%:.

?$. ,. Lalshe, HKiagnosis of Hysteria,H British !edical 2ournal 9$%:;<: $?;$0$?;?, es'. $?;5. ?5. Roy, Hysteria . ?&. R. Bayou, H=he So#ial Setting of Hysteria,H British 2ournal of sychiatry $5C 9$%C;<: ?::0?:%, here '. ?::. ??. E. Lright, HHysteria and Be#hani#al Ban,H 2ournal of the History of 'deas ?$ 9$%>*<: 5&&05?C, es'. '. 5&&J L. Bit#hinson, HHysteria and 3nsanity in LomenA- Dineteenth0Century Pers'e#ti"e,H 2ournal of &anadian "tudies 5$ 9$%>:<: >C0$*;, here '. %5. ?;. E. Shorter, HParalysisA=he Rise and ,all of a 8Hysteri#al8 Sym'tom,H 2ournal of "ocial History $% 9$%>:<: ;?%0;>5, here '. ;;$. ?:. =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie , ;?. ?C. Risse, HHysteria at the Edin)urgh 3nfirmary: =he Constru#tion and =reatment of a Kisease, $CC*0 $>**,H !edical History &5 9$%>><: $055. ?>. Bayou, HSo#ial Setting of Hysteria,H ?::. ?%. Barsden, HHysteriaA- Deurologist8s 7iew,H 5C%. ;*. Suoted in Shorter, HParalysis,H ;C> n. ;$. ;$. Bayou, HSo#ial Setting of Hysteria,H ?::0?:>J Shorter, HKFsordres 'sy#hosomati4ues sont0ils 8hystFri4ues8 NH 5*;J Shorter, HParalysis,H ;;*0;;$J see also -)se, Hysteria and -elated !ental Disorders , 5&05;. ;5. Shorter, HParalysis,H ;C? and ;?%J see Shorter, HKFsordres 'sy#hosomati4ues sont0ils 8hystFri4ues8NH 5*5. ;&. K.C. =aylor, HHysteria, Play0a#ting and Courage,H British 2ournal of sychiatry $?% 9$%>:<: &C0?$, defines hysteria as Hthe laying #laim to si# ness for whi#h there is no o)Ie#ti"e e"iden#eH and thus that hysteria is Ha #ommon'la#e rea#tionH 9'. ?*<. =he Hnon0"er)al languageH suggestion is made )y E. B. R. Crit#hley and H. E. Cantor, 88Char#ot8s Hysteria Renaissant,H British !edical 2ournal 5>% 9$%>?<: $C>;0$C>>, here '. $C>>. ;?. E. B. D. Boss, H=he Se"enteenth0Century =ransformation of the Hysteri# -ffe#tion, and Sydenham8s Ba#onian Bedi#ine,H sychological !edicine % 9$%C%<: 55$05&?, here '. 55$. ;;. E. Ga))ay, H-sthma -tta# edN =a#ti#s for the Re#onstru#tion of a Kisease Con#e't,H in The roblem of !edical 5no%ledge: 1#amining the "ocial &onstruction of !edicine , ed. P. Lright and -. =rea#her 9Edin)urgh: Edin)urgh !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<, 5&0?>, 4uotation '. 5%. ;:. Ga))ay, H-sthma -tta# edNH in roblem of !edical 5no%ledge , Lright and =rea#her, &&. ;C. 3)id., ?5. ;:. Ga))ay, H-sthma -tta# edNH in roblem of !edical 5no%ledge , Lright and =rea#her, &&. ;C. 3)id., ?5. ;>. =he Hi''o#rati# laces in !an ?C 9L :.&??<. ;%. Boss, HSe"enteenth0Century =ransformation,H 55$05&?. :*. L. Bit#hinson, HHysteria and 3nsanity in Lomen,H >%. :$. Boss, HSe"enteenth0Century =ransformation,H 5&5. :5. Risse, HHysteria at the Edin)urgh 3nfirmary,H 50?.

:&. 3)id., $C. :?. 3)id., $:. :5. Risse, HHysteria at the Edin)urgh 3nfirmary,H 50?. :&. 3)id., $C. :?. 3)id., $:. :5. Risse, HHysteria at the Edin)urgh 3nfirmary,H 50?. :&. 3)id., $C. :?. 3)id., $:. :;. Cf. H. Landou6y, TraitA complet de l'hystArie 9Paris and London: BailliGre, $>?:<, with LittrFJ Landou6y a##e'ts the #urati"e 'owers of marriage )ut as s an im'ortant 4uestion that follows from the Hi''o#rati# re#ommendation: HPeut0on F'ouser a"e# sF#uritF une hystFri4ueNH 9'. &*&<. See also H. Bers ey, The $nalysis of Hysteria 9London: BailliGre =indall, $%C%<, $5 ff.J H. Ey, HHistory and -nalysis of the Con#e'tH 9$%:?<, in Hysteria , ed. Roy, &0$%. ::. Bit#hinson, HHysteria and 3nsanity in Lomen,H %*. :C. ,. B. Bai and H. Bers ey, HBri4uet8s Con#e't of Hysteria: -n Histori#al Pers'e#ti"e,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5: 9$%>$<: ;C0:&. :>. B. C. Brodie, 4ectures 'llustrative of &ertain 4ocal ,ervous $ffections 9London: Longman, $>&C<, ?:. :%. Ro)), HHi''o#rates on Hysteria,H C>0C%. C*. 3)id., C%. Sauri, HCon#e'#ion Hi'o#rati#a de la histeria,H ;&%0;?:, uses D) $.C and 5.$5&0$5;J E. Palis, E. Rosso'oulos, and L. C. =riarhou, H=he Hi''o#rati# Con#e't of Hysteria: - =ranslation of the @riginal =e/ts,H 'ntegrative sychiatry & 9$%>;<: 55:055>, translate ,) & 9L C.&$?0&$:<, C& 9L C.?*?<, C; 9L C.?*?<, and >C, with D) 5.$5&0$5;, while 7eith, Hysteria , '. $* n. $, is 88'rimarily )asedH on D) $.C, $.&5, and 5.$5&0$5C. :%. Ro)), HHi''o#rates on Hysteria,H C>0C%. C*. 3)id., C%. Sauri, HCon#e'#ion Hi'o#rati#a de la histeria,H ;&%0;?:, uses D) $.C and 5.$5&0$5;J E. Palis, E. Rosso'oulos, and L. C. =riarhou, H=he Hi''o#rati# Con#e't of Hysteria: - =ranslation of the @riginal =e/ts,H 'ntegrative sychiatry & 9$%>;<: 55:055>, translate ,) & 9L C.&$?0&$:<, C& 9L C.?*?<, C; 9L C.?*?<, and >C, with D) 5.$5&0$5;, while 7eith, Hysteria , '. $* n. $, is 88'rimarily )asedH on D) $.C, $.&5, and 5.$5&0$5C. C$. $cut. "p . &; 9L 5.;55<. =his is an interesting distin#tionJ #lassi#al Gree uterine pni# , whi#h so many writers want to identify as Hhysteria,H is distinguished )y normal sensations, yet HhysteriaH in later histori#al 'eriods is su''osed to in"ol"e Hlo#al loss of sensation.H See Lright, HHysteria and Be#hani#al Ban,H 5&&. C5. Ro)), HHi''o#rates on Hysteria,H C>0C%. C&. B. R. Lef owit6, Heroines and Hysterics 9London: Ku# worth, $%>$<, $&. C?. =he entry of the word HhysteriaH into Euro'ean language is sur'risingly late. =he ,ren#h hystArie a''ears in di#tionaries in $C&$, and HhysteriaH itself in $>*$. @ne #on#lusion that #ould )e drawn from this is that, )e#ause of the "ery re#ent origin of Hhysteria,H the medi#al 'rofession has sought to gi"e it some res'e#ta)ility )y 'roIe#ting it )a# into Hi''o#rati# medi#ine.

C;. G. Lewis, H- 7iew of Si# ness in Dew Guinea,H in "ocial $nthropology and !edicine , ed. E. B. Loudon 9London: -S- Bonogra'h $&, -#ademi# Press, $%C:<, >>. C:. L. Bourgey, /bservation et e#perience che. les mAdecins de la collection hippocrati:ue 9Paris: E. 7rin, $%;&<, $?%0$;5. CC. ". Ki Benedetto, 'l medico e la malattia: 4a scien.a di 'ppocrate 9=urin: Einaudi Pa'er)a# s $C5, $%>:<, $>05$, >%0%$, ?. C>. 3)id., 5$05&. Lloyd, in -evolutions of )isdom , 5*&05*:, 'oints out that the terminology of #lassi#al Gree medi#ine is #hara#teri6ed )y Ha #ertain #on#e'tual "aguenessHJ ordinary Gree is 'referred to te#hni#al terms. CC. ". Ki Benedetto, 'l medico e la malattia: 4a scien.a di 'ppocrate 9=urin: Einaudi Pa'er)a# s $C5, $%>:<, $>05$, >%0%$, ?. C>. 3)id., 5$05&. Lloyd, in -evolutions of )isdom , 5*&05*:, 'oints out that the terminology of #lassi#al Gree medi#ine is #hara#teri6ed )y Ha #ertain #on#e'tual "aguenessHJ ordinary Gree is 'referred to te#hni#al terms. C%. C. B. =. Clologe, 1ssai sur l'histoire de la gynAcologie dans l'anti:uitA grec:ue ;us:u' G la collection Hippocrati:ue 9Bordeau/: -rnaud, $%*;<, :&: HLes an#iens s8Ftaient )eau#ou' o##u'Fs de la menstruation.H >*. D) $.$ 9L. >.$*0$5<J Gree ischyros3 stereos3 py(nos . See L. -. Heidel, Hippocratic !edicine: 'ts "pirit and !ethod 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%?$<, %$J P. Banuli, HKonne mas#oline, femmine sterili, "ergini 'er'etue: La gine#ologia gre#a tra 3''o#rate e Sorano,H in !adre !ateria , )y S. Cam'ese, P. Banuli, and G. Sissa 9=urin: Boringhieri, $%>&<, $?C0$%5, here '. $>>. See -. E. Hanson, H-natomi#al -ssum'tions in Hi''o#rates Diseases of )omen $.$,H 'a'er deli"ered at the -P-, $%>$, and R. Par er, !iasma 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%>5<, 5&*, on the shee's in analogyJ the latter 'oints out that the 'owers of a)sor'tion of the flee#e a##ount for its use in rituals of 'urifi#ation. 3n "uperfetation &? 9L >.;*:<, shee's in is used in thera'y. - young girl who does not menstruate alternates among hunger, thirst, fe"er, and "omiting e/#ess fluid. =he remedy, warm lam)s ins 'la#ed on her a)domen, may )e intended to draw out the e/#ess fluid whi#h should ha"e #ome out as menstrual )lood. >$. -ristotle, G$ C5>a$C ff. and C&CaJ S. R. L. Clar , $ristotle's !an 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%C;<J B. C. Horowit6, H-ristotle and Loman,H 2ournal of the History of Biology % 9$%C:<: $>&05$&J L. Kean0 Eones, HBenstrual Bleeding -##ording to the Hi''o#rati#s and -ristotle,H Transactions of the $merican hilological $ssociation $$% 9$%>%<: $CC0$%5. >5. Hesiod, )or(s and Days , ?;0$*; and &C&0&C;J idem, Theogony , ;%?0:*5J D. Lorau/, HSur la ra#e des femmes et 4uel4ues0unes de ses tri)us,H $rethusa $$ 9$%C><: ?&0>C. >&. Plato, Timaeus %*e0%$a. >?. P. KuBois, "o%ing the Body: sychoanalysis and $ncient -epresentations of )omen 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%>><J D. Lorau/, HLe lit, la guerre,H 4'Homme 5$ 9$%>$<: &C0:CJ King, HSa#rifi#ial Blood,H $$C0$5: 9 c -escuing &reusa , S inner<. >;. E.g., $irs3 )aters3 laces $* 9L 5.?? and 5.;*<J ,ature of the &hild $; 9L C.?%?<J Glands $: 9L >.;C5<. >:. 3n Gree , strephontai hai metrai , #lose to the Latin converto . >C. .ounger women ha"e the most )lood, due to Hthe growth of the )ody and the diet.H Diseases of 9oung Girls 9L >.?::<J #onfirmed in D) 5.$$$ 9L >.5&>05?*<.

>>. Castoreum and flea)ane 9 (ony.a < a''ear together on many o##asionsJ e.g., D) 5.$5> 9L >.5C?<J 5.5** 9L >.&>5<J 5.5*$ 9L >.&>?<. >%. Bandages around the )ody o##ur in 5.$5C 9L >.5C5< and 5.$5% 9L. >.5C><. %*. - translation of this te/t was gi"en in my Ph.K. thesis, From arthenos to Gyne: The Dynamics of &ategory , !ni"ersity of London, $%>;. 3 am ta ing the Gree stomachos here to mean Hmouth of the wom)H rather than Hmouth,H although it #an ha"e many anatomi#al meanings and o##urs in 5.5*& 9L >.&>>< with the meaning Hmouth.H =his is #learly not a H'aint )y num)ersH format: if the reader tries to #arry out the instru#tions in the order gi"en, the Iar will )e sealed )efore the garli# and seal oil go in. Similar warnings a)out the 'ossi)ility of e/haustion in the 'atient o##ur at D) 5.$>$ 9L >.&:?<, &.5&* 9L >.??5<, and &.5?$ 9L >.?;?<. =he "egeta)le su)stan#es used in s#ent thera'y are dis#ussed in S. Byl8s 88L8odeur "FgFtale dans la thFra'euti4ue gynF#ologi4ue du Cor'us hi''o#rati4ue,H -evue Belge de hilologie et d'Histoire :C 9$%>%<: ;&0:?. %$. D) 5.$5: 9L >.5C5<J #f. 5.5*& 9L >.&%*<. %5. E.g., D) 5.$&$ 9L >.5C><, where the su)stan#es to )e used are not s'e#ified. %&. ,) >C 9L C.?*>< reads, H3n suffo#ation #aused )y mo"ement 1of the wom)2, light u' the wi# of a lam' then snuff it out, holding it under the nostrils so that she draws in the smo e. =hen soa myrrh in 'erfume, di' wool in 1so it is thoroughly im'regnated2 and insert. -lso gi"e her a drin of resin dissol"ed in oil.H %?. B. Simon, !ind and !adness in $ncient Greece 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%C><, 5&>. %;. 3. B. Lewis, 1cstatic -eligion 9Harmondsworth, Biddlese/: Penguin, $%C$<, and Bayou, HSo#ial Setting of Hysteria,H ?:C. %:. Simon, !ind and !adness in $ncient Greece , 5?5, 5;$. %C. 3)id., 5?&. %:. Simon, !ind and !adness in $ncient Greece , 5?5, 5;$. %C. 3)id., 5?&. %>. ,ourteen is the ideal age of menar#he in medi#al writers 9K. L. -mundsen and C. E. Kiers, H=he -ge of Benar#he in Classi#al Gree#e and Rome,H Human Biology ?$ 1$%:%2: $5;0$&5<J for age at marriage, see L. K. La#ey, The Family in &lassical Greece 9London: =hames U Hudson, $%:><, $:5, and B. L. Lest, Hesiod: The )or(s and Days 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%C><, &5C. %%. D) 5.$5: 9L >.5C*05C5<J D) 5.$&* 9L >.&5:<J D) 5.5*& 9L >.&>:0&%5<. $**. D) 5.$5> 9L >.5C?<J D) 5.$5% 9L >.5C:<J D) 5.$&$ 9L >.5C>05>*<. $*$. Ps0-ristotle, roblems &*J Simon, !ind and !adness in $ncient Greece , 555. $*5. Barriage and #hild)irth are re#ommended thera'ies in many Hi''o#rati# te/ts outside the hysteria traditionJ e.g., D) $.&C 9L >.%5<, 5.$$; 9L >.5;*<, 5.$$% 9L >.5:*<, 5.$5> 9L >.5C:<, 5.$&& 9L >.&*5<, Gen . ? 9L C.?C:<. $*&. D) 5.$;* 9L >.&5:<, 5.5*$ 9L >.&>?<. $*?. D) &.555 9L >.?&*<. $*;. Ki Benedetto, 'l medico e la malattia , ?. $*:. -. Rousselle, orneia: /n Desire and the Body in $nti:uity 9@/ford: Basil Bla# well, $%:><, :%.

$*C. K. Goure"it#h, 4e mal d'Btre femme: 4a femme et la mAdecine dans la -ome anti:ue 9Paris: Eds Belles Lettres, $%>.?<, $$%. $*>. Hanson, H-natomi#al -ssum'tions in Hi''o#ratesHJ Banuli, HKonne mas#oline, femmine steriliH in !adre !ateria , )y Cam'ese, Banuli, and Sissa, $;C. $*%. E.g., D) 5.$?: 9L >.&55<, &.5$? 9L >.?$?0?$:<, &.5$% 9L >.?5?<, &.5&* 9L >.??*<J "uperfetation 5; 9L >.?>>0?%*<J ,) %: 9L C.?$50?$?<J $phorisms ;.;% 9L ?.;;?<. $$*. L >.&$*: Gree anoV(ato . $$$. D) 5.$5& 9L >.5::<, 5.$;? 9L >.&&*<, a des#ri'tion of a HwildH wom), translated )y LittrF as HirritatedHJ 5.5*$ 9L >.&>?<, a dis#ussion of pni# . See Byl, HL8odeur "FgFtale,H ;:0;>. $$5. D) 5.$5; 9L >.5:><, 5.$&C 9L >.&$*<, 5.$?& 9L >.&$:<, 5. $?; 9L >.&5*<. $$&. C. B. =ur)ayne, HPlato8s 8,antasti#8 -''endi/: =he Pro#reation Bodel of the Timaeus3= aideia , s'e#ial issue, $%C:: $5;0$?*, 4uotation from '. $&5. $$?. 3)id., $?* n. $$. $$&. C. B. =ur)ayne, HPlato8s 8,antasti#8 -''endi/: =he Pro#reation Bodel of the Timaeus3= aideia , s'e#ial issue, $%C:: $5;0$?*, 4uotation from '. $&5. $$?. 3)id., $?* n. $$. $$;. ,. Kudlien, HEarly Gree Primiti"e Bedi#ine,H &lio !edica & 9$%:><: &*;0&&:, 4uotations from '. &&*. See also S. Byl and -. ,. Ke Ranter, HL8Ftiologie de la stFrilitF fFminine dans le Cor'us hi''o#rati4ue,H &*&0&55, in 4a maladie et les maladies dans la &ollection hippocrati:ue 9-#tes du 73 e Collo4ue hi''o#rati4ue<, ed. P. Potter, G. Baloney, and E. Kesautels 9Sue)e#: Eds du S'hin/, $%%*<, &5$. $$:. -retaeus, 5.$$ 9CBG "ol.5, ''.&5.5>0&&.$<J the rele"ant 'assage reads Hand the sum of the matter is that the wom) in the female is ho(oion ti .oon en .ooi .H $$C. D) $.C 9L >.&5<. $$>. -nn Hanson, 'ers. #omm.J ,. -dams, The !edical )or(s of aulus $egineta , "ol. 3 9London: Lelsh, $>&?<, ?;>, suggests that the Timaeus 'assage Hought 'erha's not to )e ta en in too literal a sense, #onsidering that 'hiloso'her8s well0 nown 'ro'ensity to mystifi#ation.H $$%. Soranus of E'hesus, Gynecology &.5% 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$&.&0:<J @. =em0 in, "oranus' Gynecology 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%;:<, translates, H,or the uterus does not issue forth li e a wild animal from the lair, delighted )y fragrant odors and fleeing )ad odors: rather it is drawn together )e#ause of the stri#ture #aused )y the inflammation.H HLild animalH is the Gree therion , in #ontrast to -retaeus8s more neutral .oon , Hli"ing thing.H $5*. Based on R. E. Siegel, Galen on the $ffected arts 9Basel and Dew .or : S. Karger, $%C:<, $>C, translating /n the $ffected arts :.;9K >.?5;0?5:<, the Latin "ersion of whi#h reads: HHae# di#ente Platone, 4uidam addiderunt, uterum, 4uum ita 'er #or'us errans ad se'tum trans"ersum 'er"enerit, res'irationem intertur)are. -lii errare i'sum "eluti animal non di#unt, sed u)i su''ressa sunt menstrua, e/i##atum a# hume#tari #u'ientem ad "is#era us4ue as#endereJ 4uum "ero as#endendo nonnun4uam se'tum trans"ersum #ontingat, id#ir#o animal res'iratione 'ri"ari.H $5$. K. ,. Krell, H,emale Parts in Timaeus3= $rion 5 9$%C;<: ?**0?5$, es'. '. ?*?. $55. Plato, Timaeus C*e: Gree hos thremma agrion . $5&. 3)id., >%)0#.

$5?. 3)id., C$aJ %$a0). $55. Plato, Timaeus C*e: Gree hos thremma agrion . $5&. 3)id., >%)0#. $5?. 3)id., C$aJ %$a0). $55. Plato, Timaeus C*e: Gree hos thremma agrion . $5&. 3)id., >%)0#. $5?. 3)id., C$aJ %$a0). $5;. Dot hoion .oon , )ut .oon epithymeti(on enon tes paidopoiias 9%$#<. $5:. -ristotle, $ :::a 5*05& and :::) $:0$CJ !$ C*&) 5$05:J see S. Byl, -echerches sur les grands traitAs biologi:ues d'$ristotle: "ources Acrites et prA;ugAs 9Brussels: Palais des -#adFmies, $%>*<, $5?. $5C. Plato, Timaeus C&# ff. $5>. Gen . 9L C.?C&0?C?<J ,ature of !an $$ 9L :.;><. $5%. L C.?C>0?>*. $&*. Shorter, HParalysis,H ;C? and ;?%. $&$. =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie , $:. $&5. E.g., D) $.5 9L >.&5<, use of he gyne , Hthe woman.H $&&. nigei3 D) 5.5*$ 9L >.&>?<J D) 5.$5? 9L >.5::<. $&?. Bit#hinson, HHysteria and 3nsanity in Lomen,H %$. $&;. E. Eorden, $ Briefe Discourse of a Disease &alled the "uffocation of the !other 9London: E. Lindet, $:*&<. $&:. See =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie , C. $&C. L >.&5:. $&>. See =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie , &&J -)se, Hysteria and -elated !ental Disorders , 5. $&%. laces in !an ?C 9L :.&??<J #f. Hthe #ause of num)erless diseases,H L %.&%:. $?*. roton ergon , Soranus, Gynecology &.:. $?$. ,ature of the &hild $; 9L C.?%?<, the translation gi"en is that of 3. B. Lonie, The Hippocratic Treatises =/n Generation3= =/n the ,ature of the &hild3= =Diseases '7 H 9Berlin: Ke Gruyter, $%>$<, >J the original Gree literally means Hher original nature.88 $?5. 1p . C.$5& 9L ;.?:><. $?&. 1p . :.>.&5 9L ;.&;:<J D) &.5&* 9L >.???<. $??. L C.?C:. $?;. -ristotle, $ :;*a >ff.J G$ CC;a $?05*J Horowit6, H-ristotle and Loman,H $>&05$&. $?:. Plutar#h, !oralia :;*a0:;$e. $?C. -ristotle, $ :?>a 5>0&*J G$ C:;) $%. $?>. L >.$50$?.

$?%. L :.;$5. $;*. Gree (aminos J -ristotle, G$ C:?a $505*. $;$. Herodotus, ;.%5. $;5. -rtemidorus, /neirocritica: The 'nterpretation of Dreams , trans. R.E. Lhite 9Par Ridge, D.E.: Doyes Press, $%C;<, 5.$*. $;&. Gen . ? 9L C.?C?0?C:<J ,& $5 9L C.?>:<AGree en thermoi eousa , trans. Lonie, Hippocratic Treatises , :A ,& &* 9L C.;&:<. $;?. Gree paue3 pnigeran legeis 9line $55<. $;;. =he use of similar imagery does not end in the #lassi#al Gree 'eriod. -round -.K . $;:;, =eresa of -"ila suffered sym'toms that, in the nineteenth #entury, were retros'e#ti"ely diagnosed as hysteria. =hese in#luded #ontra#ti"e s'asms, sweating and #hills, as well as feeling Hli e a 'erson who has a ro'e around his ne# , is )eing strangled and trying to )reatheH 9C. B. Ba#he, H- Rea''raisal of =eresa of -"ila8s Su''osed Hysteria,H 2ournal of -eligion and Health 5? 9$%>;<: &**0&$;, es'. ''. &$* and &*;<. $;:. B.0P. Kuminil, HRe#her#he hi''o#rati4ue auIourd8hui,H $;:J K.E. ,urley and E. S. Lil ie, Galen on -espiration and the $rteries 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%>?<, 55. - similar diffi#ulty e/ists )etween the Latin con*ceptio , meaning retention of the male seed, and our H#on#e'tion,H meaning the fertili6ation of the o"um )y the s'ermJ see the BudF edition of Soranus 9ed. P. BurguiFre, K. Goure"it#h, and .. Balinas, $%>><, '. /#". $;C. Em'edo#les in H. Kiels and L. Kran6, Die Fragmente der 7orso(rati(er 3 9Berlin: Leidmanns#he, $%;$<, fragment &$ B $**J ,urley and Lil ie, Galen on -espiration , &0;. $;>. Plato, Timaeus C:)$0e%, dis#ussed )y ,urley and Lil ie, Galen on -espiration , C0>. $;%. @n -ristotle, see a)o"e, n. $;*J the 4uotations are from Galen, /n the Usefulness of Breathing , #ha'. & 9K ?.?%5 and ?.;*><, using the ,urley and Lil ie edition, Galen on -espiration , $*% and $&$. $:*. Galen, /n the $ffected arts 9K >.?$;<. $:$. See dis#ussion in B. K. Grme , HLes 'ndicia mortis dans la mFde#ine grF#o0romaine,H in 4a mort3 les morts et l'au*delG dans le monde greco*romaine , ed. ,. Hinard 9Caen: Centre des Pu)li#ations de l8!ni"ersitF, $%>C<, $5%0$??, and -. Ke)ru, HLa suffo#ation hystFri4ue #he6 Galien et -etius: RFF#riture et em'runt de 8Ie,8H in Tradi.ione e ecdotica dei testi medici tardoantichi e bi.antini 9-tti del Con"egno 3nterna6ionale -na#a're 5%0&$ otto)re $%%*<, ed. -. Gar6ya 9Da'oli: B. K8-uria, $%%5<, C%0 >%. $:5. Kiogenes Laertius, 4ives of the hilosophers >.:$. =he remaining fragments of $pnous or eri tes apnou 9@n the a)sen#e of )reath, also nown as @n the #auses of disease< are gi"en in the edition of the fragments of Hera#leides edited )y ,. Lehrli, Die "chule des $ristoteles: Heft 7''3 Hera(leides onti(os 9Basel: S#hwa)e, $%;&<. @n Em'edo#les as a HshowmanH among early #osmogonists, see Lloyd, -evolutions of )isdom , $*$. $:&. Pliny, ,atural History C.;5.$C;J Latin e#animis , Hwithout )reath,H #an also mean Hwithout life.H =he editio princeps of Pliny was 'u)lished in $?:%, )ut a)ridgments and e/tra#ts #ir#ulated throughout the Biddle -ges: see B. Chi)nall, HPliny8s ,atural History and the Biddle -gesH in "ilver 4atin '' , ed. =. -. Korey 9London: Routledge U Kegan Paul, $%C;<, ;C0C>J )oo C was #ertainly in #ir#ulation from the early ninth #entury -.K .J see L. K. Reynolds, ed., Te#ts and Transmission: $ "urvey of the 4atin &lassics 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%>&<, &*C0&$:. $:?. Literally conversio volvae . =he BudF edition of Pliny gi"es a Hmedi#alH translation, Hla

rFtro"ersion,H while the Loe) uses the rather "ague Hdistortion.H $:;. Pieter "an ,oreest 9$;550$;%C<, /bservationum et curationum medicinalium3 liber vigesimus* octavus3 de mulierum morbis 9Leyden: Plantin, $;%%<, @)s. 5C, $:C0$:>J the story is also gi"en )y Di#olas de la Ro#he 9fl. $;?5< in De morbis mulierum curandis 9Paris: 7. Gaultherot, $;?5<, :; r0" . $::. @rigen, $gainst &elsus 5.$:, ?*5: Hera#leides frag. C> Lehrli. $:C. Soranus, Gynecology &.?.5% 9CBG ?.$$5.$>05&<J trans. @. =em in, $;&. $:>. E. Longrigg, HSu'erlati"e -#hie"ement and Com'arati"e Degle#t: -le/andrian Bedi#al S#ien#e and Bodern Histori#al Resear#h,H History of "cience $% 9$%>$<: $;;05**J P. Potter, HHero'hilus of Chal#edon: -n -ssessment of His Pla#e in the History of -natomy,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine ;* 9$%C:<: ?;0:*J H. "on Staden, Herophilus: The $rt of !edicine in 1arly $le#andria 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. $:%. Banilas frag. $$: Soranus, Gynecology &.?.5% 9CBG 37 '.$$5.5505&<J "on Staden, Herophilus , ;$C0;$>. @n the effe#ts of these dis#o"eries on medi#al writing, see K. Goure"it#h, HSituation de Soranos dans la mFde#ine anti4ue,H in "oranos d'1phCse: !aladies des femmes M.M , BudF ed. 9Paris: Eds Belles Lettres, $%>><, ///i"0///". $C*. Barganne, 'nventaire analyti:ue des papyrus grecs , no. $;;, PP. 5>&05>:J P. Ryl. &.;&$ 9 c P-CK 5 5?$><. @n the huge thera'euti# re'ertory of Hi''o#rati# gyne#ology, see Ki Benedetto, 'l medico e la malattia , $C. 3t is 'ossi)le that the remedies that o##ur only on#e in the medi#al #or'us sim'ly re'resent the attem't of a healer to thin of something entirely new in order to im'ress the 'atient. See the des#ri'tions of the #om'etiti"e so#ial #onte/t of early medi#ine in G. E. R. Lloyd8s !agic3 -eason and 1#perience 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%C%<, "cience3 Fol(lore and 'deology 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<, and -evolutions of )isdom , :>0:% and %: on the im'ortan#e of inno"ation in Hi''o#rati# medi#ine, and $*&0$*? on ri"alry. $C$. Barganne no. %&, PP. $:>0$:%J P. Hi)eh 5.$%$ 9 c P-CK 5 5&?><. $C5. Barganne, 'nventoire analyti:ue des papyrus grecs , no. >, ''. $:0$CJ B K = &.&&0&? 9 c P-CK 5 5&%?<. $C&. Latin vulva J Celsus ?.5C, CBL "ol. $, ''. $>*0$>$. $C?. D) $.CC 9L >.$C5<, in whi#h )lood is let at the an le in order to ease a long and diffi#ult la)orJ P. Brain, Galen on Bloodletting 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<, $$&0$$?. $C;. Soranus, Gynecology &.5>.? 9CBG "ol. ?, '.$$$.><J Galen, /n 7enesection against the 1rasistrateans in -ome 9K $$.5*$J Brain, Galen on Bloodletting , ?;<J it is re#ommended that this )e done at the an le, to en#ourage the flow of )lood away from the wom) 9 /n Treatment by 7enesection , K $$.5>&, $$.&*50&*&J Brain, Galen on Bloodletting , %&<. $C:. See in general B. H. Green, The Transmission of $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease through the 1arly !iddle $ges , Ph.K. dissertation, Prin#eton !ni"ersity, $%>;, with B. !llmann, 'slamic !edicine 9Edin)urgh: Edin)urgh !ni"ersity Press, $%C><, $$0$;, and the dis#ussion of the redis#o"ery of Hi''o#ratism in 7. Dutton, HHi''o#rates in the Renaissan#e,H in Die hippo(ratischen 1pidemien , ed. G. Baader and R. Linau, "udhoffs $rchiv Beiheft 5C 9Stuttgart, $%%*<, ?5*0?&%. $CC. @n the #ontent of -retaeus see @. =em in, HHistory of Hi''o#ratism in Late -nti4uity: =he =hird Century and the Latin Lest,H in The Double Face of 2anus and /ther 1ssays in the History of !edicine , )y @. =em in 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%CC<, $:C0$CC, es'. '. $C*.

-retaeus uses the word hymenes for these mem)ranesJ see 5.$$.; 9CBG "ol. 5, P.&&.5%<, ?.$$.% 9CBG "ol. 5, '.>$.5><, and :.$*.$ 9CBG "ol. 5, '.$&%.5C<. S#ent thera'y is dis#ussed in a se'arate se#tion on remedies for hysteri#al suffo#ation, at :.$*.& 9CBG "ol. 5, '.$?*.$C0$%<. 3t is worth noting here that the dis#ussion of -retaeus in 7eith8s Hysteria , 5505&, wrongly asserts that he gi"es a H)rief referen#e to male hysteria.H 3n fa#t, although he mentions an unnamed #ondition, des#ri)ed as ha"ing some sym'toms in #ommon with suffo#ation of the wom), and affe#ting )oth se/es, in his dis#ussion of satyriasis in 5.$5.? he e/'li#itly denies that suffo#ation of the wom) #an affe#t men, sin#e men do not ha"e wom)s 9CBG "ol. 5, P.&;.$$0$5<. $C>. 3n his dis#ussion of e'ile'sy itself, -retaeus in#ludes the sym'tom of H pni# as if strangledHJ see $.;.: 9CBG "ol. 5, P.?.5C<. $C%. 5.$$.? 9CBG "ol. 5, P.&&.$;0$C<J 3 translate phlebes as H#hannels.H $>*. HHigh0sailingH is a(roploos , 5.$$.; 9CBG "ol. 5, P.&&.5%<J the mem)ranes around the wom) are Hli e the sails of a shi'H in ?.$$.% 9CBG "ol. 5, '.>$.&$< and :.$*.$ 9CBG "ol. 5, '.$?*.&0?<. $>$. -retaeus goes )eyond $phorisms ;.&;, and says that snee6ing, when a##om'anied )y 'ressure on the nostrils, #an ma e the wom) return to its 'la#eJ :.$*.; 9CBG "ol. 5, '.$?$.C0%<. $>5. 7enese#tion o##urs at :.$*.& 9CBG "ol. 5, '.$?*.$?< and :.$*.: 9CBG "ol. 5, '.$?$.$?0$;< where the remo"al of hairs is also dis#ussed. $>&. Smith, Hippocratic Tradition . $>?. Goure"it#h, HSituation de Soranos,H in "oranos d'LphCse , BudF ed., ///i. @n the esta)lishment of the te/t of Soranus, see P. BurguiGre, HHistoire du te/te,H in "oranos d'LphCse , BudF ed., /l"ii0l/". @n Caelius -urelianus, see B. ,. Kra) in and 3. E. Kra) in, &aelius $urelianus: Gynaecia fragments of a 4atin version of "oranus's Gynaecia from a thirteenth*century manuscript 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%;$<, and E. Pigeaud, HPro Caelio -ureliano,H BFmoires du Centre Eean Palerne &: BFde#ins et BFde#ine dans l8-nti4uitF 9!ni"ersitF de Saint0Etienne, $%>5<, $*;0$$C. $>;. 3n general see P. Banuli, HElogia della #astitM: La Ginecologia di Sorano,H !emoria & 9$%>5<: &%0 ?%J Goure"it#h, HSituation de Soranos,H in "oranos d'LphCse , BudF ed., "ii0/l"iJ '. /iii dis#usses the #orre#t terms for the three #onditions of the )ody. @n the diffi#ulty in reading our main sour#e for the Hse#ts,H see @. =em in, HCelsus8 8@n Bedi#ine8 and the -n#ient Bedi#al Se#ts,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine & 9$%&;<: 5?%05:?J L. K. Smith, HDotes on -n#ient Bedi#al Historiogra'hy,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine :& 9$%>%<: C&0$*%J Lloyd, -evolutions of )isdom , $;>0$C$. See also B. ,rede, H=he Bethod of the So0#alled Bethodi#al S#hool of Bedi#ine,H in "cience and "peculation , ed. E. Barnes, E. Bruns#hwig, B. Burnyeat, and B. S#hofield 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $>5$<, $05&. $>:. Goure"it#h, HSituation de Soranos,H in "oranos d'LphCse , BudF ed., /l". $>C. @. =em in, "oranus' Gynecology 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%;:<, %J Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , &?J Lloyd, -evolutions of )isdom 9Ber eley and Los -ngeles: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>C<, $:?0$:;. $>>. Soranus, Gynecology &.5%.; 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$&.;0:<. $>%. 3)id. 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$&.&0;<, trans. =em in, $;&. $%*. 3)id., &.5>.? 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$$.><J the a#ute and #hroni# forms are distinguished at &.5>.$ 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$*.55<. $>>. Soranus, Gynecology &.5%.; 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$&.;0:<.

$>%. 3)id. 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$&.&0;<, trans. =em in, $;&. $%*. 3)id., &.5>.? 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$$.><J the a#ute and #hroni# forms are distinguished at &.5>.$ 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$*.55<. $>>. Soranus, Gynecology &.5%.; 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$&.;0:<. $>%. 3)id. 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$&.&0;<, trans. =em in, $;&. $%*. 3)id., &.5>.? 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$$.><J the a#ute and #hroni# forms are distinguished at &.5>.$ 9CBG "ol. ?, P.$$*.55<. $%$. P. Kie'gen, Die Frauenheil(unde der $lten )elt: Handbuch der GynW(ologie H'' , $ 9Buni#h: Bergmann, $%&C<, 5&&. @n the identity of the short treatise De gynaeciis liber3 hoc est de passionibus mulierum , attri)uted to Galen and in#luding referen#es to hysteri#al suffo#ation, together with s#ent thera'y, see B. H. Green, H=he De Genecia -ttri)uted to Constantine the -fri#an,H "peculum :5 9$%>C<: 5%%0&5&, es'. '. &* n. %. =here also e/ists an -ra)i# #ommentary on Diseases of )omen $.$0$$, whi#h is attri)uted to GalenJ Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , $$>0$$% n. ;, argues that this attri)ution merits further in"estigation, sin#e Galen wrote that he 'lanned a #ommentary on this te/t. $%5. Galen, /n the $ffected arts :.; 9K >.?$?0?&C<. $%&. /n the $ffected arts :.; 9K >.?$?<. See =. C. -ll)utt, Gree( !edicine in -ome 9London: Ba#millan, $%5$<, &??. $%?. E. =rillat, H=rois itinFraires M tra"ers l8histoire de l8hystFrie,H Histoire des "ciences mAdicales 5$ 9$%>C<: 5C0&$, es'. '. 5>. $%;. /n the $ffected arts :.; 9K >.?5?<, use of ton hysteri(on legomenon symptomaton J see also the #ommentary on $phorism ;.&;, K$CB.>5?. $%:. /n the $ffected arts :.; 9K >.?$C<J the English translation gi"en here is that of Siegel, whi#h is not always to )e trusted: '. $>?. $%C. K >.?5: and K >.?&*, trans. Siegel, '.$>%. Galen himself wrote a treatise #alled H@n the -natomy of the !terus,H whi#h, li e /n the $ffected arts , was translated into -ra)i#J see B. !llmann, Die !edi.in im 'slam 9Leiden: Brill, $%C*<, &;0:>. $%>. See in 'arti#ular the Hi''o#rati# te/t Generation : Lonie, Hippocratic Treatises , es'. ''. $0;. ,or the writer of these te/ts, female seed is wea and thin, male strong and thi# . @n Soranus and the #onte/t of his wor see Goure"it#h, HSituation de Soranos,H in "oranos d'LphCse , BudF ed., /i/. $%%. /n the $ffected arts :.; 9K >.?5*, ?5?, and ?&50?&&<. 5**. /n the $ffected arts :.; 9K >.?5$0?5?<. 5*$. "ympaschei , K >.?5?J adelphi#ia3 /n ;oints ;C 9L ?.5?:<J in the si/teenth #entury, the Latin communitas is the 'referred term. 5*5. ,urther dis#ussion of the me#hanism )y whi#h these sym'toms are 'rodu#ed may )e found in /n the !ethod of Healing3 to Glaucon $.$; 9C. Karem)erg, /euvres anatomi:ues3 physiologi:ues3 et mAdicales de Galien 1Paris: BailliGre, $>;?0:2, 7ol. 33, '. C&;<, where the seed )e#omes wet and #old, #hilling the )ody. 5*&. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , ;*0;5. S#ent thera'y too is des#ri)ed in /n the !ethod of Healing3 to Glaucon $.$; 9Karem)erg, /euvres anatomi:ues , 7ol. 33, '. C&;<, and also in /n &ompound !edicines according to "ite %.$* 9K $&.&5*<.

5*?. /n the $ffected arts :.; 9K >.?5*<J #f. D) 5.5*$ 9L >.&>?< on ru))ing aromati#s into the groin and inner thighs. 5*;. G! 733 5:*05C5J K. Preisendan6 and -. Henri#hs, apyri Graecae !agicae 5 9Stuttgart: =eu)ner, $%C?<. =he translation is that of E. S#ar)orough, in The Gree( !agical apyri in Translation , )y H. K. Bet6 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%>:<, $5&0$5?. 5*:. Pandora is #reated with a (yneos noos , the mind of a )it#h 9Hesiod )or(s and Days :C<. @n the se/uality of the dog, see for e/am'le -ristotle, H$ ;?*a 5? and ;C?) 5C. 5uon , dog, #an mean the genitals of either se/. 5*C. Bar#ellus Em'iri#us, fl. -.K . &%;J see De medicamentis liber , #ha'. $.5; 9CBL "ol. ;, ''.:*.&;0 :$.&<. =he editio princeps of Cornarius was 'rinted in $;&:J '. &5 has a note in the margin )y this 'assage saying suffocatio de vulva 9E. Cornarius, De medicamentis empiricis3 physicis3 ac rationabilibus liber 1Basel: ,ro)en, $;&:2<. 5*>. @n en#y#lo'edism, see P. Lemerle, By.antine Humanism: The First hase , -ustralian -sso#iation for By6antine Studies, By6antina -ustraliensa &, Can)erra $%>:, #ha'. $*J medi#al treatises re#ei"e only a )rief mention on '. &?$. 5*%. See B. Beyerhof and K. Eoannides, 4a GynAcologie et l'/bstAtri:ue che. $vicenne X'bn "inaY et leurs rapports avec celles des Grecs 9Cairo: R. S#hindler, $%&><, :. - reassessment of the 'eriod is gi"en )y 7. Dutton, H,rom Galen to -le/ander, -s'e#ts of Bedi#ine and Bedi#al Pra#ti#e in Late -nti4uity,H in Dumbarton /a(s apers &> 9$%>?<, $0$? 9 c 7. Dutton, From Democedes to Harvey 1London: 7ariorum Re'rints, $%>>2, #ha'. $*, 50&<. 5$*. E. Kolles#h, Untersuchungen .u den pseudogalenischen Definitiones !edicae 9Berlin: - ademie0 7erlag, $%C&<, $?J E. Kuffy, HBy6antine Bedi#ine in the Si/th and Se"enth Centuries: -s'e#ts of =ea#hing and Pra#ti#e,H in Dumbarton /a(s apers &>, ed. S#ar)orough, 5$05C. 5$$. E. Kuffy, HBy6antine Bedi#ine in the Si/th and Se"enth Centuries: -s'e#ts of =ea#hing and Pra#ti#e,H in Dumbarton /a(s apers &>, ed. S#ar)orough, 5$05CJ here 5$055. 5$5. D. G. Lilson, "cholars of By.antium 9London: Ku# worth, $%>&<, ?>, and see also >;0>:. 5$&. @ri)asius, &ollectiones medicae 5?.&$ 9CBG "ol. :.5,$, ''.?$0?:<. 5$?. @ri)asius, "ynopsis %.?; 9CBG "ol. :.&, '.&*;.$*05><, trans. C. Karem)erg, in /euvres d'/ribase , ed. !. Bussema er and C. Karem)erg, : "ols. 9Paris: 3m'r. Dationale, $>;$0$>C:<, "ol. :, ''. ;&%0;?*. Philumenos of -le/andria was the author of a wor on gyne#ology, and another on "enomous animals and remedies for their stings and )ites 9see -ll)utt, Gree( !edicine in -ome <. =he latter is a"aila)le as CBG "ol. $*.$.$. Philumenos uses the same remedies for #ertain 'oisons as for hysteri(e pni# 9''. $?.$% and 55<, thus e#hoing Galen8s "iew that retained seed and menses a#ted li e a 'oison on the )ody. -)out Philumenos himself little is nownJ e"en his date is "ariously gi"en as the first #entury -.K ., #a. -.K . $>*, or the third #entury -.K . He does not e/'li#itly use GalenAwhi#h lends su''ort to the earliest date )ut the a)o"e referen#e to hysteri(e pni# may im'ly nowledge of Galen8s theories. 5$;. @ri)asius, "ynopsis %.?$ 9CBG "ol. :.&, '.&*$<. 5$:. G. Baader, HEarly Bedie"al Latin -da'tations of By6antine Bedi#ine in Lestern Euro'e,H in Dumbarton /a(s apers &>, ed. S#ar)orough, 5;$05;%, es'. '. 5;5J Lilson, "cholars of By.antium , ;C0;>J Kuffy, HBy6antine Bedi#ine,H in Dumbarton /a(s apers &>, ed. S#ar)orough, 5$05C, es'. 5;0 5C. 5$C. Lilson, "cholars of By.antium , $?50$?&.

5$>. $:.:>J while the #om'letion of the CBG -etius is awaited, Boo $: a''ears only in the unsatisfa#tory edition of S. Per"os, $etii sermo se#tidecimus et ultimus 9Lei'6ig: Bang os, $%*$<, of whi#h see ''. %; ff.J Soranus is #ited on '. %C.5:. -n English translation is a"aila)le in E. 7. Ri##i, $etios of $mida: The Gynecology and /bstetrics of the "i#th &entury -.K . 9Philadel'hia: Bla iston, $%;*<, where the rele"ant se#tions may )e found on ''. C*0C:. See also -. Gar6ya, HPro)lGmes relatifs M l8Fdition des li"res 3Z0Z73 du =Ftra)i)lon d8-Ftios d8-mida,H -evue des 1tudes $nciennes >: 9$%>?<: 5?;05;C. 5$%. Per"os, $etii sermo , '.%:. $0&. 55*. Galen, /n the $ffected arts :.; 9K >.?$;<. 55$. Per"os, $etii sermo , P.%C.$?. See further E. B. Riddle, &ontraception and $bortion from the $ncient )orld to the -enaissance 9Cam)ridge, Bass. and London: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%5<, %50%C. Riddle argues that -etius Hdis'layed a nowledge of #ontra#e'ti"es and a)ortifa#ients greater than anyone else in anti4uity, e/#e't Soranus and Kios#oridesH 9%5<. 555. 3)id., '.%C.5:05>. 55&. 3)id., '.%>.$. Ke)ru argues that the use of the first 'erson in other 'eo'le8s stories is #hara#teristi# of this genreJ see Ke)ru, HLa suffo#ation hystFri4ue.H Dote that this readiness to turn a general story into a 'ersonal e/'erien#e is e"ident e"en in the writings of one 'ersonJ Dutton shows that the stories Galen had read or heard thirty years )efore were transformed into his own eye0witness a##ounts in his later writings. See 7. Dutton, HStyle and Conte/t in the !ethod of Healing ,H in Galen's !ethod of Healing , ed. ,. Kudlien and R.E. Kurling 9Leiden: Brill, $%%$<, $05;J see ''. $50$&. 55$. Per"os, $etii sermo , P.%C.$?. See further E. B. Riddle, &ontraception and $bortion from the $ncient )orld to the -enaissance 9Cam)ridge, Bass. and London: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%5<, %50%C. Riddle argues that -etius Hdis'layed a nowledge of #ontra#e'ti"es and a)ortifa#ients greater than anyone else in anti4uity, e/#e't Soranus and Kios#oridesH 9%5<. 555. 3)id., '.%C.5:05>. 55&. 3)id., '.%>.$. Ke)ru argues that the use of the first 'erson in other 'eo'le8s stories is #hara#teristi# of this genreJ see Ke)ru, HLa suffo#ation hystFri4ue.H Dote that this readiness to turn a general story into a 'ersonal e/'erien#e is e"ident e"en in the writings of one 'ersonJ Dutton shows that the stories Galen had read or heard thirty years )efore were transformed into his own eye0witness a##ounts in his later writings. See 7. Dutton, HStyle and Conte/t in the !ethod of Healing ,H in Galen's !ethod of Healing , ed. ,. Kudlien and R.E. Kurling 9Leiden: Brill, $%%$<, $05;J see ''. $50$&. 55$. Per"os, $etii sermo , P.%C.$?. See further E. B. Riddle, &ontraception and $bortion from the $ncient )orld to the -enaissance 9Cam)ridge, Bass. and London: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%5<, %50%C. Riddle argues that -etius Hdis'layed a nowledge of #ontra#e'ti"es and a)ortifa#ients greater than anyone else in anti4uity, e/#e't Soranus and Kios#oridesH 9%5<. 555. 3)id., '.%C.5:05>. 55&. 3)id., '.%>.$. Ke)ru argues that the use of the first 'erson in other 'eo'le8s stories is #hara#teristi# of this genreJ see Ke)ru, HLa suffo#ation hystFri4ue.H Dote that this readiness to turn a general story into a 'ersonal e/'erien#e is e"ident e"en in the writings of one 'ersonJ Dutton shows that the stories Galen had read or heard thirty years )efore were transformed into his own eye0witness a##ounts in his later writings. See 7. Dutton, HStyle and Conte/t in the !ethod of Healing ,H in Galen's !ethod of Healing , ed. ,. Kudlien and R.E. Kurling 9Leiden: Brill, $%%$<, $05;J see ''. $50$&. 55?. Per"os, $etii sermo , '.%>.$0>J P.%%.$>055.

55;. 3)id., '.$**.CJ '.$*$.$0& 9c @ri)asius, "ynopsis %.?;.:<. 55?. Per"os, $etii sermo , '.%>.$0>J P.%%.$>055. 55;. 3)id., '.$**.CJ '.$*$.$0& 9c @ri)asius, "ynopsis %.?;.:<. 55:. &.C$ 9CBG "ol. %.$, '.5>>.>05>%.5$<. =his is translated into English in -dams, The !edical )or(s of aulus $egineta , &?;0&?:. 55C. CBG "ol. %.$, '.5>>.>J Gree anadrome . 55>. CBG "ol. %.$, '.5>>.$%05*. 55%. CBG "ol. %.$, '.5>>.5?05CJ #f. Per"os, $etii sermo , P.%C.$50$?. 5&*. CBG "ol. %.$, '05>%.:0>J Per"os, $etii sermo , '.%%.>0$* gi"es the same three su)stan#es. 5&$. CBG "ol. %.$, '.5>%.$:J #f. Soranus, Gynecology &.5>.$ 9CBG "ol. ?, '.$$*.55<. 5&5. G. Kel Guerra, 'l libro di !etrodora 9Bilan: Ces#hina, $%;&<, ?$, and HLa medi#ina )i6antina e il #odi#e medi#o0gine#ologi#a di Betrodora,H "cientia 7eterum $$> 9$%:><: :C0%?:>%. 5&&. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , $&; and $C?0$C; nn. ; and :. 5&?. Baader, HEarly Bedie"al Latin -da'tations of By6antine Bedi#ine,H in Dumbarton /a(s apers &> 9$%>?<: 5;$05;5. 5&;. Bus#io should )e #onsulted in the 7. Rose edition of "orani Gynaeciorum vetus translatio 4atina 9Lei'6ig: =eu)ner, $>>5<, ?.5:05% 9''. ;>0:$<J #om'are with B. ,. Kra) in and 3. E. Kra) in, &aelius $urelianus . =he added 'hrase is ascendente sursum ad pectus matrice , and it o##urs at Rose '.;>.%0$* and Kra) in '.C:.&:C0&:>. 5&:. 7. Rose, Theodori risciani 1uporiston 4ibri ''' 9Lei'6ig: =eu)ner, $>%?<, 55>05&*. @n =heodorus Pris#ianus, see @. =em in, HHistory of Hi''o#ratism in Late -nti4uity: =he =hird Century and the Latin Lest,H in Double Face of 2anus , )y =em in, $C?. 5&C. 7. Rose, &assii Felicis De !edicina e# Graecis 4ogicae "ectae $uctoribus 4iber Translatus 9Lei'6ig: =eu)ner, $>C%<, #ha'. CC, PP. $>C0$>%. See =em in, HHistory of Hi''o#ratism,H in Double Face of 2anus , )y =em in, 55>J and Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , $:C. 5&>. Rose, "orani Gynaeciorum , $&$0$&%J Baader, HEarly Bedie"al Latin -da'tations of By6antine Bedi#ine,H in Dumbarton /a(s apers &>, ed. S#ar0)orough, 5;$. 5&%. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , $;&. 5?*. ,or #riti#ism of the "iew that Hi''o#rati# writings were un nown in the Lest )efore the fifteenth #entury, see P. Ki)re, HHi''o#rati# Lritings in the Biddle -ges,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine $> 9$%?;<: &C&0?$5, and HHi''o#rates Latinus,H Traditio &: 9$%>*<: &?C0&C5, es'. '. &?C n. $. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , $?5, $?:0$?CJ Latin manus#ri'ts su#h as the early ninth0#entury Paris BD $$5$%, whi#h #ontains D) $.C0&>, #an )e tra#ed to Ra"enna. @n Ra"enna, see B[ller0Rohlfsen, Die 4ateinische -avennatische . 5?$. See further 3. Ba66ini and G. ,lammini, De conceptu 9Bologna: Patron Editore, $%>&<J B. E. 7a64ue6 BuIan, 1l de mulierum affectibus del corpus Hippocraticum: 1studio y ediciZn critica de la antigua traducciZn latina 9Com'ostela: !ni"ersidad de Santiago, $%>:<J 3rigoin, H=radition manus#rite,H $0$&. 5?5. ,or a translation of this #ommentary, see D. Palmieri, H!n anti#o #ommento a Galeno della s#uola medi#a di Ra"enna,H hysis 5& 9$%>$<: $%C05%:, es'. 5>>05>%, dis#ussed in Green, $ncient Theories of

Female hysiology and Disease , $;&0$;&. 5?&. Green, H De genecia -ttri)uted to Constantine,H &$$J 3. Ba66ini, H3''o#rate latino dei se#olo 7073: te#ni#a di tradu6ione,H in ' Testi di !edicina 4atini $ntichi: roblemi Filologici e "torici , 3. Ba66ini and ,. ,us#o, -tti del 3 Con"egno 3nterna6ionale, !ni"ersitM di Ba#erata, Brets#hneider, $%>;, &>&0 &>C, es'. '. &>;. 5??. Be##aria, H-nti#o #anone latino di 3''o#rate,H &: and &>0&%J Ki)re, HHi''o#rates Latinus,H 5>*0 5>5J E. -grimi, HL8 Hippocrates 4atinus nella tradi6ione manos#ritta e nella #ultura altomedie"ali,H in ' Testi di !edicina 4atini $ntichi , Ba66ini and ,us#o, &%$0&%5. @n the relationshi' )etween the 1pistula ad !aecenatem and 7indi#ianus, see B. E. 7a64ue6 BuIan, H7indi#iano y el tratado De natura generis humani3= Dynamis 5 9$%>5<: 5;0;:. 5?;. P. Kie'gen, HReste anti er Gyn` ologie im fr[hen Bittelalter,H 8uellen und "tudien .ur Geschichte der ,atur%issenschaften & 9$%&&<: 55:05?5, es'. 55>055%J G. Lalter, HPeri Gynai eion - of the Cor'us Hi''o#rati#um in a Latin =ranslation,H Bulletin of the 'nstitute of the History of !edicine & 9&%&;<: ;%%0:*:. 5?:. B. !llmann, 'slamic !edicine 9Edin)urgh: Edin)urgh !ni"ersity Press, $%C><, >. =he terms $rabic medicine and 'slamic medicine are misleadingJ many of those whose wor is #onsidered here were not Buslims or were not of -ra) origin. =he reader should ta e warning. 7eith, Hysteria , %?0%C, 'ays little attention to the -ra) world, saying merely that Hthe three leading Buslim 'hysi#ians 13)n Sina, Rha6es and Haly -))as2 did not write mu#h a)out hysteria.H =he diffi#ulty in studying the fortunes of the hysteria tradition in the -ra) world is the 'au#ity of te/ts a"aila)le in Euro'ean languagesJ howe"er, sin#e many of these wor s were translated into Latin, it is at least 'ossi)le for the s#holar without -ra)i# to ma e some 'reliminary #omments. 5?C. 3rigoin, H=radition manus#rite,H $0$&J K. Li''i and S. -rieti, HLa ri#e6ione del &orpus hippocraticum nell83slam,H in ' Testi di !edicina 4atini $ntichi , Ba66ini and ,us#o, &%%0?*5J Beyerhof and Eoannides, GynAcologie et l'/bstAtri:ue che. $vicenne , :J !llmann, 'slamic !edicine , $$J B. Beyerhof, HDew Light on Hunain 3)n 3sha4 and His Period,H 'sis > 9$%5:<: :>;0C5?. 5?>. R. E. Kurling, H- Chronologi#al Census of Renaissan#e Editions and =ranslations of Galen,H 2ournal of the )arburg and &ourtauld 'nstitutes 5? 9$%:$<: 5&*0&*;, es'. '. 5&5. See also Li''i and -rieti, HRi#e6ione del &orpus hippocraticum ,H in ' Testi di !edicina 4atini $ntichi , )y Ba66ini and ,us#o, ?*$. 5?%. B. !llmann, HPwei s'`tanti e Kommentare 6u der hi''o ratis#hen S#hrift 8Ke mor)is mulie)ri)us8,H !edi.inhistorisches 2ournal $5 9$%CC<: 5?;05:5J Green, H De genecia -ttri)uted to Constantine,H &*& n. $;, &*; n.55J !llmann, 'slamic !edicine , $$0$5. 5;*. @n al0=a)ari, see B. Beyerhof, H-li at0=a)ari8s 8Paradise of Lisdom,8 @ne of the @ldest -ra)i# Com'endiums of Bedi#ine,H 'sis $: 9$%&$<: :0;?, es'. $&0$;J ;J E.G. Browne, $rabic !edicine 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%5$<, &C0?*. 5;$. Firda%s 5.$, #ha'. $:J -. Siggel, HGyn` ologie, Em)ryologie und ,rauenhygiene aus dem 8Paradies der Leisheit d)er die Bedi6in8 des -)u Hana 8-li ). Sahl Ra))an at0=a)ari na#h der -usga)e "on Kr. Pu)air as0Siddi4i, $%5>,H 8uellen und "tudien .ur Geschichte der ,atur%issenschaften und der !edi.in > 9$%?$<: 5$:05C5, es'. '. 5?5. 5;5. Firda%s ?.%, #ha'. $CJ Siggel, HGyn` ologie, Em)ryologie,H 5??05?;. 5;&. !llmann, 'slamic !edicine , ?&. 5;?. Cha'. >C, Ke 'raefo#atione matri#isJ 3 am using the edition of $;&?, -hasis hilosophi Tractatus

nonus ad regem $lmansorem3 de curatione morborum particularium 9Paris: Simon de Colines, $;&?<. 5;;. 5amil 3 %.&%J -. -. Gewargis, GynW(ologisches aus dem 5amil as*"ina'a at*Tibbiya des '$li ibn al*'$bbas al*!agusi , 3naugural dissertation, ,riedri#h0-le/ander0!ni"ersit`t, Erlangen0D[rn)erg, $%>*, ?&. @n al0BaIusi, see Browne, $rabic !edicine , 9$%5$<, ;&0;C, and Beyerhof and Eoannides, GynAcologie et l'/bstAtri:ue che. $vicenne , C. 5;:. 5amil 33 >.$5J Gewargis, GynW(ologisches , C:. 5;C. Gewargis, GynW(ologisches , $>J see further, !. Leisser, 6eugung3 7ererbung und rWnatale 1nt%ic(lung in der !edi.in des arabisch*islamischen !ittelalters 9Erlangen: L[lung, $%>&<, $?:0$?C, and !. Leisser, HKas Cor'us Hi''o#rati#um in der ara)is#hen Bedi6in,H in Die hippo(ratischen 1pidemien , ed. G. Baader and R. Linau, "udhoffs $rchiv Beiheft 5C 9$%%*<: &CC0?*>. 5;>. Gewargis, GynW(ologisches , ?? and >*, 'i# ing u' -etius 9Per"os '. %C.$&< on the sus#e'ti)ility of the young to suffo#ation. See also Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , $$?, and 8-ri) i)n Sa8id, 4e 4ivre de la GAnAration du Foetus et le Traitement des Femmes enceintes et des ,ouveau*nAs , edited and translated )y H. Eahier and D. -)del ader 9-lgiers: Li)rairie ,erraris, $%;:<. 5;%. Gewargis, GynW(ologisches , CC. 5:*. @n 3)n al0Ea66ar, see E. S#hanfeld, HKie Pahnheil unde im 8Kita) Pad al0musafir8 des al0Ga66ar,88 "udhoffs $rchiv ;> 9$%C?<: &>*0?*&J R. Ea6i, HBillFnaire d83)n al0Ea66ar, 'harma#ien maghrF)in, mFde#in des 'au"res et des dFshFritFs,H -evue d'Histoire de la harmacie && 9$%>:<: ;0$5, $*>0$5*J idem, H-'hrodisia4u es et mFdi#aments de la re'rodu#tion #he6 3)n al0Ea66ar, mFde0#in et 'harma#ien maghrF)in du / e siG#le,H -evue d'Histoire de la harmacie &? 9$%>C<: $;;0$C*, %?&0%;%J B. L. Kols, !edieval 'slamic !edicine: 'bn -id%an's Treatise '/n the revention of Bodily 'lls in 1gypt 8 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%C&<, :C0:%. 5:$. Here 3 am using the Latin translation of the 7iaticum gi"en in /pera 9saac 9Lyons: B. =rot U E. de Platea, $;$;<, an a))re"iated form of the -ra)i# te/tJ the 7iaticum "ersion of this #ha'ter is #on"eniently gi"en )y Green in $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , 5?%. 5:5. !llmann, 'slamic !edicine , ?:J on -"i#enna in the Lest, see D. Siraisi, $vicenna in -enaissance 'taly: The &anon and !edical Teaching in 'talian Universities after MJQQ 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<. 5:&. 8anun 333 5$.?.$:0$%. 3 am using the ed. 4ibri in re medica omnes 95 "ols.<, %?%0%?& 97eni#e: 7algrisi, $;:?<. Beyerhof and Eoannides, GynAcologie et l'/bstAtri:ue che. $vicenne , '. ::, argue that ru))ing aromati# oil into the mouth of the wom) to imitate #o'ulation, as re#ommended )y -"i#enna, is a)sent from Gree medi#ineAyet it is 'resent not only in Galen )ut also in the Hi''o#rati# #or'us. 5:?. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , C;0C: and $$%0$5*, nn. %0$*. 5:;. Diseases of 9oung Girls , also nown as /n 7irgins , L >.?::0?C*J !llmann, Die !edi.in im 'slam , &5. 5::. Kiagnoses of hysteria in E. =. Lithington, H=he -s#le'iadae and the Priests of -s#le'ius,H in "tudies in the History and !ethod of "cience , ed. C. Singer, "ol. 5 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%5$<, $%50%*;, es'. '. 5**J Kie'gen, Die Frauenheil(unde der $lten )elt , $%?J L. K. Smith, HSo0#alled Possession in Pre0Christian Gree#e,H Transactions and roceedings of the $merican hilological $ssociation %: 9$%:;<: ?*&0?5: es'. '. ?*:J B. Simon, !ind and !adness in $ncient Greece , 5?&J Lef owit6, Heroines and Hysterics , $?J Banuli, HKonne mas#oline, femmine sterili,H in !adre !ateria , Cam'ese, Banuli, and Sissa 9=urin: Boringhieri, $%>&<, $?C0$%5, es'. '. $:$. ,or dis#ussion of the te/t and its 'ro)a)le #onte/t of menar#he, see H. King, HBound to Bleed: -rtemis and Gree

Lomen,H in 'mages of )omen in $nti:uity , ed. -. Cameron and -. Kuhrt 9London: Croom Helm, $%>&<, $*%0$5CJ H. King, From arthenos to Gyne: The Dynamics of &ategory , Ph.K. thesis, !ni"ersity of London, $%>;, $C;0$>5. 5:C. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , $&50$&&. 5:>. E. L. Hei)erg, auli $eginetae libri tertii interpretatio 4atina anti:ua 9Lei'6ig: =eu)ner, $%$5<, /iii, #ited )y Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , $>?, n. >5. 5:%. ,. P. Egert, GynWhologische Fragmente aus dem frEhen !ittelalter nach einer etersburger Handschrift aus dem 7''*'H 2ahrhundert 9Berlin: E)ering, $%&:<. 5C*. 3)id., 3 5:. 5C$. 3)id., 33 $:J see dis#ussion on '. ;?. 5C5. 3)id., 333 5&. 5:%. ,. P. Egert, GynWhologische Fragmente aus dem frEhen !ittelalter nach einer etersburger Handschrift aus dem 7''*'H 2ahrhundert 9Berlin: E)ering, $%&:<. 5C*. 3)id., 3 5:. 5C$. 3)id., 33 $:J see dis#ussion on '. ;?. 5C5. 3)id., 333 5&. 5:%. ,. P. Egert, GynWhologische Fragmente aus dem frEhen !ittelalter nach einer etersburger Handschrift aus dem 7''*'H 2ahrhundert 9Berlin: E)ering, $%&:<. 5C*. 3)id., 3 5:. 5C$. 3)id., 33 $:J see dis#ussion on '. ;?. 5C5. 3)id., 333 5&. 5:%. ,. P. Egert, GynWhologische Fragmente aus dem frEhen !ittelalter nach einer etersburger Handschrift aus dem 7''*'H 2ahrhundert 9Berlin: E)ering, $%&:<. 5C*. 3)id., 3 5:. 5C$. 3)id., 33 $:J see dis#ussion on '. ;?. 5C5. 3)id., 333 5&. 5C&. H. S#hi''erges, HKie -ssimilation der ara)is#hen Bedi6in dur#h das lateinis#he Bittelalter,H "udhoffs $rchiv Beiheft & 9Lies)aden, $%:?<J Green, H De genecia -ttri)uted to Constantine,H 5%%0 &5&J G. Baader, HEarly Bedie"al Latin -da'tations of By6antine Bedi#ine,H in Dumbarton /a(s apers &> 9$%>?<, 5;%J Kurling, HRenaissan#e Editions and =ranslations of Galen,H 5&&J on Constantinus -fri#anus, see P.@. Kristeller, 88=he S#hool of Salerno: 3ts Ke"elo'ment and 3ts Contri)ution to the History of Learning,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine $C 9$%?;<: $&>0$%?. 5C?. Green, HConstantinus -fri#anus and the Confli#t )etween Religion and S#ien#e,H in The Human 1mbryo: $ristotle and the $rabic and 1uropean Traditions , ed. G. R. Kunstan 9E/eter: !ni"ersity of E/eter Press, $%%*<, ?C0:%, es'. ''. ?% and :5 n. C. 5C;. !llmann, 'slamic !edicine , ;&0;?J Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , 55*. 5C:. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , 5&?. @n the s#hool of Salerno, see Kristeller, HS#hool of Salerno,H $&>0$%?J G. Baader, HKie S#hule "on Salerno,H !edi.inhistorisches

2ournal $& 9$%C><: $5?0$?;. 5CC. S. de Ren6i, &ollectio "alernitana 33 9Da'les: ,iliatre0Se)e6io, $>;&<, &&>0&&%J Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , 5:&05::, and Boni#a Green, 'ers. #omm. $:.$$.%$. 5C>. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , 5:C05:>. 5C%. 3)id., &*& nn. ?% and ;*, &*: n. :>, &$* n. %*J S. B. Stuard, HKame =rot,H "igns $ 9$%C;<: ;&C0 ;?5J E. ,. Benton, H=rotula, Lomen8s Pro)lems, and the Professionali6ation of Bedi#ine in the Biddle -ges,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine ;% 9$%>;<: &*0;&. Boni#a Green is #urrently editing the =rotula manus#ri'ts. 5C>. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , 5:C05:>. 5C%. 3)id., &*& nn. ?% and ;*, &*: n. :>, &$* n. %*J S. B. Stuard, HKame =rot,H "igns $ 9$%C;<: ;&C0 ;?5J E. ,. Benton, H=rotula, Lomen8s Pro)lems, and the Professionali6ation of Bedi#ine in the Biddle -ges,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine ;% 9$%>;<: &*0;&. Boni#a Green is #urrently editing the =rotula manus#ri'ts. 5>*. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , 5C?05C;. 5>$. 3)id., 5>; and n. %$J the te/t is also gi"en in n. %$. 5>5. 3)id., &$:. 5>*. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , 5C?05C;. 5>$. 3)id., 5>; and n. %$J the te/t is also gi"en in n. %$. 5>5. 3)id., &$:. 5>*. Green, $ncient Theories of Female hysiology and Disease , 5C?05C;. 5>$. 3)id., 5>; and n. %$J the te/t is also gi"en in n. %$. 5>5. 3)id., &$:. 5>&. @n its date see K. L. Peterson, H@)ser"ations on the Chronology of the Galeni# Cor'us,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine ;$ 9$%CC<: ?>?0?%;J on Renaissan#e editions, see Kurling, HRenaissan#e Editions and =ranslations of Galen,H 5?&. 5>?. Ki)re, HHi''o#rati# Lritings in the Biddle -ges,H &>*J )ut see Dutton, HHi''o#rates in the Renaissan#e,H in Hippo(ratischen 1pidemien , )y Baader and Linau: '. ?&C 'oints out that the Para#elsian Petrus -ntonius Se"erinus reIe#ted the $phorisms as 'art of his re#asting of Hi''o#rates in a Para#elsian mold. 5>;. P. @. Kristeller, HBartholomaeus, Busandinus and Baurus of Salerno and @ther Early Commentators of the 8-rti#ella,8 with a =entati"e List of =e/ts and Banus#ri'ts,H 'talia !edioevale e Umanistica $% 9$%C:<: ;C0>C, es'. ''. ;% and :;. 5>:. -. Be##aria, HSulle tra##e di un anti#o #anone latino di 3''o#rate e di Galeno 33: Gli -forismi di 3''o#rate nella "ersione e nei #ommenti del 'rimo medioe"o,H 'talia !edioevale e Umanistica ? 9$%:$<: $0C;, es'. '. 5&. 5>C. B[ller0Rohlfsen, Die 4ateinische -avennatische , /"iii0/i/ and C5. 5>>. 3 am using the first edition of $?C:, 'u)lished )y D. Petri at Padua. @n the $rticella , see Ki)re, HHi''o#rati# Lritings in the Biddle -ges,H &>50&>?J Baader, HEarly Bedie"al Latin -da'tations of By6antine Bedi#ine,H in Dumbarton /a(s apers &>, ed. S#ar)orough, 5;%J Dutton, HHi''o#rates in the Renaissan#e,88 in Hippo(ratischen 1pidemien , ed. Baader and Linau, ?5*0?&%J Kristeller, H@ther

Early Commentators of the 8-rti#ella,8H ;C0>CJ on the translation of $phorisms used, see ''. ::0:C. 5>%. Ke sternutatione, '. /liiii r J Ke mem)ris generationis in femellis, '. /l"iii r . 5%*. See Dutton, HHi''o#rates in the Renaissan#e,H in Hippo(ratischen 1pidemien , ed. Baader and Linau: ''. ?5;0?5: dis#uss how the Hunity )etween Galen and Hi''o#rates was reinfor#ed )y the 'ower of 'rint.H 5%$. Galen, 'n Hippocratis $phorismi , K $CB.>5?. 5%5. =he $?%& edition does not gi"e the a'horisms themsel"es in full: see !go Ben6i, "enensis super aphorismos Hypo. et super commentus Gal. eius interpretis 9,errara: Laurentium de 7alentia et -ndrea de Castro Do"o, $?%&<. ,or the full "ersion, see 1#positio Ugonis "enensis super aphorismos Hypocratis et super commentum Galieni 97eni#e: B. Lo#atellus, $?%><, '. $5; r . See K. P. Lo# wood, Ugo Ben.i: !edieval hilosopher and hysician M[NP*MS[R 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%;$<, &;0&: and 5$C05$%. Ben6i tidies u' the translation, gi"ing the #orre#t form, molestatur , in 'la#e of the molestat or molestant of other "ersions. 5%&. Loren6o Lauren6iani, 'n "ententias Hippocratis praefatio 9,loren#e: -ntonius Bis#ominus<, $?%?. 5%?. Di##olR Leoni#eno, &ommentum ,icoli super aphorismos 9Bononie: Benedi#tum He#toris, $;55<. 5%;. -ntonio Busa Brasa"ola, 'n octo libros aphorismorum Hippocratis et Galeni3 &ommentaria et $nnotationes 9Basel: ,ro)en, $;?$<, >5>. @n Brasa"ola, see Dut0ton, HBedi#ine, Ki'loma#y and ,inan#e: =he Prefa#es to a Hi''o#rati# Commentary of $;?$,H in ,e% erspectives on -enaissance Thought: 1ssays in the History of "cience3 1ducation and hilosophy in !emory of &harles B. "chmitt , eds. E. Henry and S. Hutton 9London: Ku# worth, $%%*<, 5&*05?&. 5%:. Leonhart ,u#hs, 'n Hippocratis &oi septem $phorismorum libris commentaria 9Paris: Roigny, $;?;<, ?$50?$&J the dis#ussion of lunga "ersus pniga is on ''. ?$?0?$;. 5%C. Guillaume Plan#y, Galen in $phorismi Hippocratis commentarius 9Lyons: Ro"ille, $;;5<, &?*. 5%>. Claude Cham'ier, $phorismi e# nova &laudii &ampensii interpretatione 9Lyons: C. Ra"ot, $;C%<, $5*J Ea#4ues Houllier, 'n $phorismos Hippocratis commentarii septem 9Paris: Ea#4ues de Puys, $;>5<, 5>?05>;. 5%%. 3. B. Lonie, H=he 8Paris Hi''o#rati#s8: =ea#hing and Resear#h in Paris in the Se#ond Half of the Si/teenth Century,H in The !edical -enaissance of the "i#teenth &entury , ed. -. Lear and R. K. ,ren#h 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<, $;;0$C?, es'. ''. $;>0$:*. &**. The )hole $phorismes of Great Hippocrates 9trans. S. H.< 9London: H. L. for Ri#hard Redmer, $:$*<, %&. &*$. B. L. Sloane ms. 5>$$, '. 5&. &*5. B. L. Sloane ms. 5$$C, '. 5& " and '. 5>$ r . &*&. See for e/am'le the thirteenth0#entury wor of Lalter -gilon in P. Kie'gen, Gualteri $gilonis3 "umma medicinalis: ,ach den !Enchener &od. lat. ,r [KJ und M[MKS erstmalig ediert mit einer vergleichenden Betrachtung Wlterer medi.inischer 5ompendien des !ittelalters 9Lei'6ig: Eohann -m)rosius Barth, $%$$<, #ha'. ?5 of whi#h, on suffo#ation of the wom), is hea"ily de'endent on 3)n Sina, and in#ludes a "ersion of the woman who lay as if dead, in whi#h Galen )e#omes the hero0 narrator 9'. $?%<. -lso from the thirteenth #entury is the De naturis rerum of =homas of Bra)antJ #ha'. ;% on the wom) dis#usses suffo#ation. See C. ,er# el, Die GynW(ologie des Thomas von Brabant: 1in Beitrag .ur 5enntnis der mittelalterlichen GynWi(ologie und ihrer 8uellen 9Buni#h: Carl K[hn, $%$5<. =he De proprietatibus rerum of Bartholomeus -ngli#us 9d. $5:*< also in#ludes suffo#ation in a general

#ha'ter on the wom), in Boo ; #ha'. ?% 9Stras)ourg: G. Husner, $?>;<J so does the thirteenth0#entury wor of Eoannes -#tuarius, !ethodi !edendi libri se# , in Boo ? #ha'. > 97eni#e: Gualterio S#oto, $;;?<. =he material is thus #o'ied from te/t to te/t, )e#oming in#reasingly familiarAan essential se#tion in any wor #laiming the status of en#y#lo'edia. ,or its a''earan#e in a more s'e#iali6ed wor , see also the fifteenth0#entury Biddle English te/t gi"en )y B.0R. Hallaert, The '"e(enesse of %ymmen': $ !iddle 1nglish Treatise on Diseases in )omen , S#ri'ta > 9Brussels: @B3REL, !,S-L, $%>5<, in whi#h lines &C;0?>5, des#ri)e Hsuffo#ation of the motherH 9i.e., of the wom)<. &*?. Pieter "an ,oreest, /bservationum et curationum medicinalium3 liber vigesimusoctavus3 de mulierum morbis 9Leyden: Plantin, $;%%<. &*;. 3)id., $;?0$;;. &*:. 3)id., $:C: Hysteri#a "itulo se simulat esse marito. &*C. 3)id., $:C: Et ho# est "erum. &*?. Pieter "an ,oreest, /bservationum et curationum medicinalium3 liber vigesimusoctavus3 de mulierum morbis 9Leyden: Plantin, $;%%<. &*;. 3)id., $;?0$;;. &*:. 3)id., $:C: Hysteri#a "itulo se simulat esse marito. &*C. 3)id., $:C: Et ho# est "erum. &*?. Pieter "an ,oreest, /bservationum et curationum medicinalium3 liber vigesimusoctavus3 de mulierum morbis 9Leyden: Plantin, $;%%<. &*;. 3)id., $;?0$;;. &*:. 3)id., $:C: Hysteri#a "itulo se simulat esse marito. &*C. 3)id., $:C: Et ho# est "erum. &*?. Pieter "an ,oreest, /bservationum et curationum medicinalium3 liber vigesimusoctavus3 de mulierum morbis 9Leyden: Plantin, $;%%<. &*;. 3)id., $;?0$;;. &*:. 3)id., $:C: Hysteri#a "itulo se simulat esse marito. &*C. 3)id., $:C: Et ho# est "erum. &*>. Eorden, $ Briefe Discourse of a Disease &alled the "uffocation of the !other . &*%. =. La4ueur, !a(ing "e#: Body and Gender from the Gree(s to Freud 9Cam)ridge, Bass., and London: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<, %%J for a more o'timisti# "iew of the relationshi' )etween s#ien#e and e/'erien#e in this 'eriod see K. Ea#4uart and C. =homasset, "e#uality and !edicine in the !iddle $ges 9Cam)ridge: Polity Press in asso#iation with @/ford: Basil Bla# well, $%>><, ?:. &$*. Eorden, Disease &alled the "uffocation of the !other , $* " . &$$. Guillaume de Baillou, De virginum et mulierum morbis 9Paris: E. Suesnel, $:?&<, 5*:. &$5. =homas Lay#o# , $ Treatise on the ,ervous Diseases of )omen 9London: Longman, $>?*<, &$C0 &$>J )ased on Kaniel Le Cler#, Histoire de la !Adecine , '. >; of the edition of $C*5. &$&. Leigh Hunt, $ 4egend of Florence 9London: Edward Bo/on, $>?*<. &$?. Kurling, HRenaissan#e Editions and =ranslations of Galen,H 5?;J Geo wargis, GynW(ologisches , :.

&$;. B. ,. La# , 4ovesic(ness in the !iddle $ges: The 7iaticum and 'ts &ommentaries 9Philadel'hia: !ni"ersity of Pennsyl"ania Press, $%%*<, 5%5 n. :.

!wo- 7% Strange Pathology71 Hysteria in the Early 6odern 3orld8 '9::;'<::

$. =his raises the 'hiloso'hi#al 4uestion a)out medi#al #ategories as distin#t from othersJ some dis#ussion of the su)Ie#t is found in Lester King, The hilosophy of !edicine: The 1arly 1ighteenth &entury 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%C><, ?%0;*, in the #onte/t of Gree 'hiloso'hy and medi#ine. =hroughout this #ha'ter the 4uestion of medi#al #ategories ne"er lies far from my imagination. Lhat #an a Hmedi#al maladyH or Hmedi#al #onditionH )e if it #an em)ra#e almost e"ery ty'e of sym'tomN 5. =his fa#t should not #ause students su#h as those of us who #ontri)ute to this )oo to )e#ome 'ositi"ists and thin we #an now everything a)out hysteria as a 'hiloso'hi#al, medi#al, and re'resentational #ategoryJ for hysteria and re'resentation see )elow in this se#tion and in se#tion Z37J for the dangers of su#h )elief see Edward Ka"en'ort, H=he Ke"ils of Positi"ism,H in 4iterature and "cience: Theory and ractice , ed. Stuart Peterfreund 9Boston: Dortheastern !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<, $C0&$. =he HisH and Has isH of hysteria is a dou)le0headed hydra. &. =he generali6ation must )e 4ualified: ,or the intimate #onne#tion )etween hysteria and 'sy#hoanalysis, 're0 and 'ost0La#anian, see -lan Krohn, HHysteria: =he Elusi"e Deurosis,H in sychological 'ssues 9Dew .or : 3nternational !ni"ersities Press, $%C><J Boni4ue Ka"id0BFnard, Hysteria from Freud to 4acan: Body and 4anguage in sychoanalysis 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J and the im'ortant )i)liogra'hi#al dete#ti"e wor of Bar Bi#ale, H@n the 8Kisa''earan#e8 of Hysteria: - Study in the Clini#al Ke#onstru#tion of a Kiagnosis,H un'u)lished 'a'er deli"ered to the 3nstitute of Deurology, Sueen S4uare, London 9$%>><, and HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy: - Re"iew of Past and Present Lritings,H History of "cience 5C 9$%>%<: 55&05:*, &$C0 &;$. ?. Kis#ussions of the strange disappearance of hysteria in#lude: Bar Bi#ale8s wor s 9n. &<J Krohn, HHysteriaHJ and, from a literary 'oint of "iew, the fi#tion of Barguerite Kuras 9see se#tions 33 and 333<. ,or #on"ersion syndrome, see B. 3. Leintrau), Hysterical &onversion -eactions: $ &linical Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment 9Lan#aster: B=P Press, $%>&<J Ka"id0BFnard, Hysteria from Freud to 4acan . ;. ,emale se/uality is not, of #ourse, synonymous with feminism or any other 'oliti#al women8s mo"ementJ what 3 designate )y the threat of female se/uality in history is elo4uently dis#ussed in Caroline Bynum, ed., Gender and -eligion: /n the &omple#ity of "ymbols 9Boston: Bea#on Press, $%>:<J Elaine Showalter, The Female !alady: )omen3 !adness and 1nglish &ulture3 MO[Q*MROQ 9London: 7irago, $%>C<J Susan Ru)in Suleiman, ed., The Female Body in )estern &ulture: &ontemporary erspectives 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<. :. Su#h "igilan#e 'aid to the linguisti# as'e#ts of s#ientifi# and medi#al dis#ourse has )een at the to' of my own agenda for two de#adesJ see G. S. Rousseau, 1nlightenment Borders: "cientific\!edical: re* and ostmodern Discourses 9Ban#hester: Ban#hester !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<. 3 use the term Hem'lotH 9i.e., em'lotted, em'lotment, em'lotments< to denote the way #ultural 'ra#ti#es and material #onditions are en#oded in a dis#ourse, and throughout this #ha'ter 3 'arti#ularly want to understand how "arious medi#al theories of hysteria assume a 'arti#ular "ision of #ulture and then em'lot that "ision into a te/t. Suestions of further re'resentation, genre, and rhetori# are another matter. C. ,or the #laim and its limits, see G. S. Rousseau, HBedi#ine and the Buses: -n -''roa#h to Literature and Bedi#ine,H in !edicine and 4iterature , ed. Barie Ro)erts and Roy Porter 9London:

Routledge, $%%&<, 5&0;C. ,or num)ness and heada#he among hysteri#al ty'es, see @li"er Sa# s, !igraine: The 1volution of a &ommon Disorder 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>;<, $%:05*C. See also se#tion 3Z for Lillis8s model of hysteria in relation to migraine. >. See se#tions 333 and 3Z for detailed dis#ussion of Sydenham8s theories and thera'ies. %. See Krohn, HHysteria,H &?&. $*. E"en the most theoreti#al and 'hiloso'hi#ally ad"an#ed of medi#al theorists has a"oided this matter of #ategory, and Bi#ale8s "arious )i)liogra'hi#al studies 9n. &< do not address the issue. $$. 3 ta e this to )e a main 'oint of Ka"id Borris8s #ha'ter on hysteria in his fine study of The 4anguages of ain 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%%5<. $5. Lilliam Sha es'eare, Hamlet3 The -iverside "ha(espeare , ed. G. B. E"ans 9Boston: Houghton Bifflin Co., $%C?<, l.ii. >5. =he standard wor is )y R. Kli)ans y et al., "aturn and !elancholy 9London: Delson, $%:?<. ,or the relation of eros and e#stasy see -rthur E"ans, The God of 1cstasy 9Dew .or : St. Bartin8s Press, $%>><, and B. S#ree#h, 1cstasy and the raise of Folly 9London: Ku# 0 worth, $%>*<. ,or La#an )iogra'hi#ally and in relation to hysteria, see: Stuart S#hneiderman, 2ac:ues 4acan: The Death of an 'ntellectual Hero 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<J Eli6a)eth Roudines#o, 2ac:ues 4acan and &o.: $ History of sychoanalysis in France 9Dew .or : -lfred -. Kno'f, $%>C<J Catherine Clement, The 4ife and 4egend of 2ac:ues 4acan , trans. -rthur Goldhammer 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<. $&. =his remains one of the main 'oints, #olle#ti"ely s'ea ing, of the ten authors writing in G. S. Rousseau, ed., The 4anguages of syche: !ind and Body in 1nlightenment Thought 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%%*<. $?. See Eulia Kriste"a, Desire in 4anguage: $ "emiotic $pproach to 4iterature and $rt 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>*<, and idem, Blac( "un: Depression and !elancholia 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. =he tro'e of hysteria and melan#holy is 'er"asi"e in her writing, as her )est #ommentators ha"e re#ogni6ed: see, for e/am'le, E. ,let#her and -. BenIamin, eds., $b;ection3 !elancholia and 4ove: The )or( of 2ulia 5risteva 9London: Routledge, $%>%<. $;. Bi#hel ,ou#ault, The History of "e#uality3 7ol. M3 $n 'ntroduction 9London: Penguin, $%C><, $*?. $:. HDum)ingH was not a term #ommonly used in any language in the 'eriod 'reeminently dis#ussed in this #ha'ter, although for a #ontem'orary use in a medi#al #onte/t see B. Liger, B.K., H- =reatise on the Gout: ,rom the ,ren#h of B. Charles Luis Liger,H &ritical -evie% 9-'ril $C:*<: 5>&05>>. De"ertheless, 3 #ontinue to in"o e it fully aware of its somewhat ana#hronisti# usage and )ased on its #ommon a''earan#e in twentieth0#entury 'arlan#e and 'rinted writing, es'e#ially in the wor s of su#h Hner"ous writersH as 7irginia Loolf, Simon de Beau"oir, Barguerite Kuras, and Samuel Be# ett. 3n English, the word had a#4uired se"eral usages )y $>**, es'e#ially in 'hysiologi#al and medi#al #onte/ts, )ut was not regularly used in the "o#a)ulary of the ner"es. ,or the standard definitions in English #a. $C;*, see Samuel Eohnson, $ Dictionary of the 1nglish 4anguage , 5 "ols. 9London, $C;;<. $C. =he e/tended 4uarrel of the an#ients and moderns, whi#h is seminal for any understanding of the 'eriod #o"ered )y this #ha'ter, taught its #ontestants as mu#h, and we do well to learn from the intelle#tual ra"ages of three #enturiesJ see R. ,. Eones, $ncients and !oderns 9St. Louis: Lashington !ni"ersity Press, $%&:<, and Eose'h Le"ine, Humanism and History: /rigins of !odern 1nglish Historiography 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<. $>. See George Lin#oln Burr, H=he Literature of Lit#h#raft,H apers of the $merican Historical $ssociation ? 9$>%*<: &C0::J Henry Charles Lea, HBaterials toward a History of Lit#h#raftH

9Philadel'hia, $%&%J re'rint, Dew .or and London: =. .oseloff, $%;C<J Russell Ho'e Ro))ins, The 1ncyclopedia of )itchcraft and Demonology 9Dew .or : Crown, $%;%<J and the se"eral )oo s )y Lilliam Bonter, the a# nowledged e/'ert on Euro'ean wit#h#raft. $%. =he literature is re"iewed in E. Kall8-"a Santu##i, Des sorciC au# mandarines: Histoire des femmes mAdecins 9Paris: Calmann0Le"y, $%>%<. 5*. 3t is found in and has its own #urious 'ro"enan#e, ha"ing )een 4uoted )y many writers in the last #entury, and )y some who figure in this #ha'ter, ha"ing often )een #ited )y Barguerite Kuras and, most re#ently, )y Ka"id BorrisJ see Barguerite Kuras, )riting on the Body 9!r)ana and Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of 3llinois Press, $%>C<, and Ka"id Borris, The &ulture of ain 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%%$<, #ha'. ;. Curiously, Bonter does not dis#uss the a##ount in his many )oo s on wit#h#raft. 5$. Eules Bi#helet, "atanism and )itchcraft: $ "tudy in !edieval "uperstition 9Dew .or : Citadel Press, $%&%<, 5&, &%, ?$, C%, &5C0&5%. 55. See Kriste"a, Desire in 4anguage , and Ka"id0BFnard, Hysteria from Freud to 4acan , who e/tends Kriste"a8s ;ouissance to the whole field of nowledge )ut without relating it to hysteria in the way 3 attem't here. 5&. =. ,. Graham, !edieval !inds: !ental Health in the !iddle $ges 9London: -llen U !nwin, $%:C<J =. K. @esterrei#h, ossession: Demoniacal and /ther 9Dew .or : Ri#hard R. Smith, $%&*<J Ro))ins, The 1ncyclopedia of )itchcraft and Demonology J Eohn Kemos, 1ntertaining "atan: )itchcraft and the &ulture of 1arly ,e% 1ngland 9Dew .or : @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<. 5?. ,or mass hysteria see Bryan Lilson, !agic and the !illennium: $ "ociological "tudy of -eligious !ovements of rotest among Tribal and Third*)orld eoples 9London: Heinemann, $%C&<J Bi#hael E. Colligan et al., eds., !ass sychogenic 'llness: $ "ocial sychological $nalysis 9Hillsdale, D.E.: L. Erl)aum -sso#., $%>5<. -s late as $%>%, se"eral hundred musi#al 'erformers )e#ame "iolently ill in the Santa Boni#a Ci"i# -uditorium in California. - team of !CL- 'sy#hiatrists in"estigated the #ase and 'u)lished their findings in the $merican 2ournal of sychiatry , re'orting that this was a #lassi# #ase of Hgrou' 'sy#hogeni# illness.H See E. S#ott, H$%>% Santa Boni#a 3llness =hat Stru# 5?C #alled Bass Hysteria,H 4os $ngeles Times , Se'tem)er ?, $%%$ 9B$, &<. =he Los -ngeles riots of -'ril $%%5, may in time re#ei"e a similar diagnosis. 5;. -n early wor ma ing this 'oint is -l)ertus Krant68s De passionibus mulierum 9$;??<J see also Kate Cam')ell Hurd0Bead, $ History of )omen in !edicine3 from the 1arliest Times to the Beginning of the ,ineteenth &entury 9Haddam, Conn.: Haddam Press, $%&><J Bi#hael Ba#Konald, HLomen and Badness in =udor and Stuart England,H "ocial -esearch ;&, no. 5 9$%>:<: 5:$05>$J Caroline Lal er Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The -eligious "ignificance of Food to !edieval )omen 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>C<J -le/ander Lal er, )oman hysiologically &onsidered3 as to !ind3 !orals3 !arriage3 !atrimonial "lavery3 'nfidelity and Divorce 9Hartford, Conn., $>;$<J K. P. Lal er, "piritual and Demonic !agic from Ficino to &ampanella X4ondon : Lar)urg 3nstitute, $%;><J idem, Unclean "pirits: ossession and 1#orcism in France and 1ngland in the 4ate "i#teenth and 1arly "eventeenth &enturies 9London: S#holar Press, $%>$<J Keith =homas, -eligion and the Decline of !agic 9Harmondsworth, Biddlese/: Penguin, $%C&<J Brian Easlea, )itch Hunting3 !agic and the ,e% hilosophy 9Brighton, Susse/: Har"ester, $%>*<, es'. #ha'. ?. 5:. ,or further e"iden#e see Graham, !edieval !inds J B. L. Gordon, !edieval and -enaissance !edicine 9London: Peter @wen, $%;%<J Ri#hard Deuge)auer, H=reatment of the Bentally 3ll in Bedie"al and Early Bodern England: - Rea''raisal,H 2ournal of the History of the Behavioral

"ciences $? 9$%C><: $;>0$:%J Beryl Rowland, !edieval )oman's Guide to Health 9Kent, @hio: Kent State !ni"ersity Press, $%>$<J Bary ,ran#es La# , 4ovesic(ness in the !iddle $ges: The 7iaticum and 'ts &ommentaries 9Philadel'hia: !ni"ersity of Pennsyl"ania Press, $%%*<, the most useful of these wor s for hysteria, es'e#ially for her #ommentary on Bona ,or0tuna8s fourteenth0#entury Treatise on the 7iaticum J see La# , 4ovesic(ness in the !iddle $ges , $&$, $C?0$C%, 5%*05%$. 5C. La# , 4ovesic(ness in the !iddle $ges , $C;. =he #lassi# wor is, of #ourse, Ea#4ues ,errand8s $:5& Treatise on 4ovesic(ness , ed. Konald -. Bee#her and Bassimo Cia"olella 9Syra#use, D...: Syra#use !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. 5>. E/am'les are found in S. -nglo, The Damned $rt: 1ssays in the 4iterature of )itchcraft 9London: Routledge U Kegan Paul, $%>;<. Com'arison of these images with modern ones of the hy'noti# 'ro"e usefulJ see Leon Cherto and 3sa)elle Stengers, 4e coeur et la raison: 4'hypnose en :uestion de 4avoisier a 4acan 9Paris: Editions Payot, $%>%<. 5%. @esterrei#h8s ossession: Demoniacal and /ther is still useful, )ut also see -. Rodewy , Die dWmonische Besessenheit in der "icht des -ituale -omanum 9-s#haffen)urg: Paul Pattlo#h 7erlag, $%:&<. &*. See these wor s )y Barguerite Kuras: The 4over 9Dew .or : Gro"e Press, $%C:<J The !alady of Death 9Dew .or : Gro"e Press, $%>:<J and )riting on the Body . &$. =his e/am'le assumes u''er0#lass hysteri#sJ hysteria in relation to 'o"erty and 'oor ner"es is dis#ussed in se#tions 3Z and Z37. &5. =he 'oint has )een elo4uently made )y Borris in The 4anguages of ain , #ha'. ;. =he lo#ales also 'ro"ide surfeits of 'leasureJ this 'oint a)out 'leasure must )e stressed. &&. Easlea, )itch Hunting , es'. #ha'. ?J Kemos, 1ntertaining "atan . &?. P. Eanet, 4'Atat mental des hystAri:ues , 5d ed. 9Paris: ,. -l#an, $%$$<, C*>. &;. See -li#e Eardine, Gynesis: &onfigurations of )oman and !odernity 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<J R. Satow, HLhere Has -ll the Hysteria GoneNH sychoanalytic -evie% :: 9$%C%0>*<: ?:&0?CCJ Patri#ia ,edi ew, HBarguerite Kuras: ,eminine ,ield of Hysteria,H 1nclitic : 9$%>5<:C>0>:. =his form of analysis has )een de"elo'ed with regard to Kriste"a and La#an in Ka"id0 BFnard, Hysteria from Freud to 4acan , and in Lilliam Hols6, "e#ual "ubversions 9London: -llen U !nwin, $%>%<. &:. Su#h num)ness, howe"er, does not figure into re#ent medi#al analyses: see Gil)ert H. Glaser, HE'ile'sy, Hysteria and 8Possession,8H 2ournal of ,ervous and !ental Disease $::, no. ? 9$%C><: 5:>0 5C?J S. B. Gu6e, H=he Kiagnosis of Hysteria: Lhat -re Le =rying to KoNH $merican 2ournal of sychiatry $5? 9$%:C<: ?%$0?%>. ,or #om'arison )etween the nineteenth #entury and earlier 'eriods and the )road #ultural fa#tors in"ol"ed, see E. Goldstein, H=he Hysteria Kiagnosis and the Politi#s of -nti#leri#alism in Late Dineteenth Century ,ran#e,H 2ournal of !odern History ;? 9$%>5<: 5*%05&%, and idem, &onsole and &lassify: The French sychiatric rofession in the ,ineteenth &entury 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<. &C. See Lilliam B. @)er, HBargery Kem'e: Hysteria and Bysti#ism Re#on#iled,H in Bottoms Up] $ athologist's 1ssays on !edicine and the Humanities 9Car)ondale, 3ll.: Southern 3llinois !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<, 5*&055*J C. B. Ba#he, H- Rea''raisal of =eresa of -"ila8s Su''osed Hysteria,H 2ournal of -eligion and Health 5? 9$%>;<: &**0&$;. &>. Dot sur'risingly, there is no male e4ui"alent #ontaining an ideology e"en remotely similar to the one found in the feminist agenda. Lhat indeed do #ontem'orary feminists say a)out male hysteriaN ,or

a start, see Bi#ale a)o"e. &%. ,or the 'hiloso'hi#al 'ro)lem of re'resentation, at least sin#e the ad"ent of the Cartesian re"olution in thought, see Kalia Eudo"it6, "ub;ectivity and -epresentation in Descartes: The /rigins of !odernity , Cam)ridge Studies in ,ren#h, ed. Bal#olm Bowie 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>><J and, for more re#ent times, Eames L. Larson, -eason and 1#perience: The -epresentation of ,atural /rder in the )orm of &arl yon 4innA 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%C$<, and Ri#hard Rorty, &ontingency3 'rony3 and "olidarity 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J idem, hilosophy and the !irror of ,ature X rinceton , D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%>*<. ?*. Sour#es for Sydenham are 'ro"ided in n. ?$ and in Se#tions 70733. ?$. ,or Sydenham, see es'e#ially Kenneth Kewhurst, Dr. Thomas "ydenham XMPKS*MPORY: His 4ife and /riginal )ritings 9Ber eley and Los -ngeles: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%::<. Lady Bary Lortley Bontagu, the )rilliant aristo#rat, world tra"eler, and friend of 'oet -le/ander Po'e, was dee'ly im'ressed )y Sydenham8s a)ility to des#ri)e the real #ondition of hysteria: 883 ha"e seen so mu#h of hysteri#al #om'laints, tho8 Hea"en )e 'raised 3 ne"er felt them, 3 now it is an o)stinate and "ery uneasy distem'er, tho8 ne"er fatal unless when Sua# s underta e to #ure it. 3 ha"e e"en o)ser"ed that those who are trou)led with it #ommonly li"e to old age. Lady Stair is one instan#eJ 3 remem)er her s#reaming and #rying when Biss Primrose, my selfe, and other girls were dan#ing 5 rooms distant. Lady ,anny has )ut a slight tou#h of this distem'er: read Kr. SydenhamJ you will find the analyse of that and many other diseases, with a #andor 3 ne"er found in any other author. 3 #onfess 3 ne"er had faith in any other 'hysi#ian, li"ing or dead. Br. Lo# e 'la#es him in the same ran with Sir 3saa# Dewton, and the 3talians #all him the English Hi''o#rates. 3 own 3 am #harmed with his ta ing off the re'roa#h whi#h you men so sau#ily throw on our se/, as if we alone were su)Ie#t to "a'ours. He #learly 'ro"es that your wise honoura)le s'leen is the same disorder and arises from the same #auseJ )ut you "ile usur'ers do not only engross learning, 'ower, and authority to yoursel"es, )ut will )e our su'eriors e"en in #onstitution of mind, and fan#y you are in#a'a)le of the woman8s wea ness of fear and tendernessH 9 The &omplete 4etters of 4ady !ary )ortley !ontagu , ed. Ro)ert Hals)and 1@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%:;2, &:$C$<. Kr. =homas =rotter, the influential early nineteenth0#entury English 'hysi#ian, thought that Sydenham and Cheyne had )een the two most influential physicians of the last hundred years )arring noneJ see 3da Ba#al'ine and Ri#hard Hunter, George ''' and the !ad Business 9Dew .or : Pantheon Boo s, $%:%<, 5%*. ?5. ,or the word Hner"ousH set into its #ultural #onte/t and a history of this de"elo'ment, see G. S. Rousseau, H=he Language of the Der"es: - Cha'ter in So#ial and Linguisti# History,H in 4anguage3 "elf3 and "ociety: $ "ocial History of 4anguage , 5d ed., ed. Peter Bur e and Roy Porter 9@/ford: Polity Press, $%%$<, 5$&05C;. ?&. Good sur"eys of this s#ien#e and Sydenham8s role in it are found in Bi#hael Hunter, "cience and "ociety in -estoration 1ngland 9Dew .or and Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>$<J idem, The -oyal "ociety and 'ts Fello%s3 MPPQ*MNQQ: The !orphology of an 1arly "cientific 'nstitution 9Chalfont St. Giles, Bu# s: British So#iety for the History of S#ien#e, $%>5<. ??. Sydenham8s notion of imitation 9 imitatio < was the traditional -ristotelian one des#ri)ed in the oetics J for te/tual e/am'les see =homas Sydenham, HPro#esses 3ntegri: Cha'. $: @n the -ffe#tion Called Hysteria in LomenJ and Hy'o#hondriasis in Ben,H in The )or(s of Thomas "ydenham3 !.D ., trans. R. G. Latham, 5 "ols. 9London: Sydenham So#iety, $>?>0$>;*<, $: 5>$05>:, and idem, The )hole )or(s of That 1#cellent ractical hysician 9London, $C*;<. ?;. - syn#hroni# "iew of hysteria e"aluates all its theories at on#e )y #om'arati"e and diale#ti#al meansJ a dia#hroni# "iew allows them to e"ol"e #hronologi#ally, de#ade )y de#ade. =he diffi#ulty with

the latter is that narrators generating the dia#hroni# story 'retend in one de#ade 9e.g., the $C&*s< that they do not now its influen#e on the ne/t 9e.g., the $C?*s<, whi#h they of #ourse do, and this entails a myth a)out dia#hroni# method they themsel"es ne"er )elie"e. =he linguisti# theorists of the 'eriod #o"ered in this #ha'ter were often sear#hing for syn#hroni# stru#tures in the de"elo'ment of languages. ?:. See se#tions 3Z and Z37. ?C. 3)id. See n. $C? )elow. ?:. See se#tions 3Z and Z37. ?C. 3)id. See n. $C? )elow. ?>. =he hysteria of Kuras8s women #ontinues to )e narrated )y others as well. ,or e/am'le, in Eim Harrison8s $%%* short story H=he Loman Lit )y ,ireflies,H the 'rotagonist suffers from the same agoniesJ see The ,e% 9or(er , Euly 5&, $%%*, ''. 5:0;;. ?%. =his 'oint remains the thrust of Krohn8s wor in HHysteriaH 9n. &<, in whi#h the author lays e4ual em'hasis on 'sy#hosomati# medi#ine and 'sy#hoanalysis. ,or the 'sy#hosomati# #onne#tion in the English Enlightenment, see Eohn Bidriff8s mar"elously satiri#al and humorous /bservations on the "pleen and 7apours: &ontaining -emar(able &ases of ersons of both "e#es3 and all -an(s3 from the aspiring Directors to the Humble Bubbler3 %ho have been miserably afflicted %ith these !elancholy Disorders since the Fall of the "outh*sea3 and other public( "toc(s< %ith the proper !ethod for their -ecovery3 according to the ne% and uncommon &ircumstances of each &ase 9London, $C5*<, and L. ,. Brown, HKes#artes, Kualism and Psy#ho0somati# Bedi#ine,H in The $natomy of !adness , ed. L. ,. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Bi#hael She'herd 9London: =a"isto# Pu)li#ations, $%>;<, 5: ?*0:5. ;*. ,or the )a# ground see -. E. =aylor, $ &ommentary on lato's Timaeus 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%5><, :&>0:?*J G. E. R. Lloyd, "cience3 Fol(lore3 and 'deology 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<. ;$. Plato8s "iew, as 3 ha"e suggested, was that of the wom) as li"ing animalJ see K. ,. Krell, H,emale Parts in Timaeus3= $rion 5 9$%C;<: ?**0?5$. ,or 'hallo0#rati# dis#ourse and the role of women, see E"a C. Keuls, The -eign of the hallus: "e#ual olitics in $ncient Greece 9Dew .or : Har'er U Row, $%>;<. ,or the Renaissan#e modifi#ation of this "iew, see Krant, De passionibus mulierum 9$;??<J Edward Shorter, $ History of )omen's Bodies 9Harmondsworth: Penguin, $%>&<J idem, )omen in the !iddle $ges and the -enaissance: 4iterary and Historical erspective 9Syra#use: Syra#use !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<J Bary Beth Rose, )omen in the !iddle $ges and the -enaissance: 4iterary and Historical erspective 9Syra#use: Syra#use !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<J 3. Ba#Lean, The -enaissance ,otion of )oman 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>*<J Eoan Kelly0Gadol, HKid Lomen Ha"e a Renaissan#eNH in Becoming 7isible: )omen in 1uropean History , ed. Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koon6 9Boston: Houghton Bifflin Co., $%:C<. ;5. Dowhere is this )etter seen than in the historiogra'hy of hysteria 'ro"ided )y Bi#ale in his "arious wor sJ see n. &. ;&. See es'e#ially the #ontem'orary testimonies in E. Ke 7almont, Dissertation sur les !alAfices et les "orciers selon les principes de la thAologie et de la physi:ue3 o^ l'on e#amine en particulier l'Atat de la fille de Tourcoing 9=our#oing, $C;5<J -. Galo'in, 4es hystAri:ues des couvents3 des Aglises3 des temples3 des theatres3 des synagogues3 et de l'amour 9Paris, $>>:<J Kli)ans y et al., "aturn and !elancholy 9n. $5<J Catherine0Lauren#e Baire, 4es convulsionnaires de "aint*!Adard: !iracles3 convulsions et propAties aris au H7'''e siAcle , Colle#tion -r#hi"es 9Paris: Gallimard Eulliard, $%>;<. ;?. Krohn, HHysteria,H all the more e"ident )e#ause hysteria is so HrealH and affli#ts 'atients suffering 88realH sym'toms.

;;. Loo ing ahead, this will )e one of Sydenham8s main 'oints a)out hysteria in relation to all other medi#al #onditions, des'ite the negle#t of it )y medi#al historiansJ see, for e/am'le, Kewhurst, Dr. Thomas "ydenham J Eeffrey B. D. Boss, H=he Se"enteenth0Century =ransformation of the Hysteri# -ffe#tion, and Sydenham8s Ba#onian Bedi#ine,H sychological !edicine % 9$%C%<: 55$05&?. ;:. Refle#tion through 'ower and marginaliation had )een one of ,ou#ault8s main 'oints a)out hysteria in !adness and &ivili.ation: $ History of 'nsanity in the $ge of -eason 9Dew .or : Pantheon Boo s, $%:;<J see also Ka"id -rmstrong, olitical $natomy of the Body 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<. ;C. ,or these de)ates see the "alua)le wor of 3an Ha# ing, Dan#y Cartwright, Bary Hesse 9her late wor sJ she e/'erien#ed a #on"ersion from her earlier more internalist 'osition<, Larry Laudan, Ernan B#Bullin, -rthur ,ine, and Ronald Giere. ;>. 7alua)le information is found in Colligan, !ass sychogenic 'llness 9n. 5?<, and Lilson, !agic and the !illennium . ;%. -s em'hasi6ed )y Krell, H,emale Parts in Timaeus HJ see also Shorter, History of )omen's Bodies . :*. 3)id. ;%. -s em'hasi6ed )y Krell, H,emale Parts in Timaeus HJ see also Shorter, History of )omen's Bodies . :*. 3)id. :$. See the dis#ussion of Sha es'eare and Ra)elais in se#tion 73. :5. Elaine Pagels, $dam3 1ve and the "erpent 9Dew .or : 7intage Boo s, $%>%<J Ba#Lean, -enaissance ,otion of )oman J Carroll Camden, The 1li.abethan )oman 9Dew .or : Else"ier Press, $%;5<. :&. ,or the 'sy#ho'hysiologi#al im'li#ations of this turning 'oint as they affe#t hysteria, see Ri#hard B. Carter, Descartes' !edical hilosophy: The /rganic "olution to the !ind*Body roblem 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<J Brown, HKes#artes, Kualism and Psy#hosomati# Bedi#ine.H :?. ,or Sydenham8s relation to Cartesianism see Kewhurst, Dr. Thomas "ydenham . :;. -s he tra"eled through the Le"ant in the $;%*s, Lilliam Ri#hard sear#hed for @riental e4ui"alentsJ see his History of Tur(ey 9London, $:*&<. ::. See Susan Sontag, 'llness as !etaphor 9Dew .or : Random House, $%C%<. =he defe#t for gout will soon )e remedied in a )oo in 're'aration )y G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter, Gout: The atrician !alady 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%%?<. :C. - 'oint dis#ussed )y Henry Siegerist, &ivili.ation and Disease 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%??<J ,rederi# ,. Cartwright, Disease and History 9London: Hart0Ka"is, $%C5<J Leon Edel, HKisease and the Do"el,H T4" , &* Bay $%>::;%$. :>. Susan Sontag, $'D" and 'ts !etaphors 9Dew .or : ,arrar, Straus and Girou/, $%>%<. :%. Euliet Bit#hell, )oman: The 4ongest -evolution 9London, $%>?<, 5>>05%*. C*. ,or some of the so#ioe#onomi# #auses see Kall8-"a Santu##i, Des sorcieres au# mandarines J Bridget Hill, )omen and )or( in 1ighteenth*&entury 1ngland 9Dew .or : @/ford !ni"ersity Press<J Rita Gold)erg, "e# and 1nlightenment: )omen in -ichardson and Diderot 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>?<. C$. Rose, )omen in the !iddle $ges and the -enaissance J Pagels, $dam3 1ve and the "erpent J less

astute is Camden, 1li.abethan )oman . C5. Dot e"en the tradition of the Hgood surgeonH in the Renaissan#e and Enlightenment #hanges this situationJ in this sense Eonathan Swift8s Lemuel Gulli"er, the Hgood surgeonH of Swift8s e/oti# tra"els, #omes at the end of a tradition rather than the )eginning of a new one. C&. See n. &? for Eanet. C?. See Ste'hen Lilson, "aints and Their &ults 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J H. R. Lemay, HHuman Se/uality in =welfth0 through ,ifteenth0Century S#ientifi# Lritings,H in "e#ual ractices and the !edieval &hurch , ed. 7ern Bullough and Eames Brundage 9Buffalo: Prometheus Boo s, $%>5<, $>C05*:. Here 'hilology is also instru#ti"e: the word HhysteriaH did not enter -nglo0 Sa/on, Biddle English, or the Roman#e languages until the si/teenth #entury, )ut Hmelan#holiaH 9as )la# )ile< was already )eing used )y the medi#al do#tors in the thirteenth, often as a synonym of H chlorosis .88 =he a''earan#e of H furor uterinus H )egins in the thirteenth #entury, )ut Hnym'homaniaH 9the word< had not yet )een in"entedJ its first use, as a #ondition, is found as late as $CC; in B. K. =. Bien"ille, ,ymphomania< or $ Dissertation concerning the Furor Uterinus 9London, $CC;<J see G. S. Rousseau, H=he 3n"ention of Dym'homania,H in erilous 1nlightenment 9Ban#hester: Ban#hester !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<, ??0:?. Do wor )rings these traditionsA"er)al and "isual, 'hilologi#al and s#ientifi#Aso well together as Kli)ans y et al., "aturn and !elancholy . C;. - )rief a##ount is found in La# , 4ovesic(ness in the !iddle $ges 9n. 5:<. =he #lassi# sour#e for melan#holy as both male and female remains Ro)ert Burton8s $natomy of !elancholy 9$:5$<. See also =. S. Soufas, !elancholy and the "ecular !ind in "panish Golden $ge 4iterature 9Colum)ia: !ni"ersity of Bissouri Press, $%%*<, who #onsiders melan#holy the ey to the transition )etween medie"al and Renaissan#e mentalities )ut who is rather silent on its genderi6ation in the Renaissan#e. 3n !elancholy and "ociety 9Cam)ridge: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%5<, Lolf Le'enies e/'ands on the interse#tion of melan#holy and se#ularism in its uto'ian and 'oliti#al dimensions. C:. Soufas, !elancholy and the "ecular !ind , $&$. CC. 3)id. C:. Soufas, !elancholy and the "ecular !ind , $&$. CC. 3)id. C>. 3t is surely ana#hronisti# to imagine that the o)Ie#tion was then made, or #ould ha"e )een made, among the midwi"es and their 'atients in the name of les)ianism: that was ne"er a #on#ernJ if there was #on#ern, it was on grounds that the midwi"es 9the obstetrices < as well as 'atients were )e#oming se/ually aroused and #arnally sa#rifi#edJ see B. Ehrenrei#h, )itches3 !id%ives3 and ,urses 9@ld Lest)ury, D...: ,eminist Press, $%C&<J Ea#4ues Gelis, 4a sage*femme ou le mAdecin: Une nouvelle conception de la vie 9Paris: ,ayard, $%>><. C%. ,or the early genderi6ation and 'athologi6ation of the soul see Eose'h S#huma#her, Die seelischen 7ol(s(ran(heiten im deutschen !ittelalter 9Berlin: Deue Keuts#he ,ors#hungen, $%&C<J R. B. @nians, The /rigins of 1uropean Thought about the Body3 the !ind3 the "oul3 the )orld3 Time3 and Fate 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%;$<J and an early wor , Eohann -m)rosius Hillig, $natomie der "eelen 9Lei'6ig, $C&C<. ,or hysteria and 'ossession, see @esterrei#h, ossession: Demoniacal and /ther J Glaser, HE'ile'sy, Hysteria and 8Possession8H 9n. &:<J and a modern 'hiloso'hi#al a''roa#h, E. K. Bernal, The )orld3 the Flesh and the Devil: $n 'n:uiry into the Future of the Three 1nemies of the -ational "oul 9London: Ca'e, $%C*<. =he milieu of these early hysteri#s was a #ulture of e#stasy mar ed )y a ga' )etween first0 and third0'erson dis#ourse. =he first0'erson narrati"es 9#onfessions of hysteri#s< were almost ne"er writtenJ they in#lude the diaries of mad women

and other #on"ulsionaries, neither of whom had any 'u)li# authority. >*. ,errand8s Treatise of 4ovesic(ness has )een astutely dis#ussed )y ,ou#ault and now magnifi#ently edited 9n. 5C<J for Platterus 9Platter< and his wor s as they relate to the traditions of hysteria see Stanley L. Ea# son, !elancholia and Depression 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<, and Platterus, Beloved "on: The 2ournal of Feli# latter3 a !edical "tudent in !ontpellier in the "i#teenth &entury 9London: ,rederi# Buller, $%:$<. ,errand ma es the im'ortant o)ser"ation that males, whom he "iewed generi#ally as homo publicus , suffered many other disa''ointments than lo"e, )ut that e"en among amorous males there is no greater loss or #ause for unha''iness and des'air. >$. 3deas adum)rated )y the influential Binswangers in ,reud8s 7ienna. See the writings of ,reud8s #ontem'orary, -ustrian 'sy#hiatrist @tto Ludwig Binswanger, es'. Die hysterie X7ienna , $%*?<, a wor of almost one thousand 'ages, and the im'ortant )oo of his son Ludwig, !elancholie und !anie 9Pfullingen, $%:*<, a study of anger in relation to hysteria. =he elder Binswanger wrote studies of hysteria, neurasthenia, e'ile'sy, and madness. ,rom the early modern 'eriod 9#a. $;** forward<, anger was asso#iated with 'ossession and demonismJ later, in the se"enteenth #entury, with war and attentionJ yet the modern so#ial history of anger awaits its student. >5. See -. LuyendiI , H@f Bas s and Bills: =he Enlightened Ko#tor and His ,rightened Patient,H in The 4anguages of syche , ed. Rousseau 9n. $&<, $>:05&$J the #lassi# eighteenth0#entury statement is )y Eohn Bond, $n 1ssay on the 'ncubus3 or ,ight*!are 9London: Lilson U Kurham, $C;&<J a theoreti#al a''roa#h to the s'e#tatorial nighttime world that glan#es at the early 'eriod is found in =erry Castle, HPhantasmagoria,H &ritical 'n:uiry $; 9$%>><: 5:0:$. >&. ,or the o''osite "iew, that it was 'ure 'ossession, see Graham, !edieval !inds , %%0$*$. >?. 7eith, Hysteria , ;%0::, and #ha'. :, H=he Don0#onformists.H >;. 3)id., :$. >:. 3)id., $$*. >?. 7eith, Hysteria , ;%0::, and #ha'. :, H=he Don0#onformists.H >;. 3)id., :$. >:. 3)id., $$*. >?. 7eith, Hysteria , ;%0::, and #ha'. :, H=he Don0#onformists.H >;. 3)id., :$. >:. 3)id., $$*. >C. Bodin, the author of De la dAmonomanie des sorciers 9Paris: Ea#4ues du Pays, $;>$< and other wor s on magi#, reasoned that Hmadwomen are ne"er )urned . . . and Hi''o#rates whom you 1Leyer2 should now, tea#hes you on his 'art that those women who ha"e their menses, are not su)Ie#t to melan#holy, madness, e'ile'syH 94uoted in 7eith, Hysteria , $$$<. ,or Leyer see Graham, !edieval !inds J E. E. Co))en, 2an )ier3 Devils3 )itches and !agic 9Philadel'hia: Korran#e, $%C:<J Carl Bin6, Doctor 2ohann )eyer: 1in rheinischer $r.t3 der $. Be(aempfer des He#en%ahns: 1in Beitrag .ur Geschichte der $uf(laerung und der Heil(unde 9Leis)aden: Kr. Bartin Saendig, $%:%<. >>. See also Baldinus Ronsseus, De humanae vitae primordiis hystericis affectibus 9Leiden, $;%?<, for a similar 'oint. >%. ,or one a''roa#h to Leyer8s life see Co))en, 2an )ier3 Devils3 )itches and !agic . See also the a''aratus in Eohannes Leyer, )itches3 Devils3 and Doctors in the -enaissance: 2ohannes )eyer's De raestigiis Daemonum , ed. George Bora, B.K. 9Binghamton, D...: !ni"ersity Center at Binghamton,

$%%*J originally 'u)lished $;>&<. %*. =imothy Bright, $ Treatise of !elancholie. &ontaining the &auses thereof3 @ reasons of the strange effects it %or(eth in our minds and bodies: %ith the physic(e cure3 and spirituall consolation for such as haue thereto adioyned an afflicted conscience. The difference bet%i#t it3 and melancholie %ith diuerse philosophicall discourses touching actions3 and affections of soule3 spirit3 and body: the particulars %hereof are to be seene before the boo(e 9London, $;>:J re'rint, -msterdam and Dew .or : Ka Ca'o Press, $%:%<. ,or Bright see also Ea# son, !elancholia and Depression . %$. =he te/t has now )een edited with useful #ommentary )y Bi#hael Ba#Konald in )itchcraft and Hysteria in 1li.abethan 4ondon: 1d%ard 2orden and the !ary Glover &ase\Tavistoc( &lassic -eprints in the History of sychiatry 9London: Routledge, $%%*<. %5. Kuring the 'eriod $;;*0$:;* the nomen#lature was "aria)le, some authors 'referring one term o"er another, and it is almost im'ossi)le to differentiate among these terms in the medi#al literature. -ll three are used in Eohn Sadler, The "ic(e )omans rivate 4oo(ing*Glasse3 %herein !ethodically are handled at uterine affects3 or diseases arising from the %ombe< enabling )omen to informe the hysician about the cause of their griefe 9London: -nne Griffin, $:&:<, $&*. %&. ,or the #ultural milieu of the de"il see Lal er, "piritual and Demonic !agic 9n. 5;<J Brian 7i# ers, "cientific and /ccult !entalities in the -enaissance 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>?<J Layne Shuma er, The /ccult "ciences in the -enaissance 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%C5<J -. Ba#farlane, )itchcraft in Tudor and "tuart 1ngland 9London: Routledge U Kegan Paul, $%C*<J and for the #onne#tion with eroti# life and se/uality, 3oan P. Culianu, 1ros and !agic in the -enaissance 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%>%<. %?. Edward Eorden, $ Brief Discourse of a Disease &alled the "uffocation of the !other 9London: Eohn Lindet, $:*&<, B& 5. %;. See -. E. =aylor 9n. ;*< for the Platoni# sour#es. %:. =he 'oliti#s of Eorden8s H furor uterinus H is dis#ussed in K. H. Bart S#ully et al., H=he Politi#s of Hysteria: =he Case of the Landering Lom),H in Gender and Disordered Behavior: "e# Differences in sychopathology , ed. E. S. Gom)erg and 7. ,ran s 9Dew .or : Brunner(Ba6el, $%C%<, &;?0&>*. ,or models of the uterus in the 're"ious few #enturies, es'e#ially the se"en0#ell uterus, see Ro)ert Reisert, Der seiben(ammerige uterus 9Hano"er: L[r6)urger medi6inshistoris#he ,ors#hungen, $%>:<. %C. -long the line of S#ully8s H'oliti#s of hysteria,H one wonders why the female #ould not mastur)ate to 'ro"ide the mu#h0needed moisture. Las male s'erm alone #a'a)le of 'ro"iding the moisture, or was mastur)ation too deli#ate a to'i# to addressN ,or the 'oliti#s and ideology of mastur)ation in history see Eean Paul and Roger Kem'f -ron, 4e pAnis et la dAmoralisation de l' /ccident 9Paris: Bernard Grasset, $%C><. %>. Eorden, "uffocation of the !other , G5 5. %%. Dor will the genderi6ation #ease with the inno"ati"e Eorden. =hroughout the se"enteenth #entury, the HmotherH will )e#ome in#reasingly asso#iated with natureJ see Eames Linn, H )hen Beauty Fires the Blood=: 4ove and $rts in the $ge of Dryden 9-nn -r)or: !ni"ersity of Bi#higan Press, $%%5<. Li ewise, its meta'hors atta#h to anatomy, then #onsistently said to )e the Hmother of s#ien#eHJ see -. E. LuyendiI , 88-natomy, Bother of -rt and S#ien#e: Contro"ersies )etween English and Kut#h S#ientists, $:%*0$C5;,H a tal deli"ered at the Lell0#ome 3nstitute Sym'osium on the History of Bedi#ine, $%>>. By the eighteenth #entury, anatomi#al 'reo##u'ation with the Hsuffo#ation of the motherH will ha"e mo"ed anatomi#ally and gyne#ologi#ally from the wom) to Hthe mother8s imagination,H now said )y do#tors to )e the most im'ortant as'e#t of fetal mar ing during the a#t of

re'rodu#tionJ see G. S. Rousseau, HPinea''les, Pregnan#y, Pi#a, and eregrine ic(le ,H in Tobias "mollett: Bicentennial 1ssays resented to 4e%is !. 5napp , ed. G. S. Rousseau and P. G. Bou#F 9Dew .or : @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%C$<, C%0$$*. -nd )y the early nineteenth, the HmotherH )e#omes the ey to the mystery of androgynyJ see K. L. Hoe"eler, -omantic $ndrogyny: The )oman )ithin 9!ni"ersity Par : Pennsyl"ania State !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<. Lhile a study of the medi#ali6ation of the imagination in the Renaissan#e and Enlightenment is )adly needed, a study of the transformations of the image of Hthe mother,H #onstrued literally and meta'hori#ally, "isually and i#onogra'hi#ally also remains a desideratum. $**. =he Iungle of rhetori# is so dense in these treatises, es'e#ially in Eorden8s, that it is worthwhile to #onstrue these wor s as medi#al roman#es designed to sway a 'arti#ular male audien#e in a 'redi#ta)le dire#tion. Lithin these dense tro'i#s of dis#ourse 9to )orrow a 'hrase again from Hayden Lhite8s Tropics of Discourse 1Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%>52<, one tro'e alone stands out o"er and o"er again: analogy. -nalogy, #ommon in the medi#al literature of the time, is e"erywhere 'resent in this #onstru#tion of hysteria, as in this im'ortant 'assage )y Eorden a)out the Haffe#tions of the mindH: Hthe 'ertur)ations of the minde are oftentimes to )lame for this 1i.e., hysteria2 and many other diseases. ,or feeling we are not masters of our owne affe#tions, wee are li e )attered Cities without walles, or shi''es tossed in the Sea, e/'osed to all manner of assaults and daungers, e"en to the o"erthrow of our owne )odiesH 9Eorden, "uffocation of the !other , G5 5<. $*$. See 7eith, Hysteria , $550$5&. $*5. C. E. B#Bahon, H=he Role of 3magination in the Kisease Pro#ess in Pre0Cartesian History,H sychological !edicine : 9$%C:<: $C%0$>?. $*&. 7eith, Hysteria , $55. $*?. 3)id., $5&. $*&. 7eith, Hysteria , $55. $*?. 3)id., $5&. $*;. Eorden, "uffocation of the !other , B& &. $*:. 3)id., B&. $*C. 3)id., 5;. $*>. 3)id., G& &. $*%. 3)id. $$*. 3)id., -&. $$$. 3)id. $$5. 3)id., -?. E'ile'sies and #on"ulsions were #onsidered im'ortant signs throughout the se"enteenth #enturyJ see Eean Chastelain, TraitA des convulsions 9Lyon, $:%$<. $*;. Eorden, "uffocation of the !other , B& &. $*:. 3)id., B&. $*C. 3)id., 5;. $*>. 3)id., G& &. $*%. 3)id. $$*. 3)id., -&.

$$$. 3)id. $$5. 3)id., -?. E'ile'sies and #on"ulsions were #onsidered im'ortant signs throughout the se"enteenth #enturyJ see Eean Chastelain, TraitA des convulsions 9Lyon, $:%$<. $*;. Eorden, "uffocation of the !other , B& &. $*:. 3)id., B&. $*C. 3)id., 5;. $*>. 3)id., G& &. $*%. 3)id. $$*. 3)id., -&. $$$. 3)id. $$5. 3)id., -?. E'ile'sies and #on"ulsions were #onsidered im'ortant signs throughout the se"enteenth #enturyJ see Eean Chastelain, TraitA des convulsions 9Lyon, $:%$<. $*;. Eorden, "uffocation of the !other , B& &. $*:. 3)id., B&. $*C. 3)id., 5;. $*>. 3)id., G& &. $*%. 3)id. $$*. 3)id., -&. $$$. 3)id. $$5. 3)id., -?. E'ile'sies and #on"ulsions were #onsidered im'ortant signs throughout the se"enteenth #enturyJ see Eean Chastelain, TraitA des convulsions 9Lyon, $:%$<. $*;. Eorden, "uffocation of the !other , B& &. $*:. 3)id., B&. $*C. 3)id., 5;. $*>. 3)id., G& &. $*%. 3)id. $$*. 3)id., -&. $$$. 3)id. $$5. 3)id., -?. E'ile'sies and #on"ulsions were #onsidered im'ortant signs throughout the se"enteenth #enturyJ see Eean Chastelain, TraitA des convulsions 9Lyon, $:%$<. $*;. Eorden, "uffocation of the !other , B& &. $*:. 3)id., B&. $*C. 3)id., 5;. $*>. 3)id., G& &. $*%. 3)id.

$$*. 3)id., -&. $$$. 3)id. $$5. 3)id., -?. E'ile'sies and #on"ulsions were #onsidered im'ortant signs throughout the se"enteenth #enturyJ see Eean Chastelain, TraitA des convulsions 9Lyon, $:%$<. $*;. Eorden, "uffocation of the !other , B& &. $*:. 3)id., B&. $*C. 3)id., 5;. $*>. 3)id., G& &. $*%. 3)id. $$*. 3)id., -&. $$$. 3)id. $$5. 3)id., -?. E'ile'sies and #on"ulsions were #onsidered im'ortant signs throughout the se"enteenth #enturyJ see Eean Chastelain, TraitA des convulsions 9Lyon, $:%$<. $*;. Eorden, "uffocation of the !other , B& &. $*:. 3)id., B&. $*C. 3)id., 5;. $*>. 3)id., G& &. $*%. 3)id. $$*. 3)id., -&. $$$. 3)id. $$5. 3)id., -?. E'ile'sies and #on"ulsions were #onsidered im'ortant signs throughout the se"enteenth #enturyJ see Eean Chastelain, TraitA des convulsions 9Lyon, $:%$<. $$&. Eou)ert was an esteemed 'hysi#ian and #ontem'orary of Ra)elaisJ see his 1rreurs populaires et propos vulgaires touchant la mAdecine et le rAgime de santA 9Bordeau/, $;C%<. Ba htin was fas#inated )y him for his literary #ontri)utions to the HHi''o#rati# no"elH and to the semioti#s of laughter: H=he famous 'hysi#ian Laurent Eou)ert, 'u)lished in $;:* a s'e#ial wor under the #hara#teristi# rifle: TraitA du -is3 contenant son essence3 ses causes et ses mervelheus effeis3 curieusement recherchCs3 raisonnAs et observAs par !. 4aur. 2oubert . 3n $;C% Eou)ert 'u)lished another treatise in Bordeau/, 4a cause morale du -is3 de l'e#cellent et tres renommA DAmocrite3 e#pli:uAe et temoignAe par ce devin Hippocrate en ses ApDtres 9=he moral #ause of laughter of the eminent and "ery famous Kemo#ritus e/'lained and witnessed )y the di"ine Hi''o#rates in his e'istles<. =his wor was a#tually a ,ren#h "ersion of the last 'art of the HHi''o#rati# no"elH 9Bi hail Ba htin, -abelais and His )orld 1Cam)ridge, Bass.: B3= Press, $%:>2, :><. $$?. Georges Lote, 4a vie et l'oeuvre de Fran+ois -abelais 9Paris: Kro6, $%&><, $:&: HBedi#ine )e#ame the s#ien#e of the si/teenth #enturyJ it e/er#ised a great influen#e and ins'ired #onfiden#e whi#h it no longer retained in the se"enteenth #entury.H $$;. See R. -ntonioli, -abelais et la mAdecine 9Gene"a: Kros, $%C:<J Lu#ien ,e)"re, The roblem of Unbelief in the "i#teenth &entury: The -eligion of -abelais 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<J Graham, !edieval !inds J and Ba htin, -abelais and His )orm , es'. &$:0&$C, &;;0&:&J Ba htin, always sensiti"e to the Hi''o#rati# tradition for its glorious narrati"e lega#y, raises the

fas#inating 'ossi)ility of a Hgrotes4ue hysteriaH: H=hese two areas 1the )owels and the 'hallus2 'lay the leading role in the grotes4ue image, and it is 're#isely for this reason that they are 'redominantly su)Ie#t to 'ositi"e e/aggeration, to hy'er)oli6ationJ they #an e"en deta#h themsel"es from the )ody and lead an inde'endent life, for they hide the rest of the )ody, as something se#ondaryH 9&$C<Aso too the grotes4ue image of the Hwandering wom)H and the suggestion of its Hinde'endent life.H $$:. Samuel Putnam, ed., The ortable -abelais 9Dew .or : 7i ing Press, $%?:<, ?CC0?C%, es'e#ially the 'assage in antagruel )eginning H3 #all it an 8animal,8 in a##ordan#e with the do#trine of the -#ademi#s. . .H $$C. Eose'h Lieutaud, Historia anatomico*medica , 5 "ols. 9Paris, $C:C<. $$>. See L. E. Rather, H=homas ,ienus 9$;:C0$:&$<: Kiale#ti#al 3n"estigation of the 3magination as Cause and Cure of Bodily Kisease,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine ?$ 9$%:C<: &?%0&:C. $$%. !seful here is K. E. Lilliams, HHysteria in Se"enteenth Century Primary Sour#es,H History of sychiatry $ 9$%%*<: &>&0?*5. $5*. Su''lemental to the wor s on women in the Renaissan#e mentioned in nn. ;$ and :5 are Bar)ara and Henri "an der Pee, $:>>: -evolution in the Family 9London: Penguin Boo s, $%>><J Bonnie S. -nderson, $ History of Their /%n: )omen in 1urope from rehistory to the resent 9Dew .or : Har'er U Row, $%>><J K. B. Rogers, The Troublesome Helpmate: $ History of !isogyny in 4iterature 9Seattle: !ni"ersity of Lashington Press, $%::<. $5$. =he diligent historian wants to now, of #ourse, what does remain, and the re'ly is little. Lhat is #lear is that "oi#es are )eing silen#ed: those of hysteri#s trying to find their own first0'erson "oi#es and identities when all those insistent on generating third0'erson dis#ourse did not want to hear them. ,or the dire 'sy#hologi#al #onse4uen#es of su#h silen#ing within a 'atriar#hal Lestern #ulture in whi#h female se/uality has )een the sour#e of terrifi# male terror, see Lolfgang Lederer, Gynophobia ou la peur des femmes 9Paris: Di6et, $%:C<, translated as The Fear of )omen 9Dew .or : Grune U Stratton, $%:><J Eardine, Gynesis 9n. &;<J E. ,is#her0Hom)erger, 5ran(heit3 Frau und andere $rbeite .ur !edi.ingeschichte der Frau 9Bern, Stuttgart, 7ienna: Hans Hu)er, $%C%<. $55. Ba#Konald, HLomen and Badness in =udor and Stuart EnglandH 9n. 5;<. $5&. ,or the ritual of the danse macabre in relation to malingerers see #ha'. ; 9Sander Gilman<, and Harold S'eert, 'conographia Gyniatrica: $ ictorial History of Gynecology and /bstetrics 9Dew .or : Ba#millan, $%C&<. $5?. G. Greer, The Female 1unuch 9London: Ba#Gi))on U Kee, $%C*<, ?C0;&. $5;. See es'. Galo'in, 4es hystAri:ues des couvents 9n. ;&<, )ut also =homas, -eligion and the Decline of !agic 9n. 5;<J 3. B. Lewis, 1cstatic -eligion 9Harmondsworth: Penguin, $%C$<J Bi#hel ,eher et al., eds., Fragments for a History of the Human Body 9Dew .or : Pone, $%>%<, "ol. $J Bynum, Gender and -eligion 9n. ;<. $5:. -lthough the ideologi#al "iew of women #ontinued to alter during the se"enteenth #entury, the )elief that their hysteria was 'rimarily the result of a ram'aging menarche #ontinued to )e strong, and do#tors did what they #ould to assuage the effe#ts of the 'aro/ysm and genital u'hea"al. =he menses 'ro"ided do#tors and 'atients ali e with a 'arado/i#al situation: on the one hand, they #ould not )e su''ressedJ on the other, on#e ram'aging, they wrea ed "ast 'hysiologi#al damage. Pharma#ologi#ally, Iule's and a'o6ems were administered with ho's to indu#e the menses, on the theory that ho's 'rodu#ed no#turnal dreams and would #alm the hysteri#ally ill when under the s'ell of a fe"er to slee'. =his 're'aration #ontinued to )e used into the eighteenth #enturyJ see Eohann Kelaeus, Upon the &ure of the Gout by !il( Diet: @ $n 1ssay upon Diet by )illiam "tephens 9London: Smith U Bru#e, $C&5<.

$5C. 3t may also )e that homo'ho)ia 9in our modern sense a 'ro)lemati# word that has #ome to )e a metonymy denoting fear of the e/#essi"ely male < has a 'la#e in this history and its linguisti# #onfigurations. See Katherine Cummings, Telling Tales: The Hysteric's "eduction in Fiction and Theory 9Stanford, Calif.: Stanford !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<. 3n H,reud and ,liess: Homo'ho)ia and Sedu#tion,H in "eduction and Theory: -eadings of Gender3 -epresentation3 and -hetoric , ed. Kianne Hunter 9!r)ana: !ni"ersity of 3llinois Press, $%>%<, >:0$*%, S. D. Garner studies the language of ,reud8s hysteri#al women in the light of their fear of same0se/ relations. ,urthermore, one wonders if there is any #onne#tion )etween the so0#alled demise of hysteria in our #entury and the monumental growth of homo'ho)ia. $5>. E. L. He)el, ed., The )or(s of !ichael Drayton 9@/ford: Sha es'eare Head, Bla# well, $%:$<, HPoly0@l)ion,H '. $5>, Song 733, lines $%05>. $5%. Barie E. -ddyman, H=he Chara#ter of Hysteria in Sha es'eare8s England,H do#toral dissertation, !ni"ersity of .or , .or , England, $%>>. Eanet -delman a''ears to agree )ut em)roiders the idea from a 'sy#hoanalyti# 'ers'e#ti"e in "uffocating !others: Fantasies of !aternal /rigin in "ha(espeare's lays Hamlet to The Tempest 9London: Routledge, $%%*<. $&*. -delman, "uffering !others , &. ,or further )a# ground, see ,. K. Hoeniger, !edicine and "ha(espeare in the 1nglish -enaissance 9Dewar : !ni"ersity of Kelaware Press, $%%5<. $&$. Hoeniger, !edicine and "ha(espeare3 K . $&5. 3)id., $&C. $&$. Hoeniger, !edicine and "ha(espeare3 K . $&5. 3)id., $&C. $&&. =he 'oint seems to )e )uttressed )y Bi#ale8s studies on the history of male hysteriaJ see n. &. $&?. =he )elief of G. S. Rousseau, HLiterature and Bedi#ine: =he State of the ,ield,H 'sis C5 9$%>$<: ?*:0?5?, and Peter B. Bedawar, The Hope of rogress: $ "cientist 4oo(s at roblems in hilosophy3 4iterature and "cience 9Garden City, D...: -n#hor Boo s, $%C&<. $&;. Ke"on Hodges, -enaissance Fictions of $natomy 9-mherst: !ni"ersity of Bassa#husetts Press, $%>;<J B. G. Lyons, 7oices of !elancholy: "tudies of 4iterary Treatments of !elancholy in -enaissance 1ngland 9London: Routledge U Kegan Paul, $%C$<, who is 'arti#ularly useful in des#ri)ing Burton8s rhetori#al strategies and de"i#es of 'ersuasion in the HPertur)ations of the BindeHJ see es'. ''. $&50$&?. $&:. =his transformation of nowledge is dis#ussed )y Eos#elyn Godwin, $thanasius 5ircher: $ -enaissance !an and the 8uest for 4ost 5no%ledge 9London: =hames U Hudson, $%C%<J Bi#hel ,ou#ault, The $rchaeology of 5no%ledge 9Dew .or : Pantheon Boo s, $%C5<J C. C. Camden, H=he Golden -ge and the Renaissan#e,H 4iterary 7ie%s 9$%>><: $0$?J in the #onte/ts of the )ody in ,. Bottomley, $ttitudes to the Body in )estern &hristendom 9London, $%C%<J in the #arni"ali6ation of nowledge in Ba htin, -abelais and His )orld . $&C. Com'are the nineteenth0#entury medi#ali6ation of homose/uality. Lor on 'ositi"ism for 'eriods )efore $>** seems to )e "irtually none/istent. @ne wonders whether the 'rin#i'le was also o'erati"e in the late nineteenth #entury when the winds of 'ositi"ism were )lowing so strongly. $&>. @ne o)"ious 'la#e to start with is =homas La4ueur8s !a(ing "e#: Body and Gender from the Gree(s to Freud 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<. $&%. 3)id., %>0$&5J P. Hoffmann, 4a femme dans la pensAe des 4umiCres 9Paris: @'hrys, $%CC<J R. =hom'son, Unfit for !odest 1ars 9London: Ba#millan, $%C%<.

$&>. @ne o)"ious 'la#e to start with is =homas La4ueur8s !a(ing "e#: Body and Gender from the Gree(s to Freud 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<. $&%. 3)id., %>0$&5J P. Hoffmann, 4a femme dans la pensAe des 4umiCres 9Paris: @'hrys, $%CC<J R. =hom'son, Unfit for !odest 1ars 9London: Ba#millan, $%C%<. $?*. La4ueur, !a(ing "e# 9n. $&><, C*0%>J idem, H@rgasm, Generation and the Politi#s of Re'rodu#ti"e Biology,H -epresentations $? 9$%>:<: $0$?J idem, H-mor 7eneris, "el Kul#edo -''eratur,H in Fragments for a History of the Human Body , ed. ,eher 9see n. $5;<, &:%*0$&$. $?$. 9London: -nne Griffin, $:&:<. =he astrologi#al, her)al, and He)rew signs on the frontis'ie#e are worth #onsidering in the light of Sadler8s a''roa#h to hysteria. Cha'. $&, H@f the generation of monsters,H #onsiders the HKi"ineH or HDaturall88 Generation of Bonsters in relation to the health of the mother8s wom) and the state of her imagination, whi#h Hwor es on the #hild after #on#e'tionH 9$&%<. =he 'eriod 'rodu#ed other wor s similar to Sadler8s, many of whi#h refer to the Hmother8s fitsH as a #ommon e/'ression re'resenting the Hgreen0si# ness,H now endemi# among 'u)es#ent "irgins. But Ro)ert Pier#e, Bath memoirs: or3 /bservations in Three and Forty 9ears ractice3 at the Bath3 %hat &ures have been there %rought 9Bristol: Hammond, $:%C<, &?0&C, #autioned that HLomen8s Kiseases #ould affe#t women at all times in their li"es: they are su)Ie#t to when they are young, or when more adultJ when marry8d or when unmarry8dJ when Childless, or when they ha"e had Children.H Pier#e #laims that Hthe Hysteri# Passion, or ,its of the Bother,H often arose out of the green si# ness, i.e., the #ondition of 'u)es#ent teenage girls. =hus Brs. Eli6a)eth Eyles, from the Ke"i6es, in the County of Lilts, age $:, )eing "ery far gone in the Hgreen0si# ness,H de"elo'ed HBother0fits withal.H $?5. =he 4uotations from Har"ey in this 'aragra'h are found in Lilliam Har"ey, H@n Parturition,H in his )or(s 9London: Sydenham So#iety, $>?C<, ;5>0;5%, ;?50;?&J idem, 1#ercitationes de generatione animalium 9London, $:;$<, ;?5. See also R. Brain, H=he Con#e't of Hysteria in the =ime of Har"ey,H roceedings of the -oyal "ociety of !edicine ;: 9$%:&<: &$C0&5?. -long similar lines Eane Shar' warned that retention of seed 9'utrefied menstruum< was harmful, and hen#e ad"ised lusty maids to marryJ see her !id%ife's Boo(3 or the )hole $rt of !id%ifery Discovered Directing &hildbearing )omen Ho% to Behave Themselves in Their &onception3 Breeding3 Bearing and ,ursing &hildren 9London, $:C$<, ;5. $?&. 3n his ,ymphomania 9n. C?<, Bien"ille writes as if the term had )een 'erennially used, 'redating the Eli6a)ethan world of Eorden and Bright. $??. Su#h had )een the alleged 'oliti#s in 'aradise: see E. G. =urner, /ne Flesh: aradisal !arriage and "e#ual -elations in the $ge of !ilton 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<. =radition had it that hysteria was none/istent among the 're0-damites, the se#t of men and women who ran a)out the 'rimordial garden na ed and in a state of 'erfe#t natureJ for the neo0-damite se#ts of the Renaissan#e and Enlightenment, see Bi#hael Bullett, -adical -eligious !ovements in 1arly !odern 1urope 9Boston: Routledge, $%>*<. $?;. See Peter Brown, The Body and "ociety: !en3 )omen3 and "e#ual -enunciation in 1arly &hristianity 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<J Lemay, HHuman Se/uality in =welfth0 through ,ifteenth0Century S#ientifi# LritingsH 9n. C?<J for a more esoteri# "ersion of the de)ates, Baire, 4es convulsionnaires de "aint*!Adard 9n. ;&<. $?:. Shar', !id%ife's Boo( , ;5. 3t was not un#ommon in the 'eriod for male 4ua# s to assume female 'seudonyms, es'e#ially one as #ommon as HEane Shar'.H Shar' #laimed that his )oo was )ased on H"ast nowledgeH and that he wrote 'rimarily for women in sim'le language they #ould understand. $?C. See Lilliam Har"ey, 1#ercitationes de generatione animalium 9n. $?5<, ;?&. ,or #om'arison in the se/ual domain, see the "iews of Di#olas 7enette, The !ysteries of &on;ugal 4ove -evealed , &d ed.

9London, $C$5<, and Roy Porter, HLo"e, Se/ and Bedi#ine: Di#olas 7enette and his Tableau de l'$mour &on;ugal ,H in 1rotica and the 1nlightenment , ed. P. Lagner 9,ran furt: Peter Lang, $%%*<, %*0$55. $?>. Har"ey, 1#ercitationes , ;?5. See also La4ueur, H@rgasm, Generation and the Politi#s of Re'rodu#ti"e BiologyH 9n. $?*<. $?%. See L. Eordano"a, "e#ual 7isions3 'mages of Gender in "cience and !edicine Bet%een the 1ighteenth and the T%entieth &enturies 9Badison: !ni"ersity of Lis#onsin Press, $%>%<J Ba#Lean, -enaissance ,otion of )oman 9n. ;$<J for the so#ial #onstru#tion of womanhood and gender in history, L. S#hie)inger, The !ind Has ,o "e#0 )omen and the /rigins of !odern "cience 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. $;*. =he 'oint was made in the eighteenth #entury es'e#iallyJ see Henry Burdon, The Fountain of Health: or a 7ie% of ,ature 9London, $C&?<J Eames Ba#Ken6ie, The History of Health and the $rt of reserving 't , 5d ed. 9Edin)urgh, $C;%<J for the history of the notion, Roy Porter and Korothy Porter, 'n "ic(ness and in Health: The British 1#perience3 MPJQ*MOJQ 9London: ,ourth Estate, $%>><, #ha'. $*. $;$. =hese are ideologi#al matters au fond and #ould not )e 'olitely 'ut until this #enturyJ see Pagels, $dam3 1ve and the "erpent 9n. :5<. =he sermonists of the se"enteenth and eighteenth #enturies often alluded to it )ut in the language of ellisionJ for )oth realms, 'hysiologi#al and religious, see P. Pa##hia, De affectionibus hypochondriacis libri tres. ,unc in 4atinum sermonem translati ab $lphonso 5honn 9-ugs)urg, $:C$<. $;5. See Hill, )omen and )or( , who a##e'ts Lawren#e Stone8s marriage statisti#s in The Family3 "e# and !arriage in 1ngland: MJQQ*MOQQ 9London: Leidenfeld U Di#holson, $%CC< as relia)le. $;&. -lso suggested )y #ontem'orary so#ial #ommentators su#h as Peter -nnet in "ocial Bliss considered in marriage and divorce: cohabiting unmarried3 and public %horing. &ontaining things necessary to be (no%n by all that see( mutual felicity3 and are ripe for the en;oyment of it 9London, $C?%<. E/am'les of the 'res#ri'tion of se/ual inter#ourse are found in -dalheid Gied e, Die 4iebes(ran(heit in der Geschichte der !edi.in , !ni"ersity of K[sseldorf, Ph.K. thesis, $%>&. $;?. ,or anger in relation to melan#holy in early modern history, see L. Binswanger, !elancholie und !anie 9n. >$<. $;;. ,or the se/es see E. H. Hagstrum, "e# and "ensibility: 'deal and 1rotic 4ove from !ilton to !o.art 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%>*<J =urner, /ne Flesh 9n. $??<J for se/, gender, with a glan#e at hysteria in Bilton see -nna)elle Patterson, HDo meer amatorius no"elNH in olitics3 oetics3 and Hermeneutics in !ilton's rose , ed. K. Loewenstein and E. G. =urner 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<, >;0$*$, es'. $*$, n. $>. $;:. =he most im'ortant of the many wor s on this to'i# is Ri#hard Ba/ter8s The &ure of !elancholy and over much "orro% by Faith and hysic( 9London, $:>5<J see also Ba/ter8s -eli:uiae Ba#terianae , 'art iii, se#. $>? 9London, $:%:<. $;C. -s was a''arent in the de"elo'ment of the =heo'hrastan #hara#ter in the late se"enteenth #entury, as well as in the arrangement of the gendersJ see first its history and relation to the traditions of hysteria in Chester Doyes Greenough, $ Bibliography of the Theophrastan &haracter in 1nglish %ith "everal ortrait &haracters 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%?C<, and two im'ortant studies: BenIamin Boy#e, The Theophrastan &haracter in 1ngland to MPSK 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%?C<J E. L. Smeed, The Theophrastan =&haracter=: The History of a 4iterary Genre 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<. $;>. See H. B. Le)er, The -estoration -a(e*Hero: Transformations in "e#ual Understanding in

"eventeenth &entury 1ngland 9Badison: !ni"ersity of Lis#onsin Press, $%>:<, and =urner, /ne Flesh 9n. $??<. ,or the )roader 'hiloso'hi#al issues in"ol"ed in the #onstru#tion of se/uality, see -. 3. Ka"idson, HSe/ and the Emergen#e of Se/uality,H &ritical 'n:uiry $$ 9$%>C<: $:0?>. $;%. Stone, Family3 "e# and !arriage in 1ngland: MJQQ*MNQQ 9n. $;5<, and R. =rum)a#h, The -ise of the 1galitarian Family 9Dew .or : Dew .or !ni"ersity Press, $%C><. $:*. See R. =rum)a#h, HSodomy =ransformed: -risto#rati# Li)ertinage, Pu)li# Re'utation and the Gender Re"olution of the Eighteenth Century,H in 4ove 4etters bet%een a &ertain 4ate ,obleman and the Famous !r. )ilson , ed. B. S. Kimmel 9Dew .or : Harrington Par Press, $%%*<, $*:. $:$. See Hill8s hy'othesis a)out female mo)ility in relation to the rise of 'rostitution in )omen and )or( . $:5. ,or the transformation of these gender relations in the 'eriod see R. =rum)a#h, H=he Birth of the Sueen: Sodomy and the Emergen#e of Gender E4uality in Bodern Culture, $::*0$C;*,H in Hidden from History: -eclaiming the Gay and 4esbian ast , ed. B. Ku)erman, B. 7i#inus, and G. Chaun#ey, Er. 9Dew .or : D-L Boo s, $%>%<, ?;0:*, whose thesis deser"es #onsideration. $:&. See Sydenham 9n. ??<, 5>505>&. $:?. ,or medi#al theory )efore Sydenham 9i.e., in the 'eriod $:**0$:>*<, ad"o#ating the 'osition that the 'atient may )e affli#ted with the one or the other, see G. S. Rousseau, H=owards a Semioti#s of the Der"e: =he So#ial History of Language in a Dew Key,H in The "ocial History of 4anguage '' , ed. Peter Bur e and Roy Porter 9@/ford: Polity Press, $%%$<, C:0>$ 9-''endi/<J some dis#ussion of the su)Ie#t is also found in P. E. -. Roy, HKe l8hy'o#hondrie,H $rchives de ,eurologie KQ 9$%*;<: $::0$>&. $:;. =he hy'o#hondrium was, anatomi#ally s'ea ing, lo#ated within the inter#ostal #a"ity, yet little differentiation was made at this time, from what 3 #an gather, )etween male and female inter#ostal #a"itiesJ 'erha's it was one more as'e#t of =homas La4ueur8s Hone se/H theoryJ see La4ueur, !a(ing "e# 9n. $&><. 3n "e# and -eason 9Cam)ridge: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<, Ri#hard Posner sees dee'ly into the )iologi#al and legal dimensions of these differen#es )ut 'ra#ti#es a flawed method )y "irtue of ignoring lo#al so#iohistori#al 'ra#ti#es, as in the now remote Restoration ethos of se/uality. $::. See Kewhurst, Dr. Thomas "ydenham 9n. ?$<, and Boss, HSe"enteenth0Century =ransformation of the Hysteri# -ffe#tionH 9n. ;;<. $:C. ,or H'sy#he0ologiaH as a neologism, and for its linguisti# ramifi#ations in )oth medi#ine and rhetori# at this time, see G. S. Rousseau, HPsy#hology,H in The Ferment of 5no%ledge: "tudies in the Historiography of "cience , ed. G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>*<, $:C0$C5. $:>. See his im'ortant treatise on the gout, originally 'u)lished in $:>& as a Treatise on Gout and Dropsy and re'rinted in $C*;. Some of Sydenham8s ideas on gout also a''eared in /f the Four &onstitutions 9an undated manus#ri't in the Bodleian Li)rary, @/ford 1BS Lo# e, #. $%, ff. $C*0$C:2< and in his Theologia -ationalis 9whi#h e/ists in four manus#ri't "ersions<. $:%. ,or Sydenham8s medi#al 'ra#ti#e see Kewhurst, Dr. Thomas "ydenham 9n. ?$<J E. ,. Payne, $ Biography of Dr. Thomas "ydenham 9London: Longman8s, $%**<J L. B. ,. Pi#ard, Thomas "ydenham 9KiIon, $>>%<. $C*. Lo# e ser"ed as Sydenham8s assistant and amanuensis, later as his #o0'ra#titioner and #olla)orator. Kis#ussion of the Lo# e0Sydenham relation is found in Kewhurst, Dr. Thomas "ydenham 9n. ?$<, &%0?$, ;;0;:, C&0C:, $:?0$:%, and H. 3sler, Thomas )illis3 MPKM*MPOJ3 Doctor and "cientist 9Dew .or : Hafner, $%:><.

$C$. Do e"iden#e indi#ates whether or not Sydenham read Le'ois on hysteria, and Sydenham8s most authoritati"e )iogra'her 9Kewhurst< is silent on the matterJ Boerhaa"e #omments on the im'ortan#e of Le'ois8s theories of hysteria in his $C$? 'refa#e to Le'ois8s sele#t o)ser"ations 9 "electiorum observationum . . .<. ,or Le'ois and hysteria, see Ea# son, !elancholia and Depression 9n. >*<. $C5. ,or Le'ois see 7eith, Hysteria , $5%J the translation 'ro"ided here is 7eith8s. $C&. 3)id., $5%. $C?. Sydenham8s 'u)lished medi#al wor s are fewJ for a list see Kewhurst, Dr. Thomas "ydenham 9n. ?$<, $%*J there are e"en fewer that sur"i"e in manus#ri't 9i)id., $%*<. Comments on his signifi#an#e within the history of medi#ine are found in C. K. Bartin, H- =reatise on the Gout,H &ritical -evie% 9Bar#h, $C;%<: 5>$05>5, as well as in the $C;& edition of some of his wor s 'u)lished )y Eohn Swan. - study of his style in the 1pistolary Dissertation in relation to the language of the time would re'ay the effort and might shed further light on his theory of hysteria. $C5. ,or Le'ois see 7eith, Hysteria , $5%J the translation 'ro"ided here is 7eith8s. $C&. 3)id., $5%. $C?. Sydenham8s 'u)lished medi#al wor s are fewJ for a list see Kewhurst, Dr. Thomas "ydenham 9n. ?$<, $%*J there are e"en fewer that sur"i"e in manus#ri't 9i)id., $%*<. Comments on his signifi#an#e within the history of medi#ine are found in C. K. Bartin, H- =reatise on the Gout,H &ritical -evie% 9Bar#h, $C;%<: 5>$05>5, as well as in the $C;& edition of some of his wor s 'u)lished )y Eohn Swan. - study of his style in the 1pistolary Dissertation in relation to the language of the time would re'ay the effort and might shed further light on his theory of hysteria. $C5. ,or Le'ois see 7eith, Hysteria , $5%J the translation 'ro"ided here is 7eith8s. $C&. 3)id., $5%. $C?. Sydenham8s 'u)lished medi#al wor s are fewJ for a list see Kewhurst, Dr. Thomas "ydenham 9n. ?$<, $%*J there are e"en fewer that sur"i"e in manus#ri't 9i)id., $%*<. Comments on his signifi#an#e within the history of medi#ine are found in C. K. Bartin, H- =reatise on the Gout,H &ritical -evie% 9Bar#h, $C;%<: 5>$05>5, as well as in the $C;& edition of some of his wor s 'u)lished )y Eohn Swan. - study of his style in the 1pistolary Dissertation in relation to the language of the time would re'ay the effort and might shed further light on his theory of hysteria. $C;. 7eith, Hysteria , $?*. Sydenham 'ronoun#ed here #learly and su##in#tly, as in e"erything else he wrote. His main 'oints are that hysteria has )een misunderstood in its most fundamental 'rin#i'les 9i.e., as the most transformati"e of all #onditions<J in its affli#tion among the genders and so#ial ran J and, after affli#tion, in its 'hysi#al and mental manifestations. $C:. 3t is worth em'hasi6ing, at the #ost of )ela)oring the o)"ious, that all se"enteenth0 and eighteenth0 #entury 'hysi#ians #laimed to treat 'atients for the Hhysteri#al 'assion,H or the many other names )y whi#h it was nown. =here was nothing unusual a)out this at all. =he only differen#e was the degree to whi#h the 'arti#ular 'hysi#ian s'e#iali6ed in these #ases. Ko#tors li e Lillis and Sydenham, and later on Cheyne and -dair, were nown as Hner"e do#tors,H or s'e#ialists in hysteri#al 'assions, and 'atients with these #om'laints a##ordingly flo# ed to them. $CC. Le'ois did not em'hasi6e the animal s'irits )ut wrote of Ha #olle#tion of li4uid a##umulated in the hind 'art of the head and here #olle#ted with the effe#t that it swells and distends the )eginnings of the ner"esHJ see Henri Ces)ron, These pour le doctorat en medecine: Histoire criti:ue de l'hystAriae 9Paris: -sselin et Hou6eau, Li)raires de la ,a#ultF de Bede#ine, $%*%<, who 4uotes and translates this 'assage in ,ren#hJ 7eith, Hysteria , $5%. =he li4uid e/isted without regard to gender, and this is 're#isely why

Le'ois #ould Iustify a "iew that women are not naturally 'redis'osed to hysteria any more than men. But Le'ois8s "iew was not nown in England, his wor s were ne"er translated into English, and 3 ha"e found no e"iden#e in the writings of English0s'ea ing do#tors that they were aware of Le'ois8s theory. $C>. ,or Lillis8s 'rimary medi#al wor s, )rain theory, )eliefs a)out the interfa#e of )rain and ner"ous system, and "iew of hysteria in the light of these )asi# theories, see G. S. Rousseau, HDer"es, S'irits and ,i)res: =oward the @rigins of Sensi)ility,H in "tudies in the 1ighteenth &entury , ed. R. ,. Brissenden 9Can)erra: -ustralian Dational !ni"ersity Press, $%C;<, $&C0$;CJ for Lillis and hysteria e/#lusi"ely see Boss, H=ransformation of the Hysteri# -ffe#tionH 9n. ;;<. $C%. =he )est treatment of Lillis8s medi#al theory is R. ,ran , H=homas Lillis and His Cir#le: Brain and Bind in Se"enteenth0Century Bedi#ine,H in 4anguages of syche , ed. G. S. Rousseau 9n. $&<, es'. ''. $&$0$?$. ,ran #omments on Lillis8s im'ortant #lini#al o)ser"ation that H'ostmortems showed the wom)s of hysteri#al women to )e 'erfe#tly normalH 9'. $&?<. Lillis8s $ffectionum . . . hystericae 9$:C5< has ne"er )een translated into English, des'ite its status as one of the most im'ortant neurologi#al wor s of the early modern 'eriod. But Lillis8s salient 'oint a)out the etiology of hysteria was the )lood0)rain #onne#tion: essentially, that any Hderangements within the )lood88 were #on"eyed to the )rain and the ner"es, and hen#e the neural traIe#tory of the #ondition rather than any other transmission. =he mid0twentieth0#entury historian of 'hysiology, Professor Eohn ,ulton of .ale !ni"ersity, "iewed Lillis as a hy)rid English ,reud #um 'hysiologist, noting that Lillis8s &erebre anatome 9$::?< was one of the Hsi/ #ornerstones of modern neurology,H together with )oo s )y Hit6ig, ,errier, and Sherrington, and that in the s'here of the relation of the #ere)ellum and in"oluntary a#tion, so im'ortant to any s#ientifi# or se#ular theory of hysteria, Hthere was little further ad"an#e after Lillis until $>*%HJ see E. ,ulton, hysiology of the ,ervous "ystem , 5d ed. 9London: Ba#millan, $%?&<, ?:&. $>*. Lillis himself had #oined su#h words as Hneuro0logiaH and H'sy#he0logiaH )ut ne"er used the term 'sy#hologi#al malady or hysteria or any other #onditionJ see Rousseau, Ferment of 5no%ledge 9n. $:C<, $?:0$?>. $>$. =. La4ueur, !a(ing "e# 9n. $&><. $>5. =he emotions were undergoing a 'aradigmati# shift at this timeJ see G. Rosen, HEmotion and Sensi)ility in -ges of -n/iety: - Com'arati"e Histori#al Re"iew,H $merican 2ournal of sychiatry $5? 9$%:C<: CC$0C>&J L. E. Rather, H@ld and Dew 7iews of the Emotions and Bodily Changes,H &lio !edica $ 9$%:;<: $05;J for a summary of their #hanges in the moral and 'hiloso'hi#al realms, ,. Hut#heson, $n 1ssay on the ,ature and &onduct of the assions 9London: E. Kna'ton, $C&*<. $>&. Latham, )or(s of Thomas "ydenham 9n. ??<, "ol. 5, >;. ,or a #ontrasting #ondition to the sedentary life, see the effe#ts of Hthe glass delusionHJ Gill S'ea , H-n @dd Kind of Belan#holy: Refle#tions on the Glass Kelusion of Euro'e 9$??*0$:>*<,H History of sychiatry $ 9$%%*<: $%$05*:. ,or these "iolent mood swings and out)ursts of une/'e#ted )eha"ior see Eohn Ball, The !odern ractice of hysic , 5 "ols. 9London, $C:*<, 5:55%. $>?. See G. S. Rousseau, HS#ien#e and the Kis#o"ery of the 3magination in Enlightened England,H 1ighteenth*&entury "tudies 333 9$%:%<: $*>0$&;. $>;. By the mid0eighteenth #entury the Hner"ous systemH had )e#ome entren#hed, in medi#al theory as well as diagnosis, and in anatomy and 'hysiology as wellJ see K. Smith, $ Dissertation upon the ,ervous "ystem to sho% its influence upon the "oul 9London, $C:><J - Bonro, 1#periments on the nervous system3 %ith opium and mealline >sic? substances< made chiefly %ith the vie% of determining the nature and effects of animal electricity 9Edin)urgh: -. Deill U Co. for Bell U Bradfute, $C%&<. ,or its de"elo'ment, see E. =. Carlson and B. Sim'son, HBodels of the Der"ous System in Eighteenth0 Century Psy#hiatry,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine ?& 9$%:%<: $*$0$$;. C. Lawren#e has studied

the #ultural ramifi#ations in H=he Der"ous System and So#iety in the S#ottish Enlightenment,H in ,atural /rder: Historical "tudies of "cientific 1nlightenment , ed. Barry Barnes and Ste"en Sha'in 9Be"erly Hills, Calif.: Sage Pu)li#ations, $%C%<, $%0?*J for the early nineteenth0#entury "iew, see C. Bell, The ,ervous "ystem of the Human Body 9London, $>5?, re'rinted $>&*<. $>:. =oday, "iewed from our feminist and 'ro0a)ortion ideologies, the idea would )e ridi#uled as 're'osterous des'ite the strong "estiges of it that remain e"erywhere in the #i"ili6ed world, )ut "iewed from the 'ers'e#ti"e of the s#ien#es of man, whi#h relied so hea"ily on anatomy and 'hysiology for their under'innings, it was easy to ma e a #ase for it. Do one should thin these two last su)Ie#tsA anatomy and 'hysiologyAwere free of the 'oliti#s and ideologies that inter"ene in all s#ien#e. $>C. See n. $>5. $>>. See G. S. Rousseau, HCultural History in a Dew Key: =owards a Semioti#s of the Der"e,H in 'nterpretation and &ultural History , ed. E. H. Pitto# and -. Lear 9London: Ba#millan, $%%$<, 5;0>$. $>%. =he 'assage a''ears in Latham, )or(s of Thomas "ydenham 9n. ??<, "ol. 5, >;. $%*. Beliefs a)out hysteria were still drawn almost e/#lusi"ely from )estern models, and des'ite the e/'ansionism and dis#o"eries of the last #entury, geogra'hi#al insulation still ser"ed to 'rodu#e disease a##ording to #limati# and national #hara#teristi#sJ see L. ,al#oner, -emar(s on the 'nfluence of &limate3 "ituation3 etc on the disposition and temper. . . of man(ind 9London: C. Killy, $C>$<. $%$. Latham, )or(s of Thomas "ydenham 9n. ??<, "ol. 5, >;. $%5. -s early as $%?&, Henry Siegerist wrote a)out disease within history from a )road 'ers'e#ti"e, and #laimed that there had always )een an intimate #onne#tion )etween disease and art 9i.e., literature, 'ainting, 'oetry, drama, et#.<, a "iew that seems not to ha"e had mu#h influen#e on 7eith. Had Siegerist ga6ed further )a# than to Char#ot in his dis#ussion of hysteria, he would ha"e seen how true his intuition was for the se"enteenth and eighteenth #enturiesJ see H. Siegerist, &ivili.ation and Disease 9n. :C<, $>?0$>;, $%$0$%?. $%&. ,or the ner"ous #onstitution )y $%**, see E. Goldstein, &onsole and &lassify 9n. &:<, and E. @''enheim, H "hattered ,erves=: Doctors3 atients3 and Depression in 7ictorian 1ngland 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<. $%?. Latham, )or(s of Thomas "ydenham 9n. ??<, "ol. 5, >;. $%;. 3)id. $%:. 3)id., "ol. 5, ;?. $%C. 3)id. $%?. Latham, )or(s of Thomas "ydenham 9n. ??<, "ol. 5, >;. $%;. 3)id. $%:. 3)id., "ol. 5, ;?. $%C. 3)id. $%?. Latham, )or(s of Thomas "ydenham 9n. ??<, "ol. 5, >;. $%;. 3)id. $%:. 3)id., "ol. 5, ;?. $%C. 3)id. $%?. Latham, )or(s of Thomas "ydenham 9n. ??<, "ol. 5, >;.

$%;. 3)id. $%:. 3)id., "ol. 5, ;?. $%C. 3)id. $%>. Highmore es'oused his theory of hysteria in three wor s 'rimarily: 1#cercitationes duae3 :uarum prior de passione hysterica3 altera de affectione hypochondriaca 9-msterdam: C. Commelin, $::*<J Hysteria 9@/ford: -. Li#hfield and R. Ka"is, $::*<J De hysterica et hypochondriaca passione: -esponsio epistolaris ad Doctorem )illis 9London, $:C*<. $%%. Suoted in Ri#hard Hunter and 3da Ba#al'ine, Three Hundred 9ears of sychiatry3 MJ[J*MOPQ 9London: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%:&<. See also Boss, "eventeenth*&entury Transformation of the Hysteric $ffection 9n. ;;<J 3sler, Thomas )illis 9n. $C*<. 5**. =. Lillis, $n 1ssay on the athology of the Brain 9London, $:>?<, C$. 5*$. Beliefs a)out the effemina#y of men antedate the Restoration, of #ourse, )ut the idea a#4uired altogether different #urren#y then. ,or some of the reasons see =rum)a#h, H=he Birth of the SueenH 9n. $:5<J E. =urner, H=he S#hool of Ben: Li)ertine =e/ts in the Su)#ulture of Restoration LondonH 9a tal gi"en at !CL-, $%>%<J for a remar a)ly detailed #ase history of male effemina#y of the 'laywright Ri#hard Cum)erland in the eighteenth #entury, see K. C. Balderston, ed., Thraliana: The Diary of !rs. Thrale MNNP*MOQR , 5, "ols. 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%?5J re". ed. $%;$<, 5: ?&:0??*. 5*5. =he term category as 3 ha"e )een using it in this #ha'ter should not suggest 'hiloso'hi#al so mu#h as medi#al #ategory. Kisease was then understood almost entirely within the terms of #ategories and #lassifi#ations, as the wide ta/onomi# tenden#ies of the era had do#tors #om'iling and #lassifying e"ery disease in terms of its maIor sym'toms, anatomi# 'resentations, organi# in"ol"ements, and so forth. See K. Knight, /rdering the )orld: $ History of &lassifying the )orld 9London: Ba#millan, $%>*<. 5*&. Bagli"i held a #hair of medi#al theory in the Collegio della Sa'ien6a in Rome, ha"ing )een ele#ted to it )y Po'e Clement Z3. His )oo De pra#i medicina 9$:%%J English trans. $C5&< was written with a nowledge of Sydenham8s theories. He )elie"ed that hysteria was a mental disease #aused )y 'assions of the trou)led mindJ in this sense, he is less a##urate and intuiti"e than Sydenham )ut ne"ertheless im'ortant. ,or 3talian hysteria and hy'o#hondria see @s#ar Gia##hi, 4'isterismo e l'ipochondria avvero il malo nervosa . . . Giudi.ii fisioclinici*sociali 9Bilan, $>C;<. 5*?. See B. Bande"ille, $ Treatise of the Hypochondriac( and Hysteric( assions 9London, $C$$J re'rinted $C$;J &d ed. $C&*<. 5*;. Lillis8s anatomi#al He/'losionsH are dis#ussed )y R. G. ,ran , H=homas Lillis and His Cir#le: Brain and Bind in Se"enteenth0Century Bedi#ine,H in The 4anguages of syche , ed. Rousseau 9n. $&<, $*C0$?CJ Sa# s, !igraine 9n. C<, 5:05CJ for Lillis8s rhetori# and language see K. Ka"ie, "cience and 4iterature MNQQ*MNSQ 9London: Sheed U Lard, $%:?<. 5*:. ,or these shifts in nowledge at large see =homas S. Kuhn, The "tructure of the "cientific -evolution 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%C*J re". ed.<J Rom HarrF, HPhiloso'hy and 3deas: Knowledge,H in Ferment of 5no%ledge , ed. Rousseau and Porter 9n. $:C<, $$0;;. 5*C. E"en 7eith8s sur"ey in Hysteria ma es this fa#t a)undantly #lear. 5*>. =he e"iden#e for entren#hment is 'ro"ided in the remaining 'ortion of this #ha'ter and remains a #entral theme of this essay, as it does in E. Lright, HHysteria and Be#hani#al Ban,H 2ournal History of 'deas ?$ 9$%>*<: 5&&05?C, and for num)ers of medi#al historians su#h as -. LuyendiI . 5*%. ,or some of the e"iden#e of the o''osite "iew see P. Hoffmann, 4a femme dans la pensAe des

4umiAres 9Paris: @'hrys, $%CC<J Hill, )omen and )or( . 5$*. So mu#h has now )een written a)out this relati"ely small grou' that one hardly nows where to dire#t the #urious readerJ a good 'la#e is E. =odd, "ign of $ngellica: )omen3 )riting3 and Fiction3 MPPQ*MOQQ 9London: 7irago, $%>><, and for one #ase history, written in de'th, R. Perry, The &elebrated !ary $stell: $n 1arly 1nglish Feminist 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%>:<. 5$$. - thorough linguisti# study of these words 9Hs'leen,H H"a'ors,H Hhysteri#sH< re#onstru#ted in their lo#al #onte/ts would re"eal shades of differen#e, )ut there are an e4ual num)er of e/am'les of o"erla' and inter#hangea)ilityJ see also se#tion Z333. ,or the wit#h trials, see K. =homas, -eligion and the Decline of !agic 9Harmondsworth, Biddlese/: Penguin, $%C&<J for the famous $C&: #ase of the wit#h of Endor, B. Sto# , The Holy and the Demonic 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<. 5$5. Eohn Pur#ell, $ Treatise of 7apours3 or3 Hysteric( Fits 9London: E. Eohnson, $C*C<, %$. 5$&. Rad#liffe had a large and esta)lished 'ra#ti#e of wealthy aristo#rati# #lients, many of whom suffered from hysteria, )ut he wrote littleJ his famed re'ertoire of remedies #ontinued to )e 'u)lished during and after his lifetime and was edited )y a'othe#ary Edward StrotherJ see E. Rad#liffe, harmacopoeia -adcliffeana X4ondon , $C$:<. 5$?. - good dis#ussion of the s#ene is found in Eohn Sena, HBelinda8s Hysteria: =he Bedi#al Conte/t of The -ape of the 4oc(3= 1ighteenth*&entury 4ife ;, no. ? 9$%C%<: 5%0?5. 5$;. E. Butt, ed., The T%ic(enham 1dition of the )or(s of $le#ander ope 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press<, 5&?. 5$:. ,or the 'ost0Po'ean i#onogra'hy of Belinda as hysteri# see C. =ra#y, The -ape /bserv'd 9=oronto: !ni"ersity of =oronto Press, $%C?<, >$, es'e#ially K. Guernier8s illustration of Belinda swooning. 5$C. -n interesting 'harma#euti#al study #ould )e written #om'iling these remedies in the eighteenth #entury. ,or e/am'le, the Gentlemen's !aga.ine regularly 'rinted Hre#ei'tsH for female hysteria and Hmale lo"esi# nessHJ see the Eune $C&& issue, '. &5$. 'res#ri)ing the tying of a woman8s head in a noose ne/t to a #ri# et allegedly stung )y the noiseQ Komesti# vade mecums su#h as L. Bu#han, Domestic !edicine 9London, $CC:<, and standard 'harma#o'eias su#h as E. Suin#y, The Dispensatory of the -oyal &ollege of hysicians 9London, $C5$, many editions<, also 'res#ri)ed. Hysteria was a "irtual industry for a'othe#aries for the entire 'eriod, es'e#ially in #ordials to 're"ent mis#arrying. 5$>. ,or the all0im'ortant iatrome#hanism of the 'eriod at large see =. B. Brown, H,rom Be#hanism to 7italism in Eighteenth0Century English Physiology,H 2ournal of the History of Biology C 9$%C?<: $C%0 5$:J Rousseau, HDer"es, S'irits and ,i)resH 9n. $C><J G. Bowles, HPhysi#al, Human and Ki"ine -ttra#tion in the Life and =hought of George Cheyne,H $nnals of "cience ?$ 9$%C?<: ?C&0?>>J H. Bet6ger, $ttraction Universelle et -eligion ,aturelle che. :uel:ues &ommentateurs $nglais de ,e%ton 9Paris: Di6et, $%&><J more re#ently for iatrome#hanism in the wor of Kr. Cheyne, see G. S. Rousseau, 88Bedi#ine and Billenarianism: 83mmortal Ko#tor Cheyne,8H in Hermeticism and the -enaissance: 'ntellectual History and the /ccult in 1arly !odem 1urope , ed. 3ngrid Ber el and -llen Ke)us 9Lashington, K.C.: ,olger Sha es'eare Li)rary, $%>><, $%505&*, and for the roles of rhetori# and language in Cheyne8s writings, see Rousseau, HLanguage of the Der"es,H in "ocial History of 4anguage , ed. Bur e and Porter 9n. ?5<. 3 #onsider Cheyne8s 1ssay of the True ,ature and Due !ethod of Treating the Gout 9London: G. Strahan, $C55< among his most im'ortant wor s for layihg out his theory of iatrome#hanism and 'ost0Dewtonian a''li#ation. 5$%. =he Kut#h were im'ortant in the de"elo'ment of a mechanical theory of hysteria, the great and influential Kr. Boerhaa"e himself ha"ing identified hysteria as the most )affling of all female maladies.

Boerhaa"e8s writings set hysteria on a firm me#hani#al )asis on the #ontinentJ for his theory of hysteria and its ado'tion )y his followers, es'e#ially -nton de Haen in Holland, Gerard "an Swieten in -ustria, and Ro)ert Lhytt in S#otland, see -. B. LuyendiI , HHet hysterie0)egri' in de $>de eeuw,H in /ngeregeld .enu%leven , ed. L. de Goei 9!tre#ht: D#G", $>%<, &*0?$, a "olume ri#h in the )i)liogra'hy of hysteria and dealing e/#lusi"ely with the modern history of female uterine maladies. LuyendiI is right to #laim that throughout the eighteenth #entury e"ery as'e#t of Hthe si# womanH was se/ually #harged and se/ually liminalJ see -. B. LuyendiI , HKe Pie e 7rouw in de -#httiende Eeuw,H ,atuur(undige 7oordrachten :: 9$%>><: $5%0$&:. 55*. See Rousseau on Cheyne 9HBedi#ine and Billinarianism,H n. 5$><. By $C;* hysteria had )e#ome Hnationali6edH 9i.e., Kut#h hysteria, S#ottish hysteria, et#.< and a study of its nationalisti# idiosyn#rasies would ma e for fas#inating reading. 55$. 3t undid his 'sy#hologi6ing and #ultural determination, negle#ted his 'rimary 'oint a)out hysteria as a disease of imitation 9see n. ??<, and re'la#ed it with a radi#al anatomi6ing and me#hani6ing of the ner"ous system #a'a)le of a##ounting for rises and falls of hysteria in )oth genders. 3ndeed, after Sydenham the theory of imitation "irtually went under, finding no 'la#e in Cheyne8s system, where the word ne"er a''ears. 3t may )e more than #oin#idental that Sydenhamian hysteria as a disease of imitation de#lines #on#omitantly with the larger aestheti# and 'hiloso'hi#al theory of imitation in the same 'eriodJ see ,. Boyd, !imesis: The Decline of a Doctrine 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%C&<. 555. ,or Ro)inson see $ ,e% "ystem of the "pleen 9London, $C5%<, 4uoted in Ri#hard Hunter and 3da Ba#al'ine, Three Hundred 9ears of sychiatry 9n. $%%<J Kli)ans y et al., "aturn and !elancholy 9n. $5<J Ea# son, !elancholia and Depression 9n. >*<, 5%$05%?J =. H. Eo)e, HBedi#al =heories of Belan#holia in the Se"enteenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries,H &lio !edica $% 9$%C:<: 5$C05&$. 55&. G. Cheyne, The 1nglish !alady: or3 a Treatise of ,ervous Diseases of $ll 5inds 9London: Strahan U Lea e, $C&&<, $>?J see also @. Koughty, H=he English Balady of the Eighteenth Century,H -evie% of 1nglish "tudies 5 9$%5:<: 5;C05:%J E. ,is#her0Hom)erger, H@n the Bedi#al History of the Ko#trine of the 3magination,H sychological !edicine ? 9$%C%<: :$%0:5>, whi#h dis#usses the medi#ali6ation of the imagination in relation to the hysteri# affe#tion, and, most im'ortant, R. Porter, H=he Rage of Party: Glorious Re"olution in English Psy#hiatry,H !edical History 5C 9$%>&<: &;0;*. 55?. Cheyne, 1nglish !alady , $?. Samuel Ri#hardson, the no"elist and 'rinter, had 'rinted the )oo for his friend and #laimed that Cheyne #hose the title 9HEnglishH< )e#ause he held the s4ualor and 'olluted air res'onsi)le for London8s )eing Hthe greatest, most #a'a#ious, #lose and 'o'ulous City of the Glo)eHAand also #alled it the H 1nglish maladyH )e#ause hysteria was so #alled in derision )y #ontinental writers 9 1nglish !alady , ;;J C. ,. Bullett, ed., The 4etters of Doctor George &heyne to "amuel -ichardson MN[[*MNS[ 1Colum)ia: !ni"ersity of Bissouri Press, $%?&, $;2<. 55;. R. Eames, $ !edicinal Dictionary< 'ncluding hysics3 "urgery3 $natomy3 &hemistry3 and Botany3 in $ll Their Branches. Together %ith a History of Drugs . . . 9London: =. @s)orne, $C?&0$C?;<, arti#le entitled Hhysteria.H 55:. Curiously, no systemati# study has )een underta en des'ite the large amount of re#ent feminist s#holarshi' in the field of eighteenth0#entury studiesJ it awaits its a"id student, for whom the sheer amount of material )etween $C** and $>** will ma e for a field day of s#holarshi'. Some material for the nineteenth #entury is found in .. Ri'a, 4a ronde des folles: Femme folie et enfermement au H'He siecle 9Paris: -u)ier, $%>:<. B[ller, who )e#ame a leading anthro'ologist in Germany, wrote his medi#al thesis at the !ni"ersity of Paris in $>$& on Hle s'asme et l8affe#tion "a'oreuseHJ as late as the $>?*s some ,ren#h do#tors still #onsidered Hs'leenH a "alid #ategory of the hysteria0hy'o#hondria syndromeJ see K. Bontallegry, Hypochondrie*spleen ou nAvroses trisplanchni:ues. /bservations

relative G ces maladies et leur traitement radical 9Paris, $>?$<. 55C. ,or Swift and hysteria see Christo'her ,o/, ed., sychology and 4iterature in the 1ighteenth &entury 9Dew .or : -BS Press, $%>><, 5&:A5&C. 55>. B. KePorte, ,ightmares and Hobbyhorses: "%ift3 "terne3 and $ugustan 'deas of !adness 9San Barino, Calif.: Huntington Li)rary Press, $%C?<, $5; ff. 55%. ,or e"iden#e of the linguisti# #onfusion in the 'rimary medi#al literature, see L. Stu eley, /f the "pleen 9London, $C5&<J E. Bidriff, /bservations on the "pleen and 7apours< &ontaining -emar(able &ases of ersons of both "e#es3 and all -an(s3 from the aspiring Directors to the Humble Bubbler3 %ho have been miserably afflicted %ith these !elancholy Disorders since the Fall of the "outh*sea3 and other public( "toc(s< %ith the proper !ethod for their -ecovery3 according to the ne% and uncommon &ircumstances of each &ase 9London, $C5*<J E. Raulin, TraitA des affections vaporeuses du se#e 9Paris, $C;><. =here is also a wide literature of s'leen and "a'ors, as in Batthew Green, The "pleen3 and /ther oems . . . %ith a refatory 1ssay by 2ohn $i(in3 !.D . 9London: Cadell, $C%:<. ,or #om'arison of this early eighteenth0#entury out)rea of s'leen with out)ursts in -meri#a at the end of the nineteenth #entury, see =. Lut6, $merican ,ervousness3 MRQ[: $n $necdotal History 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<, a study of the Hneurasthenia 'lagueH of $%*& that ga"e rise to hundreds of #ures and 'otions. Bidriff wondered if #ertain ty'es of Hs'leenH a''eared in 'arti#ular ty'es of wars and not others. 5&*. See Pur#ell, Treatise of 7apours 9n. 5$5<J some dis#ussion of these matters is found in @. =em in, The Falling "ic(ness 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%C?<. 5&$. ,or the e/tensi"eness of this Dewtonianism in medi#al theory, see D. Ro)inson, B.K., $ ne% theory of physic( and diseases3 founded on the principles of the ,e%tonian philosophy 9London, $C5;<, with mu#h em'hasis on hysteriaJ in theology and #osmi# thought, E. Craig, Theologia . . . !athematica 9London, $:%%<J more generally, 3. Prigogine, /rder /ut of &haos: !an's ,e% Dialogue %ith ,ature 9Dew .or : Bantam Boo s, $%>?<. Eames =homson the 'oet and author of The "easons , the most widely read English 'oem of the eighteenth #entury, also refle#ts this 'er"asi"enessJ see -. K. B#Killo', The Bac(ground of Thomson's "easons 9Binnea'olis: !ni"ersity of Binnesota Press, $%?5<. ,or Dewtonianism and the 'o'ular imagination, B. H. Di#olson, ,e%ton Demands the !use 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%?:<. 5&5. Roy Porter has #hroni#led as'e#ts of this de"elo'ment in !ind*Forged !anacles: $ History of !adness in 1ngland from the -estoration to the -egency 9London: Penguin, $%>C<J see also for madness in this 'eriod and its relation to #urrent s#ientifi# mo"ements: 7. S ultans, 1nglish !adness: 'deas on 'nsanity MJOQ*MORQ 9London: Routledge, $%C%<J B. ,ou#ault, !adness and &ivili.ation: $ History of 'nsanity in the $ge of -eason 9Dew .or : Pantheon Boo s, $%:;<, $5*0$&5. Kr. Charles Perry, a me#hanist and #ontem'orary of Cheyne, Ro)inson, and Pur#ell, ma es 'er#e'ti"e 'oints a)out madness in relation to hysteria in his treatise /n the &auses and ,ature of !adness 9London, $C5&<. 5&&. ,or the humanitarianism of madness, see K. Leiner, HBind and Body in the Clini#: Phili''e Pinel, -le/ander Cri#hton, Komini4ue Es4uirol, and the Birth of Psy#hiatry,H in Rousseau, 4anguages of syche 9n. $&<, &&50&?*. 5&?. See Rousseau, HBedi#ine and BillenarianismH 9n. 5$><. 5&;. G. Cheyne, 4uoted in L. ,eder, !adness in 4iterature 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%>*<, $C*. Cheyne8s 'rose a)ounds with weird synta/, ungrammati#al #onstru#tions, and neologismsJ Hfantasti#alH rather than the sim'ler word strange is Iust the sort of word found in his "o#a)ulary. 5&:. The 1nglish !alady 9$C&&<, &;&.

5&C. 3)id., &;?. 5&:. The 1nglish !alady 9$C&&<, &;&. 5&C. 3)id., &;?. 5&>. Sir Ri#hard Bla# more, $ Treatise of the "pleen and 7apours 9London, $C5;<, &5*. 3n a rather similar 'rose, Lilliam Bu#han in his Domestic !edicine 9Edin)urgh, $C:%<, ;:$, dis#ussing Hhysteri# and hy'o#hondria#al affe#tions,H noted that these ner"ous disorders were Hdiseases whi#h no)ody #huses to own.H 3t is im'ortant to insist on the yo ing of hysteria and hy'o#hondria ever since "ydenham undercut Xe#cept in nameY hysteria as a gendered disease . Bla# more argued from the 'ers'e#ti"e of one who had li"ed through the re"olution in nomen#lature as well as gender: HBost Physi#ians ha"e loo ed u'on Hysteri# -ffe#tions as a distin#t Kisease from Hy'o#hondria#al, and therefore ha"e treated some of them under different HeadsJ )ut though in Conformity to that Custom 3 do the same, yet . . . 3 ta e them to )e the same Balady.H Bla# more admitted that women suffered worse, 88the Reason of whi#h is, a more "olatile, dissi'a)le 1si#2, and wea Constitution of the S'irits, and a more soft, tender, and deli#ate =e/ture of the Der"es.H .et, he insisted, Hthis 'ro"es no Kifferen#e in their Dature and essential Pro'erties, )ut only a higher or lower Kegree of the Sym'toms #ommon to )oth.H =his more Hdeli#ate =e/ture of the Der"esH was the ful#rum on whi#h the theory of ner"ous diseases, in#luding hysteria, was to )e 'egged for the ne/t #entury and remains a #ru#ial de"elo'ment in the history of medi#ine in the Enlightenment. ,or some of its #ultural resonan#es, see Rousseau, HCultural History in a Dew Key,H in 'nterpretation and &ultural History , ed. Pitto# and Lear 9n. $>><, 5;0>$. 5&%. Bla# more, Treatise of the "pleen and 7apours 9n. 5&><, &$%. 3t is im'ortant to reiterate Sydenham8s #onsistent use of this nomen#lature for males, whi#h fell under his gender #olla'se of the disease and whi#h was generally ado'ted )y his students and followers into the time of Bla# more and Ro)inson: men were always Hhy'o#hondria#al,H while women remained Hhysteri#al,H and no amount of anatomi#al similitude )etween the genders #ould a##ount for the linguist dis'arityJ for some dis#ussion, see E. ,is#her0Hom)erger, HHy'o#hondriasis of the Eighteenth CenturyADeurosis of the Present Century,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine ?: 9$%C5<: &%$0?*$. 5?*. Di#holas Ro)inson, $ ne% system of the spleen3 vapours3 and hypochondriac( melancholy< %herein all the decays of the nerves3 and lo%nesses of the spirits are mechanically accounted for. To %hich is sub;oined3 a discourse upon the nature3 cause3 and cure of melancholy3 madness3 and lunacy 9London, $C5%<, $??. 5?$. 3)id., &?;. Bore generally for this H'hysiologi#al 'sy#hologyH see KePorte, ,ightmares and Hobbyhorses 9n. 55><J Rather, H@ld and Dew 7iews of the Emotions and Bodily ChangesH 9n. $>5<J Eo)e, HBelan#holia in the Se"enteenth and Eighteenth CenturiesH 9n. 555<. 5?*. Di#holas Ro)inson, $ ne% system of the spleen3 vapours3 and hypochondriac( melancholy< %herein all the decays of the nerves3 and lo%nesses of the spirits are mechanically accounted for. To %hich is sub;oined3 a discourse upon the nature3 cause3 and cure of melancholy3 madness3 and lunacy 9London, $C5%<, $??. 5?$. 3)id., &?;. Bore generally for this H'hysiologi#al 'sy#hologyH see KePorte, ,ightmares and Hobbyhorses 9n. 55><J Rather, H@ld and Dew 7iews of the Emotions and Bodily ChangesH 9n. $>5<J Eo)e, HBelan#holia in the Se"enteenth and Eighteenth CenturiesH 9n. 555<. 5?5. Loo ing ahead, these fa#tors will #oales#e later on in the #entury, in the world of -dair, He)erden, CullenACheyne8s followers. ,or the medi#al 'rofession in the eighteenth #entury in relation to the de"elo'ment of other 'rofessions, see Geoffrey S. Holmes, The rofessions and "ocial &hange in 1ngland MPOQ*MN[Q 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>$<, and idem, $ugustan 1ngland:

rofessions3 "tate and "ociety3 MPOQ*MN[Q 9London: -llen U !nwin, $%>5<. 5?&. ,or the role of 4ua# s in this milieu see R. Porter, Health for "ale: 8uac(ery in 1ngland MPJQ* MOJQ 9Ban#hester: Ban#hester !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<, and H,emale Sua# s in the Consumer So#iety,H The History of ,ursing "ociety 2ournal & 9$%%*<: $05;. 5??. 7eith, Hysteria , $;;. 5?;. 3.e., the essentially anti0"italisti# 'rin#i'le that all is )rain and )ody, nothing mind. =wentieth0 #entury s#ien#e has s'elled the death nell of s#ientifi# "italism des'ite its many "estiges in the )iologi#al and neurologi#al realms. ,or the anti0"italisti# strains and what 3 am #alling the trium'h of the neuro'hysiologi#al a''roa#h of #ontem'orary twentieth0#entury s#ien#e, see E. K. S'illane, The Doctrine of the ,erves: &hapters in the History of ,eurology 9@/ford, Dew .or : @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>$<J L. Riese, $ History of ,eurology 9Dew .or : BK Pu)li#ations, $%;%<J for the linguisti# im'li#ations, B. Eeannerod, The Brain !achine: The Development of ,europhysiological Thought 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<J H. -. Lhita er, /n the -epresentation of 4anguage in the Human Brain: roblems in the ,eurology of 4anguage 9Los -ngeles: !CL- Lor ing Pa'ers in Linguisti#s, $%:%<. 5?:. Cheyne, 1nglish !alady , 5C$ ff. 5?C. ,or nym'homania, see n. C?. 5?>. =he animal s'irits #ontinued to 'ro"e trou)lesome for e/'erimenters and theorists until the middle of the eighteenth #enturyJ for this #om'li#ated #ha'ter in the history of s#ien#e and medi#ine, see E. Clar e, H=he Ko#trine of the Hollow Der"e in the Se"enteenth and Eighteenth Centuries,H in !edicine3 "cience3 and &ulture: Historical 1ssays in Honor of /%sei Tem(in , ed. L. G. Ste"enson and Ro)ert P. Bulthauf 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%:><, $5&0$?$J for its linguisti# re'resentations and di"erse meta'hori#al uses, Rousseau, HKis#o"ery of the 3maginationH 9n. $>?<J the inter#hanges )etween the rhetori#al and em'iri#al 9or s#ientifi#< domains here would ma e a fas#inating study that has not )een underta en on a )road #an"as. 5?%. See La4ueur, !a(ing "e# 9n. $&><J ,eher, History of the Human Body 9n. $5;<. 5;*. Cheyne, 1nglish !alady , ii 9'refa#e<. 5;$. ,or nightmares and hysteria, see -. B. LuyendiI 0Elshout, HBe#hanism #ontra "italisme: Ke s#hool "an Herman Boerhaa"e en de )eginselen "an het le"en,H T. Gesch. Genees(. ,atuur%. )is(. Techn . ; 9$%>5<: $:05:J idem, H@f Bas s and BillsH 9n. >5<J and, more generally, Castle, HPhantasmagoriaH 9n. >5<. 5;5. =wo generations after Po'e, Hannah Le)ster ,oster 9$C;%0$>?*< thought that the ner"es of the #o4uette distinguished her from other ty'esJ see The co:uette< or3 The history of 1li.a )harton. -eproduced from the original edition of MNRN 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%&%<, as did Ka"id Garri# in his 'lay of the same name, )ut a #entury earlier there was no su#h notion in Phili''e Suinault8s 4a mAre co:uette 9written as Sydenham was #om'osing his essay on hysteria< or in the "tate oems on #ourt #o4uettes written during Swift8s 'eriod. 5;&. S. Green)latt, -enaissance "elf*fashioning: From !ore to "ha(espeare 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%>*<, whose use of self0fashioning must )e #redited. 5;?. P. B. S'a# s, The Female 'magination 9London: Bethuen, $%C:<J idem, 'magining a "elf: $utobiography and ,ovel in 1ighteenth*&entury 1ngland 9London: Routledge, $%C:<J K. @. Lyons, The 'nvention of the "elf 9Car)ondale: Southern 3llinois !ni"ersity Press, $%C><J E. Bullan, "entiment and "ociability 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>><J and literary #riti#ism dealing with the

literature of sensi)ility. 5;;. G. S. Rousseau, HDer"es, S'irits and ,i)resH 9n. $C><J for the s#ientifi# dimension in mid0 eighteenth #entury, see Haller8s 'hysiologi#al re"olutionJ for the 'o'ular #ults, see an anonymous HKes#ant on Sensi)ility,H 4ondon !aga.ine 9Bay $CC:<J for the literary dimension, Hagstrum, "e# and "ensibility 9n. $;;<J and L. 3. Bred"old, The ,atural History of "ensibility 9Ketroit: Layne State !ni"ersity Press, $%:5<. 5;:. 3 tried to do#ument this 'oint a)out the semiology of disease then in H 8Sowing the Lind and Rea'ing the Lhirlwind8: -s'e#ts of Change in Eighteenth0Century Bedi#ine,H in "tudies in &hange and -evolution: $spects of 1nglish 'ntellectual History MPSQ*MOQQ , ed. Paul E. Korshin 9London: S#holar Press, $%C5<, $5%0$;%. 5;C. =he new #ode is not e"ident in Eohn Playford8s se"enteenth0#entury treatises, )ut )egins to )e a''arent in the drama 9Ly#herly8s 4ove in a )ood < and in treatises )y dan#ing masters written after #a. $C?*. 5;>. =his #om'le/ and largely non"er)al #ode remains to )e de#i'heredJ it is something as yet not understood a)out the -ugustan Hself0fashioningH 9to in"o e Green)latt8s fine term< of the ner"es. 5;%. =he new role of #onsum'tion of e"ery ty'e #annot )e minimi6ed in this 'eriod: see D. E. B#Kendri# et al., The Birth of &onsumer "ociety: The &ommerciali.ation of 1ighteenth*&entury 1ngland 9London: Euro'a Pu)li#ations Limited, $%>5<J E. Brewer, The "ine%s of o%er: )ar3 !oney3 and the 1nglish "tate3 MPOO*MNO[ 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<J for the rea#tion, B. Caldwell, The 4ast &rusade: The )ar on &onsumption 9Dew .or : -theneum Pu)lishers, $%>><J for the medi#al diagnosis and its e#onomi# im'li#ations see su#h #ontem'orary medi#al wor s as C. Bennet, Treatise of &onsumptions 9London, $C5*<J for drin and its relation to ner"ous sensi)ility, #om'are =. =rotter, $n 1ssay3 !edical3 hilosophical and &hemical on Drun(enness 9London: Longmans, $>*?<. 5:*. 3 tried to e/'lain the #hain of reasons from medi#al and 'hiloso'hi#al, to so#ial and 'o'ular, in HDer"es, S'irits and ,i)resH 9n. $C>< and HCultural History in a Dew KeyH 9n. $>><, )ut mu#h wor remains to )e doneA3 ha"e )arely s#rat#hed the surfa#e of the Enlightenment #ults of sensi)ility. 5:$. See B. ,ou#ault, !adness and &ivili.ation: $ History of 'nsanity in the $ge of -eason 9Dew .or : Pantheon Boo s, $%:;<, $&5. By own thought has )een influen#ed as mu#h on the semioti# domain )y =6"etan =odoro" in The &on:uest of $merica: The 8uestion of the /ther Translated from the French by -ichard Ho%ard 9Dew .or : Har'er U Row, $%>;<. 5:5. Ri#hard Sennett, The Fall of ublic !an 9Dew .or : -lfred -. Kno'f, $%C%<. 5:&. 3t #ould not ha"e ele"ated sensi)ility and the #onditions 9hysteria< that de'ended on it, %ithout a 'rior theory of the Hs#ien#es of man.H =here are fine studies of this su)Ie#t, )ut they usually omit the medi#al dimension entirelyJ for the )est, see Sergio Bora"ia, Filosofia e scien.e umane nell'eta dei lumi 9,loren#e: Sansoni, $%>5<. =he 'oint needs to )e related to the de"elo'ment of the s#ien#e of manJ Bora"ia saw mu#h )ut did not ma e the im'ortant #onne#tionsJ he saw narrowly only the new s#ien#e of man )ut not its im'li#ation for self0fashioning. 5:?. E"en Peter Gay had made this seminal 'oint a)out Hailer in the o'ening 'ages of The 1nlightenment: $n 'nterpretation , 5 "ols. 9Dew .or : -lfred -. Kno'f, $%::0:%<, $:&*, in H=he S'irit of the -geH and H=he Re#o"ery of Der"e,H as did Henry Steele Commager in The 1mpire of -eason 9Dew .or : -n#hor Kou)leday, $%CC<, >0$*, in the famous 'aean to Hailer who Htoo all nowledge for his 'ro"in#eH 9'. >< and who Hin the )readth and de'th of his nowledge was 'erha's uni4ue88 9'. $*<. Howe"er, Haller8s shrewd fusion of a medi#al and literary language of se/ual sensi)ility 9

sensibilitWt < has )een less well understood )y historians fore"er )ent on merely assessing his #ontri)ution to the history of Euro'ean s#ien#e, the Swiss Enlightenment, or the intelle#tual de"elo'ment of Gattingen. 5:;. Elsewhere 3 ha"e tried to ma e the argument that the medi#al and s#ientifi# re"olutions of the Enlightenment ha"e still not )een integrated into the #ulture at large, nor into the de"elo'ing medi#al 'rofessionJ Goldstein8s &onsole and &lassify 9n. &:< is an e/em'lary )oo for this ty'e of wor #arried out for the ne/t #entury. ,or the lega#y of the Hner"ous re"olutionH in medi#ine in the ne/t #entury see also @''enheim, H "hattered ,erves H 9n. $%&<. 5::. See Rousseau, 4anguages of syche 9n. $&<. 5:C. Be#hani#al 'hiloso'hy had )een a''lied to e"ery other domain, in#luding 'ainting, diet, health, go"ernment, so why not to mannersN ,or a list of a''li#ations, see Rousseau, HLanguage of the Der"esH 9n. ?5<, :*0:$J for an e/am'le in musi#, R. Browne, !edicina musica: /r a !echanical 1ssay on the 1ffects of "inging3 !usic(3 and Dancing3 on Human Bodies 9London, $C5%<. -s late as $C;C, manners are still )eing des#ri)ed in me#hani#al meta'horsJ see E. Brown, $n 1stimate of the !anners and rinciples of the Times 9London: L. Ka"is U C. Reymers, $C;C<. 5:>. Lilliam He)erden, !edical &ommentaries 9London: =. Payne, $>*5<, 55C. 5:%. 3)id., 5&;. He)erden did insist, howe"er, that Htheir for#e will )e "ery different, a##ording to the 'atient8s #hoosing to indulge and gi"e way to them.H 5:>. Lilliam He)erden, !edical &ommentaries 9London: =. Payne, $>*5<, 55C. 5:%. 3)id., 5&;. He)erden did insist, howe"er, that Htheir for#e will )e "ery different, a##ording to the 'atient8s #hoosing to indulge and gi"e way to them.H 5C*. =he role of medi#al s#hools was also great in thisJ see se#tion Z. 5C$. See ,. E. B#Lynn, &rime and unishment in 1ighteenth*&entury 1ngland 9London: Routledge, $%>%<. 5C5. ,or the e"iden#e see Lright, HHysteria and Be#hani#al BanH 9n. 5*><. Ser"ants often a'ed these affe#tations of s'leen and "a'ors to other ser"ants, )ut rarely would they do so with their mistresses, who usually saw through the 'retense. 3n Gay8s The Beggar's /pera , Lu#y e/'lains her una##e'ta)le )eha"ior to the ri"alrous Polly in terms of the "a'ors, )ut without re#alling 9if she e"er new it< that H-ffe#tationH had )een one of the handmaidens in Po'e8s HCa"e of S'leenH in The -ape of the 4oc( . 5C&. ,or his life and wor s, see Rousseau, HCultural History in a Dew KeyH 9n. $>><J Phili' Gosse, Dr. 7iper: The 8uerulous 4ife of hilip Thic(nesse 9London: Cassell, $%;5<J -. Bruns#hwig, 1nlightenment and -omanticism in 1ighteenth*&entury russia 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%C?<. ,or Lhytt, see R. K. ,ren#h, -obert )hytt3 the "oul3 and !edicine 9London: Lell#ome 3nstitute for the History of Bedi#ine, $%:%<. 5C?. Eames Ba ittri# -dair, 1ssays on Fashionable Diseases 9D.P., $C>:<, ?0C. 5C;. =he 'hrase is usually 4uoted from $n 1pistle to Dr. $rbuthnot , line $&5J see also BarIorie Ho'e Di#olson and G. S. Rousseau, This 4ong Disease !y 4ife: $le#ander ope and the "ciences 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%:><. But Po'e had used it earlier in a letter to -aron Hill, Bar#h $?, $C&$ 9 &orrespondence , 333. $>5<, #ommenting on his #hroni# infirmities, whi#h he thought had 'redis'osed his Hmanly tem'eramentH to #ertain Hsofter a#ti"ities.H 5C:. ,or Pinel and hysteria see K. Leiner, HBind and Body in the Clini#,H in Rousseau, The 4anguages of syche 9n. $&<, &%$0&%;.

5CC. ,or a list of many of these medi#al dissertations see G. S. Rousseau, HKis#ourses of the Der"e,H in 4iterature and "cience as !odes of 1#pression , ed. ,. -mrine 9Kordre#ht: Kluwer -#ademi# Pu)lishers, $%>%<, ;:0:*. 5C>. B. Bi#ale, H- Re"iew Essay of Bale Hysteria,H !edical History 9$%>><. 5C%. ,or some e/am'les see Boss, H=ransformation of the Hysteri# -ffe#tionH 9n. ;;<. 5>*. Biogra'hi#al material is found in =homas Guidott, The 4ives and &haracters of the hysicians of Bath 9London, $:C:0CCJ re'rint of $C5?05; is edition referred to here< and "ome articulars of the $uthor's >i.e.3 Guidott? 4ife in Guidott8s ed. of Edward Eorden8s Discourse of ,atural Bathes and !ineral )aters 9London, $::%, &d ed.<. Guidott dedi#ated his )oo s to Ba'let and in $:%? saw through the 'ress Ba'let8s treatise on the effe#ts of )athing. 5>$. Guidott, 4ives and &haracters of hysicians of Bath , $5>0$?5. Su)se4uent 'assages are found on these 'ages. 5>5. =hroughout my reading 3 wondered if Guidott had read Sydenham on hysteria, )ut ha"e )een una)le to ma e a #ase for or against. =he larger 'oint, howe"er, is that one would not ha"e to read a 'arti#ular te/t to now, and e"en es'ouse, the fundamental as'e#ts of the 'aradigm. 5>&. Elsewhere 3 shall demonstrate that it was this 'aradigm that informed, in 'art, theoreti#al e/'lanations of all0male friendshi' 9on grounds that sensiti"ity gra"itated to li e sensiti"ity<, and that )e#ame the su)stratum of later dis#ussions a)out effemina#y and sodomy. 5>?. ,or e/am'le, Gideon's Fleece< or the "ieur de Fris(. $n Heroic oem . . . by hilo*!usus3 a Friend to the !uses 9London, $:>?<. 5>;. Phili''e He#4uet, 4e naturalisme des convulsions dans les maladies de l'Api*dAmie convulsionnaire 9Soleure, $C&&<J Hillel S#hwart6, The French rophets: The History of a !illenarian Group in 1ighteenth*&entury 1ngland 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>*<J idem, 5naves3 Fools3 !admen3 and that "ubtile 1ffluvium: $ "tudy of the /pposition to the French rophets in 1ngland3 MNQP*MNMQ 9Gaines"ille: !ni"ersity Presses of ,lorida, $%C><. 5>:. Edith Sitwell, The 1nglish 1ccentrics 9Boston: Houghton Bifflin Co., $%&&<. 5>C. Hugh ,armer, $n 1ssay on the Demoniacs of the ,e% Testament 9London: G. Ro)inson, $CC;<. ,or ,armer8s interest in mira#les, demons, s'irits, and hysteri#s, as well as his medi#al #ase history and life, see Bi#hael Kodson, !emoirs of the 4ife and )ritings of the 4ate -everend and 4earned Hugh Farmer 9London: Longman U Rees, $>*?<. =his wor differs from 'hysi#ian Ri#hard Bead8s Treatise concerning the 'nfluence of the "un and the !oon upon Human Bodies3 and the Diseases Thereby roduced 9London, $C?><. 3n Bead, male hysteria is e/'lained a##ording to e#ternal 'henomena 9for e/am'le moon, wa"es, tides< a#ting through Hartleyan "i)rations and magnetism u'on the human Der"es and then the imagination. 3n this sense Bead, li e ,armer, different though their 'rofessions were, should )oth )e #onsidered indred in the mindset of #ounter0ner"e. ,or #ounter0ner"e see Rousseau, HCultural History in a Dew KeyH 9n. $>><, C*0C;, and Ri#hard Kuhn, The Demon of ,oontide: 1nnui in )estern 4iterature 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%C:<. 5>>. Loneliness was an element of their alienation as se#urely as any other fa#tors, as has )een noti#ed )y Eohn Sitter in his 4iterary 4oneliness in !id*1ighteenth*&entury 1ngland 93tha#a and London: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<. 5>%. ,or a "ery limited study in one hos'ital during the $C>*s see G. B. Risse, HHysteria at the Edin)urgh 3nfirmary: =he Constru#tion and =reatment of a Kisease, $CC*0$>**,H !edical History &5 9$%>><: $055. Risse has suggested that the organi# diagnosis rather than any remotely 'sy#hogeni#

etiology enhan#ed the )edside dis#ourse shared )etween these Edin)urgh 'rofessors and their 'u'ils. Ben were not ta en in at Edin)urgh, )ut they were in Paris and 7ienna. High)orn and low, female and male: all were treated and e"entually admitted without regard to gender. 5%*. The $dventures of Tom 2ones3 a Foundling 9$C?%<, B . Z73. Smollett, a 'hysi#ian0no"elist who new medi#al theory more intimately than ,ielding, 'ortrays many more hysteri#s, male as well as female, es'e#ially in his H'sy#hiatri# no"elH The $dventures of "ir 4auncelot Greaves 9$C:5<. Karl Biller )elie"es that Grea"es8s Hwea ness of the ner"es,H the malady his 4ua# do#tor assigns, is a foreshadowing of modern, almost Be# ettian, Hner"ousness,H and 88the more ner"ous 'eo'le there are, the more we may need s'itting images, a #omedy of hurt.H See his 'ro"o#ati"e #ha'ter entitled H-ndante Ca'ri##ioso,H in his $uthors 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%>%<. 5%$. Bien"ille, ,ymphomania 9n. C?<. Lor s had )een written )efore $CC; on the )eha"ior or a#ti"ity we would now, ana#hronisti#ally, #all nym'homania, )ut Bien"ille was the first to write an entire treatise using the word and #on#e't. 5%5. G. Biller, ed., 4etters of 1d%ard 2enner 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<. 5%&. =his fa#t surfa#es re'eatedly in the study of female maladies in Bar)ara Kuden, The )oman beneath the "(in: $ Doctor's atients in 1ighteenth*&entury Germany 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<. 5%?. =hose who thin HhordesH is e/#essi"e to des#ri)e the 'roliferation of hysteria theory should #onsult the )i)liogra'hi#al e"iden#eJ see E. Sena, $ Bibliography of !elancholy 9London: Dether Press, $%C*< and Rousseau, HCultural History in a Dew KeyH 9n. $>><, C:0>$, whi#h are themsel"es )ut the ti' of the i#e)erg. 5%;. Ri#hard Hunter and 3da Ba#al'ine Hunter, Three Hundred 9ears of sychiatry 9n. ?$<J Lilliam Battie, $ Treatise on !adness 9London: Kawsons, $%:5<J Lilliam Perfe#t, &ases of 'nsanity . . . Hypochondriacal $ffection . . . 9London, $C>$<J Lilliam Pargeter, /bservations on !aniacal Disorders 9Reading, $C%5J re'rint, London: Routledge, $%>%<. 5%:. =he #lassi# wor s remain Klaus Koerner8s !admen and the Bourgeoisie 9@/ford: Basil Bla# worth, $%>$J originally 'u)lished in German in $%:%<, whi#h a''eared )efore ,ou#ault8s insightful Birth of the &linic: $n $rchaeology of !edical erception 9Dew .or : 7intage Boo s, $%C&<. 5%C. Cited a)o"e at the end of Se#tion Z. 5%>. ,or some of the e"iden#e related to ran and #lass in Edin)urgh see Risse, HHysteria at the Edin)urgh 3nfirmaryH 9n. 5>%<. 5%%. -nd yet this o''osition remains one of the most 'ersistent #ontrasts in the history of hysteria in the early modern 'eriod sur"eyed in this #ha'terJ as 3 wor ed my way through the massi"e amounts of material a"aila)le from o"er two #enturies 9$:**0$>**<, 3 was stru# to what massi"e degree the )ody0 mind model e't reifying itself in the dis#ourses of hysteria. &**. See -ndrew Lilson, !edical -esearches: Being an in:uiry into the nature and origin of hysterics in the female constitution3 and into the distinction bet%een that disease and hypochondriac or nervous disorders 9London: C. Dourse, $CC:<, and Lilliam Rowley, $ treatise on female3 nervous3 hysterical3 hypochondriacial3 bilious3 convulsive disease< apople#y @ palsy %ith thoughts on madness @ suicide3 etc . 9London: C. Dourse, $C>><. &*$. =he 'oint a)out Cullen and ta/onomy in medi#al theory has )een well made )y C. Lawren#e, HDer"ous System and So#ietyH 9n. $>;<. See also Eohn =homson, $n $ccount of the 4ife3 4ectures and

)ritings of )illiam &ullen , 5 "ols. 9Edin)urgh: Lilliam Bla# wood U Sons, $>;%<. &*5. See -lan Bewell, )ords%orth and the 1nlightenment: ,ature3 !an3 and "ociety in the 1#perimental oetry 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<, $C;. &*&. K. Ca"e, ed., The Diary of 2oseph Farington , $: "ols. 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%>50 <, $*:&C*;. &*?. TraitA des $ffections 7aporeuses de deu# se#es3 ou !aladies ,erveuses vulgairement appelAs de nerfs 9Paris: 3m'rimerie Royale, $C>5<. &*;. L. ,al#oner, $ Dissertation on the 'nfluence of the assions upon Disorders of the Body 9London: C. Killy, $C>><. &*:. London: Ri"ington, $>**. &*C. Bath: R. Crutwell, $>**. &*>. Eohn Haslam, /bservations on 'nsanity 9London: Ri"ington, $C%><, reissued in $>*% as /bservations on !adness @ !elancholy: 'ncluding practical remar(s on those diseases< together %ith cases: and an account of the morbid appearances of dissection J idem, 'llustrations of !adness 9London: Routledge, $>$*<. &*%. See n. $ a)o"e. ,or madness from Renaissan#e to Enlightenment more generally, see $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd. &$*. See se#tion Z333 and n. 5C&. &$$. 3t is not a##idental, for e/am'le, that Battie8s Treatise on !adness 9$C;C< a''eared only a few years after the a''earan#e of Eulien @ffray de La Bettrie8s seminal announ#ement of materialismJ see his !an a machine. )herein the several systems of philosophers3 in respect to the soul of man3 are e#amined . . . Translated from the French of !ons3 de 4a !ettrie 9London: G. Smith, $C;*< and E. Callot, 4a philosophie de la vie au H7'''e siCcle3 Atudiee che. Fontenelle3 !ontes:uieu3 !aupertuis3 4a !ettrie3 Diderot3 d'Holbach3 4innA 9Paris: B. Ri"iGre, $%:;<. -lso, as a 'arallel here are the nonmedi#al writings of women of the 'eriod, who also retain mystery as an essen#e of the then modern se#ulari6ed woman. &$5. Pinel8s "ersions of hysteria ha"e not )een studied in any detail, )ut see nn. 5&& and 5C:. &$&. =he imitati"e as'e#t e/tends, of #ourse, )eyond the theory of hysteria. ,or different a''roa#hes to it, see Bar Eohnson, The Body in the !ind: The Bodily Basis of !eaning3 'magination3 and -eason 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%>C< and Bar)ara Stafford, Body &riticism: 'maging the Unseen in 1nlightenment $rt and !edicine 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: B3= Press, $%%$<. &$?. 3tali#s mineJ see Bary Ea#o)us, -eading )oman: 1ssays in Feminist &riticism 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, 5%>:<, 5*$J and Bary Ea#o)us, E"elyn ,o/ Keller, and Sally Shuttleworth, eds., BodyV olitics: )omen in the Discourses of "cience 9London: Routledge, $%%*<. &$;. See n. &** and for Cullen and neurosis, E. B. Lo'e6 Pieero, Historical /rigins of the &oncept of ,eurosis 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<. E#hoes of Ro)ert Eames8s, !edicinal Dictionary 95 "ols. 1London, $C?;2< arti#le on HHysteriaH are found in Cullen8s wor s. &$:. - re#ent so#ial #riti# has noted that the main reason twentieth0#entury homose/uals )uild u' their mus#les in gyms is their misogynist #ontem't of wea Hinner s'a#esHAa materialist hy'othesis at least. &$C. =here are fundamental ways in whi#h the history of hysteria resem)les that of gender and se/ itself, and it is wrong to )elie"e that hysteria resides in a #lass entirely a'art from these. ,or the so#ial #onstru#tion of all of these see Peter Lright and -ndrew =rea#her Lright, eds., The roblem of

!edical 5no%ledge: 1#amining the "ocial &onstruction of !edicine 9Edin)urgh: Edin)urgh !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<J Cynthia Eagle Russett, "e#ual "cience: The 7ictorian &onstruction of )omanhood 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J Celia Kit6inger, The "ocial &onstruction of 4esbianism 9London: Sage Pu)li#ations, $%>C<J Ka"id ,. Green)erg, The &onstruction of Homose#uality 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%>%<J =homas La4ueur, H@nanism, So#ia)ility, and 3magination: Bedi#ine and ,i#tion in the Eighteenth and Early Dineteenth Century,H a tal deli"ered at the !ni"ersity of California, Ber eley, $%%$. &$>. R. B. Carter, /n the athology and Treatment of Hysteria 9London: Eohn Chur#hill, $>;&<. &$%. 7eith, Hysteria , 55$055>. ,or this "iew in another ey see L. Cherto and R. de Sausurre Cherto , The Therapeutic -evolution: From !esmer to Freud 9Dew .or : Brunner Ba6el, $%C%<, )ut for sounder a''roa#hes to the Besmeri# 'henomenon see 7. Buranelli, The )i.ard from 7ienna: Fran. !esmer and the /rigins of Hypnotism 9London: Routledge, $%C:<J R. Karnton, !esmerism and the 1nd of the 1nlightenment in France 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%:><. &5*. ,or Besmer8s Dewtonianism see R. Cooter, H=he History of Besmerism in England,H in !esmer und die Geschichte des !esmerismus , ed. H. S#hott 9Stuttgart: ,ran6 Steiner, $%>;<, $;50$:5. &5$. Some ha"e seen the e"iden#e of these misogynisti# out)ursts in the de)ates a)out female re'rodu#ti"ityJ see Pierre Karmon, The !yth of rocreation in the Baro:ue eriod 9London: Routledge, $%>5<J Damning the 'nnocent: $ History of ersecution in re*-evolutionary France 9Dew .or : 7i ing Press, $%>:<. &55. 3 owe the 'hrase to Ka"id BorrisJ see K. Borris, H=he Bar4uis of Sade and the Kis#ourses of Pain: Literature and Bedi#ine at the Re"olution,H in The 4anguages of syche , ed. Rousseau 9n. $&<, 5%$0&&$. &5&. Roy Porter 'ro"ides the s#holarshi', )ut see also G. Kidi0Hu)erman, 'nvention de l'Hysterie: &harcot et l''conographie hotographi:ue 9Paris: Ba#ula, $%>5<. &5?. ,. Ka'lan, Dic(ens and !esmerism: The Hidden "prings of Fiction 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%C;<.

!hree- !he Body and the 6ind8 !he ,o.tor and the Patient1 Negotiating Hysteria
$. See H. @. Lan#aster, 1#pectations of 4ife: $ "tudy of the Demography3 "tatistics and History of )orld !ortality 9Dew .or : S'ringer 7erlag, $%%*<J Eames C. Riley, "ic(ness3 -ecovery and Death: $ History and Forecast of 'll Health 9London: Ba#millan, $%>%<J -le/ Ber#er, Disease3 !ortality and opulation in Transition: 1pidemiological*demographic &hange in 1ngland since the 1ighteenth &entury as art of a Global henomenon 9London: Lei#ester !ni"ersity Press, a di"ision of Pinter Pu)lishers, $%%*<J Roderi# ,loud, Kenneth La#hter, and -nna)el Gregory, Height3 Health3 and History: ,utritional "tatus in the United 5ingdom3 MNJQ*MROQ 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<J Bar Dathan Cohen, Health and the -ise of &ivili.ation 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. 5. L. H. B#Deill, lagues and eoples 9@/ford: Basil Bla# well, $%C:<J -. Cros)y, 1cological 'mperialism 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<. &. Bary Kil)ourne Batossian, oisons of the ast: !olds3 1pidemics3 and History 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. 3t is #laimed that some of ,reud8s Hhysteri#alH 'atients in reality suffered from organi# disorders that ,reud, in his 6eal for 'sy#hodynami# e/'lanations, omitted to in"estigate. See E. B. =hornton, Hypnotism3 Hysteria and 1pilepsy: $n Hysterical "ynthesis 9London: Heinemann, $%C:<J Lindsay C. Hurst, HLhat Las Lrong with -nna @,H 2ournal of the -oyal "ociety of !edicine C;

9$%>5<: $5%0$&$J and the dis#ussion in Bar Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy: - Re"iew of Past and Present Lritings,H History of "cience 5C 9$%>%<: 55&05:$, es'. '. ?;. ?. =he issues of shifting medi#al terminology are well dis#ussed in E. H. Kir# /, The 4anguage of !edicine: 'ts 1volution3 "tructure3 and Dynamics 9Dew .or : Praeger Pu)lishers, $%>&<J see also Roy Porter, H=he Ko#tor and the Lord,H !edical "ociology ,e%s % 9$%>&<: 5$05>. ;. Eames Longrigg, HPlague of -thens,H History of "cience $> 9$%>*<: 5*%055;. :. Su#h matters lead, of #ourse, to 4uestions as to the meaning of the term disease itselfJ see L. Riesse, The &onception of Disease: 'ts History3 'ts 7ersions and 'ts ,ature 9Dew .or : Philoso'hi#al Li)rary, $%;&<J G. Risse, HHealth and Kisease: History of the Con#e'ts,H in L. =. Rei#h, ed., 1ncyclopedia of Bioethics , 5 "ols. 9Dew .or : ,ree Press, $%C><, ;C%0;>;J @. =em in, HHealth and Kisease,H Dictionary of the History of 'deas 5 9$%C&<: &%;0?*C. C. @n #holera, see Bargaret Pelling, &holera3 Fever and 1nglish !edicine MOKJ*MOPJ 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%C><. >. See -lan Krohn, Hysteria: The 1lusive ,eurosis , a''earing in sychological 'ssues , nos. ?;(?: 9Dew .or : 3nternational !ni"ersities Press, $%C><. =hese 'ro)lems are intelligently addressed for a #om'ara)ly elusi"e #ondition, asthma, in E. Ga))ay, H-sthma -tta# edN =a#ti#s for the Re#onstru#tion of a Kisease Con#e't,H in The roblem of !edical 5no%ledge , ed. P. Lright and -. =rea#her 9Edin)urgh: Edin)urgh !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<, 5&0?>. Bodern 'sy#hiatrists are themsel"es unsure of the #urrent "alidity of the hysteria diagnosis. See, for e/am'le, se"eral of the #ontri)utions in -le# Roy, ed., Hysteria 9Chi#hester: Eohn Liley U Sons, $%>5<, es'e#ially Henri Ey, HHysteria: History and -nalysis of the Con#e't,H &0$%J RenF BaIor, H=he Re"olution of Hysteria,H 'nternational 2ournal of sycho*$nalysis $; 9$%C?<: &>;0&%5J K. L. -)se, Hysteria and -elated !ental Disorders 9Bristol: Lright, $%>C<J E. B. R. Crit#hley and H. E. Cantor, 88Char#ot8s Hysteria Renaissant,H British !edical 2ournal 5>% 95505% Ke#em)er $%>?<: $C>;0$C>>J Harold Bers ey, HHysteria: =he History of an 3dea,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?5>0?&&J idem, H=he 3m'ortan#e of Hysteria,H British 2ournal of sychiatry $?% 9$%>:<: 5&05>. ,or in"alua)le refle#tions on the relations )etween modern thin ing, historiogra'hi#al trends, and the history of hysteria, see Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hyH 9'art $<, 55&05:$J idem, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hyH 9'art 5<, &$%0&;*J idem, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy: =he ,uture Pers'e#ti"e,H History of sychiatry $ 9$%%*<: &&0$5?. %. 3 )elie"e Elaine Showalter8s #ha'. ? em)odies these goals. $*. =hough it de"elo'ed ideas of diseases of the wom), and diseases of lo"e: see Kanielle Ea#4uart and Claude =homasset, "e#uality and !edicine in the !iddle $ges 9Cam)ridge: Polity Press, $%>%<. $$. ,rom the high seriousAfor instan#e, ,. C. S ey, Hysteria 9London: Longman, $>:C<Ato the highly stigmati6ing: Ro)ert =hornton, The Hysterical )oman: Trials3 Tears3 Tric(s3 and Tantrums 9Chi#ago: Konohue U Henne)ury, $>%&<. $5. ,or the re'resentations of hysteria and other e/em'lary diseases in art and the media, see Elaine Showalter8s and Sander Gilman8s #ha'ters. See also S. Sontag, 'llness as !etaphor 9Dew .or : ,arrar, Straus U Girou/, $%C><J idem, $'D" and 'ts !etaphors 9London: -llen Lane, $%>><J Sander Gilman, Difference and athology 93tha#a and London: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<J idem, Disease and -epresentation: 'mages of 'llness from !adness to $ids 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>><J idem, "ee(ing the 'nsane: $ &ultural History of !adness and $rt in the )estern )orld 9Dew .or : Liley, $%>5<. $&. 3an Kow)iggin, H=he Professional, So#io'oliti#al, and Cultural Kimensions of Psy#hiatri# =heory

in ,ran#e, $>?*0$%**,H Ph.K. dissertation, !ni"ersity of Ro#hester, $%>:J idem, H,ren#h Psy#hiatri# -ttitudes toward the Kangers Posed )y the 3nsane #a. $>C*,H in -esearch in 4a%3 Deviance3 and "ocial &ontrol , ed. -ndrew S#ull and Ste"en S'it6er, "ol. % 9Greenwi#h, Conn.: E-3 Press, $%>><, >C0$$$J Ean Goldstein, H=he Hysteria Kiagnosis and the Politi#s of -nti0#leri#alism in Late Dineteenth Century ,ran#e,H 2ournal of !odern History ;? 9$%>5<: 5*%05&%J E. Guillais, &rimes of assion 9Cam)ridge: Polity Press, $%>%<J Ruth Harris, HBelodrama, Hysteria and ,eminine Crimes of Passion in the ,in0de0 SiG#le,H History )or(shop 5; 9$%>><: &$0:&J Ro)ert Dye, The /rigins of &ro%d sychology: Gustave 4eBon and the &risis of !ass Democracy in the Third -epublic 9London: Sage, $%C;<J Kaniel Pi# , Faces of Degeneration: $spects of a 1uropean Disorder c. MOSO*MRMO 9Cam)ridge and Dew .or : Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J .anni# Ri'a, )omen and !adness: The 'ncarceration of )omen in ,ineteenth &entury France 9Cam)ridge: Polity Press, $%%*<J S. Bos#o"i#i, 4'$ge des foules: Un TraitA histori:ue de sychologie des masses 9Paris: ,ayard, $%>$<. $?. @n -da Byron, see K. Stein, $da: $ 4ife and 4egacy 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: B3= Press, $%>;<J for a 'arallel #ase, see Roger Cooter, HKi#hotomy and Kenial: Besmerism, Bedi#ine and Harriet Bartineau,H in "cience and "ensibility: Gender and "cientific 1n:uiry3 MNOQ*MRSJ , ed. Barina BenIamin 9@/ford: Basil Bla# well, $%%$<, $??0$C&J generally on 'atients8 a##ounts of their own #onditions, see Korothy Porter and Roy Porter, atient's rogress: Doctors and Doctoring in 1ighteenth*&entury 1ngland 9Cam)ridge: Polity Press, $%>%<J idem, 'n "ic(ness and in Health: The British 1#perience MPJQ*MOJQ 9London: ,ourth Estate, $%>><. $;. Bar Bi#ale, HChar#ot and the 3dea of Hysteria in the Bale: - Study of Gender, Bental S#ien#e, and Bedi#al Kiagnosti#s in Late Dineteenth Century ,ran#e,H !edical History &? 9$%%*<: &:&0?$$. $:. -lso dis#ussed in Bar Bi#ale, HKiagnosti# Kis#riminations: Eean0Bartin Char#ot and the Dineteenth Century 3dea of Bas#uline Hysteri#al Deurosis,H Ph.K. thesis, .ale !ni"ersity, $%>C. $C. Edward Shorter, HParalysis: =he Rise and ,all of a 8Hysteri#al8 Sym'tom,H 2ournal of "ocial History $% 9$%>:<: ;?%0;>5J and, more fully, his From aralysis to Fatigue: $ History of sychosomatic 'llness in the !odern 1ra 9Dew .or : ,ree Press, $%%5<. $>. Ro)ert B. Carter, /n the athology and Treatment of Hysteria 9London: Eohn Chur#hill, $>;&<. $%. Edward Shorter, HPri"ate Clini#s in Central Euro'e, $>;*0$%&&,H "ocial History of !edicine &, 5 9$%%*<: $;%0$%:J idem, HLomen and Eews in a Pri"ate Der"ous Clini# in Late Dineteenth Century 7ienna,H !edical History && 9$%>%<: $?%0$>&J -nne Kig)y, !adness3 !orality and !edicine: $ "tudy of the 9or( -etreat3 MNRP*MRMS 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<, 5$C, 5>CJ Charlotte Ba# en6ie, H- ,amily -sylum: - History of the Pri"ate Badhouse at =i#ehurst in Susse/, $C%50$%$C,H Ph.K. dissertation, !ni"ersity of London, $%>CJ =re"or =urner, H- Kiagnosti# -nalysis of the Case)oo s of =i#ehurst -sylum $>?;0$>%*,H B.K., !ni"ersity of London, $%%*. 5*. Su6anne Poirier, H=he Leir0Bit#hell Rest Cure: Ko#tors and Patients,H )omen's "tudies $* 9$%>&<: $;0?*J R. K. Lalter, ". )eir !itchell3 !D3 ,eurologist: $ !edical Biography 9S'ringfield, 3ll.: =homas, $%C*<J Eanet Browne, HS'as and Sensi)ilities: Karwin at Bal"ern,H in The !edical History of )aters and "pas , ed. Roy Porter 9London: Lell#ome 3nstitute, !edical History "upplement $*, $%%*<, $*50$$&J Susan E. Cayleff, )ash and Be Healed: The )ater*&ure !ovement and )omen's Health 9Philadel'hia: =em'le !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<. 5$. Edward Shorter, HBania, Hysteria and Gender in Lower -ustria, $>%$0$%*;,H History of sychiatry $ 9$%%*<: &0&$J ,ran#is Gosling, Before Freud: ,eurasthenia and the $merican !edical &ommunity3 MONo*MRMQ 9!r)ana: !ni"ersity of 3llinois Press, $%>C<. 55. Lilliam E. B#Grath, Freud's Discovery of sychoanalysis: The olitics of Hysteria 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<J Eohn ,orrester, The "eductions of sychoanalysis: Freud3 4acan and

Derrida 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<J C. Bernheimer and Clare Kahane, eds., 'n Dora's &ase: Freud3 Hysteria and Feminism 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<. 5&. K. Be#hani#, H=he Con#e't of 3llness Beha"iour,H 2ournal of &hronic Disease $; 9$%:5<: $>%0$%?. 5?. ,or e/#ellent #ross0#ultural #om'arati"e a##ounts, see -. Kleinman, atients and Healers in the &onte#t of &ulture: $n 1#ploration of the Borderline bet%een $nthropology3 !edicine3 and sychiatry 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>*<J idem, "ocial /rigins of Distress and Disease: Depression3 ,eurasthenia3 and ain in !odern &hina 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<J idem and B. Good, eds., &ulture and Depression: "tudies in the $nthropology and &ross*&ultural sychiatry of $ffect and Disorder 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>;<. 5;. ,or some a##ounts of these 'ressures 7i#torian ideals e/erted, see Lalter Houghton, Er., The 7ictorian Frame of !ind 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%;C<J Eri# Sigsworth, ed., 'n "earch of 7ictorian 7alues 9Ban#hester: Ban#hester !ni"ersity Press, $%>><J Bartin Liener, -econstructing the &riminal: &ulture3 4a% and olicy in 1ngland3 MO[Q*MRMS 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<. ,or further instan#es see H. Bartineau, 4ife in the "ic(*-oom: 1ssays by an 'nvalid , 5d ed. 9London: Bo/on, $>;?<J idem, $utobiography , 5 "ols. 9London: 7irago, $%>&J $st ed., $>CC<. 5:. -mong the mass of e/#ellent re#ent feminist s#holarshi', see, for instan#e, Eoan Ea#o)s Brum)erg, Fasting Girls: The 1mergence of $nore#ia ,ervosa as a !odern Disease 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J Lynne Dead, !yths of "e#uality: -epresentations of )omen in 7ictorian Britain 9@/ford: Basil Bla# well, $%>><J Cynthia Eagle Russett, "e#ual "cience: The 7ictorian &onstruction of )omanhood 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. 5C. Shorter, HParalysisHJ Elaine Showalter, The Female !alady: )omen3 !adness and 1nglish &ulture3 MO[Q*MROQ 9London: 7irago, $%>C<J and see o'. #it. 9ref. $C<. -gainst feminists who #laim that hysteria is an effe#ti"e form of re)ellion, Showalter effe#ti"ely #ounterargues for the self0"i#timi6ation thesis. See 8also -nn Kaily, )hy )omen Fail 9London: Lildwood House, $%C%<J idem, The !orbid "trea( 9London: Lildwood House, $%C><. ,or shellsho# see Bartin Stone, HShellsho# ,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. L. ,. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Bi#hael She'herd, "ol. 5 9London: Routledge, $%>;<, 5?505C$J Edward B. Brown, HBetween Cowardi#e and 3nsanity: Shell Sho# and the Legitimation of the Deuroses in Great Britain,H "cience3 Technology and the !ilitary $5, 9$%>><: &5&0&?;. 5>. Gilman, Disease and -epresentation , "alua)ly indi#ates the so#io#ultural fa#tors )ehind so many re'resentations of illness. 5%. @n Bri4uet8s syndrome see Bauri#e Kongier, HBri4uet and Bri4uet8s Syndrome 7iewed from ,ran#e,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9@#to)er $%>&<: ?550?5C. See also E. Ba)ins i and E. ,roment, Hysteria or ithiatism and -efle# ,ervous Disorders in the ,eurology of )ar 9London: !ni"ersity of London Press, $%$><. &*. Harold Bers ey, HHysteria: =he History of an 3dea,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?5>0?&&J idem, H3m'ortan#e of Hysteria.H &$. -nd see also Helen King, H,rom Parthenos to Gyne: =he Kynami#s of CategoryH 9Ph.K., !ni"ersity of London, $%>;<, and Eames Palis, E. Rosso'oulos, and L.0C. =riar ou, H=he Hi''o#rati# Con#e't of Hysteria: - =ranslation of the @riginal =e/ts,H 'ntegrative sychiatry & 9$%>;<: 55:055>. Com'are -. Rousselle, orneia: /n Desire and the Body in $nti:uity 9@/ford: Basil Bla# well, $%>><. &5. 9Hysteria has always e/isted, in all 'la#es and in all times.< Suoted in E. =rillat, Histoire de l'HystArie 9Paris: Seghers, $%>:<, 5C5.

&&. E.0B. Char#ot and P. Ri#her, 4es DAmonia:ues dans l'art 9Paris: Kelahaye and Le#rosnier, $>>C<J E. Carroy0=hirard, HPossession, E/tase, HystFrie au Z3Z siG#le,H sychanalyse a l'UniversitA 9$%>*<, ?%%0 ;$;J idem, 4e !al de !or.ine: De la ossession a l'hystArie 9Paris: Soin, $%>$<J see also E. Ke"lin, The "uperstitious !ind: French easants and the "upernatural in the ,ineteenth &entury 9London: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<J Ean Goldstein, &onsole and &lassify: The French sychiatric rofession in the ,ineteenth &entury 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<J idem, H=he Hysteria Kiagnosis and the Politi#s of -nti#leri#alism in Late Dineteenth Century ,ran#e,H 2ournal of !odern History ;? 9$%>5<: 5*%05&%J Catherine0Lauren#e Baire, 4es osedAes de !or.ine MOJN*MON[ 9Lyons: Presses !ni"ersitaires de Lyons, $%>$<J G. H. Glaser, HE'ile'sy, Hysteria and 8Possession8J Histori#al Essay,H 2ournal of ,ervous and !ental Disease $:: 9$%C><: 5:>05C?J on the underlying medi#al 'oliti#s, see Ea# K. Ellis, The hysician*4egislators of France: !edicine and olitics in the 1arly Third -epublic3 MONQ*MRMS 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<J Bernard Brais, H=he Ba ing of a ,amous Dineteenth Century Deurologist: Eean0Bartin Char#ot 9$>5;0$>%&<,H B. Phil. thesis, !ni"ersity College, London, $%%*. &?. =he foundational te/t for this reading is G. Pil)oorg, The !edical !an and the )itch During the -enaissance 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%&;<J and more generally, idem, $ History of !edical sychology 9Dew .or : Dorton, $%?C<. =he self0"alidating as'e#ts of this 'loy ha"e )een e/'lored )y =. S6as6, The !yth of !ental 'llness 9Dew .or : Paladin, $%:$<. &;. See the dis#ussion in Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy,H 55:. &:. 3. 7eith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%:;<. 7eith8s )oo is assessed in Harold Bers ey, HHysteria: =he History of a Kisease: 3l6a 7eith,H British 2ournal of sychiatry $?C 9$%>;<: ;C:0;C%, and in Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy,H 55&05:$. Elaine Showalter offers in #ha'. ? a more sym'atheti# a''raisal of 7eith and her wor , in #onte/t of the ideologi#al #onstraints sha'ing her stan#e, all a)undantly #lear from 7eith8s auto)iogra'hy, &an 9ou Hear the &lapping of /ne Hand N 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>><. =he following 'ages should )e read alongside Elaine Showalter8s more 'ersonal assessment of 7eith )elow, whi#h sym'atheti#ally and #on"in#ingly re#onstru#ts 7eith8s study from a )iogra'hi#al "iew'oint. =he aim of my dis#ussion is rather different: it is to show the in)uilt historiogra'hi#al )iases resulting from un#riti#ally a##e'ted ,reudian 'ers'e#ti"es. &C. =his #hara#teri6ation of the Biddle -ges is re"ealed as #om'lete #ari#ature in Helen King8s essay in #ha'. $, and in Ea#4uart and =homasset8s "e#uality and !edicine in the !iddle $ges , $C&ff. &>. 7eith, Hysteria , $;:, $;C, $>&. &%. E. Breuer and S. ,reud, "tudies on Hysteria , in The "tandard 1dition of the &omplete )or(s of "igmund Freud , ed. E. Stra#hey et al., "ol. & 9London: Hogarth Press, $%;%<, >:. ?*. 7eith, Hysteria , "iii. ?$. 3)id., $%%. ?*. 7eith, Hysteria , "iii. ?$. 3)id., $%%. ?5. Carter, athology and Treatment of Hysteria J -. Kane and E. Carlson, H- Kifferent Krummer: Ro)ert B. Carter on Dineteenth Century Hysteria,H Bulletin of the ,e% 9or( $cademy of !edicine ;> 9$%>5<: ;$%0;&?. ?&. ,or a sam'le see Bernheimer and Kahane, 'n Dora's &ase J E. Gallo', The Daughter's "eduction: Feminism and sychoanalysis 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<J Kianne Hunter,

HHysteria, Psy#hoanalysis, and ,eminism: =he Case of -nna @.,H Feminist "tudies % 9$%>&<: ?:?0?>>J Showalter, Female !alady J E. B. Basson, The $ssault on Truth: Freud's "uppression of the "eduction Theory 9London: ,a)er, $%>?J Harmondsworth, Biddlese/: Penguin, $%>;<J idem, $ Dar( "cience: )omen3 "e#uality and sychiatry in the ,ineteenth &entury 9Dew .or : ,arrar, Straus U Girou/, $%>:<J B. Rosen)aum and B. Buroff, eds., $nna /: Fourteen &ontemporary -einterpretations 9Dew .or : ,ree Press, $%>?<. ,or ,reud and the wit#h0hunters, see E. B. Basson, ed., The &omplete 4etters of "igmund Freud to )ilhelm Fliess3 MOON*MRQS 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<, 55;. ??. 7eith, Hysteria , "ii. ?;. 7eith doles out do6ens of a##olades and )ri# )ats. See, for instan#e, the Iudgment on ParF, that his Hreturn to the an#ient "iews on hysteria, though seemingly a regression, was a#tually a s#ientifi# ad"an#eH: 7eith, Hysteria , $$:J or the "iew that Eorden showed He/traordinary 'er#e'ti"enessH )e#ause he re#ogni6ed the role of mental 'assions 9$5&<J li ewise the Hsur'risingly #ontem'orary o"ertonesH of Burton8s H)lunt assertion of the e"ils of enfor#ed se/ual a)stinen#eH 9$5C<. ?:. S6as6, !yth of !ental 'llness . 3f S6as68s 'oint is well ta en, the short#oming of his "iew, howe"er, is that he has nothing to say a)out 're0,reudian a##ounts of hysteria. ?C. 3)id.J also rele"ant are idem, The !anufacture of !adness 9Dew .or : Kell Pu)lishing Co., $%C*<. ?:. S6as6, !yth of !ental 'llness . 3f S6as68s 'oint is well ta en, the short#oming of his "iew, howe"er, is that he has nothing to say a)out 're0,reudian a##ounts of hysteria. ?C. 3)id.J also rele"ant are idem, The !anufacture of !adness 9Dew .or : Kell Pu)lishing Co., $%C*<. ?>. S6as6, !yth of !ental 'llness , $**. ?%. 3)id., :;. ?>. S6as6, !yth of !ental 'llness , $**. ?%. 3)id., :;. ;*. E. Gellner, The sychoanalytic !ovement 9London: Paladin, $%>;<J -. C. Ba#intyre, The Unconscious 9London: Routledge, $%;><. ;$. ,or su#h 'sy#hologi#al 'i#toriali6ation, see Graham Ri#hards, /n sychological 4anguage 9London: Routledge, $%>%<. ;5. S6as6, !yth of !ental 'llness , $%. ,or instan#e, the hysteri# )eha"es in a womanly way 9)eing ultra wea < to a"oid fulfilling womanly fun#tions 9e.g., ha"ing se/, ha"ing )a)ies, ee'ing house<. ;&. 3)id. ;5. S6as6, !yth of !ental 'llness , $%. ,or instan#e, the hysteri# )eha"es in a womanly way 9)eing ultra wea < to a"oid fulfilling womanly fun#tions 9e.g., ha"ing se/, ha"ing )a)ies, ee'ing house<. ;&. 3)id. ;?. =he rigidity, ar)itrariness, and ahistori#ity of S6as68s "iew of disease are well analy6ed in Peter Sedgwi# , sychopolitics 9London: Pluto PressJ Dew .or : Har'er U Row, $%>5<. ;;. Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy,H 9'art $<, 55&05:$J 9'art 5<, &$%0&;*. ;:. Points well made in Ludmilla Eordano"a, "e#ual 7isions: 'mages of Gender in "cience and !edicine bet%een the 1ighteenth and T%entieth &enturies 9Hemel Hem'stead: Har"ester Lheatsheaf, $%>%<.

;C. See 3an Ha# ing, The Taming of &hance 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<J G. Canguilhem, /n the ,ormal and the athological 9Kordre#ht: K. Reidel, $%C><. ;>. E. Goldstein, H=he Hysteria Kiagnosis and the Politi#s of -nti#leri#alism in Late Dineteenth Century ,ran#e,H 2ournal of !odern History ;? 9$%>5<: 5*%05&%. ;%. ,or #lassi# #om'laints a)out the as#ientifi#ity of ,reud, see K. R. Po''er, The /pen "ociety and 'ts 1nemies 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%C$<J H. E. Eysen# , The Decline and Fall of the Freudian 1mpire 9Harmondsworth: 7i ing, $%>;<J E. Gellner, The sychoanalytic !ovement 9London: Paladin, $%>;<. :*. E/#ellent and #ontrasting dis#ussions are offered in ,. Sulloway, Freud: Biologist of the !ind 9Dew .or : Basi# Boo s, $%C%<J Lilliam E. B#Grath, Freud's Discovery of sychoanalysis: The olitics of Hysteria 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<J 3sa)el ,. Knight, H,reud8s ro;ect : - =heory for "tudies on Hysteria3= 2ournal of the History of the Behavioral "ciences 5* 9$%>?<: &?*0&;>J B. B. Ru)instein, H,reud8s Early =heories of Hysteria,H in hysics3 hilosophy and sychoanalysis: 1ssays in Honor of $dolf GrEnbaum , ed. R. S. Cohen and L. Laudan 9Kordre#ht: K. Reidel, $%>&<, $:%0$%*. :$. Hannah Ke# er, Freud in Germany: -evolution and -eaction in "cience3 MOO[*MRQN 9Dew .or : !ni"ersity Press 3nternational, $%CC<. :5. See S. Bar#us, Freud and the &ulture of sychoanalysis 9Boston: -llen U !nwin, $%>?<. :&. H. =. Ellen)erger, The Discovery of the Unconscious 9London: -llen Lane, $%C*<J L. L. Lhyte, The Unconscious Before Freud 9Dew .or : Kou)leday, $%:5<. :?. See B. ,ou#ault, Discipline and unish 9Harmondsworth: Penguin, $%C%<J =heodor =. -dorno and Ba/ Hor heimer, Dialectic of 1nlightenment 9Dew .or : Herder U Herder, $%C5<J D. Elias, The &ivili.ing rocess 9@/ford: Basil Bla# well, $%>&<J and dis#ussion in Korinda @utram, The Body and the French -evolution: "e#3 &lass and olitical &ulture 9Dew Ha"en and London: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<, and Roy Porter, HBody Politi#s: -''roa#hes to the Cultural History of the Body,H in ,e% erspectives on Historical )ritings , ed. P. Bur e 9Cam)ridge: Polity Press, $%%$<. :;. ,or histories of mind()ody do#trines, see E. .olton, Thin(ing !atter: !aterialism in 1ighteenth &entury Britain 9Binnea'olis: !ni"ersity of Binnesota Press, $%>&<J G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter, H3ntrodu#tion: =oward a Datural History of Bind and Body,H in The 4anguages of syche: !ind and Body in 1nlightenment Thought , ed. G. S. Rousseau 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%%*<, &0??J B. S. =urner, The Body and "ociety: 1#plorations in "ocial Theory 9@/ford and Dew .or : Basil Bla# well, $%>?<. Criti4ues of mind()ody dualism are offered in ,. Bar er, The Tremulous rivate Body 9London: Bethuen, $%>?<J B. Berman, The -e*enchantment of the )orld 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>$<. ,or the Bla ean 4uotation, see Roy Porter, !ind Forg'd !anacles: $ History of !adness from the -estoration to the -egency 9London: -thlone, $%>C<. ::. =here is a hostile a##ount of ,reud8s hostility to religion in D. 3s)ister, Freud: $n 'ntroduction to H'" 4ife and )or( 9Cam)ridge: Polity Press, $%>;<J see also Dorman @. Brown, 4ife and $gainst Death: The sychoanalytical !eaning of History 9London: Routledge U Kegan Paul, $%;C<. :C. Hen#e orthodo/ ,reudianism8s dismissal of Lilhelm ,liess8s or Lilhelm Rei#h8s )iologism. :>. Peter Gay, Freud: $ 4ife for /ur Time 9London: Kent, $%>><. =he non0)elie"er in 'sy#hoanalysis might o)ser"e that ,reud su)stituted the 'sy#hoanalyti# 'riesthood for the Christian. :%. P. Lain Entralgo, !ind and Body 9London: Har"ill, $%;;<J for a good a##ount of medi#ine8s meta'hysi#s, see Lester S. King, The hilosophy of !edicine: The 1arly 1ighteenth &entury

9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%C><. @n the ProIe#t see 3sa)el Knight, H,reud8s ro;ect : - =heory for "tudies on Hysteria3= 2ournal of the History of the Behavioral "ciences 5* 9$%>?<: &?*0&;>. C*. E. L. Griggs, ed., &ollected 4etters of "amuel Taylor &oleridge $ 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%;:<, 5;:: Coleridge to Charles Lloyd, Sr., $? Do"em)er $C%:J for dis#ussion see Roy Porter, HBarely =ou#hing: - So#ial Pers'e#ti"e on Bind and Body,H in 4anguages of syche , ed. Rousseau, ?;0>*. C$. S6as6, !yth of !ental 'llness , >*ff. C5. ,. Bottomley, $ttitudes to the Body in )estern &hristendom 9London: Le'us Boo s, $%C%<J Peter Brown, The Body and "ociety: !en3 )omen and "e#ual -enunciation in 1arly &hristianity 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>><. C&. @f #ourse, there is also a long history of attem'ts, from )oth sides, to deny the other, e.g., Ber eleyan immaterialism or the ind of dogmati# medi#al materialism de"elo'ed from the time of La Bettrie, trying to 'ro"e that #ons#iousness is either a #om'lete delusion or at most e'i'henomenal. See Roy Porter, HBedi#ine in the Enlightenment,H in 'nventing Human "cience , ed. C. ,o/ and R. Porter 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%%?<. =he 'oint is, as 3 go on to show, that su#h arguments ha"e largely remained marginal rather than mainstream. C?. B. Clar , H8Bor)id 3ntros'e#tion,8 !nsoundness of Bind, and British Psy#hologi#al Bedi#ine, #. $>&*0$%**,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. L. ,. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Bi#hael She'herd, 7ol. 333 9London: Routledge, $%>><, C$0$*$J idem, H=he ReIe#tion of Psy#hologi#al -''roa#hes to Bental Kisorder in Late Dineteenth Century British Psy#hiatry,H in !adhouses3 !ad*Doctors and !admen , ed. -. S#ull 9London: -thlone, $%>$<, 5C$0&$5J L. ,. Bynum, H=he Der"ous Patient in Eighteenth and Dineteenth Century Britain: =he Psy#hiatri# @rigins of British Deurology,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, 7ol. 3 9London: =a"isto# , $%>;<, >%0$*5J more generally see B. Haley, The Healthy Body and 7ictorian &ulture 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%C><J Bartin Liener, -econstructing the &riminal: &ulture3 4a% and olicy in 1ngland3 MO[Q*MRMS 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<, $:>f.J Charles E. Rosen)erg, HBody and Bind in Dineteenth0Century Bedi#ine: Some Clini#al @rigins of the Deurosis Contro"ersy,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine :& 9$%>%<: $>;0$%C. C;. B. H. Di#olson and G. S. Rousseau, HBisho' Ber eley and =ar Later,H in The $ugustan !ilieu: 1ssays resented to 4ouis $. 4anda , ed. H. K. Biller 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%C*<, $*50$&CJ Barina BenIamin, HBedi#ine, Borality and the Politi#s of Ber eley8s =ar0Later,H in The !edical 1nlightenment of the 1ighteenth &entury , ed. -ndrew Cunningham and Roger ,ren#h 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<, $:;0$%&. C:. =he "ery #om'le/ inter'lay of mind and )ody in medi#al thera'euti#s is s'lendidly )rought out in Rosen)erg, HBody and Bind in Dineteenth0Century Bedi#ine,H $>;0$%C. CC. =homas Lillis, 1ssay of the athology of the Brain 9$:>?<, :%, 4uoted )y 7eith, Hysteria , $&?. C>. L. Bu#han, Domestic !edicine3 or a Treatise on the revention and &ure of Diseases by -egimen and "imple !edicines 9Edin)urgh: Bayou, -uld, U Smellie, $C:%<, ;:$. C%. =he dis#ussion in HBourgeois Hysteria and the Carni"ales4ue,H )y Peter Stally)rass and -llon Lhite, in The olitics and oetics of Transgression 9London: Bethuen, $%>:<, $C$0$%*, is highly rele"ant. =hey argue that #i"ili6ation8s need to re'ress the #arni"ales4ue 'rodu#ed a return of the re'ressed in hysteria. =hus hysteria was a mo# ery of offi#ial mind()ody relations. >*. See Rousseau and Porter, H3ntrodu#tion,H in 4anguages of syche , ed. Rousseau, &0??.

>$. ,eminist historians ha"e 'lausi)ly argued that late nineteenth0#entury female hysteri#s, su#h as H-nna @H or Charlotte Per ins Gilman, 'ossessed )etter insight into their #ondition than the do#tors who treated them. See a)o"e, n. ?&J and Bary -. Hill, &harlotte er(ins Gilman: The !a(ing of a -adical Feminist3 MOPQ*MORP 9Philadel'hia: =em'le !ni"ersity Press, $%>*<. >5. ,or hysteria in the limelight see Ruth Harris, HBelodrama, Hysteria and ,eminine Crimes of Passion in the ,in0de0SiG#le,H History )or(shop 5; 9S'ring, $%>><, &$0:&J idem, HBurder under Hy'nosis in the Case of Ga)rielle Bom'ard: Psy#hiatry in the Courtroom in Belle E'o4ue ,ran#e,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, 7ol. 33, $%C05?$J E. Guillais, &rimes of assion 9Cam)ridge: Polity Press, $%>%<J G. Kidi0Hu)erman, 'nvention de l'HystArie: &harcot et l''conographie hotographi:ue 9Paris: Ba#ula, $%>5<. >&. Carter, athology and Treatment of Hysteria , $;%f. @n mass hysteria see Bos#o"i#i, $ge des Foules J Ro)ert Dye, &rime3 !adness and olitics in !odern France 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%>?<. >?. Eliot Slater, HLhat 3s HysteriaNH in Hysteria , ed. -. Roy 9Chi#hester: Eohn Liley, $%>5<, &C0?*, es'. '. ?*. >;. Berman, -e*enchantment of the )orld , and #lassi#ally =heodor =. -dorno and Ba/ Hor heimer, Dialectic of 1nlightenment 9Dew .or : Herder U Herder, $%C5<. ,or a more )alan#ed "iew of Kes#artes8s im'a#t, see =. Brown, HKes#artes, Kualism and Psy#hosomati# Bedi#ine,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, 5:?*0:5J R. B. Carter, Descartes's !edical hilosophy 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<. >:. Here see Eohn Bullan, HHy'o#hondria and Hysteria: Sensi)ility and the Physi#ians,H The 1ighteenth &entury: Theory and 'nterpretation 5; 9$%>?<: $?$0$C?J H. Bayer, /utsiders: $ "tudy in 4ife and 4etters 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: B3= Press, $%>?<. >C. P. B. S'a# s, The Female 'magination 9Dew .or : Kno'f, $%C;<J idem, 'magining a "elf: $utobiography and ,ovel in 1ighteenth &entury 1ngland 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%C:<J K. @. Lyons, The 'nvention of the "elf 9Car)ondale: Southern 3llinois !ni"ersity PressJ London: ,effer U Simons, $%C><J Eanet =odd, "ensibility: $n 'ntroduction 9London: Bethuen, $%>:<J and, for ner"es, see es'e#ially G. S. Rousseau, H=he Language of the Der"es: - Cha'ter in So#ial and Linguisti# History,H in 4anguage3 "elf and "ociety: The "ocial History of 4anguage , ed. P. Bur e and R. Porter 9Cam)ridge: Polity Press, $%%$<, 5$&05C;J and Roy Porter, H8E/'ressing .ourself 3ll8: =he Language of Si# ness in Georgian England,H in 4anguage3 "elf and "ociety , ed. Bur e and Porter, 5C:0 5%%. >>. B. ,aul ner, /bservations on the General and 'mproper Treatment of 'nsanity 9London: H. Reynell, $C>%<, '. $J ,aul ner added that it had Hgi"en )irth to endless #onIe#ture, and 'er'etual error.H See also L. ,al#oner, $ Dissertation on the 'nfluence of the assions Upon Disorders of the Body 9London: C. Killy, $C>><J E. Haygarth, /f the 'magination3 as a &ause and as a &ure of Disorders of the Body 9Bath: Cadell U Ka"ies, $>**<. >%. Di#holas Eewson, H=he Kisa''earan#e of the Si# Ban from Bedi#al Cosmology $CC*0$>C*,H "ociology $* 9$%C:<: 55;05??J idem, HBedi#al Knowledge and the Patronage System in Eighteenth Century England,H "ociology > 9$%C?<: &:%0&>;J K. Porter and R. Porter, atient's rogress . %*. Lilliam He)erden, !edical &ommentaries 9London: =. Payne, $>*5<, 55C. %$. 3)id., 55;. %5. 3)id., 5&;. He)erden did insist, howe"er, that Htheir for#e will )e "ery different, a##ording to the 'atient8s #hoosing to indulge and gi"e way to them.H

%*. Lilliam He)erden, !edical &ommentaries 9London: =. Payne, $>*5<, 55C. %$. 3)id., 55;. %5. 3)id., 5&;. He)erden did insist, howe"er, that Htheir for#e will )e "ery different, a##ording to the 'atient8s #hoosing to indulge and gi"e way to them.H %*. Lilliam He)erden, !edical &ommentaries 9London: =. Payne, $>*5<, 55C. %$. 3)id., 55;. %5. 3)id., 5&;. He)erden did insist, howe"er, that Htheir for#e will )e "ery different, a##ording to the 'atient8s #hoosing to indulge and gi"e way to them.H %&. Sir Ri#hard Bla# more, $ Treatise of the "pleen and 7apours< or3 Hypochondriacal and Hysterical $ffections 9London: Pem)erton, $C5;<, 4uoted in Ri#hard Hunter and 3da Ba#al'ine, Three Hundred 9ears of sychiatry: MJ[J*MOPQ 9London: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%:&<, &5*. %?. Bar)ara Si#herman, H=he !ses of a Kiagnosis: Ko#tors, Patients and Deurasthenia,H 2ournal of the History of !edicine and $llied "ciences &5 9$%CC<: &&0;?. %;. See L. ,. Bynum, HRationales for =hera'y in British Psy#hiatry: $C>*0$>&;,H !edical History $> 9$%C?<: &5C0&&?J idem, H=he Der"ous Patient in Eighteenth and Dineteenth Century England: =he Psy#hiatri# @rigins of British Deurology,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, $:>%0$*5J Bonnie Ellen Blustein, H8- Hollow S4uare of Psy#hologi#al S#ien#e8: -meri#an Deurologists and Psy#hiatrists in Confli#t,H in !adhouses3 !ad*doctors and !admen , ed. -. S#ull 9London: -thlone, $%>$<, 5?$05C*J B. Clar , H8Bor)id 3ntros'e#tion,8 !nsoundness of Bind, and British Psy#hologi#al Bedi#ine, #. $>&*0$%**,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd &:C$0$*$J B. Clar , H=he ReIe#tion of Psy#hologi#al -''roa#hes to Bental Kisorder in Late Dineteenth Century British Psy#hiatry88 in !adhouses3 !ad*Doctors and !admen , ed. S#ull, 5C$0&$5. ,or =issot see -ntoinette Em#h0KFria6, To%ards a "ocial &onception of Health in the "econd Half of the 1ighteenth &entury: Tissot XMNKO*MNRNY and the ,e% reoccupation %ith Health and )ell*Being 9-nn -r)or, Bi#h.: !ni"ersity Bi#rofilms 3nternational, $%>?<. %:. Suoted in -ndrew S#ull, !ental DisorderV"ocial Disorder 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>%<, 5C;. %C. Gosling, Before Freud . @f #ourse, it was women who dis'ro'ortionately underwent the rest0#ure hysteria treatments meted out in these #lini#s. Some, su#h as Charlotte Per ins Gilman, who was treated )y Silas Leir Bit#hell, and 7irginia Loolf, re)elled against what they #onsidered to )e demeaning and #ounter'rodu#ti"e thera'euti#s. Elsewhere in this )oo , Elaine Showalter e/'lains the 'owerful so#ial, #ultural, and medi#al for#es that 'arti#ularly e/'osed women to su#h treatments. See Hill, &harlotte er(ins Gilman J Su6anne Poirier, H=he Leir0Bit#hell Rest Cure: Ko#tors and Patients,H )omen's "tudies $* 9$%>&<: $;0?*J R. K. Lalter, ". )eir !itchell3 !D3 ,eurologist: $ !edical Biography 9S'ringfield, 3ll.: =homas, $%C*<. %>. Gosling, Before Freud J -. Ra)in)a#h, H=he Body without ,atigue: - Dineteenth Century !to'ia,H in olitical "ymbolism in !odern 1urope: 1ssays in Honor of George 4. !osse , ed. S. Kres#her, K. Sa)ean, and -. Sharlin 9London: =ransa#tion Boo s, $%>5<, ?50:5J Shorter, HParalysis,H ;?%0;>5J idem, HBania, Hysteria, and Gender in Lower -ustria,H &0&5J Clifford Beers, $ !ind That Found 'tself 9Pitts)urgh: !ni"ersity of Pitts)urgh Press, $%>$J $%*><J Dorman Kain, &lifford ). Beers: $dvocate for the 'nsane 9Pitts)urgh: !ni"ersity of Pitts)urgh Press, $%>*<J George Beard, $ ractical Treatise on ,ervous 1#haustion X,eurasthenia < 9$>>*<J idem, $merican ,ervousness: 'ts &auses and &onse:uences 9Dew .or : Putnam, $>>$<J Charles Rosen)erg, H=he Pla#e of George B. Beard in Dineteenth Century Psy#hiatry,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine &: 9$%:5<: 5?;05;%J S. Leir

Bit#hell, Doctor and atient 9Philadel'hia: Li''in#ott, $>>><J idem, 4ectures on the Diseases of the ,ervous "ystem3 1specially in )omen 9Philadel'hia: Lea, $>>$<J idem, Doctor and atient 9Philadel'hia: Li''in#ott, $>>><J idem, Fat and Blood: $n 1ssay on the Treatment of &ertain Forms of ,eurasthenia and Hysteria 9Philadel'hia: Li''in#ott, $>CC<J Kenneth Le"in, HS. Leir Bit#hell: 3n"estigations and 3nsights into Deurasthenia and Hysteria,H Transactions and "tudies of the &ollege of hysicians of hiladelphia &> 9$%C$<: $:>0$C&. %%. - 'arti#ular worry of Baudsley8s: =re"or =urner, HHenry Baudsley: Psy#hiatrist, Philoso'her and Entre'reneur,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, &:$;$0$>%. $**. ,or Bill and Carlyle, see Bar)ara =. Gates, 7ictorian "uicide: !ad &rimes and "ad Histories 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%>><, and B. Haley, The Healthy Body in 7ictorian &ulture 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%C><J Eohn B. Ro)son and Ea# Stillinger, eds., $utobiography and 4iterary 1ssays by 2ohn "tuart !ill 9=oronto: !ni"ersity of =oronto Press, $%>$<: &ollected )or(s of 2ohn "tuart !ill , "ol. $. 3t has often )een noted that hysteria #ases were ne"er 'rominent in England. Las this )e#ause well0)red young 'eo'le were trained against intros'e#tion and in ha)its of healthy0minded out0goingnessN ,or some su''ort for this "iew, see B. Eeanne Peterson, Family3 4ove and )or( in the 4ives of 7ictorian Gentle%omen 9Bloomington: 3ndiana !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. $*$. 7eith, Hysteria , 5$5055*. 7eith 'ro#eeds on the ,reudian assum'tion that su#h women were suffering from se/ual frustration. But why should we assume thisN ,or one thing, it might )e argued, 'er #ontra, that su#h 'atients were 'leased to go on rest #ure )e#ause it offered an escape from se/ual demands. ,or another, as Peter Gay has #ontended, our "ision of the frustrated, se/0star"ed 7i#torian women may )e mythi#al. See Carl H. Kegler, HLhat @ught to Be and Lhat Las: Lomen8s Se/uality in the Dineteenth Century,H The $merican Historical -evie% C% 9$%C?<: $?:C0$?%*J P. Gay, The Bourgeois 1#perience3 7ictoria to Freud : "ol. $, The 1ducation of the "enses J "ol. 5, The Tender assion 9Dew .or : @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>? and $%>:<. $*5. Be"an Lewis, $ Te#tboo( of !ental Diseases 9London: Griffin, $>>%<, $?&. $*&. B. Clar , H8Bor)id 3ntros'e#tion,8 !nsoundness of Bind, and British Psy#hologi#al Bedi#ine, #. $>&*0$%**,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, &:C$0$*$J -. D. Gil)ert, HBastur)ation and 3nsanity: Henry Baudsley and the 3deology of Se/ual Re'ression,H $lbion $5 9$%>*<: 5:>05>5. ,or an e/em'lary sour#e, see K. Ha# =u e, 'llustrations of the 'nfluence of the !ind upon the Body in Health and Disease3 Designed to 1lucidate the $ction of the 'magination 9London: Chur#hill, $>C5<. $*?. Henry Baudsley, Body and !ind 9London: Ba#millan U Co., $>C&<, C%0>*. $*;. 3)id. $*?. Henry Baudsley, Body and !ind 9London: Ba#millan U Co., $>C&<, C%0>*. $*;. 3)id. $*:. @n Loolf see Roger Poole, The Un(no%n 7irginia )oolf 9Brighton: Har"ester Press, $%>5<J Ste'hen =rom)ley, H $ll That "ummer "he )as !ad=: 7irginia )oolf 9London: Eun#tion Boo s, $%>$<J Elaine Showalter, The Female !alady 9Dew .or : Pantheon, $%>:<J Eli6a)eth -)el, 7irginia )oolf and the Fictions of sychoanalysis 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%%*<. $*C. Eean0Bartin Char#ot, &harcot the &linician: The Tuesday 4essons: 1#cerpts from ,ine &ase resentations on General ,eurology Delivered at the "alpBtriCre Hospital in MOON*OO , translation and #ommentary )y Christo'her G. Goet6 9Dew .or : Ra"en Press, $%>C<.

$*>. Lell em'hasi6ed in Bartin Liener, -econstructing the &riminal: &ulture3 4a% and olicy in 1ngland3 MO[Q*MRMS 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<, ?*f. $*%. B. Pra6, The -omantic $gony 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%&&<J B. Poo"ey, Uneven Developments: The 'deological )or( of Gender in !id*7ictorian 1ngland 9London: 7irago, $%>%<. $$*. Bram KiI stra, 'dols of erversity: Fantasies of Feminine 1vil in Fin de "iCcle &ulture 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<. $$$. Peterson8s Family3 4ove and )or( in the 4ives of 7ictorian Gentle%omen has warned us not to e4uate ad"i#e for women with a#tual women8s li"es, reminding us that many women es#a'ed, or #o'ed 'erfe#tly ha''ily with these 'ressures. $$5. ,or women as defined )y 7i#torian s#ien#e and so#iety see Cynthia Eagle Russett, "e#ual "cience: The 7ictorian &onstruction of )omanhood 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. $$&. See most re#ently @rnella Bos#u##i, The "cience of )oman: Gynaecology and Gender in 1ngland3 MOQQ*MRKR 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<J Londa S#hie)inger, The !ind Has ,o "e#0 )omen in the /rigins of !odern "cience 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J Lynne Dead, !yths of "e#uality: -epresentations of )omen in 7ictorian Britain 9@/ford: Basil Bla# well, $%>><J =homas La4ueur, !a(ing "e#: Body and Gender from the Gree(s to Freud 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<. $$?. =here is a disa''ointing la# of studies of the wider so#ial signifi#an#e of the nineteenth0#entury re"olution in medi#ine. See howe"er B. Eeanne Peterson, The !edical rofession in !id*7ictorian 4ondon 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%C><J -. E. .oungson, The "cientific -evolution in 7ictorian !edicine 9London: Croom Helm, $%C%<. =his situation will )e re#tified )y the forth#oming wor )y L. ,. Bynum, Basic "cience and &linical !edicine in ,ineteenth &entury "ociety 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%?<. Bi#hel ,ou#ault, The Birth of the &linic , trans. -. B. Sheridan Smith 9London: =a"isto# , $%C&<, is highly suggesti"e. $$;. ,or the de"elo'ment of these 'rofessional s'e#ialties see, for instan#e, E. Les y, The 7ienna !edical "chool of the ,ineteenth &entury 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%C:<J R. Baulit6, !orbid $ppearances: The $natomy of athology in the 1arly ,ineteenth &entury 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<J L. S. Ea#yna, HSomati# =heories of Bind and the 3nterests of Bedi#ine in Britain, $>;*0$>C%,H !edical History 5: 9$%>5<: 5&&05;>J E. Clar e and L. S. Ea#yna, ,ineteenth &entury /rigins of ,euroscientific &oncepts 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>C<J -. S#ull, "ocial /rderV!ental Disorder: $nglo*$merican sychiatry in Historical erspective 9London: Rout0ledge, $%>%<, es'. H,rom Badness to Bental 3llness: Bedi#al Ben as Boral Entre'reneurs,H $$>0$:$J Constan#e B. B#Go"ern, !asters of !adness: "ocial /rigins of the $merican sychiatric rofession 9Hano"er and London: !ni"ersity Press of Dew England, $%>;<J Bos#u##i, "cience of )oman J B. Latour, The asteuri.ation of France 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>><. $$:. Ea#yna, HSomati# =heories of BindHJ illuminating is L. ,le# , Genesis and Development of a "cientific Fact 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%C%<. $$C. ,ou#ault, Birth of the &linic , trans. S. SmithJ K. -rmstrong, The olitical $natomy of the Body 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>&<J Canguilhem, /n the ,ormal and the athological . $$>. 3an Kow)iggin, HKegeneration and Hereditarianism in ,ren#h Bental Bedi#ine $>?*0$>%*: Psy#hiatri# =heory as 3deologi#al -da'tation,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, $:$>>05&5J Dye, &rime3 !adness and olitics in !odern France .

$$%. Elaine Showalter and English Showalter, H7i#torian Lomen and Benstruation,H 7ictorian "tudies $? 9$%C*<: >&0>%J =homas L. La4ueur, H@rgasm, Generation, and the Politi#s of Re'rodu#ti"e Biology,H in The !a(ing of the !odern Body , ed. C. Gallagher and =. La4ueur 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>C<, $0?$J E. Gas ing, 'nvestigations into Generation3 MPJM*MOKO 9London: Hut#hinson, $%:C<J ,. E. Cole, 1arly Theories of "e#ual Generation 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%&*<. $5*. @n women and differen#e see Ludmilla Eordano"a, "e#ual 7isions: 'mages of Gender in "cience and !edicine Bet%een the 1ighteenth and T%entieth &enturies 9Hemel Hem'stead: Har"ester Lheatsheaf, $%>%<J S. Gilman, Difference and athology 93tha#a and London: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<. $5$. @n this 'athologi6ing of female se/uality, see G. E. Bar er0Benfield, The Horrors of the Half* 5no%n 4ife: !ale $ttitudes to%ards )omen and "e#uality in ,ineteenth &entury $merica 9Dew .or : Har'er, $%C:<J C. Smith0Rosen)erg, H=he Hysteri#al Loman: Se/ Roles and Role Confli#t in Dineteenth Century -meri#a,H "ocial -esearch &% 9$%C5<: :;50:C>J C. Smith0Rosen)erg and C. Rosen)erg, H=he ,emale -nimal: Bedi#al and Biologi#al 7iews of Loman and Her Role in Dineteenth Century -meri#a,H in )omen and Health in $merica: Historical -eadings , ed. E. L. Lea"itt 9Badison: !ni"ersity of Lis#onsin Press, $%>?<, $55CJ Lorna Kuffin, H=he Cons'i#uous Consum'ti"e: Loman as an 3n"alid,88 in Kelamont and L. Kuffin, eds., The ,ineteenth &entury )oman: Her &ultural and hysical )orld , ed. S. Kelamont and L. Kuffin 9London: Croom Helm, $%C><, 5:0;:. $55. =he )est a##ount of the rise of British gyne#ology in the nineteenth #entury is Bos#u##i, "cience of )oman . $5&. Bi#hel ,ou#ault, Histoire de la se#ualitA , "ol. $, 4a volontA de savoir 9Paris: Gallimard, $%C:< 9trans. Ro)ert Hurley, The History of "e#uality: 'ntroduction 1London: -llen Lane, $%C>2<. $5?. Dan#y ,. Cott, HPassionlessness: -n 3nter'retation of 7i#torian Se/ual 3deology,H in )omen and Health in $merica: Historical -eadings , ed. E. L. Lea"itt 9Badison: !ni"ersity of Lis#onsin Press, $%>?<, ;C0:%. $5;. Kis#ussions of "iews su#h as this #an )e found in Smith0Rosen)erg and Rosen)erg, H,emale -nimal,H in )omen and Health in $merica , ed. Lea"itt, $505C. $5:. @n #hlorosis see K. ,iglio, HChlorosis and Chroni# Kisease in Dineteenth0Century Britain: =he So#ial Constitution of Somati# 3llness in a Ca'italist So#iety,H "ocial History & 9$%C><: $:C0$%CJ 3. S. L. Loudon, HChlorosis, -naemia and -nore/ia Der"osa,H British !edical 2ournal 9$%C><, 3, %C?0%CCJ Eoan E. Brum)erg, HChloroti# Girls $>C*0$%5*: - Histori#al Pers'e#ti"e on ,emale -doles#en#e,H in )omen and Health in $merica , ed. Lea"itt, $>:0$%;. $5C. @n mastur)ation see E. H. Hare, HBastur)atory 3nsanity: =he History of an 3dea,H 2ournal of !ental "cience $*> 9$%:5<: $05;J R. H. Ba#Konald, H=he ,rightful Conse4uen#es of @nanism,H 2ournal of the History of 'deas 5> 9$%:C<: ?5&0??$J E. Stengers and -. 7an De# , Histoire d'une Grande eur: 4a !asturbation 9Brussels: !ni"ersity of Brussels Press, $%>?<. $5>. Hysteria was the mimi# disorder. Char#ot s'o e of Hneuromimesis,H Hthis 'ro'erty 'ossessed )y fun#tional diseases of resem)ling organi# onesHJ he dis#ussed the 'ro)lem of HsimulationH as a ind of 88art for its own sa eH 9l8art 'our l8art< done Hwith the idea of ma ing a sensation, to e/#ite 'ity.H E.0B. Char#ot, &linical 4ectures on Diseases of the ,ervous "ystem , trans. =. Sa"ill 9London: Dew Sydenham So#iety, $>>%<, $?. =his has )een re'rinted in the =a"isto# Classi#s in the History of Psy#hiatry series 9London: Routledge, $%%*<, with a fine introdu#tion )y Ruth Harris. $5%. See the stri#tures of Carter: Carter, athology and Treatment of Hysteria 9London: Eohn Chur#hill,

$>;&<, :%. $&*. Baudsley, Body and !ind , :50:?. $&$. Eohn Haslam, &onsiderations on the !oral !anagement of 'nsane ersons 9London: R. Hunter, $>$C<, ?0;. Haslam stressed that this was a matter of e/#lusi"e medi#al Iudgment, for Hof su#h #ir#umstan#es those who are not of the medi#al 'rofession would )e una)le to Iudge.H $&5. George Ban Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity 9London: !nderwood, $>5><, $?:0$?>. $&&. 3)id. See 7ern Bullough and Bartha 7oght, HLomen, Benstruation and Dineteenth Century Bedi#ine,H in )omen and Health in $merica: Historical -eadings , ed. Lea"itt, 5>0&>J E. Kelaney, B. E. Lu'ton, and E. =oth, The &urse: $ &ultural History of !enstruation 9Dew .or : Kutton, $%C:<. ,or #om'ara)le "iews to those of Burrows, see =homas Lay#o# , $n 1ssay on Hysteria 9Philadel'hia: Haswell, $>?*<J idem, $ Treatise on the ,ervous Diseases of )omen: &omprising an 'n:uiry into the ,ature3 &auses and Treatment of "pinal and Hysterical Disorders 9London: Longman, $>?*<J idem, !ind and Brain3 or the &orrelations of &onsciousness and /rgani.ation , 5 "ols. 9Edin)urgh: Sutherland U Kno/, $>:*<J -le/ Leff, H=homas Lay#o# and the Cere)ral Refle/,H History of sychiatry 5 9$%%$<: &>;0?*>. -ll su#h writers )ear out Bi#hael Clar 8s 'oint, that 7i#torian 'sy#hiatrists loo ed to organi# #ausation: B. E. Clar , H=he ReIe#tion of Psy#hologi#al -''roa#hes to Bental Kisorder in Late Dineteenth Century British Psy#hiatry,H in !adhouses3 !ad*Doctors and !admen , ed. S#ull, 5C$0&$5. $&5. George Ban Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity 9London: !nderwood, $>5><, $?:0$?>. $&&. 3)id. See 7ern Bullough and Bartha 7oght, HLomen, Benstruation and Dineteenth Century Bedi#ine,H in )omen and Health in $merica: Historical -eadings , ed. Lea"itt, 5>0&>J E. Kelaney, B. E. Lu'ton, and E. =oth, The &urse: $ &ultural History of !enstruation 9Dew .or : Kutton, $%C:<. ,or #om'ara)le "iews to those of Burrows, see =homas Lay#o# , $n 1ssay on Hysteria 9Philadel'hia: Haswell, $>?*<J idem, $ Treatise on the ,ervous Diseases of )omen: &omprising an 'n:uiry into the ,ature3 &auses and Treatment of "pinal and Hysterical Disorders 9London: Longman, $>?*<J idem, !ind and Brain3 or the &orrelations of &onsciousness and /rgani.ation , 5 "ols. 9Edin)urgh: Sutherland U Kno/, $>:*<J -le/ Leff, H=homas Lay#o# and the Cere)ral Refle/,H History of sychiatry 5 9$%%$<: &>;0?*>. -ll su#h writers )ear out Bi#hael Clar 8s 'oint, that 7i#torian 'sy#hiatrists loo ed to organi# #ausation: B. E. Clar , H=he ReIe#tion of Psy#hologi#al -''roa#hes to Bental Kisorder in Late Dineteenth Century British Psy#hiatry,H in !adhouses3 !ad*Doctors and !admen , ed. S#ull, 5C$0&$5. $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$.

$??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:.

$&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id.

$?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id.

$?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id.

$&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id. $?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $&?. Burrows, &ommentaries on 'nsanity , $?:. $&;. 3)id. $&:. 3)id. $&C. 3)id., $?C. $&>. 3)id. $&%. 3)id. $?*. 3)id.

$?$. 3)id., $?>. $?5. 3)id. $?&. 3)id., $%$. $??. 3)id. $?;. 3)id. $?:. 3)id. De"ertheless, Burrows admitted that Ho##asional hysteria, howe"er, in young and sus#e'ti)le females whose ner"ous systems are always highly irrita)le, may #ertainly o##ur without any su#h sus'i#ion.H $?C. -lfred Baddo# , /n !ental and ,ervous Disorders 9London: Sim' in, Barshall U Co., $>;?<, $CC. $?>. 3)id. $?C. -lfred Baddo# , /n !ental and ,ervous Disorders 9London: Sim' in, Barshall U Co., $>;?<, $CC. $?>. 3)id. $?%. Eohn Billar, Hints on 'nsanity 9London: Henry Renshaw, $>:$<, &5. $;*. Baudsley, Body and !ind , C%. $;$. 3)id. $;5. 3)id.J -. D. Gil)ert, HBastur)ation and 3nsanity: Henry Baudsley and the 3deology of Se/ual Re'ression,H $lbion $5 9$%>*<: 5:>05>5J =re"or =urner, HHenry Baudsley: Psy#hiatrist, Philoso'her and Entre'reneur,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, &:$;$0$>%. $;*. Baudsley, Body and !ind , C%. $;$. 3)id. $;5. 3)id.J -. D. Gil)ert, HBastur)ation and 3nsanity: Henry Baudsley and the 3deology of Se/ual Re'ression,H $lbion $5 9$%>*<: 5:>05>5J =re"or =urner, HHenry Baudsley: Psy#hiatrist, Philoso'her and Entre'reneur,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, &:$;$0$>%. $;*. Baudsley, Body and !ind , C%. $;$. 3)id. $;5. 3)id.J -. D. Gil)ert, HBastur)ation and 3nsanity: Henry Baudsley and the 3deology of Se/ual Re'ression,H $lbion $5 9$%>*<: 5:>05>5J =re"or =urner, HHenry Baudsley: Psy#hiatrist, Philoso'her and Entre'reneur,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, &:$;$0$>%. $;&. Henry Baudsley, The athology of !ind 9Dew .or : -''leton, $>>:<, ?:?. $;?. Baudsley, Body and !ind , C%0>*. $;;. 3)id. @n earlier "iews of nym'homania see G. S. Rousseau, HDym'homania, Bien"ille and the Rise of Eroti# Sensi)ility,H in "e#uality in 1ighteenth*&entury Britain , ed. P.0G. Bou#F 9Ban#hester: Ban#hester !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<, %;0$5*. ,or fears of se/ually a#ti"e women, see Eli6a)eth Lun)e# , H8- Dew Generation of Lomen8: Progressi"e Psy#hiatrists and the Hy'erse/ual ,emale,H Feminist "tudies $& 9$%>C<: ;$?0;?&. $;?. Baudsley, Body and !ind , C%0>*.

$;;. 3)id. @n earlier "iews of nym'homania see G. S. Rousseau, HDym'homania, Bien"ille and the Rise of Eroti# Sensi)ility,H in "e#uality in 1ighteenth*&entury Britain , ed. P.0G. Bou#F 9Ban#hester: Ban#hester !ni"ersity Press, $%>5<, %;0$5*. ,or fears of se/ually a#ti"e women, see Eli6a)eth Lun)e# , H8- Dew Generation of Lomen8: Progressi"e Psy#hiatrists and the Hy'erse/ual ,emale,H Feminist "tudies $& 9$%>C<: ;$?0;?&. $;:. 7eith, Hysteria , $%C. $;C. L. Griesinger, !ental athology and Therapeutics , trans. C. Lo# hard Ro)ertson and Eames Rutherford 9London: Dew Sydenham So#iety, $>:C<. ,or similar "iews e/'ressed )y other German neurologists, see ,. S#hiller, $ !oebius "trip: Fin*de*siCcle ,europsychiatry and aul !oebius 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>5<. $;>. Griesinger, !ental athology and Therapeutics , trans. Ro)ertson and Rutherford, $J 7eith, Hysteria , $%C. $;%. Eeffrey B. Basson, $gainst Therapy 9London: ,ontana, $%%*<J idem, $ Dar( "cience: )omen3 "e#uality and sychiatry in the ,ineteenth &entury 9Dew .or : ,arrar, Straus and Girou/, $%>:<J Bos#u##i, "cience of )oman J -. S#ull and K. ,a"reau, H- Chan#e to Cut 3s a Chan#e to Cure: Se/ual Surgery for Psy#hosis in =hree Dineteenth Century So#ieties,H in -esearch in 4a%3 Deviance and "ocial &ontrol , "ol. >, ed. S. S'it6er and -. S#ull 9Greenwi#h, Conn.: E-3 Press, $%>:<, &0&%J -. S#ull and K. ,a"reau, H=he Clitoride#tomy Cra6e,H "ocial -esearch ;& 9$%>:<: 5?&05:*J -nn Kally, )omen under the 5nife: $ History of "urgery 9London: Hut#hinson, $%%$<. See 3saa# Ba er Brown, /n the &urability of &ertain Forms of 'nsanity3 1pilepsy3 &atalepsy and Hysteria in Females 9London: Ro)ert Hardwi# , $>::<. Bore generally u'on gyne#ologi#al "iolen#e, see Roger Cooter, HKi#hotomy and Kenial: Besmerism, Bedi#ine and Harriet Bartineau,H in "cience and "ensibility: Gender and "cientific 1n:uiry3 MNOQ*MRSJ , ed. Barina BenIamin 9@/ford: Basil Bla# well, $%%$<, $??0$C&. $:*. See )roadly E. Clar e and L. S. Ea#yna, ,ineteenth &entury /rigins of ,euroscientific &oncepts 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, London: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>C<J -nne Harrington, !edicine3 !ind and the Double Brain: $ "tudy in ,ineteenth &entury Thought 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<. $:$. ,or the new medi#ine of the nineteenth0#entury hos'ital, see ,ou#ault, Birth of the &linic , trans. S. Smith 9London: =a"isto# , $%C&<J E. H. -# er ne#ht, !edicine at the aris Hospital3 MNRS*MOSO 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%:C<J L. Granshaw and Roy Porter, eds., The Hospital in History 9London: Routledge, $%>%<J C. E. Rosen)erg, The &are of "trangers: The -ise of $merica's Hospital "ystem 9Dew .or : Basi# Boo s, $%>C<, es'. the dis#ussion in the introdu#tion. $:5. ,or degenerationism, see Kow)iggin, HKegeneration and Hereditarianism in ,ren#h Bental Bedi#ine,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, $:$>>05&5J Dye, &rime3 !adness and olitics in !odern France J K. Pi# , Faces of Degeneration: $ 1uropean Disorder3 MOSO*MRMO 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J E. E. Cham)erlin and S. L. Gilman, Degeneration: The Dar( "ide of rogress 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<J S. Gilman, Difference and athology 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<. $:&. Kidi0Hu)erman, 'nvention de l'HystArie . ,or Char#ot see Pear#e Bailey, 2.*!. &harcot3 MOKJ* MOR[: His 4ife A His )or( 9London: Pitman Bedi#al, $%;%<J -. R. G. @wen, Hysteria3 Hypnosis and Healing: The )or( of 2. !. &harcot 9London: Ko)son, $%C$<. $:?. Stally)rass and Lhite, HBourgeois Hysteria and the Carni"ales4ue,H in olitics and oetics of Transgression 9London: Bethuen, $%>:<, $C$0$%*J from the literary "iew'oint, 4uite hel'ful is Bartha Doel E"ans, Fits and "tarts: $ Genealogy of Hysteria in !odern France 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<.

$:;. =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie J Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hyH 9'art 5<, &$%0&;*. ,or the ,ren#h alienist tradition see Ean Goldstein, &onsole and &lassify: The French sychiatric rofession in the ,ineteenth &entury 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<. $::. Char#ot, &linical 4ectures , trans. Sa"ill, $5. See also Char#ot, &harcot the &linician , translation and #ommentary )y Goet6. $:C. E. L. Bassey and L. C. B#Henry, HHysteroe'ile'sy in the Dineteenth Century: Char#ot and Gowers,H ,eurology &: 9$%>:<: :;0:C. $:>. Points well made in Bar Bi#ale, HKiagnosti# Kis#riminations: Eean Bartin Char#ot and the Dineteenth Century 3dea of Bas#uline Hysteri#al Deurosis,H Ph.K., .ale !ni"ersity, $%>CJ idem, HHysteria Bale(Hysteria ,emale: Refle#tions on Com'arati"e Gender Constru#tion in Dineteenth Century ,ran#e and Britain,H in "cience and "ensibility , ed. BenIamin, 5**05?5J see also Char#ot, &linical 4ectures , trans. Sa"ill, CC. $:%. Char#ot, &linical 4ectures , trans. Sa"ill, $&$0$::. $C*. 3)id., CC. $C$. 3)id., $&. ,or Bri4uet see Pierre Bri4uet, TraitA &lini:ue et Therapeuti:ue de l'hystArie 9Paris: BailliGre, $>;%<J Bauri#e Kongier, HBri4uet and Bri4uet8s Syndrome 7iewed from ,ran#e,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?550?5CJ ,ran_ois B. Bai, HPierre Bri4uet: Dineteenth0Century Sa"ant with =wentieth0Century 3deas,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?$>0?5$J idem and Harold Bers ey, HBri4uet8s Con#e't of Hysteria: -n Histori#al Pers'e#ti"e,88 &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5: 9$%>$<: ;C0:&J idem, HBri4uet8s Treatise on Hysteria : - Syno'sis and Commentary,H $rchives of General sychiatry &C 9$%>*<: $?*$0$?*;. Bri4uet saw hysteria as a neurosis of the )rain. $:%. Char#ot, &linical 4ectures , trans. Sa"ill, $&$0$::. $C*. 3)id., CC. $C$. 3)id., $&. ,or Bri4uet see Pierre Bri4uet, TraitA &lini:ue et Therapeuti:ue de l'hystArie 9Paris: BailliGre, $>;%<J Bauri#e Kongier, HBri4uet and Bri4uet8s Syndrome 7iewed from ,ran#e,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?550?5CJ ,ran_ois B. Bai, HPierre Bri4uet: Dineteenth0Century Sa"ant with =wentieth0Century 3deas,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?$>0?5$J idem and Harold Bers ey, HBri4uet8s Con#e't of Hysteria: -n Histori#al Pers'e#ti"e,88 &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5: 9$%>$<: ;C0:&J idem, HBri4uet8s Treatise on Hysteria : - Syno'sis and Commentary,H $rchives of General sychiatry &C 9$%>*<: $?*$0$?*;. Bri4uet saw hysteria as a neurosis of the )rain. $:%. Char#ot, &linical 4ectures , trans. Sa"ill, $&$0$::. $C*. 3)id., CC. $C$. 3)id., $&. ,or Bri4uet see Pierre Bri4uet, TraitA &lini:ue et Therapeuti:ue de l'hystArie 9Paris: BailliGre, $>;%<J Bauri#e Kongier, HBri4uet and Bri4uet8s Syndrome 7iewed from ,ran#e,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?550?5CJ ,ran_ois B. Bai, HPierre Bri4uet: Dineteenth0Century Sa"ant with =wentieth0Century 3deas,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?$>0?5$J idem and Harold Bers ey, HBri4uet8s Con#e't of Hysteria: -n Histori#al Pers'e#ti"e,88 &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5: 9$%>$<: ;C0:&J idem, HBri4uet8s Treatise on Hysteria : - Syno'sis and Commentary,H $rchives of General sychiatry &C 9$%>*<: $?*$0$?*;. Bri4uet saw hysteria as a neurosis of the )rain. $C5. Char#ot, &linical 4ectures , trans. Sa"ill, $&. $C&. ,or Bernheim see H. Bernheim, "uggestive Therapeutics: $ Treatise on the ,ature and Uses of Hypnotism 9Lest'ort, Conn.: -sso#iated Boo sellers, $%;C<.

$C?. - Harrington, HBetals and Bagnets in Bedi#ine: Hysteria, Hy'nosis and Bedi#al Culture in ,in0 de0SiG#le Paris,H sychological !edicine 5> 9$%>><: 5$0&>J idem, HHysteria, Hy'nosis, and the Lure of the 3n"isi)le: =he Rise of Deo0Besmerism in ,in0de0SiG#le ,ren#h Psy#hiatry,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, &:55:05?:. Rather similarly Char#ot dis#o"ered, in the #ase of one male hysteri#, that when the s in of the 'atient8s s#rotum was 'in#hed, the 'atient )egan a hysteri#al atta# . @ne is not sur'rised. Char#ot, &linical 4ecures , trans. Sa"ill, 5&%. $C;. Points well made )y Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hyH 9'art 5<, &$%0&;*. $C:. Char#ot, &linical 4ecures , trans. Sa"ill, &. $CC. 3)id. Char#ot raised the 'ossi)ility of H#ontagious imitationH only to dismiss it: C. $C:. Char#ot, &linical 4ecures , trans. Sa"ill, &. $CC. 3)id. Char#ot raised the 'ossi)ility of H#ontagious imitationH only to dismiss it: C. $C>. P. Eanet, The !a;or "ymptoms of Hysteria: Fifteen 4ectures Given in the !edical "chool of Harvard University , 5d ed. 9Dew .or : Ba#millan, $%5%<. $C%. Char#ot, &linical 4ecures , trans. Sa"ill, $?. $>*. ,or Char#ot and se/, see Emily -'ter, Femini.ing the Fetish: sychoanalysis and ,arrative /bsession 93tha#a, D..., and London: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<. $>$. Char#ot, &linical 4ecures , trans. Sa"ill, >;. $>5. 3)id., %%. Hereditary diathesis offered one #ast0iron reason why male hysteria e/isted. $>$. Char#ot, &linical 4ecures , trans. Sa"ill, >;. $>5. 3)id., %%. Hereditary diathesis offered one #ast0iron reason why male hysteria e/isted. $>&. - 'oint well made in Ruth Harris, HBurder under Hy'nosis in the Case of Ga)rielle Bom'ard: Psy#hiatry in the Courtroom in Belle E'o4ue ,ran#e,H in $natomy of !adness , ed. Bynum, Porter, and She'herd, 5:$%C05?$. $>?. See S#ull, "ocial /rderV!ental Disorder J Bi#hel ,ou#ault, !adness and &ivili.ation3 History of 'nsanity in the $ge of -eason , trans. Ri#hard Howard 9Dew .or : Random House, $%:;<J -. Kig)y, !adness3 !orality and !edicine 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<J B. ,ears, H=hera'euti# @'timism and the =reatment of the 3nsane,H in Health &are and Health 5no%ledge , ed. R. Kingwall 9London: Croom Helm, $%CC<, ::0>$J idem, H=he 8Boral =reatment8 of 3nsanity: - Study in the So#ial Constru#tion of Human Dature,H Ph.K. thesis, !ni"ersity of Edin)urgh, $%C>. $>;. 7eith, Hysteria , 5*5, 5*%. $>:. Carter, athology and Treatment of Hysteria . See also Kane and Carlson, H- Kifferent Krummer: Ro)ert B. Carter,H ;$%0;&?J Elaine Showalter e/amines Carter8s wor 9see #ha'. ?< from the "iew'oint of gender. $>C. Carter, athology and Treatment of Hysteria , >&. $>>. 3)id. $>%. 3)id. $>C. Carter, athology and Treatment of Hysteria , >&. $>>. 3)id. $>%. 3)id.

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5*&. 3)id., $$&. 5*?. 3)id., $$$. 5*;. 3)id., %;. 5*:. 3)id., &;. 5*C. 3)id., 5:. 5*>. 3)id., $55. 5*%. 3)id., $*C. $%$. Carter, athology and Treatment of Hysteria , $C. $%5. 3)id., 5. $%&. 3)id., ?&. $%?. 3)id. $%;. 3)id., ?:. $%:. 3)id. $%C. 3)id., ;$. $%>. 3)id., ;:. $%%. 3)id., %:. 5**. 3)id., $5%. 5*$. 3)id., :C. 5*5. 3)id., $*:. 5*&. 3)id., $$&. 5*?. 3)id., $$$. 5*;. 3)id., %;. 5*:. 3)id., &;. 5*C. 3)id., 5:. 5*>. 3)id., $55. 5*%. 3)id., $*C. 5$*. 3t would )e intriguing, for e/am'le, to e/amine Eudge S#hre)er in this light. See 3da Ba#al'ine and Ri#hard Hunter, eds., !emoirs of !y ,ervous 'llness3 by Daniel aul "chreber 9London: Lilliam Kawson U Sons, $%;;<. 5$$. ,or dis#ussion of mind and )ody as theori6ed within the intelle#tual framewor of 'sy#hoanalysis, see Sander Gilman8s essay 9#ha'. ;< and also his The 2e%ish Body 9London: Routledge, $%%$<. 3t would, of #ourse, )e desira)le to e/tend the dis#ussion in the 'resent essay further than the threshold of 'sy#hoanalysis, u' toward the 'resent day, )ut that would )e a giganti# underta ing. @n hysteria within 'sy#hoanalysis itself, the items #ited in the following note offer a hel'ful way in. @n the )roader de"elo'ments and de)ates within twentieth0#entury 'sy#hiatry, see nn. > and &* a)o"e. 5$5. Boni4ue Ka"id0BFnard, Hysteria from Freud to 4acan: Body and 4anguage in sychoanalysis 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<J Eohn ,orrester, The "eductions of sychoanalysis:

Freud3 4acan and Derrida 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<.

Four- Hysteria8 Feminism8 and Gender

$. Hal ,oster, inter"iew with Bary Kelly, in 'nterim 9Dew .or : =he Dew Buseum of Contem'orary -rt, $%%*<, ;;. 5. HGlFne Ci/ous and Catherine ClFment, The ,e%ly Born )oman , trans. Betsy Ling 9Binnea'olis: !ni"ersity of Binnesota Press, $%>C<, ?C. &. Edward =ilt, $ Handboo( of Uterine Therapeutics and of Diseases of )omen , ?th ed. 9Dew .or : Lilliam Lood, $>>$<, >;. ?. Paul Chodoff, HHysteria and Lomen,H $merican 2ournal of sychiatry $&% 9Bay $%>5<: ;?:. ;. -. ,a)re, 4'hystArie viscArale A nouveau# fragments de clini:ue mAdicale 9Paris: -. Kelahaye U E. Le#rosnier, $>>&<, &. :. Bar S. Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy: - Re"iew of Past and Present Lritings, 33,H History of "cience 5C 9$%>%<: &5*. C. Gregorio Kohon, HRefle#tions on Kora: =he Case of Hysteria,H 'nternational 2ournal of sychoanalysis :; 9$%>?<: C&0>?. >. Chodoff, HHysteria and Lomen,H ;?;. %. See P. Chodoff and H. Lyons, HHysteri#al Personality: - Re0e"aluation,H sychoanalytic 8uarterly &? 9$%:;<: &%*0?*;J and Harriet -. Lerner, H=he Hysteri#al Personality: - 8Loman8s Kisease,8H in )omen and !ental Health , ed. Eli6a)eth Howell and BarIorie Bayes 9Dew .or : Basi# Boo s, $%>$<, $%:05*:. $*. ,or an o"er"iew and #riti4ue of this wor , see Bar S. Bi#ale, H,eminist Historiogra'hy of Hysteria,H in HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy, 33,H &$%0&&$. See also Elaine Showalter, The Female !alady 9Dew .or : Pantheon Press, $%>;<. $$. Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy, 33,H &&$. $5. See Euliet Bit#hell, H,emininity, Darrati"e, and Psy#hoanalysis,H in )omen: The 4ongest -evolution 9London: 7irago, $%>?<. $&. Eane Gallo', HDurse ,reud: Class Struggle in the ,amily,H un'u)lished 'a'er, Biami !ni"ersity, $%>&. $?. Claire Kahane, 'n Dora's &ase: Freud*Hysteria*Feminism , ed. Claire Kahane and Charles Bernheimer 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<, 55. $;. See Eoan L. S#ott, HGender: - !seful Category of Histori#al -nalysis,H $merican Historical -evie% %$ 9Ke#em)er $%>:<: $*;&0$*C;. $:. E. Russell Reynolds, HHysteria,H in $ "ystem of !edicine , ed. E. Russell Reynolds 9London: Ba#millan, $>::0$>C%<, 5:&*CJ 4uoted in Bar Bi#ale, HChar#ot and the 3dea of Hysteria in the Bale: - Study of Gender, Bental S#ien#e, and Bedi#al Kiagnosti#s in Late Dineteenth0Century ,ran#e,H !edical History &? 9@#to)er $%%*<. $C. Emile Batault, &ontribution G l'Atude de l'hystArie che. l'homme 9Paris, $>>;<, ?>. $>. K. B. Berger, HHysteria: 3n Sear#h of the -nimus,H &omprehensive sychiatry $5 9$%C$<: 5CC. $%. Lilhelm Rei#h, &haracter*$nalysis , &d ed., trans. =heodore P. Lolfe 9Dew .or : ,arrar, Straus U

Girou/, $%?%<, $>%. 5*. Chodoff and Lyons, HHysteri#al Personality,H C&%. 5$. Lu#ien 3sraXl, 4'hystAri:ue3 le se#e3 et le mAdecin 9Paris: Basson, $%>&<, :*, $%C 9my translation<. 55. 3)id., :*. 5$. Lu#ien 3sraXl, 4'hystAri:ue3 le se#e3 et le mAdecin 9Paris: Basson, $%>&<, :*, $%C 9my translation<. 55. 3)id., :*. 5&. See E"elyn ,o/ Keller, -eflections on Gender and "cience 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<J Ludmilla Eordano"a, "e#ual 7isions: 'mages of Gender in "cience and !edicine bet%een the 1ighteenth and T%entieth &enturies 9Hemel Hem'stead: Har"ester Lheatsheaf, $%>%<J Emily Bartin, The )oman in the Body: $ &ultural $nalysis of -eproduction 9Boston: Bea#on Press, $%>C<J and Cynthia Eagle Russett, "e#ual "cience: The 7ictorian &onstruction of )omanhood 9Cam)ridge: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. 5?. Eordano"a, "e#ual 7isions , ;. 5;. Etienne =rillat, 4'histoire de l'hystArie 9Paris: Seghers, $%>:<. 5:. Eosef Breuer and Sigmund ,reud, HStudies on Hysteria,H "tandard 1dition of the &omplete sychological )or(s of "igmund Freud , ed. E. and -. Stra#hey 9London: =he Hogarth Press, $%;;<, 5:5?* 9hereafter #ited as SE<. 5C. @li"e S#hreiner, letter to Karl Pearson, in The 4etters of /live "chreiner , ed. Ri#hard Ri"e 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<, >:. 5>. Deil Bartlett, )ho )as That !an0 9London: Ser'ent8s =ail, $%>%<, ?:. 5%. 7ieda S ultans, 1nglish !adness: 'deas on 'nsanity3 MJOQ*MORQ 9London: Routledge U Kegan Paul, $%C><, >$. &*. =homas Sydenham, )or(s of Thomas "ydenham , $>?>, 5:>;, 4uoted in 3l6a 7eith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%:;<, $?$. &$. Eordano"a, "e#ual 7isions , ;%. &5. Eean0Ba'tiste Louyer07illermay, -echerches histori:ues et mAdicales sur l'hypochondrie 9$>*5<, 4uoted in =rillat, 4'histoire de l'hystArie , $*&. &&. B. Eeanne Peterson, HKr. -#ton8s Enemy: Bedi#ine, Se/, and So#iety in 7i#torian England,H 7ictorian "tudies 5% 9Summer $%>:<: ;C> n. 5%. &?. Ste'hen Heath, The "e#ual Fi# 9London: Ba#millan Pu)lishers, $%>5<, &*. &;. Ernst "on ,eu#htersle)en, The rinciples of !edical sychology , trans. H. E. Lloyd, ed. B. G. Ba)ington 9London: Sydenham So#iety, $>?C<, 55>. &:. Eohn H. Smith, H-)ulia: Se/uality and Kiseases of the Lill in the Late Dineteenth Century,H Genders : 9,all $%>%<: $$*. &C. George B. Beard, $merican ,ervousness: 'ts &auses and &onse:uences , $>>$J re'rint 9Dew .or : -rno Press, $%C5<J and "e#ual ,eurasthenia: 'ts Hygiene3 &auses3 "ymptoms3 and Treatment 9Dew .or : =reat, $>>?<. &>. Beard, "e#ual ,eurasthenia , 5*?. &%. S'en#er, 4uoted in Howard B. ,einstein, H=he !se and -)use of 3llness in the Eames ,amily

Cir#le,H in /urselves3 /ur ast: sychological $pproaches to $merican History , ed. Ro)ert E. Brugger 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%>$<, 5&*. ?*. Ean Goldstein, &onsole and &lassify: The French sychiatric rofession in the ,ineteenth &entury 9Dew .or : Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<, &&:. ?$. See the #ase of B. Kefly and the dis#ussion in Bi#ale, HChar#ot and the 3dea of Hysteria in the Bale.H ?5. See Russett, "e#ual "cience , $$:. ?&. Beard, "e#ual ,eurasthenia , ;%. ??. Her)ert S'en#er, H- =heory of Po'ulation Kedu#ed from the General Law of -nimal ,ertility,H )estminster -evie% , n.s. $ 9$>;5<: 5:&. ?;. Gordon Haight, George 1liot: $ Biography 9Dew .or and @/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%:><, $$>0$$%. ?:. ,. S. Gosling, Before Freud: ,eurasthenia and the $merican !edical &ommunity 9!r)ana: !ni"ersity of 3llinois Press, $%>C<, &?. ?C. 3)id., ?C, ;;. ?>. 3)id., ?C, :&. ?:. ,. S. Gosling, Before Freud: ,eurasthenia and the $merican !edical &ommunity 9!r)ana: !ni"ersity of 3llinois Press, $%>C<, &?. ?C. 3)id., ?C, ;;. ?>. 3)id., ?C, :&. ?:. ,. S. Gosling, Before Freud: ,eurasthenia and the $merican !edical &ommunity 9!r)ana: !ni"ersity of 3llinois Press, $%>C<, &?. ?C. 3)id., ?C, ;;. ?>. 3)id., ?C, :&. ?%. See Edward Clar e, "e# in 1ducation 9Boston: E. R. @sgood, $>C&<J and Henry Baudsley, HSe/ in Bind and Edu#ation,H Fortnightly -evie% $; 9$>C?<: ?::0?>&. ;*. Ernest Earnest, ". )eir !itchell3 ,ovelist and hysician 9Philadel'hia: !ni"ersity of Pennsyl"ania Press, $%;*<, ;$. ;$. Silas Leir Bit#hell, Doctor and atient 9Philadel'hia: E. B. Li''in#ott, $>>><, ?>. ;5. S. Leir Bit#hell, 4ectures on Diseases of the ,ervous "ystem 1specially in )omen , 5d ed. 9London: E. U -. Chur#hill, $>>;<, $;. ;&. S. Leir Bit#hell, )ear and Tear: Hints for the /ver%or(ed , ?th ed. 9Philadel'hia: E. B. Li''in#ott, $>C5<, &>0&%. ;?. Bit#hell, Doctor and atient , $&%. ;;. Bit#hell, 4ectures on Diseases of the ,ervous "ystem , $?. ;:. Bit#hell, Doctor and atient , ?>. ;C. Bit#hell, 4ectures on Diseases of the ,ervous "ystem , C:. ;>. Suoted in Gosling, Before Freud , $$;.

;%. See -nn K. Lood, H=he ,ashiona)le Kiseases: Lomen8s Com'laints and =heir =reatment in Dineteenth0Century -meri#a,H in &lio's &onsciousness -aised: ,e% erspectives on the History of )omen , ed. Bary Hartman and Lois L. Banner 9Dew .or : Har'er U Row, $%C$<, %J G. Bar er0 Benfield, The Horrors of the Half*5no%n 4ife 9Dew .or : Har'er Colo'hon, $%C:<, $&*J and Su6anne Poirier, H=he Leir Bit#hell Rest Cure: Ko#tor and Patients,H )omen's "tudies $* 9$%>&<: $;0?*. :*. Gilman, The 4iving of &harlotte er(ins Gilman 9$%&;<, re'rint 9Dew .or : -rno Press, $%C5<, %:. :$. Bargaret Clea"es, The $utobiography of a ,eurasthenic 9Boston: Gorham, $%$*<, $%>. See also Poirier, HLeir Bit#hell Rest Cure,H 5>05%J and Constan#e B. B#Go"ern, HKo#tors or LadiesN Lomen Physi#ians in Psy#hiatri# 3nstitutions, $>C5,0$%**,H in )omen and Health in $merica , ed. Eudith Lal er0Lea"itt 9Badison: !ni"ersity of Lis#onsin Press, $%>?<, ??50??&. :5. Breuer and ,reud, HStudies on Hysteria,H "1 5:&$$. :&. Ro)ert Brudenell Carter, /n the athology and Treatment of Hysteria 9London: Eohn Chur#hill, $>;&<, 5;, ;&. :?. 3)id., %C0%>. :&. Ro)ert Brudenell Carter, /n the athology and Treatment of Hysteria 9London: Eohn Chur#hill, $>;&<, 5;, ;&. :?. 3)id., %C0%>. :;. Henry Baudsley, The athology of !ind 9London: Ba#millan, $>C%<, ?;*. ::. Charles Ber#ier, "anity and 'nsanity 9Dew .or : S#ri)ner U Lelford, $>%*<, 5$&. :C. H. B. Kon in, HHysteria,H in Dictionary of sychological !edicine , )y K. H. =u e 9Philadel'hia: P. Bla iston, $%>5<, :$%0:5*. :>. ,. C. S ey, Hysteria , 5d ed. 9London: Longmans, Greem, Reader U Kyer, $>:C<, CC0>?. :%. Baudsley, athology of !ind , &%C0&%>. C*. S ey, Hysteria , :*. C$. Ro)ert =hornton, The Hysterical )oman: Trials3 Tears3 Tric(s3 and Tantrums 9Chi#ago: Konohue U Henne)ery, $>%&<. C5. Eules ,alret, 1tudes clini:ues sur les maladies mentales et nerveuses 9Paris: Li)rairie BailliGre et ,ils, $>%*<, ;*5. C&. Smith0Rosen)erg, H=he Hysteri#al Loman: Se/ Roles and Role Confli#t in Dineteenth0Century -meri#a,H "ocial -esearch &% 9$%C5<J re'rinted in Smith0Rosen)erg, Disorderly &onduct , $%C05$:. C?. Bi#hel ,ou#ault, The History of "e#uality , trans. Ro)ert Hurley 9Dew .or : 7intage, $%>*<, $*?. C;. 3)id., $5$. C?. Bi#hel ,ou#ault, The History of "e#uality , trans. Ro)ert Hurley 9Dew .or : 7intage, $%>*<, $*?. C;. 3)id., $5$. C:. Smith0Rosen)erg, Disorderly &onduct , &&$ n. ;. CC. ,ou#ault, History of "e#uality , $$5. C>. Smith0Rosen)erg, Disorderly &onduct , 5**. C%. 7an Keusen, H@)ser"ations on a ,orm of Der"ous Prostration,H $merican 2ournal of 'nsanity 5;

9$>:%<: ??CJ #ited in Smith0Rosen)erg, Disorderly &onduct , &&5 n. $?. >*. Lisa =i# ner, The "pectacle of )omen 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%>><, $%:. >$. Smith0Rosen)erg, Disorderly &onduct , 5;%05:*. >5. See Ke)ora Sil"erman, H=he 8Dew Loman,8 ,eminism, and the Ke#orati"e -rts in ,in0de0SiG#le ,ran#e,H in 1roticism and the Body olitic , ed. Lynn Hunt 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%%$<, $??0$:&. >&. 1Lilliam Barry2, H=he Stri e of a Se/,H 8uarterly -evie% $C% 9$>%?<: &$5. >?. 3an ,let#her, 3ntrodu#tion, British oetry and rose $>C*0$%*; 9London: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<, /"ii. >;. =i# ner, "pectacle of )omen , $%?. >:. Linton, The Girl of the eriod and /ther 1ssays 9London: Ba#millan, $>>&<. >C. See Bar S. Bi#ale, H=he Sal'WtriGre in the -ge of Char#ot: -n 3nstitutional Pers'e#ti"e on Bedi#al History in the Late Dineteenth Century,H 2ournal of &ontemporary History 5* 9@#to)er $%>;<: C*%. >>. Char#ot, H- 'ro'os de si/ #as d8hystFrie #he6 l8homme,H in 2. !. &harcot: 4'HystArie , ed. E. =rillat 9=oulouse: Pri"at, $%C$<, $;:. >%. Batault, &ontribution G l'Atude de l'hystArie che. l'homme , $$*. %*. Char#ot, H- 'ro'os de si/ #as d8hystFrie #he6 l8homme,H $;C0$;>. %$. Bi#ale, HChar#ot and the 3dea of Hysteria in the Bale,H ::. %5. See Bi#ale, H=he Sal'WtriGre in the -ge of Char#ot,H C*&0C&$. %&. Goldstein, &onsole and &lassify , &55. %?. Cited in Elisa)eth Roudines#o, 4a Bataille de cent ans: Histoire de la psychanalyse en France 9Paris: Ramsay, $%>5<, $:&;. %;. Suoted in Ruth Harris, !urders and !adness: !edicine3 4a%3 and "ociety in the =Fin de "iCcle= 9@/ford: Clarendon Press, $%>%<, $:5. %:. Suoted in ,ielding H. Garrison, 'ntroduction to the History of !edicine 9Philadel'hia: Saunders, $%5?<, :?*. %C. Batault, &ontribution G l'Atude de l'hystArie che. l'homme . %>. See Roudines#o, 4a Bataille de cent ans , $:C:. %%. Griselda Pollo# , 7ision @ Difference: Femininity3 Feminism3 and the Histories of $rt 9London: Routledge U Kegan Paul, $%>><, $>%0$%*. $**. @n the art of the Char#ot family, see Ke)ora Sil"erman, $rt ,ouveau in Fin*de*"iCcle France 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>%<, $%50$%&, $%:. $*$. Sil"erman, H8Dew Loman,8 ,eminism, and the Ke#orati"e -rts in ,in0de0SiG#le ,ran#e,H $?C0$?>. $*5. See =o)y Gelfand, HBedi#al Demesis, Paris $>%?: Leon Kaudet8s 8Les Borti#oles,8H Bulletin of the History of !edicine :* 9$%>:<: $;;0$C:. $*&. -/el Bunthe, The "tory of "an !ichele 9London: Eohn Burray, $%&*<, 5%:. $*?. 6oFphilist C 9Do"em)er $>>C<: $$*J 4uoted in Bary -nn Elston, HLomen and -nti07i"ise#tion in

7i#torian England, $>C*0$%**,H in 7ivisection in Historical erspective , ed. Di#olaas -. Ru'he 9London: Routledge U Kegan Paul, $%>C<, 5>$. $*;. Goldstein, &onsole and &lassify , &C;. $*:. See the a##ounts of -ugustine, also #alled HLouiseH and HZ. . .H in K. B. Bourne"ille, 'conographie photographi:ue de la "alpBtriCre , 7ol. 33 9$>C><: $5?0$:CJ and 7ol. 333 9$>C%0>*<: $>C0 $%%. 3 am grateful to the staff of the Li)rary of the College of Physi#ians of Philadel'hia for assistan#e with these materials. $*C. Louis -ragon and -ndrF Breton, HLe #in4uantenaire de l8hystFrie,H 4a -Avolution surrAaliste , no. $$ 9$%5><: 5*. $*>. See Georges Kidi0Hu)erman, 'nvention de l'HystArie: &harcot et l''conographie hotographi:ue de la "alpBtriCre 9Paris: Ba#ula, $%>5<. $*%. =he #riti# Kianne Hunter is a#ti"e in this grou'. See also Showalter, Female !alady , #ha'. :J and Coral Houtman, $ugustine , un'u)lished tele"ision 'lay, London, $%>%. $$*. -t least one woman, howe"er, atta# ed his hostility toward women do#tors. See the #omments of C. R., HChar#ot dF"oilF,H in Goldstein, &onsole and &lassify , &C;. $$$. 4'hystArie au# H7''e et H7'''e siCcles 9Paris: Steinhel, $>%C<. $$5. Georgette KFga, 1ssai sur la cure prAventive de l'hystArie fAminine par l'Adu*cation 9,eli/ -l#an, $>%><, 5%. See also Ea#4ueline Carroy, HLe no"i#iat de l8hystFrie selon Georgette KFga,H sychanalyse Universitaire $5 9$%>C<: $?$0$;5. $$&. Bar Bi#ale, HHysteria Bale(Hysteria ,emale: Refle#tions in Com'arati"e Gender Constru#tion in Dineteenth0Century ,ran#e and Britain,H in "cience and "ensibility: 1ssays in the History of Gender3 "cience3 and !edicine in ,ineteenth*&entury Britain , ed. Barina BenIamin 9Dew Brunswi# , D.E.: Rutgers !ni"ersity Press, forth#oming<. $$?. See =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie , $%%05*?. $$;. Pierre Eanet, The !a;or "ymptoms of Hysteria 9Dew .or : Ba#millan, $%5*<, $*0$$. $$:. ,reud, HParis Re'ort,H "1 &:$*. $$C. Cited )y Ernest Eones, The 4ife and )or( of "igmund Freud , edited and a)ridged )y Lionel =rilling and Ste"en Bar#us 9Dew .or : Basi# Boo s, $%:$<, 5*Cn. $$>. ,reud, HHystFrie,H "1 $:?$, ;5. $$%. See Kianne Hunter, HHysteria, Psy#hoanalysis, and ,eminism: =he Case of -nna @,H Feminist "tudies % 9$%>&<: ?:C0?:>. $5*. - signifi#ant #ontri)ution to this wor was made )y Hunter in her essay HHysteria, Psy#hoanalysis, and ,eminism.H $5$. See Kiane Pri#e Herndl, H=he Lriting Cure: Charlotte Per ins Gilman, -nna @, and 8Hysteri#al8 Lriting,H ,)"$ 2ournal $ 9$%>><: :?0:>. $55. Sigmund ,reud, Dora: $n $nalysis of a &ase of Hysteria 9Dew .or : Collins, $%:?<. See also 'n Dora's &ase: Freud A Hysteria A Feminism , ed. Charles Bernheimer and Claire Kahane 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<. $5&. Eeffrey Basson, $gainst Therapy 9London: ,ontana, $%%*<, $*$. $5?. See Susan Kat6, HS'ea ing @ut against the 8=al ing Cure8: !nmarried Lomen in ,reud8s Early

Case Studies,H )omen's "tudies $& 9$%>C<: 5%C0&5?. $5;. =oril Boi, HRe'resentations of Patriar#hy: Se/uality and E'istemology in ,reud8s Kora,H in 'n Dora's &ase , ed. Kahane and Bernheimer, $%:. $5:. Breuer and ,reud, HStudies on Hysteria,H "1 , 5:5;?. $5C. ,reud, HRemem)ering, Re'eating, and Lor ing =hrough,H "1 $5:$;$. $5>. ,reud, H=he Kynami#s of =ransferen#e,H "1 $5:$*>. $5%. The British "chool of sychoanalysis , ed. Gregorio Kohon 9London: ,ree -sso#iation Boo s, $%>:<, &>:. $&*. Kurt Eissler, H=he Effe#t of the Stru#ture of the Ego in Psy#hoanalyti# =e#hni4ue,H 2. of $merican sychoanalytic $ssociation , 7ol. 3 9$%;&<: $$?. $&$. Ku)ois, 4es psychonAvroses et leur traitement moral 9Paris: Basson, $%*?<, $?. $&5. =i# ner, "pectacle of )omen , 5*&. $&&. 3)id., &$: n. $%>. $&5. =i# ner, "pectacle of )omen , 5*&. $&&. 3)id., &$: n. $%>. $&?. P. Guriaud, HystArie et folie hystAri:ue 9-BP $%$?<, in =rillat, 4'histoire de l'hystArie , 5?$. $&;. Claude Barrois, 4es rAvroses traumati:ues 9Paris: Bardas, $%>><, 5*05$. $&:. HKeu/ ty'es de nF"roses de guerre,H /euvres complCtes 9Paris: Payot, $%C*<, 5:5&>05;5. $&C. @n L. H. R. Ri"ers, see the )iogra'hy )y Ri#hard Slo)oden, ). H. -. -ivers 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%C><J and Showalter, Female !alady , #ha'. C. $&>. See Charles S. Byers, "hell*"hoc( in France 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%?*<, 5;, &C, ::. $&%. Byers, "hell*"hoc( in France , >&J and L. B#Kougall, $n /utline of $bnormal sychology 9London: Bethuen, $%5:<, 5. $?*. Bartin Stone, HShellsho# and the Psy#hologists,H in The $natomy of !adness , ed. L. ,. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Bi#hael She'herd 9London: =a"isto# , $%>;<, 5:$. $?$. Byers, "hell*"hoc( in France , ?*. $?5. Suoted in Eri# Leed, ,o !an's 4and: &ombat and 'dentity in )orld )ar ' 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%C%<, $C%. $?&. ,rederi# L. Bott, )ar ,euroses and "hell "hoc( 9London: Hodder U Stoughton, $%$%<, $C$. $??. H. Stern, HE"olution du 'ro)lGme des 'sy#honeuroses de guerre,H $n*nales mAdico* psychologi:ues 9$%?C< 5:5?%05C*. $?;. Eones, 4ife and )or( of "igmund Freud , ?%?0?%;. $?:. Suoted in =homas Salmon, The &are and Treatment of !ental Diseases and )ar ,euroses X="hell "hoc(=Y in the British $rmy 9Dew .or : Lar Lor Committee of the Dational Committee for Bental Hygiene, $%$C<, ?*. $?C. G. Elliot0Smith and =. H. Pear, "hellshoc( and 'ts 4essons , ?th ed. 9London: Longman, Green, $%$%<, &50&&.

$?>. R. K. Gilles'ie, The sychological 1ffects of )ar on &iti.en and "oldier 9Dew .or : Dorton, $%?5<, 5$J 4uoted in Stone, HShellsho# and the Psy#hologists,H 5$. $?%. Cri#hton0Biller, 4uoted in Salmon, &are and Treatment , ?*. $;*. =homas -. Ross, 4ectures on )ar ,eurosis 9Baltimore: Lilliams, $%?$<, C>. $;$. Paul ,ussell, The Great )ar and !odern !emory 9Dew .or : @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%C;<, 5505%. $;5. Karl -)raham, in sycho*analysis and the )ar ,euroses , ed. SVndor ,eren#6i 9London: 3nternational Psy#ho0analyti#al Press, $%5$<, 5?. $;&. See The 4ancet , 5; Ke#em)er $%$;J $; Eanuary $%$:J 55 Eanuary $%$:J and $% ,e)ruary $%$:. $;?. P. S. Lyn#h, H=he E/'loitation of Courage,H B.Phil. thesis, !ni"ersity of London, $%CC. $;;. Stone, HShellsho# and the Psy#hologists,H 5:$, 5:&. $;:. ,ussell, The Great )ar and !odern !emory , 5C&05C?. $;C. Stone, HShellsho# and the Psy#hologists,H 5:5. $;>. Stone, HShellsho# and the Psy#hologists,H 5?;. $;%. L. H. R. Ri"ers, 'nstinct and the Unconscious 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%55<, 5;5. $:*. Ri"ers, HPsy#ho0=hera'euti#s,H in 1ncyclopedia of -eligion and 1thics , ed. Eames Hastings, $& "ols. 9Edin)urgh: =. U =. Clar , $%$><, $*:??*. $:$. See, for e/am'le, the #ase study of a #laustro'ho)i# offi#er who stammered in Ri"ers, 'nstinct and the Unconscious . $:5. Ri"ers, 'nstinct and the Unconscious , $&&, $&;, $&:. $:&. Edward Shorter, HBania, Hysteria, and Gender in Lower -ustria, $>%$0$%*;,H History of sychiatry $ 9$%%*<: ?. See also Shorter, HParalysis: =he Rise and ,all of a 8Hysteri#al Sym'tom,8H 2ournal of "ocial History $% 9$%>:<: ;?%0;>5. $:?. 3nter"iew with Boni4ue Ka"id0BFnard in )omen $naly.e )omen , ed. Elaine Hoffman Baru#h and Lu#ienne E. Serrano 9Dew .or : Dew .or !ni"ersity Press, $%>><, ;?0;;. $:;. Ka"id0BFnard in )omen $naly.e )omen , ed. Baru#h and Serrano, ;?. $::. Eli6a)eth Pet6el, The &apacity for 1motional Gro%th 9Dew .or : 3nternational !ni"ersities Press, $%C*<, $?. $:C. 3)id. 5&:05&>. $:>. 3)id., 5?;. $::. Eli6a)eth Pet6el, The &apacity for 1motional Gro%th 9Dew .or : 3nternational !ni"ersities Press, $%C*<, $?. $:C. 3)id. 5&:05&>. $:>. 3)id., 5?;. $::. Eli6a)eth Pet6el, The &apacity for 1motional Gro%th 9Dew .or : 3nternational !ni"ersities Press, $%C*<, $?. $:C. 3)id. 5&:05&>.

$:>. 3)id., 5?;. $:%. Baru#h and Serrano, )omen $naly.e )omen , ;;. $C*. 3)id., ?%. $:%. Baru#h and Serrano, )omen $naly.e )omen , ;;. $C*. 3)id., ?%. $C$. Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy, 3,H 55C. $C5. 3l6a 7eith, &an 9ou Hear the &lapping of /ne Hand0 4earning to 4ive %ith a "tro(e 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>%<, %?. $C&. 3)id., 5C?. $C5. 3l6a 7eith, &an 9ou Hear the &lapping of /ne Hand0 4earning to 4ive %ith a "tro(e 9Ber eley, Los -ngeles, @/ford: !ni"ersity of California Press, $%>%<, %?. $C&. 3)id., 5C?. $C?. Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy, 33,H &$%. $C;. 7eith, Hysteria , "iii. $C:. See, for e/am'le, Carol ,. Karlson, The Devil in the "hape of a )oman: )itchcraft in &olonial ,e% 1ngland 9Dew .or : 7intage Boo s, $%>%<. $CC. 7eith, Hysteria , 5*>, 5$*. $C>. 3)id., 5*%. $CC. 7eith, Hysteria , 5*>, 5$*. $C>. 3)id., 5*%. $C%. Eoan L. S#ott, H-meri#an Lomen Historians, $>>?0$%>?,H in Gender and the olitics of History 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>><, $>:. $>*. Dan#y E. Chodorow, Feminism and sychoanalytic Theory 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<, 5$;, 5$%. $>$. Kahane, 'n Dora's &ase , &$. $>5. Bary Ea#o)us, -eading )oman: 1ssays in Feminist &riticism 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<, 5**. $>&. HFlGne Ci/ous, H=he Laugh of the Bedusa,H in ,e% French Feminisms , ed. Elaine Bar s and 3sa)elle de Courti"ron 9-mherst: !ni"ersity of Bassa#husetts Press, $%>*<, 5;C. $>?. Ci/ous and Clement, ,e%ly*Born )oman , $;?. $>;. 3)id., ;, %, $;, $;C. $>?. Ci/ous and Clement, ,e%ly*Born )oman , $;?. $>;. 3)id., ;, %, $;, $;C. $>:. @n hysteri#al narrati"e see Badelon S'rengnether, HEnfor#ing @edi'us: ,reud and Kora,H in 'n Dora's &ase , ed. Kahane and Bernheimer, 5:C05C$. $>C. =oril Boi, Feminist Theory and "imone de Beauvoir 9London: Basil Bla# well Pu)lisher, $%%*<, >5.

$>>. Lisa K. Gorni# , HKe"elo'ing a Dew Darrati"e: =he Loman =hera'ist and the Bale Patient,H in sychoanalysis and )omen: &ontemporary -eappraisals , ed. Eudith L. -l'ert 9Hillsdale, D.E.: -nalyti# Press, $%>:<, 5;C05>:. $>%. Gorni# , HKe"elo'ing a Dew Darrati"e,H 5;>. $%*. Herndl, HLriting Cure,H ;&0;?. $%$. Bit#hell, )omen: The 4ongest -evolution: 1ssays in Feminism3 4iterature and sychoanalysis 9London: 7irago, $%>?<, $$C. $%5. Suoted in Elisa)eth Roudines#o, Histoire de la psychanalyse en France , 3: >50>&. $%&. -nne Ste"enson, H=he Hysteri#al Lomen8s Bo"ement,H Times 4iterary "upplement 9% Se'tem)er $%>&<, %:$. =here are interesting #orres'onden#es )etween Syl"ia Plath8s most famous 'oem, HKaddy,H and the #ase of -nna @., although this te/tual #onne#tion is not at all the ind of hysteri#al 'arallel Ste"enson had in mind. $%?. H=he Storming of St. Pat8s,H ,e% 9or( Times 9$5 Ke#em)er $%>%<, Se#. -, 5?. $%;. Lena Lilliams, HPsy#hothera'y Gaining ,a"or among Bla# s,H ,e% 9or( Times , 955 Do"em)er $%>%<, Se#. 3, $. $%:. Suoted in -rnold Ram'ersad, HPsy#hology and -fro0-meri#an Biogra'hy,H The 9ale -evie% 9$%>%<: C. $%C. Hunter, HHysteria, Psy#hoanalysis, and ,eminism,H ?>;. $%>. =rillat, 4'histoire de l'hystArie , 5C?. $%%. Philli' R. Sla"ney, erspectives on =Hysteria= 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<, $%*.

Fi+e- !he Image o* the Hysteri.

$. Howard L. =elson, H!ne le_on du Ko#teur Char#ot M la Sal'WtriGre,H 2ournal of the History of !edicine &; 9$%>*<: ;>. =o #onte/tuali6e this image see the dis#ussion )y -nne Harrington, !edicine3 !ind3 and the Double Brain: $ "tudy in ,ineteenth*&entury Thought 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<, 5::0$C*. @n the historiogra'hy of hysteria see Bar S. Bi#ale, HHysteria and 3ts Historiogra'hy,H History of "cience 5C 9$%>%<: 55&05:$, &$%0&;$. See also the wor on the early history of hysteria )y 3l6a 7eith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease 9Chi#ago and London: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%:;<J H. Bers ey, HHysteria: =he History of an 3dea,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?5>0?&& as well as his H=he 3m'ortan#e of Hysteria,88 British 2ournal of sychiatry $?% 9$%>:<: 5&05>J -nnemarie Lei))rand and Lerner Lei))rand, HKie 8 o'erni0 anis#he Lendung8 des Hysterie)egriffes )ei Para#elsus,H aracelsus )er( und )ir(ung. Festgabe fEr 5urt Goldammer .um PQ. Geburtstag , ed. Se'' Komandl 97ienna: 7er)and der Lissens#haftli#hen Gesells#haften fsterrei#hs, $%C;<J Helmut0Eohannes Lorent6, HSi mulier o)ti#uerit: Ein Hysteriere6e't des Pseudo0-'uleius,H "udhoffs $rchiv &> 9$%;?<: 5*05>J !m)erto de Bartini, HL8isterismo: Ke 3''o#rate a Char#ot,H agine di storia della medicina $5.: 9$%:><: ?50?%J Eohn Bullan, HHy'o#hondria and Hysteria: Sensi)ility and the Physi#ians,H 1ighteenth &entury 5; 9$%>&<: $?$0$C&J Eohn R. Lright, HHysteria and Be#hani#al Ban,H 2ournal of the History of 'deas ?$ 9$%>*<: 5&&05?CJ Philli' R. Sla"ney, erspectives on =Hysteria H 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%%*<. 5. E.0B. Char#ot, 4ectures on the Disease of the ,ervous "ystem delivered at 4a "alpBriCre , trans. George Sigerson 9London: Dew Sydenham So#iety, $>CC<, 5C$.

&. -mong the figures are Char#ot )eside the 'atient 9Blan#he LittmanN<, Eose'h Ba)ins i in )a# of her, then fight to left from the )a# of the 'i#ture are Prof. 7. Cornil, un nown, Prof. B. Ke)o"e, Prof. Bathias0Ku"al, -l. Londe 9the head of the 'hotogra'hi# ser"i#e<, Prof. Eoffroy 9with his head in his hand<J se#ond row from the right are Kr. Guinon, Kr. Ri)ot 9in the foreground<, Kr. Eules ClarFtie, Kr. Da4uet, Kr. K.0B. Bourne"ille, Prof. E. Brissaud, Prof. Pierre0Barie, Kr. Georges Gilles de la =ourette, Kr. ,errF, and Kr. Paul Ri#her 9with a 'en#il in his hand<. ?. @s#ar Lilde, H=he Ke#ay of Lying,H in The "oul of !an under "ocialism and /ther 1ssays , ed. Phili' Reiff 9Dew .or : Har'er and Row, $%C*<, C5. ;. 3 am aware that "arious names were used for the "arious 'ro#esses de"elo'ed and that H'hotogra'hyH was )ut one of them. 3 shall use all of these terms 9or at least H'hotogra'hH and HKaguerreoty'eH< inter#hangea)ly as 3 am more interested in the rea#tion to the o)Ie#t than the means )y whi#h the o)Ie#t was 'rodu#ed. @n the naming of the H'hotogra'hH see Lolfgang Baier, 8uellen* darstellungen .ur Geschichte der Fotographie 9Lei'6ig: ,oto ino"erlag, $%:;<, $$%0$5*. @n the #entrality of the 'hotogra'h in the history of medi#al re'resentation in the late nineteenth #entury see Renata =aure# , Die Bedeutung der hotographie fEr die medi.inische $bbildung im MR. 2ahrhundert 9Cologne: -r)eiten der ,ors#hungsstelle des 3nstituts f[r Ges#hi#hte der Bedi6in, $%>*<. :. @n the 'ro)lem of the relationshi' )etween the shift in the sym'tomati# stru#ture of hysteria and the nature of the 'er#e'tion of this disease entity see -nnemarie Lei))rand and Lerner Lei))rand, HGestaltwandel medi6inis#her Begriffe am Beis'iel der Hysterie und der Per"ersion,H !edi.inische 5lini( :% 9$%C?<: C:$0C:;J Ro)ert Satow, HLhere Has -ll the Hysteria GoneNH sychoanalytic -evie% :: 9$%C%0>*<: ?:&0?>* and the e/#hange of letters under the title HLhy Do Cases of Hysteri#al Psy#hosisNH in the $merican 2ournal of sychiatry $?& 9$%>:<: $*C*0$*C$. By thesis is at "arian#e with the "iew of Carol Smith0Rosen)erg, H=he Hysteri#al Loman: Se/ Roles in Dineteenth0Century -meri#a,H "ocial -esearch &% 9$%C5<: :;50:C> as 3 )elie"e that the role of medi#al s#ien#e in sha'ing the HideaH of the hysteri# is #ertainly of e4ual im'ortan#e to the re'resentation of the assigned so#ial roles of the 'atient. See also Edward Shorter, HParalysis: =he Rise and ,all of a 8Hysteri#al8 Sym'tom,H 2ournal of "ocial History $% 9$%>:<: ;?%0;>5J S. Bou#hly Small, 88Con#e't of Hysteria: History and Ree"aluation,H ,e% 9or( "tate 2ournal of !edicine :% 9$%:%<: $>::0$>C5. C. =his 'late is re'rodu#ed in Etienne =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie 9Paris: Seghers, $%>:<. =he 'i#ture is to )e found in the BusFe de Reims, #olle#tion Roger07iollet. >. E.0B. Luys, 'conographie photographi:ues des centres nerveu# 9Paris: BailliGre, $>C&<. %. See Sander L. Gilman, "eeing the 'nsane 9Dew .or : Eohn Liley U Sons, $%>5<, for the )roader #onte/t of the image of the hysteri#. $*. E.0B. Luys, 4es Amotion che. su;et en Atat d'hypnotisme 9Paris: BailliGre, $>>C<. =he 'hotogra'hi# images of his 'atients at the Sal'WtriGre are re'rodu#ed in the e/hi)ition #atalogue )y Ea#4ueline Sonolet, ed., 2. !. &harcot et l'hysterie au #i#e siCcle 9Cha'elle de la Sal'WtriGre, 50$> Iuin $%>5,<, && 9'late C?<. $$. Luys, 4es Amotions che. les su;ets . $5. Gilman, "eeing the 'nsane , >&. $&. Louis Battaille, HKeu/ Cas d8-nore/ie HystFri4ue,H ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriCre ; 9$>%5<: 5C:05C> 9'late o''osite '. 5CC<. $?. -rthur Gamgee, H-n -##ount of a Kemonstration on the Phenomena of Hystero0e'ile'sy,H British !edical 2ournal 5 9$>C><: ;??0;?>. Cited )y E. B. =hornton, Hypnotism3 Hysteria and 1pilepsy: $n Historical "ynthesis 9London: Lilliam Heinemann, $%C:<, $??.

$;. - lithogra'hed 'late )ased on a 'hotogra'h re'resenting the ty'e of 'atient des#ri)ed is to )e found in the image from Paul Regnard, 4es maladies ApidAmi:ues de l'esprit: "orcellerie magnAtisrae3 morphinisme3 dAlire des grandeurs 9Paris: E. Plon, Dourrit et Cie., $>>C<, &;%. @ther su#h e"o#ations of hysteri#al sym'toms using the tuning for are re'resented )y the disem)odied hand of the 'hysi#ian and the fa#e of the 'atient. See Paul Ri#her, HGonflement du #ou #he6 un hystFri4ue,H ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriCre 5 9$>>%<: $C05* 9'late &?<. See also the 'hotogra'h of a similar 'atient ta en from the 'conographie de la "alpBtriCre , re'rodu#ed in the e/hi)ition #atalogue )y Sonolet, 2. !. &harcot et l'hysterie au #i#e siCcle , &:. $:. 3n this #onte/t see Esther ,is#her0Hom)urger, 5ran(heit Frau und andere $rbeiten .ur !edi.ingeschichte der Frau 9Bern: Hans Hu)er, $%C%<J Lendy Bit#hinson, HHysteria and 3nsanity in Lomen: - Dineteenth0Century Canadian Pers'e#ti"e,H 2ournal of &anadian "tudies 5$ 9$%>*<: >C0$*?J Regina S#ha's, Hysterie und )eiblich(eit: )issenschaft Eber die Frau 9,ran furt(Bain and Dew .or : Cam'us 7erlag, $%>5<. $C. Char#ot, 4ectures on the Disease of the ,ervous "ystem , ''. 5&* and 5:?. $>. Pur"es Stewart, H=wo Le#tures on the Kiagnosis of Hysteria,H The ractitioner C5 9$%*&<: ?;C. $%. See the re"iew of the first "olume of the 'conographie photographi:ue de la "alpBtriCre in rogrCs mAdical C 9$>C%<: &&$. @n the general )a# ground of these #on#e'ts see LFon Cherto , HHysteria, Hy'nosis, Psy#ho'athology,H 2ournal of ,ervous and !ental Disease $:$ 9$%C;<: &:C0&C>J Bauri#e Kongier, HBri4uet and Bri4uet8s Syndrome 7iewed from ,ran#e,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?550?5CJ ,ran_ois B. Bai, HPierre Bri4uet: Dineteenth Century Sa"ant with =wentieth Century 3deas,H &anadian 2ournal of sychiatry 5> 9$%>&<: ?$>0?5$J Eean0Ea#4ues Go)lot, 88E/tase, hystFrie, 'ossession: Les thFories d8-le/andre Bertrand,H -omantisme 5? 9$%C%<: ;&0;%J E. Gordon, H=he Ke"elo'ment of Hysteria as a Psy#hiatri# Con#e't,H &omprehensive sychiatry 5; 9$%>?<: ;&50;&CJ Leston L. Ha"ens, HChar#ot and Hysteria,H 2ournal of ,ervous and !ental Disease $?$ 9$%:;<: ;*;0 ;$:. 5*. @n the 'ro)lem of the meta'hor of the Hgerm theoryH and its role in the e"olution of the de'i#tion of the hysteri# see K. Codell Carter, HGerm =heory, Hysteria, and ,reud8s Early Lor in Psy#ho'athology,H !edical History 5? 9$%>*<: 5;%05C?. 5$. Georges Canguilhem, The ,ormal and the athological , trans. Carolyn R. ,aw#ett 9Dew .or : Pone, $%>%<, ?*. 55. See the de"elo'ment of the redefinition of hysteria from the $%;5 KSB dis#ussions of H'sy#honeuroti# disordersH 9 Diagnostic and "tatistical !anual: !ental Disorders 1Lashington, K.C.: -meri#an Psy#hiatri# -sso#iation, $%;52, &$0&;< to the dis#ussion of the re'resentation of the hysteri# in KSB03330R 9 Diagnostic and "tatistical !anual of !ental Disorders , &d ed. re"ised 1Lashington, K.C.: -meri#an Psy#hiatri# -sso#iation, $%>C2, 5*;05*C, 5;C05;%, 5:%05CC, &$>0&5*, &?>0&?%<. 5&. ,riedri#h Diet6s#he, The )ill to o%er , trans. Lalter Kaufmann and R. E. Hollingdale 9Dew .or : 7intage, $%:><, &&. 5?. Sander L. Gilman, ed., The Face of !adness: Hugh ). Diamond and the /rigin of sychiatric hotography 9Dew .or : Brunner(Ba6el, $%C:<, 5$. 5;. Gilman, Face of !adness , 5&. 5:. 3)id., $*. 5;. Gilman, Face of !adness , 5&. 5:. 3)id., $*.

5C. 3 am dis#ounting at 'resent the re#ent wor on the 'hysiology of stress and an/iety whi#h may, howe"er, 'ro"ide a future )asis for an understanding of the 'sy#hologi#al Hstartle effe#tH of inno"ati"e art. =he in#or'oration of new e/'erien#es and their arti#ulation in terms of e/isting models of 'er#e'tion may )e our means of dealing with su#h stress. See Eeffrey -. Gray, The ,europhysiology of $n#iety: $n 'n:uiry into the Functions of the "epto*Hippocampal "ystem 9Dew .or : Clarendon Press, $%>5<. 5>. George S. Layne, HKir )ride0Langenheim Colle#tion: Early !se of Photogra'hy in Psy#hiatri# =reatment in Philadel'hia,H The ennsylvania !aga.ine of History and Biography ;; 9$%>$<: $>505*5. 5%. Betty Biller, ed., 1li.abeth Barrett to !iss !itford: The Unpublished 4etters of 1li.abeth Barrett Bro%ning to !ary -ussell !itford 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: .ale !ni"ersity Press, $%;?<, 5*>05*%. &*. Cited )y Hermann Glaser, ed., The German !ind of the ,ineteenth &entury 9Dew .or : Continuum, $%>$<, $:. &$. Edgar -llan Poe, H=he Kaguerreoty'e,H re'rinted in &lassic 1ssays on hotography , ed. -lan =ra#hten)erg 9Dew Ha"en, Conn.: Leete8s 3sland Boo s, $%>*<, &C0&>. &5. Sander L. Gilman, HHeine8s Photogra'hs,H Hebre% University "tudies in 4iterature and $rt $& 9$%>;<: 5%&0&;*. &&. @n the )a# ground for ,reud and hysteria see K. Codell Carter, H3nfantile Hysteria and 3nfantile Se/uality in Late Dineteenth0Century German0Language Bedi#al Literature,H !edical History 5C 9$%>&<: $>:0$%:J 3sa)el ,. Knight, H,reud8s 8ProIe#t8: - =heory for Studies on Hysteria,H 2ournal of the History of the Behavioral "ciences 5* 9$%>?<: &?*0&;>J Russell Beares et al., HLhose Hysteria: Bri4uet8s, Eanet8s, or ,reud8s,H $ustralian and ,e% 6ealand 2ournal of sychiatry $% 9$%>;<: 5;:05:&J Eean G. S#hime , H,a#t and ,antasy in the Sedu#tion =heory: - Histori#al Re"iew,H 2ournal of the $merican sychoanalytic $ssociation &; 9$%>C<: %&C0%:;J Ernest S. Lolf, 88-rtisti# -s'e#ts of ,reud8s 8=he -etiology of Hysteria,8H sychoanalytic "tudies of the &hild 5: 9$%C$<: ;&;0;;?J Boni4ue Ka"id0 BFnard, Hysteria from Freud to 4acan , trans. Catherine Porter 93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<. &?. George Kidi0Hu)erman, 'nvention de l'hystArie: &harcot et l'iconographie photographi:ue de la "alpBtriCre 9Paris: Ba#ula, $%>5<. &;. =his general dis#ussion is rooted in the wor 9and images< in Ro)ert Karnton, !esmerism and the 1nd of the 1nlightenment in France 9Cam)ridge, Bass.: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%:><. -ll his images are from the Bi)liothF4ue nationale #a)inet of 'rints, E.R.L. Paris. &:. Karnton, !esmerism and the 1nd of the 1nlightenment , ;&. &C. 3)id., :&. &:. Karnton, !esmerism and the 1nd of the 1nlightenment , ;&. &C. 3)id., :&. &>. Re'rodu#ed in =rillat, Histoire de l'hystArie . ,rom the Bi)liothF4ue nation0ale #a)inet of 'rints, E.R.L. Paris. &%. -s in Paul Ri#her8s re'rodu#tion of an engra"ing of Hla 'hase d8immo)iltF ou tFtanisme,H in his Ltudes clini:ues sur la grande hystArie ou hystAro*Apilepsie 9Paris: Kelahaye U Le#rosnier, $>>$<. Plate re'rodu#ed in Kidi0Hu)erman, 'nvention de l'hystArie , $5$. ?*. Sir Charles Bell8s 1ssays on the $natomy and hilosophy of 1#pression 9London: Eohn Burray, $>5?<, $*$. Plate is on the same 'age. @n Bell8s image see Klaus Kne#ht, &harles Bell3 The $natomy of

1#pression XMOQPY 9Cologne: -r)eiten der ,ors#hungstelle des 3nstituts f[r Ges#hi#hte der Bedi6in, $%C><, $5$. ?$. @n the )a# ground of the history of hysteria in the #onte/t see !rs Bos#hung, H-l)re#ht "on Hailer als -r6t: Pur Ges#hi#hte des Eli/ir a#idum Halleri,H Gesnerus &? 9$%CC<: 5:C05%&J Eeffrey B. D. Boss, H=he Se"enteenth0Century =ransformation of the Hysteri# -ffe#tion and Sydenham8s Ba#onian Bedi#ine,H sychological !edicine % 9$%C%<: 55$05&?J Lalter Russell Barow Brain, H=he Con#e't of Hysteria in the =ime of Lilliam Har"ey,H roceedings of the -oyal "ociety of !edicine ;: 9$%:&<: &$C0 &5?. ?5. ,. de Ha"illand Hall, Differential Diagnosis: $ !anual of the &omparative "emeiology of the !ore 'mportant Diseases 9Philadel'hia: K. G. Brinton, $>>C<, $&?0$&;. ?&. See the dis#ussion of the hos'ital and its 'atients in Eean0Bartin Char#ot, Hospice de la "alpBtriCre 9Paris: -u/ )ureau du 'rogrGs mFdi#al, $>%50$>%&<. ??. @n Ea# son see @swei =em in, The Falling "ic(ness: $ History of 1pilepsy from the Gree(s to the Beginnings of !odern ,eurology 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%C5,<, &*;0&$:, &?C0 &;*. ?;. Sigmund ,reud, "tandard 1dition of the &omplete sychological )or(s of "igmund Freud , ed. and trans. E. Stra#hey, -. ,reud, - Stra#hey, and -. =yson, 5? "ols. 9London: Hogarth, $%;;0$%C?<, $:;>. 9Hereafter #ited as "1 .< @n the )a# ground see Henri Ellen)erger, The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and 1volution of Dynamic sychiatry 9Dew .or : Basi# Boo s, $%C*<. ?:. ,reud, "1 , %:5&?. ?C. The &linical Diary of "_ndor Ferenc.i , ed. Eudith Ku'ont 9Cam)ridge: Har"ard !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<, :&. ?>. -rthur ,. Hurst, HLar Contra#turesALo#ali6ed =etanus, - Refle/ Kisorder, or HysteriaNH "eale Hayne ,eurological "tudies $ 9$%$><: ?&0;5. Hurst8s #olle#ted 'a'ers on hysteria a''eared as The &roonian 4ectures on the sychology of the "pecial "enses and Their Functional Disorders 9London: Henry ,rowde(Hodder U Stoughton, $%5*< with 5% 'lates, some ta en from Char#ot. ?%. Eose'h Ba)ins i and Eules ,roment, HystArie*pithiatisme et troubles nerveu# d'ordre rAfle#e en neurologie de guerre 9Paris: Basson et Cie., $%$C<. ;*. Elaine Showalter, The Female !alady: )omen3 !adness3 and 1nglish &ulture3 MO[Q*MROQ 9Dew .or : Pantheon Boo s, $%>;<, $>%0$%?. ;$. 4es DAmonia:ues dans l'art 9Paris: -drien Kelahaye et ^mile Le#rosnier, $>>C<. =he later, e/'anded "ersion of this study, 4es difformes et les malades dans l'art 9Paris: Le#rosnier et Ba)F, $>>%<, attem'ts to 'arallel all "isual images of Hdifferen#e.H See also Louis Langlet, Une possession au H7'e siBcle: Ltude medicale de la vie et de l'hystArie de ,icol /bry3 Dite ,icole de 7ervins MJPP 9Reims: Batot0Braine, $%$*<, and Henri Ey, H3ntrodu#tion a l8Ftude a#tuelle de l8hystFrie,H -evue du practicien $? 9$%:?<: $?$C0$?&$. ;5. - detailed a##ount of the stages of hysteria that are do#umented in the histori#al study #an )e found in E.0B. Char#ot, HLemon d8ou"erture,H rogrCs mAd*ical $* 9$>>5<: here, &&:. =he most detailed "isual re'resentation of the stages is to )e found in Ri#her, Ltudes clini:ues sur la grande hystArie . ;&. Com'are Ean Goldstein, &onsole and &lassify: The French sychiatric rofession in the ,ineteenth &entury 9Cam)ridge: Cam)ridge !ni"ersity Press, $%>C<, es'. her #ha'ter HHysteria, -nti#leri#al Politi#s, and the 7iew )eyond the -sylum,H &550&CC. ;?. =he 'lates are found on '. %% lower and '. $** lower.

;;. =he 'late is found on '. %? u''er. ;:. Louis Basile CarrF de Bontgeron, 4a veritA des miracles operas par l'intercession de !. de `ris et autres appellans demontrAe contre !. 4'archevB:ue de "ens ., & "ols. 9Cologne: Che6 les li)raires de la Cam'agnie, $C?;0?C<. =he Bontgeron 'lates re'rodu#ed )y Regnard 9see n. $;< are on the following unnum)ered 'ages: -eftnard3 vol. !ontgeron3 vol. M M $$& $5*, $5& ,rontis'ie#e Prior to '. $ of the H33 KemonstrationH Prior to '. $ of the H333 KemonstrationH Prior to '. $ of the H37 KemonstrationH Prior to '. $ of the H733 KemonstrationH Prior to '. $ of the H7333 KemonstrationH

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$C5

See also the essay )y Georges Gilles de la =ourette, HLe Sein HystFri4ue,H ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriCre > 9$>%;<: $*C0$5$, for the further use of images from this sour#e.

;C. See the se#ond edition of Phili''e Pinel, TraitA mAdico*philosophi:ue sur l'aliAnation mentale3 ou la manie 9Paris: Brosson, $>*%<, 5:>. See also =heodore Peldin, H=he Confli#t of Boralities: Confession, Sin and Pleasure in the Dineteenth Century,H in &onflicts in French "ociety: $nticlericalism3 1ducation3 and !orals in the ,ineteenth &entury , ed. =heodore Peldin 9London: -llen U !nwin, $%C*<, 550&*. ;>. =his asso#iation of forms of He/tra"agantH and H"isi)leH religions may well )e a rea#tion to the #harge lodged against the s#hool of Char#ot that it was HEewishH as it ad"o#ated the lai#i6ation of the nursing staff at the maIor 'sy#hiatri# hos'itals in Paris. See Goldstein, &onsole and &lassify , &:?. ;%. Regnard, 4es maladies ApidAmi:ues de l'esprit , %;. :*. KFsire0Bagloire Bourne"ille and Paul Regnard, 'conographie photographi:ue de la "alpBtriCre Xservice de !. &harcotY 9Paris: ProgrGs mFdi#al, $>CC0>*<, & "ols., "ol. 5. Plates are re'rodu#ed in Kidi0Hu)erman, 'nvention de l'hystArie , $&%0$?;. :$. =he idea of tra#ing a linear history of hysteria through e/amining the history of religion is not solely a H,ren#hH tradition. Lilliam -. Hammond do#uments the de"elo'ment of hysteria from the religious manifestation in the middle ages 9saints as well as wit#hes< through the Hfasting girlsH of the late nineteenth #entury and the rise of a medi#ali6ed hysteria in his "piritualism and /ther &auses and &onditions of ,ervous Derangement 9Dew .or : G. P. Putnam8s Sons, $>C:<, here '. $55. =his is #learly 'art of what seems to )e a H,ren#hH traditionAat least as manifested in Char#ot and his influen#e on the Sal'WtriGre, sin#e Hammond8s "isual sour#es are 'rimarily from the Sal'WtriGre. :5. Eean Heit6, H!n 'ossFdFe de Ru)ens,H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpB*triCre $? 9$%*$<: 5C?0 5C:J Henry Beige, HKo#uments #om'lFmFntares sur les 'ossFdFs dans l8art,H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpAtriAre $: 9$%*&<: &$%0&5*, ?$$0?$5. :&. Eugen Holl`nder, Die !edi.in in der (lassischen !alerei 9Stuttgart: En e, $%5&<. :?. Eean Rousselot, ed., !edicine in $rt: $ &ultural History 9Dew .or : B#Graw0Hill, $%:C<. :;. -ndrew Ki# son Lhite, $ History of the )arfare of "cience %ith Theology in &hristendom 9Dew .or : K. -''leton, $>%:<. ::. Regnard, !aladies ApidAmi:ues de l'esprit . :C. Bourne"ille and Regnard, 'conographie photographi:ue de la "alpBtriCre . :>. Paul Regnard and B. H. Eohnson, lanches murales d'anatomie et de physiologie 9Paris: Kelagra"e, $>>;<. :%. -)raham Palingh, 't $fgeruc(t !om*$ansight der Tooverye: Daar in het bedrogh der ge%aande Toverye3 naa(t ontdec(t3 en emt ge.one -edenen en e#emplen de.er 1eu%e aange%e.en %ort 9-msterdam: -ndries "an Kamme, $C5;<. =he 'lates from Regnard are to )e found in the original as follows: Regnard '. $% c Palingh '. ;*J $: c 5;*J $C c 5:>J 5$ c 5C*J $> 9)oth< c 5>? 9)oth<J 5* c 5%>. 9@riginal in the Cornell !ni"ersity Lit#h#raft #olle#tion, B,($;:;(P$:($C5;.< C*. @n the general history of e'ile'sy see =em in, Falling "ic(ness . C$. @n the history of Hhystero0e'ile'syH see =hornton, Hypnotism3 Hysteria3 and 1pilepsy , and !. H. Peters, HHysteroe'ile'sie: Kie Kom)ination "on e'ile'tis#hen und hysteris#hen -nf`llen,H Fortschritte der ,eurologie3 sychiatrie3 und ihrer Gren.gebiete ?: 9$%C><: ?&*0?&%. C5. Cesare Lom)roso, &riminal !an 9Dew .or : G. P. Putnam8s Sons, $%$$<, :5. See the 'late a##om'anying summary of Lom)roso8s "iews on '. :5. C&. -s in B. Gon6ale6 E#he"erria, /n 1pilepsy: $natomo* athological and &linical ,otes 9Dew .or :

Lilliam Lood, $>C*< in whi#h all of the images are #ystologi#al. C?. Charles ,FrF, HDote sur un #as de mFlanodermie rF#urrente #he6 un F'ile'ti4ue a'athi4ue,H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBtriCre $* D.,. 9$>%C<: &&50&&%. C;. 3. 7alo)ra, HContri)ution a l8Ftude des gangrGnes #utanFes s'ontanFes #he6 les suIets hystFri4ues,H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBtriCre 5$ 9$%*><: ?>$0;*; 9'late o''osite '. ?>?<. C:. L. Pier#e Clar , H=etanoid Sei6ures in E'ile'sy,H $merican 2ournal of 'nsanity ;; 9$>%>0%%<: ;>&0 ;%& 9'late o''osite ;>%<. CC. See the image of the )rain in a #ase of HEa# sonianH e'ile'sy in Byrom Bramwell, "tudies in &linical !edicine: $ -ecord of "ome of the !ore 'nteresting &ases /bserved3 and of "ome of the -emar(s !ade3 at the $uthor's /ut*patient &linic in the 1dinburgh -oyal 'nfirmary 9Edin)urgh(London: .oung E. Pentland, $>>*<: 'late o''osite '. &55. Su#h images e"en a''ear in the wor generated at the Sal'W0triGre, as S.0,. Kanillo, HEn#F'halite 'aren#hymateuse limitFe de la su)stan#e grise, a"e# F'ile'sie 'artielle 9Ea# sonienne< #omme syndrome #lini4ue,H $rchives de neurologie : 9$>>&<: 5$C05&: with #ytologi#al images. C>. @n the missha'en hands 9as a sign of inherited #a'a#ity for e'ile'sy< see ,. Raymond and Pierre Eanet, HBalformations des mains en 8'in#es de humard,8H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBtriCre $* 9$>%C<: &:%0&C& 9an e/tra#t from their )oo ,Acroses et idAes fi#es 1Paris: ,. -l#an, $>%>2<J and in the same essay 9'late ?$< the 'late H-symetrie du #or's #he6 une e'ile'ti4ue.H C%. Lilliam -le/ander, The Treatment of 1pilepsy 9Edin)urgh and London: .oung E. Pentland, $>>%<, $*C. >*. @n )aldness see Charles ,FrF, HLa 'elade 'ost0F'ile'ti4ue,H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBtriCre > 9$>%;<: 5$?05$C 9'late o''osite '. 5$:<. >$. Kr. R`iu)er, HEin ,all "on 'eriodis#h wieder ehrender Haar"er`nderung )ei einem E'ile'ti er,H 1 7ircho%s 2 $rchiv fEr pathologische $natomie und hysiologie %C 9$>>?<: ;*0>& 9'late no. 5<. >5. See for e/am'le, -. Ba)erly, HE'ile'sy: - Brief Histori#al @"er"iew,H $lberta !edical Bulletin 5% 9$%:?<: :;0C5J the H-ntritts"orlesungH of the 'rofessor for 'ediatri#s at the !ni"ersity of Kiel, H. Koose, H-us der Ges#hi#hte der E'ile'sie,H !Enchener medi.inische )ochenschrift $*C 9$%:;<: $>%0 $%:J anon., 88-n#ient -ilment,H !D $% 9$%C;<: $;$0$:*J ,. L. Glat6ner, HKie Behandlung der E'ile'sien in 7ergangenheit und Gegenwart,H !edi.inische )ochenschrift &* 9$%C:<: $5&0$5>. >&. E.0B. Char#ot and P. Ri#her, HDote on Certain ,a#ts of Cere)ral -utomatism @)ser"ed in Hysteria during the Catale'ti# Period of Hy'notism,H 2ournal of ,ervous and !ental Disease $* 9$>>&<: $0$&, here '. % 9'lates o''osite '. $*<. >?. Lalter BenIamin, 'lluminationen 9,ran furt am Bain: Suhr am', $%:$<, $?>0$>?. >;. H. 7. Eggeling, HKie Leistungsf`hig eit 'hysiognomis#her Re onstru tions"ersu#he auf Grundlage des S#h`dels,H $rchiv fEr $nthropologie $5 9$%$&<: ??0?: 9with e/tensi"e 'lates<, and ,ran6 Stadtm[ller, HPur Beurteilund der 'lastis#hen Re onstru tionsmethode der Physiognomie auf dem S#h`del,H 6eitschrift fEr !orphologie und $nthropologie 55 9$%5$055<: 55C05C5. >:. ,ran#is Larner, H=he Study of the ,a#e as an 3nde/ of the Brain,H The British !edical 2ournal 5 9$>>5<: &$?0&$;. >C. Eames Shaw, The hysiognomy of !ental Disease and Degeneracy 9Bristol: Eohn Lright, $%*&<, '. ?*. >>. Gilman, "eeing the 'nsane , 5*?.

>%. Hermann Heinri#h Ploss, Das )eib in der ,atur* und 7Fl(er(unde: $nthropologische "tudien , 5 "ols. 9Lei'6ig: =. Grie)en, $>>;<. %*. -rthur ,. Hurst, HHysteri#al Left ,a#ial Paralysis, Right ,a#ial S'asm, Left Ptosis, Stra)ismus, -'honia, Kysarthria, Paralysis of the =ongue, Paralysis of Right -rm and Both Legs, and -m)lyo'ia following Gassing, Ra'idly Cured )y Persuasion and Re0edu#ation,H "eale*Hayne ,eurological "tudies $ 9$%$><: C>0>*. %$. Lalter Baer Leidler, HSome @#ular Banifestations of Hysteria,H 'nternational &linics , 55d ser. 5 9$%$5<: 5?%05:$ 9'late 1fig. ;2 o''osite '. 5;5<. %5. L. Lattes and -. Sa#erdote, H!n #aso di sindrome isteri#a o#ulare #on simula6ione di emorragia,H $rchivo di $ntropologia &riminale3 sichiatira3 !edicina legale e "cien.e $ffini ?C 9$%5C<: 5$0?C. %&. Eules Luys, HRe#her#hes nou"elles sur les hFmi'lFgies Fmoti"es,H 4'1n*cephale: 2ournal des !aladies !entales et ,erveuses $ 9$>>$<: &C>0&%> 9'late C<. %?. E. Siemerling, H!e)er einen mit Geistesstarung #om'li#irten ,all "on s#hwerer Hysterie, wel#her dur#h #ongenitale -nomaliern des Centralner"ensystem ausge6ei#hnet war,H &haritA*$nnalen $; 9$>%*<: &5;0&?> 9'late '. &?%<, and Grasset, HKes asso#iations hystFro0organi4ues: !n #as de s#lFrose en 'la4ues et hystFrie asso#iFes a"e# auto'sie,H ,ouveau montpellier mAdical , n.s. Su''l. $ 9$>%5<: 55C05;5 9'late C<. %;. Paul Steffens, H@)du#tions)efund )ei einem ,all "on Hystero0E'ile'sie,H $rchiv fEr sychiatrie und ,erven(ran(heiten &; 9$%*5<: ;?50;?: 9'late $5<. %:. C. yon Haglin and -. -l6heimer, HEin Beitrag 6ur Klini und 'athologis#hen -natomie der Lest'hal0Str[m'ells#hen Pseudos lerose,H 6eitschrift fEr die gesamte ,eurologie und sychiatrie > 9$%$$<: $>&05*% 9'late, '. 5*&<. %C. See Sander L. Gilman, "e#uality: $n 'llustrated History 9Dew .or : Eohn Liley U Sons, $%>%<, 5*;05$*. %>. Kr. Besnet, H-utogra'hisme et Stigmates,H -evue de l'hypnotisme et de la psychologie physiologi:ue ? 9$>>%0%*<: &5$0&&; 9'late 5<. %%. Eeannot Ha# el, Hd)er einen s#hweren ,all "on Hysterie,H "t. etersberger !edi.inische )ochenschrift $$ 9$>%?<: $:&0$:;. $**. S. Leir Bit#hell, HHysteri#al Ra'id Res'iration, Lith CasesJ Pe#uliar ,orm of Ru'ial S in Kisease in an Hysteri#al Loman,H Transactions of the &ollege of hysicians of hiladelphia $? 9$>%5<: 55>05&C 9'late, '. 5&&<. See also Kenneth Le"in, HS. Leir Bit#hell: 3n"estigation and 3nsights into Deurasthenia and Hysteria,H Transactions and "tudies of the &ollege of hysicians3 hiladelphia &> 9$%C$<: $:>0$C&. $*$. S. Rbna, Hd)er 8Her'es 6oster gangrhnosus hysteri#usAKa'osi,8H Fest*schrift ge%idmet !ori. 5aposi .um fEnfund.%an.ig;Whringen rofessoren 2ubilWum 97ienna and Lei'6ig: L. Braum[ller, $%**<, 5*%055$ 9'late $5<. $*5. =homas K. Sa"ill, H- Clini#al Le#ture on Hysteri#al S in Sym'toms and Eru'tions,H The 4ancet 9Eanuary &*, $%*?<: 5C&05C>. $*&. Kr. Bettmann, Hd)er die Hautaffe#tionen, der Hysteris#hen und den aty'is#hen Poster,H Deutsche 6eitschrift fEr ,ervenheil(unde $> 9$%**<: &?;0&>>J Gro"er Lilliam Lende, HKermatitis 7esi#o0 Bullosa et Gangrenosa Butilans,H Transactions of the $merican Dermatological $ssociation $; 9$%*$<: 5%0;*J Giuse''e Bertolini, 88Kue #asi di gangrena #utanea in sogetto isteri#o,H Giornale italiano delle malattie veneree e della pelle :* 9$%$%<: &$$0&55J Ro)erto Casa66a, HSull8im'ortan6a di fattori 'si#hi#i

in dermatologia,H Bollentino della societa medico*chirurgia3 avia ?? 9$%&*<: $$;0$:5. $*?. Kr. Ke SinFty, HE/amen des organes gFnitau/ d8une hystFri4ue,H $rchives de physiologie normale et pathologi:ue , 5d ser. & 9$>C:<: >*&0>*CJ idem, HE/amen des organes gFnitau/ d8un hystFri4ue,H Bulletins de la sociAtA anatomi:ue de aris , ?th ser. $ 9$>C:<: :C%0:>?J idem, HE/amen anatomi4ue des organes gFnitau/ d8une hystFri4ue,H 4e progrCs nAdical ; 9$>CC<: $$&0$$?. $*;. Eose B. Eorge, HCo/algia histFri#a,H -evista de la $sociacion !edica $rgentina &5 9$%5*<: $>05% 9'late o''osite '. >*<. $*:. Paul Ber#herie, HLe #on#e't de folie hystFri4ue a"ant Char#ot,H -evue international d'histoire de la psychiatrie $ 9$%>&<: ?C0;>. $*C. Eliogoro Guitti, H@sser"a6ioni Clini#he,H Giornale per "ervire ai rogressi della atologia e della Terapeutica , 5d ser. 55 9$>?C<: 55%05;> 9'late following '. 5;><. $*>. Paul Sollier, HContra#ture "olontaire #he6 un hystFri4ue,H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBtriCre ? 9$>%$<: $**0$*: 9'late o''osite '. $*:<. $*%. Georges Gilles de la =ourette and -. Kutil, HContri)ution a l8Ftude des trou)les tro'hi4ues dans l8hystFrie,H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBtriCre 5 9$>>%<: 5;$05>5. $$*. -rthur ,. Hurst and S. H. Lil inson, HHysteri#al -nhsthesia, Lith S'e#ial Referen#e to the Hysteri#al Element in the Sym'toms -rising from 3nIuries to the Peri'heral Der"es,H "eale*Hayne ,eurological "tudies $ 9$%$>0$%<: $C$0$>? 9'late &><J Lalter Riese, HPwei ,`ille yon hysteris#h#n @edem,H $rchiv fEr sychiatrie und ,erven(ran(heiten ;: 9$%$:<: 55>05&? 9'lates &0?<. $$$. Stewart, H=wo Le#tures on the Kiagnosis of Hysteria,H ?;C0?C$, :;C0::; 9'late $C<. $$5. 7ittorio Codelu''i, HSo'ra un #aso di grande isterismo mas#hile atta#hi d8istero e'ilessa #essati 'er suggestlone,H -ivista sperimentale di freniatria e medicina legale delle aliena.ioni mentali $& 9$>>C0>><: ?$?0?5?. See also B. Carrieu, HSyndrome 7aso0Boteur dans l8HystFrie,H !ontpelier mAdicale , ser. 5- $ 9$>%5<: ;??0;;&, ;::0;C5, ;>&0;>%J Luigi -))amondi, HSu di un #aso d8isterismo mashile,H $nnall di medicina navale $ 9$>%;<: $>;05*?J K. ,errier, HHFmi'0lFgie et mutisme hystFri4ues,H &ongres fran+ais de mAdicine & 9$>%:0%C<: &C*0&C;J Botta Re6ende, 88Refle/es na histeria,H $r:uivas brasileros de medicina $: 9$%5:<: ;&0C?. $$&. Henri Lamar4ue and ^mile Bitot, HSur un #as d8hystFrotraumatisme #he6 l8homme,H Bulletins de la sociAtA d'anatomie et de physiologie normales et pathologi:ues de bordeau# % 9$>>><: 5?505;C 9'late with figs. : and ><. $$?. Georges Gilles de la =ourette, HL8-ttitude et la mar#he dans l8hemi'lFgie hystFri4ue,H ,ouvelle iconographie de la "alpBriCre $ 9$>>><: $0$5 9'lates o''osite '. > and '. $$<. $$;. Byrom Bramwell, HClini#al Le#ture on a Case of Hysteri#al Contra#ture,H 1dinburgh !edical 2ournal , n.s. $ 9$>%C<: $5>0$&> 9'late "<. $$:. -. Steindler, H@n Hysteri#al Contra#tures,H 'nternational &linics , ?th ser. ?; 9$%&;<: 55$055% 9fig. 5, o''osite '. 555<. $$C. Peter Ka"idson, H!nusual Cases at the 3nfirmary for Children,H 4iverpool !edico*&hirurgical 2ournal &; 9$%$;<: 5%C0&*> 9'late ?<. $$>. Prin#e P. Bar er, H=he Kiagnosis and =reatment of Hysteri#al Paralysis,H United "tates 7eteran's Bureau !edical Bulletin : 9$%&*<: ::&0:C* 9three 'lates following '. :C*<. $$%. See, for e/am'le, the "isual re'resentation of the un#ons#ious in the essay )y L. Laurent, HKe l8Ftat mental des hystFri4ues,H $rchives clini:ue de Bordeau# $ 9$>%5<: ?$:0?&& 9'late o''osite '. ?&*<.

$5*. -s in the image of 'sy#hi# for#es in H. Dishi, HBale Hysteria Cured )y SuggestionH 9in Ea'anese<, &hugai ';i "hinpo ?*; 9$>%C<: ;0%J ?*: 9$>%C<: $$0$: 9image on '. %<. $5$. See the e"aluation of o'erations on the hearing of the hysteri# in K. Rudol'hy, H@hro'erationen )ei Hysteris#hen,H 6eitschrift fEr /hrenheil(unde und fEr die 5ran(heiten der 4uft%ege ?? 9$%*&<: 5*%055$ 9'late $C, o''osite '. 55*<. $55. =his is the HmythH that ,ran Sulloway 9 Freud: Biologist of the !ind 1Dew .or : Basi#, $%C%2, P. ;%5< wishes to identify as HByth @ne,H the 'rimal myth, in ,reud8s falsifi#ation of his own history. 3t is #lear that this 9and the other 88mythsH< are fas#inating insights into ,reud8s understanding of his own #areer and 'ro"ide the material for inter'retation, not #ensure. $5&. ,reud, "1 5*:$;. $5?. 3n this #onte/t see Eohn Barshall =ownsend, HStereoty'es of Bental 3llness: - Com'arison with Ethni# Stereoty'es,H &ulture3 !edicine and sychiatry & 9$%C%<: 5*;055%. See B. E. Gutmann, Uber den heutigen "tand der -asse* und 5ran(heitsfrage der 2uden 9B[n#hen: Rudol'h B[ller U Steini# e, $%5*<, and Heinri#h Singer, $llgemeine und spe.ielle 5ran(heitslehre der 2uden 9Lei'6ig: Benno Konegen, $%*?<. ,or a more modern analysis of the HmythsH and HrealitiesH of the diseases attri)uted to the Eews see Ri#hard B. Goodman, Genetic Disorders among the 2e%ish eople 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%C%<. $5;. Bauri#e ,ish)erg, The 2e%s: $ "tudy of -ace and 1nvironment 9Dew .or : Lalter S#ott, $%$$<, :. Com'are his statement in The 2e%ish 1ncyclopedia , $5 "ols. 9Dew .or : ,un U Lagnalls, $%*?<, s.". HDer"ous Kiseases,H %:55;055C, here '. 55;: HSome 'hysi#ians of large e/'erien#e among Eews ha"e e"en gone so far as to state that most of them are neurastheni# and hysteri#al.H $5:. ,ish)erg, HDer"ous Kiseases,H %:55;. $5C. 3)id. $5>. 3)id. $5:. ,ish)erg, HDer"ous Kiseases,H %:55;. $5C. 3)id. $5>. 3)id. $5:. ,ish)erg, HDer"ous Kiseases,H %:55;. $5C. 3)id. $5>. 3)id. $5%. ,ish)erg, The 2e%s , &5?0&5;. $&*. HLa 'o'ulation israFlite fournit M elle seule 'res4ue tout le #ontingent des hystFri4ues mides,H ,ulgen#e Raymond, 4'Ltude des !aladies du "ystCme ,erveu# en -ussie 9Paris: @. Koin, $>>%<, C$. $&$. -s 4uoted, for e/am'le, in Hugo Ho''e, 5ran(heiten und "terblich(eit bei 2uden und ,icht;uden 9Berlin: S. Cal"ary U Co., $%*&<, 5:. $&5. roto(olle der )iener sychoanalytischen 7ereinigung , ed. Herman Dun)erg and Ernst ,edern, ? "ols. 9,ran furt am Bain: ,is#her, $%C:0>$<, 5:?*J translation from !inutes of the 7ienna sychoanalytic "ociety , trans. B. Dun)erg, ? "ols. 9Dew .or : 3nternational !ni"ersities Press, $%:50 C;<, 5:??. $&&. E.0B. Char#ot, 4e+ons du mardi a la "alpBtriCre , 5 "ols. 9Paris: ProgrGs mFdi#al, $>>%<, 5:&?C0

&;&. See the translation of the oli(linische 7ortrWge von rof. 2. !. &harcot , trans. Sigmund ,reud 1"ol. $2 and Ba/ Kahane 1"ol. 52 9Lei'6ig: Keuti# e, $>%50%;<, 5:5%%0&*?. $&?. H. Strauss, HEr ran ungen dur#h -l ohol und Sy'hilis )ei den Euden,H 6eitschrift fEr Demographie und "tatisti( der 2uden , ? D.,. 9$%5C<: &&0&%, #hart on P. &;. $&;. Bori6 Benedi t, Die "eelen(unde des !enschen als reine 1rfahrungs%issenschaft 9Lei'6ig: @. R. Reisland, $>%;<, $>:0$>C, 55&055:. $&:. Ce#il ,. Beadles, H=he 3nsane Eew,H 2ournal of !ental "cience ?: 9$%**<: C&:. $&C. ,ran G. Hyde, HDotes on the He)rew 3nsane,H $merican 2ournal of 'nsanity ;> 9$%*$0$%*5<: ?C*. $&>. Lilliam =ha# eray, )or(s , $* "ols. 9Dew .or : 3nternational Boo Co., n.d.<, $*:$:05>, here '. $C. $&%. Cited 9with 'hotogra'h< in Eose'h Ea#o)s, "tudies in 2e%ish "tatistics 9London: K. Dutt, $>%$<, /l. $?*. Ro)ert Burton, The $natomy of !elancholy , ed. Hol)roo Ea# son 9Dew .or : 7intage, $%CC<: 5$$05$5. $?$. Red#liffe D. Salaman, B. K., HHeredity and the Eew,H 1ugenics -evie% & 9$%$5<: $%*. $?5. Gutmann, Uber den heutigen "tand , $C. $?&. ,reud, "1 ;::?%J ?:5%&J ?:$&%J ;:?%?. $??. Henry Beige, 1tude sur certains nAuropathes voyageurs: 4e ;uif*errant a la "alpBtriCre 9Paris: L. Battaille, $>%&<. @n Beige and this te/t see Ean Goldstein, H=he Landering Eew and the Pro)lem of Psy#hiatri# -nti0Semitism in ,in0de0SiG#le ,ran#e,H 2ournal of &ontemporary History 5* 9$%>;<: ;5$0 ;;5. $?;. Ri#hard -ndree, 6ur 7ol(s(unde der 2uden 9Lei'6ig: 7elhagen U Klasing, $>>$<, 5?05;, #ited )y Bauri#e ,ish)erg, HBaterials for the Physi#al -nthro'ology of the Eastern Euro'ean Eew,H !emoires of the $merican $nthropological $ssociation $ 9$%*;0$%*C<: :0C. $?:. Beadles, H3nsane Eew,H C&5. $?C. ,ish)erg, The 2e%s , &?%. $?>. See L. Cherto , H@n @)Ie#ti"ity in the History of Psy#hothera'y: =he Kawn of Kynami# Psy#hology 9Sigmund ,reud, E. B. Char#ot<,H 2ournal of ,ervous and !ental Diseases $;& 9$%C$<:C$0 >*, as well as Charles Coulston Gillis'ie, The 1dge of /b;ectivity: $n 1ssay in the History of "cientific 'deas 9Prin#eton, D.E.: Prin#eton !ni"ersity Press, $%:*<. $?%. George Her)ert Bead, !ovements of Thought in the ,ineteenth &entury 9Chi#ago: !ni"ersity of Chi#ago Press, $%&:<, $C:. $;*. ,reud, "1 $:$C. $;$. =o)y Gelfand, H8Bon Cher Ko#teur ,reud8: Char#ot8s !n'u)lished Corres'onden#e to ,reud, $>>>0$>%&,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine :5 9$%>><: ;:&0;>>, here '. ;C$. $;5. ,reud, "1 5::5%0?&. Lhile this 'a'er was 'u)lished only in $>%&, it was #on#e'tuali6ed if not written )efore ,reud left Paris in $>>:. $;&. =o)y Gelfand, HChar#ot8s Res'onse to ,reud8s Re)ellion,H 2ournal of the History of 'deas ;* 9$%>%<: 5%&0&*C. $;?. See the dis#ussion in my Difference and athology: "tereotypes of "e#uality3 -ace3 and !adness

93tha#a, D...: Cornell !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<, $;o0$:5. See also ."es Che"alier, H,reud et l8antisemitismeAIalousie,H $mitiA ;udAo*chretienne de France &C 9$%>;<: ?;0;*. $;;. Lesley G. Borgan, H,reud8s Lithogra'h of Char#ot: - Histori#al Dote,H Bulletin of the History of !edicine :& 9$%>%<: 5:>05C5. $;:. ,reud, "1 $:%>. $;C. See, for e/am'le, George ,rederi# Krin a, The Birth of ,eurosis: !yth3 !alady and the 7ictorians 9Dew .or : Simon U S#huster, $%>?<, $*>0$55. See also Esther ,is#her0Hom)urger, Die traumatische ,eurose: 7om somatischen .um so.ialen 4eiden 9Bern: Hans Hu)er, $%C;<. $;>. Sir Clifford -ll)utt, HDer"ous Kisease and Bodern Life,H &ontemporary -evie% :C 9$>%;<: 5$?0 5$;. $;%. C. E. Brown0SF4uard, H@n the Hereditary =ransmission of Effe#ts of Certain 3nIuries to the Der"ous System,H The 4ancet 9Eanuary 5, $>C;<: C0>. $:*. -s in Eohn Eri# Eri#hsen, /n &oncussion of the "pine3 ,ervous "hoc(3 and /ther /bscure 'n;uries to the ,ervous "ystem in their &linical and !edico*4egal $spects 9Dew .or : Lilliam Lood, $>>:<, 5, or in Hans S#hmaus, HPur Casuisti und 'athologis#hen -natomie der R[# enmar sers#h[tterung,H $rchiv fEr (linische &hirurgie ?5 9$>%$<: $$50$55 with 'lates. $:$. Com'are @tto Binswanger, Hysterie 97ienna: Keuti# e, $%*?<, >5. $:5. Ri#hard "on Krafft0E)ing, sychopathia "e#ualis: $ !edico*Forensic "tudy , red. ed., trans. Harry E. Lede# 9Dew .or : Putnam, $%:;<, 5?. $:&. -ugust ,orel, The "e#ual 8uestion: $ "cientific3 sychological3 Hygienic and "ociological "tudy , trans. K. ,. Barshall 9Dew .or : Physi#ians U Surgeons Boo Co., $%5;<, &&$0&&5. $:?. Ri#hard "on Krafft0E)ing, Te#t*Boo( of 'nsanity , trans. Charles Gil)ert Chaddo# 9Philadel'hia: ,. -. Ka"is, $%*?<, $?&. $:;. Bartin Engl`nder, Die auffallend hWufigen 5ran(heitserscheinungen der ;E*dischen -asse 97ienna: E. L. Polla , $%*5<, $5. $::. Gilman, Difference and athology , $>50$>?. $:C. =he dis#ussion of this #ase is do#umented in Charles Bernheimer and Claire Kahane, eds., 'n Dora's &ase: Freud\Hysteria\Feminism 9Dew .or : Colum)ia !ni"ersity Press, $%>;<. See also Kianne Hunter, HHysteria, Psy#hoanalysis, and ,eminism: =he Case of -nna @.,H Feminist "tudies % 9$%>&<: ?:;0?>>J Baria Ramas, H,reud8s Kora, Kora8s Hysteria: =he Degation of a Loman8s Re)ellion,H Feminist "tudies : 9$%>*<: ?C50;$*J -rnold -. Rogow, H- ,urther ,ootnote to ,reud8s 8,ragment of an -nalysis of a Case of Hysteria,8H 2ournal of the $merican sychoanalytical $ssociation 5: 9$%C><: &&*0&;:J Hannah S. Ke# er, Freud3 Dora and 7ienna MRQQ 9Dew .or : ,ree Press, $%%*<. $:>. Catherine ClFment and HFlGne Ci/ous, 4a ;eune nAe 9Paris: $*($>, $%C;<, 5>&. $:%. ,reud, "1 5:$&?, n. 5 9added in $%5?<. $C*. See the dis#ussion in Ro)ert S. Listri#h, The 2e%s of 7ienna in the $ge of Fran. 2oseph 9@/ford: @/ford !ni"ersity Press, $%>%<, ?>&0?>;. $C$. Bertha Pa''enheim 9writing as P. Bertold<, 6ur 2udenfrage in Gali.ien 9,ran furt am Bain: Knauer, $%**<, 5&. $C5. Ea#4ues La#an, H3nter"ention on =ransferen#e,H re'rinted in Bernheimer and Kahane, 'n Dora's

&ase , %50$*;. @n the wor ing out of the im'li#ations of this theme see the essays )y Deil Hert6, HKora8s Se#rets, ,reud8s =e#hni4uesH 9''. 55$05?5< and =oril Boi, HRe'resentation of Patriar#hyH 9''. $>$0$%%<, re'rinted in Bernheimer and Kahane, 'n Dora's &ase . $C&. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $C?. 3)id., C:$%. $C;. 3)id. $C:. 3)id., C:5$. $C&. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $C?. 3)id., C:$%. $C;. 3)id. $C:. 3)id., C:5$. $C&. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $C?. 3)id., C:$%. $C;. 3)id. $C:. 3)id., C:5$. $C&. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $C?. 3)id., C:$%. $C;. 3)id. $C:. 3)id., C:5$. $CC. See the dis#ussion of the inheritan#e of disease in the se"enteenth #ha'ter of Paolo Bantega66a8s study of the hygiene of lo"e, in the German translation, Die Hygiene der 4iebe , trans. R. =euts#her 9Eena: Hermann Costeno)le, 1$>CC2<, &::. $C>. ,reud, "1 C:C>. $C%. Bantega66a notes this 4uite literally, stating that diseases su#h as sy'hilis, #an#er, and madness #an merge one into the other through the 'ower of the inherited #hara#teristi#sJ see his Die Hygiene der 4iebe , trans. =euts#her, &:%. $>*. ,reud, "1 C:$:0$C. $>$. 3)id., n. 5. $>*. ,reud, "1 C:$:0$C. $>$. 3)id., n. 5. $>5. Eose'h Ba)ins i, HSur le rFfle/e #utanF 'lantaire dans #ertains affe#tions organi4ues du systGme ner"eu/ #entral,H &omptes rendus hebdomadaires des sAances de la "ocietA de biologie 9Paris< ?> 9$>%:<: 5*C05*>. $>&. @n the history of this #on#e't see L. Er), Hd)er das 8intermittirende Hin en8 und andere ner"ase Starungen in ,olge "on Gef`sser ran ungen,H Deutsche 6eitschrift fEr ,ervenheil(unde $& 9$>%><: $0 CC. $>?. P. @li"ier and -. Hali'rF, HClaudi#ation intermittente #he6 un homme hystFri4ue atteint de 'ouls

lent 'ermanent,H 4a ,ormandie !Adicale $$ 9$>%:<: 5$05> 9'late on '. 5&<. $>;. ,reud, "1 C:$*$0$*5. $>:. 3)id., C:$*5. $>;. ,reud, "1 C:$*$0$*5. $>:. 3)id., C:$*5. $>C. ,eli/ Keuts#h, H- ,ootnote to ,reud8s 8,ragment of an -nalysis of a Case of Hysteria,8H re'rinted in Bernheimer and Kahane, 'n Dora's &ase , ?$. $>>. Eose'h Rohrer, 7ersuch Eber die ;Edischen Be%ohnener der Fsterreichischen !onarchie 97ienna: n.'., $>*?<, 5:. $>%. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $%*. 3)id. $%$. 3)id. $%5. 3)id. $%&. 3)id., C::?. $%?. 3)id., C:%*. $%;. 3)id., C:%$. $>%. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $%*. 3)id. $%$. 3)id. $%5. 3)id. $%&. 3)id., C::?. $%?. 3)id., C:%*. $%;. 3)id., C:%$. $>%. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $%*. 3)id. $%$. 3)id. $%5. 3)id. $%&. 3)id., C::?. $%?. 3)id., C:%*. $%;. 3)id., C:%$. $>%. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $%*. 3)id. $%$. 3)id. $%5. 3)id. $%&. 3)id., C::?.

$%?. 3)id., C:%*. $%;. 3)id., C:%$. $>%. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $%*. 3)id. $%$. 3)id. $%5. 3)id. $%&. 3)id., C::?. $%?. 3)id., C:%*. $%;. 3)id., C:%$. $>%. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $%*. 3)id. $%$. 3)id. $%5. 3)id. $%&. 3)id., C::?. $%?. 3)id., C:%*. $%;. 3)id., C:%$. $>%. ,reud, "1 C:>?. $%*. 3)id. $%$. 3)id. $%5. 3)id. $%&. 3)id., C::?. $%?. 3)id., C:%*. $%;. 3)id., C:%$. $%:. Sigmund ,reud, HSome Early !n'u)lished Letters,H trans. 3lse S#heier, 'nternational 2ournal of sychoanalysis ;* 9$%:%<: ?5*. $%C. See my 2e%ish "elf*Hatred: $nti*"emitism and the Hidden 4anguage of the 2e%s 9Baltimore: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity Press, $%>:<. $%>. Cited )y Saul ,riedl`nder, 5urt Gerstein: The $mbiguity of Good , trans. Charles ,ullman 9Dew .or : -lfred -. Kno'f, $%:%<, $?>0$?%. $%%. Bartin ,reud, HLho Las ,reudNH in Eosef ,raen el, ed., The 2e%s of $ustria: 1ssays on Their 4ife3 History and Destruction 9London: 7allentine, Bit#hell, $%:C<, 5*5. See also ,ran6 Ko)ler, HKie Butter Sigmund ,reuds,H Bulletin des 4eo Baec( 'nstituts $% 9$%:5<: $?%0$C*. 5**. ,reud, "1 C:;$. 5*$. 3)id., C:&:, n. $. 5*5. 3)id., C::5. 5**. ,reud, "1 C:;$.

5*$. 3)id., C:&:, n. $. 5*5. 3)id., C::5. 5**. ,reud, "1 C:;$. 5*$. 3)id., C:&:, n. $. 5*5. 3)id., C::5. 5*&. @n Bantega66a see Gio"anni Landu##i, Dar%inismo a Firen.e: Tra scien.a e ideologia XMOPQ* MRQQ < 9,loren#e: Leo S. @ls#h i, $%CC<, $*C0$5>. 5*?. =he authori6ed German editions of Bantega66a that ,reud and 3da Bauer #ould ha"e read are: Die hysiologie der 4iebe , trans. Eduard Engel 9Eena: Hermann Costeno)le, $>CC<J Die Hygiene der 4iebe , trans. R. =euts#her 9Eena: Hermann Costeno)le, $>CC<J $nthropologisch*(ulturhistorische "tudien Eber die GeschlechtsverhWltnisse des !enschen 9Eena: Hermann Costeno)le, $>%$<. 5*;. Re'rinted in Bernheimer and Kahane, 'n Dora's &ase , 5C&. 5*:. =he rele"ant 'assages in the German edition, $nthropologisch*(ulturhis*torische "tudien are on ''. $&50$&C. -ll the 4uotations from Bantega66a are from the English translation: Paolo Bantega66a, The "e#ual -elations of !an(ind , trans. Samuel Putnam 9Dew .or : Eugeni#s Pu)lishing Co., $%&><. 5*C. -rmand0Louis0Eose'h BFraud, Ltude de athologie &omparAe: 1ssai sur la pathologie des sAmites 9Bordeau/: Paul Cassignol, $>%C<, ;;. 5*>. =here is no #om'rehensi"e study of the German de)ates on #ir#um#ision. See E. -l "ist, HGes#hi#hte der Cir#um#ision,H 2anus &* 9$%5:<: >:0$*?, $;50$C$. 5*%. See the dis#ussion )y Kr. Bam)erger, HKie Hygiene der Bes#hneidung,H in Die Hygiene der 2uden: 'm $nschlu ) an die internationale Hygiene0-usstellung, ed. Ba/ Grunwald 9Kresden: 7erlag der historis#hen -)tteilung der internationale Hygiene0-usstellung, $%$$<, $*&0$$5 9on the Eewish side<, and L. Hammer, HPur Bes#hneidungsfrage,H 6eitschrift fEr BahnWr.te $ 9$%5:<: 5;? 9on the non0 Eewish side<. 5$*. See for e/am'le the dis#ussion )y Em. Kohn in the !ittheilung des art.*lichen 7ereines in )ien & 9$>C?<: $:%0$C5 9on the Eewish side<, and Kr. Klein, HKie rituelle Cir#um#ision, eine sanit`ts'oli6eili#he ,rage,H $llgemeine !edi.inische &entral*6eitung 55, 9$>;&<: &:>0&:% 9on the non0 Eewish side<. 5$$. Ba/ Grunwald, 7ienna , Eewish Communities Series 9Philadel'hia: Eewish Pu)li#ation So#iety of -meri#a, $%&:<, &C:. 5$5. See the letter to SVndor ,eren#6i of : @#to)er $%$* in whi#h ,reud wrote: HSin#e ,liess8s #ase, with the o"er#oming of whi#h you re#ently saw me o##u'ied, that need has )een e/tinguished. - 'art of my homose/ual #athe/is has )een withdrawn and made use of to enlarge my own ego. 3 ha"e su##eeded where the 'aranoia# fails.H Cited in Ernst Eones, The 4ife and )or( of "igmund Freud , & "ols. 9Dew .or : Basi# Boo s, $%;;<, 5:>&. 5$&. See the dis#ussion in Gilman, 2e%ish "elf*Hatred , 5%&05%?. 5$?. Ludwi ,le# , 1ntstehung und 1nt%ic(lung einer %issenschaftlichen Tatsache 9$%&;J ,ran furt am Bain: Suhr am', $%>*<. 3 am inde)ted to ,le# 8s wor for the )asi# #on#e'tual stru#ture 'resented in this essay. 5$;. =heodor ,rits#h, Handbuch der 2udenfrage 9Lei'6ig: Hammer, $%&;<, ?*>. 5$:. Bertha Pa''enheim with Sara Ra)inowits#h, 6ur 4age der ;Edischen Be*vFl(erung in Gali.ien:

-eise*1indrEc(e und 7orschlWge .ur Besserung der 7erhWltnisse 9,ran furt am Bain: Deuer ,ran furter 7erlag, $%*?<, ?:0;$. 5$C. -dol'h Hitler, !ein 5ampf , trans. Ral'h Banheim 9Boston: Houghton Bifflin Co., $%?&<, 5?C. 5$>. Com'are Edward E. Bristow, rostitution and re;udice: The 2e%ish Fight against )hite "lavery3 MONQ*MR[R 9@/ford: Clarendon, $%>5<. 5$%. D. Bala)an and -. Bolots#he , HProgressi"e Paralyse )ei den Be"a$0 erungen der Krim,H $llgemeine 6eitschrift fEr sychiatrie %? 9$%&$<: &C&0&>&. 55*. H. Budul, HBeitrag 6ur "erglei#henden Rassen'sy#hiatrie,H !onatsschrift fEr sychiatrie und ,eurologie &C 9$%$;<: $%%05*?. 55$. Ba/ Si#hel, HKie Paralyse der Euden in se/uologis#her Beleu#htung,H 6eitschrift fEr "e#ual%issenschaft C 9$%$%05*<: %>0$$?. 555. H. Strauss, HEr ran ungen dur#h -l ohol und Sy'hilis )ei den Euden,H 6eitschrift fEr Demographie und "tatisti( der 2uden ? 9$%5C<: &&0&%. 55&. Houston Stewart Cham)erlain, Foundations of the ,ineteenth &entury , trans. Eohn Lees, 5 "ols. 9London: Eohn Lane, $%$*<, $:&>>0&>%. 55?. Dathan Birn)aum, Hd)er Houston Stewart Cham)erlain,H in his $us*ge%Whlte "chriften .ur ;Edischen Frage , "ol. 5 9C6ernowit6: 7erlag der Bu#hhandlung Kr. Birn)aum U Kr. Kohut, $%$*<, 5*$. 55;. -dam G. de Gurows i, $merica and 1urope 9Dew .or : K. -''leton, $>;C<, $CC. 55:. Saul K. Pado"er, ed. and trans., The 4etters of 5arl !ar# 9Englewood Cliffs, D.E.: Prenti#e0Hall, $%C%<, ?;%. 55C. L. L. Ko'', HBeo)a#htung an Hal)Iuden in Berliner S#hulen,H 7ol( und -asse $* 9$%&;<: &%5. 55>. B. Ler#he, HBeo)a#htung deuts#h0I[dis#her Rassen reu6ung an Berliner S#hulen,H Die medi.inische )elt 9$C Se'tem)er $%5C<: $555. 55%. )ertphilosophie und 1thi(: Die Frage nach den "inn des 4ebens als Grundlage einer )ertordnung 97ienna: L. Braum[ller, $%&%<, 5%.

$#N!RIBU!#RS
Sander L. Gilman is the Goldwin Smith Professor of Humane Studies at Cornell !ni"ersity and 'rofessor of the history of 'sy#hiatry at the Cornell Bedi#al College. He is the author or editor of o"er thirty )oo s, the most re#ent )eing The 2e%'s Body 9$%%$< and 'nscribing the /ther 9$%%$<. He is the author of the )asi# study of the "isual stereoty'ing of the mentally ill, "eeing the 'nsane 9$%>5<, as well as the standard study 2e%ish "elf*Hatred 9$%>:<. Kuring $%%*0$%%$ he ser"ed as the 7isiting Histori#al S#holar at the Dational Li)rary of Bedi#ine, Bethesda, Baryland. Helen King is senior le#turer at St. Katharine8s College, Li"er'ool 3nstitute of Higher Edu#ation, and is interested in the traditions of Hi''o#rati# medi#ine in the an#ient world. She has written se"eral arti#les a)out the history of gyne#ology and o)stetri#s, Hi''o#rates, and Gree medi#ine. Roy Porter is reader in the so#ial history of medi#ine at the Lell#ome 3nstitute for the History of Bedi#ine in London and the author of "arious arti#les and )oo s dealing with the so#ial history of medi#ine. His most re#ent )oo s in#lude 'n "ic(ness and in Health and atient's rogress 9)oth with Korothy Porter<, and !ind Forg'd !anacles: !adness in 1ngland from the -estoration to the -egency

9$%>C<, whi#h won the Leo Gershoy Pri6e for $%>>. G. S. Rousseau is 'rofessor of English and eighteenth0#entury studies at !CL-. He has written or edited )oo s a)out the literature and medi#ine, and the literature and s#ien#e, of early Bodern Euro'e, es'e#ially during the Enlightenment. His #olle#ted essays were 'u)lished in + ?;? + three "olumes in $%%$ as 1nlightenment Borders3 1nlightenment &rossings , and erilous 1nlightenment . Elaine S o!alter , 'rofessor of English at Prin#eton !ni"ersity, is also the #urrent #hair of the English de'artment and the author of wor s dealing with feminist thought, 7i#torian medi#al history, and literary theory. Bost re#ently, she has 'u)lished The ,e% Feminist &riticism: 1ssays on )omen3 4iterature3 and Theory 9$%>&<, The Female !alady: )omen3 !adness3 and 1nglish &ulture3 MO[Q* MROQ 9$%>;<, and "e#ual $narchy: Gender and &ulture at the Fin de "iCcle 9$%%$<. + ?;; +

IN,E=
%
-)raham, Karl, &5? -)raham, Di#olas, %; -)ri#osoff, Glafira, 4'hystArie au# H7''e et H7'''e "iCcles 9$>%C<, &$& -)se, K. L., > -C=0!P, -3KS a#ti"ist grou', &&? -dair, Kr. Eames Ba ittri# , $5? , $:: 0$:C -dams, ,ran#is, C 0> -ddams, Eane 9$>:*0$%&;<, -meri#an so#ial wor er and author, 5%% -ddison, Eose'h, $:* -ddyman, B. E., $5C , $5% -dorno, =heodor, 5&C -dultery, &$C , &$% -estheti#s of the fa#e of the hysteri#, #on#e't of asymmetry in, &>? -etius of -mida, &C 0&%, ?? , ?: 0?C -ffe#tation 9and hysteria<, $:& -fri#an0-meri#ans, distrust of 'sy#hothera'y in the $%:*s and $%C*s, &&? H-gue,H the, during early modern England, 55;

-3KS, / , /"i , $*: , $$* , $?? , $C; , &&? 0&&; -l#oholism, 55% -le/ander, Lilliam, image of e'ile'ti# fa#es from The Treatment of 1pilepsy , &>$ J use of 'hotogra'hy for the study of hysteria, &C% -le/ander of =ralles, his twel"e0"olume Therapeutica , ?: -le/andria, medi#al s#hool at, &; , ?; , ?% 8-li i)n al08-))as al0BaIusi, nown in Euro'e as Holy -))as, ;$ 0;&J 5amil , ;; 0;:J 4iber antegni , ;; J 4iber -egius , ;; -li i)n Ra))an at0=a)ari 9>$*0>:$<, Firda%s al hi(ma 9Paradise of Lisdom<, ;* -ll)utt, Sir Clifford, Professor of Bedi#ine at Cam)ridge !ni"ersity, his essay 'u)lished in the &ontemporary -evie% 9$>%;<, ?$C -l's, the, 5%: -l6heimer, -., 'a'er on #ere)ral 'lagues, &>: -meri#an Re"olution, the, %5 -mnesia, &55 -nimal magnetism, $>? -nimal s'irits, the, $?5 , $?; 0$?>, $;* 0$;$, $;> , $C& , 5&: -ndree, Ri#hard, #itation )y ,ish)erg a)out the Eews8 sus#e'ti)ility to hysteria, ?$5 0?$; -nesthesia, $* -nna @., German feminist leader, 5%* , &$; 0&$:, &$> , &&5 , &&? , ?$% 0?5*J 'n the -ummage "tore 9$>%*<, &$: J translation of Bary Lollstone#raft8s 7indica* + ?;: + tion of the -ights of )omen into German, &$: J 'lay )oman's -ights , &$: -'noia, a)sen#e of )reath, ;> -''etite, $* , $% , ;5 -ragon, Louis 9$>%C0<, ,ren#h 'oet and no"elist, "iew a)out -ugustine, &$5 -retaeus of Ca''ado#ia, &; , &C 0&%, ?$ , ?& , ;; , :$ , $*? J H@n hysteri(e pni# ,H $; J H@f the Causes and Sym'toms of -#ute Kiseases,H &>

-risto'hanes8 'lay Frogs , &5 -ristotle, $C , 5C , &* 0&$, && , ;* -rmstrong0Eones, Kr. Ro)ert, &5? -rt, early medie"al religious, &:C -rt Dou"eau, 5%5 -rtemidorus, theorist of dreams, Dream Boo( , &$ $rticella , medi#al te/t)oo used at Salerno, ;C 0;>J versio antigua , ;> J traductio nova , ;> -ryans, ?&; -stronomy, Gallilean, $*> -stru#, Eean, $:> -sylum, the, 5?% , 5;: , &;: J reforms of at the turn of the nineteenth #entury, 5:$ -thenian #ity states, the, $*; -ugustan self0fashioning, $;> 0$:; -ugustine, 'atient at the Sal'WtriGre hos'ital for fi"e years, &$$ 0&$&J $ugustine: Big Hysteria , 'lay a)out -ugustine staged in $%%$ in London, &$& -ugustine, Saint, Bisho' of Hi''o, i/ -usten, Eane, $&? J "ense and "ensibility , $:? J fi#tional #hara#ter Br. Lood0house, 5%? J Barianne Kashwood, $:? -"i#enna, ;%

B
Ba)ins i, Eosef, 5&* , 5:; , &:* 0&::, ?5& Ba#on, Roger 9#. $5$?0$5%?<, $&% Ba#teriology, 5?% Bagli"i, Georgio, 3talian 'hysi#ian, $?: , $;$ , $;: , $C; , 5?; J dis#ussion of =he ractice of hysic(3 reduc'd to the ancient )ay of /bservations3 containing a ;ust arallel bet%een the )isdom of the $ncients and the Hypothesis's of !odern hysicians , $?> de Baillou, Guillaume 9$;&>0$:$:<, :& Ba htin, Bi hail, -abelais and His )orld , $5& Ball in the )ody, $& , 55

Ban ers, Boston, 5%? Bar er, Prin#e P., use of Char#ot8s nosologi#al #ategories, &%& , &%C J images showing the illusion of mo"ement re'resenting the hysteri# from H=he Kiagnosis and =reatment of Hysteri#al Paralysis,H &%% 0?*$ Bart, P. B., ? Bartlett, Deil, study of @s#ar Lilde, 5%5 Batault, Emile, 5>% , &*> Bath, England, $:> Battaille, Louis, 'hotogra'h HKeu/ Cas d8-nore/ie HystFri4ue,H &;* Battie, Lilliam, $C; , $C> 0$C%J Treatise on !adness , $C% Bauer, 3da, the 'atient ,reud #alled Kora, &$: , &&5 , ?$% 0?5&, ?5; 0?5%, ?&$ 0?&:J the globus hystericus she manifested, ?5* 0?5$ Bauer, @tto, )rother of 3da Bauer, the 'atient ,reud #alled Kora, and one of the founders of the -ustrian So#ialist Party, ?$% 0?5* Bauer, Phili', father of 3da Bauer, the 'atient ,reud #alled Kora, ?$% Beard, George B., 5?; 05?:, 5%; 05%:, arti#le in $merican ,ervousness , 5%? Be# er, Gusta"us, $:> Bedlam, oldest English insane asylum, $C: J Bethlehem, $C> Bed0wetting, inter'reted )y ,reud as a se/ual meta'hor, ?5& Beers, Clifford, 5?: Beha"iorism, 5&? Bell, Sir Charles, 1ssays on the $natomy and hilosophy of 1#pression 9$>5?<, &:5 , &:? J image of o'isthotonus, &:> Ki Benedetto, 7., $: Benedi t, Bori6, the li)eral0Eewish neurologist who was one of ,reud8s tea#hers, ?*: BenIamin, Lalter, %; J essay on the re'rodu#i)ility of images in the age of te#hnology, &>& Ben6i, !go 9$&C:0$?&%<, #ommentaries on the &anon of -"i#enna, ;% J #om0 + ?;C + mentaries on the Tengi of Galen, ;% J

#ommentaries on the Hi''o#rati# $phorisms , omitting )oo s & and C, ;% BFraud, -rmand0Louis0Eose'h, dissertation dealing with #ir#um#ision and the Eews, ?5> Bergasse, Di#olas, &:* Berggasse $%, ,reud8s address, 55> Ber eley, Bisho' George, 5?* Berlin, Germany, &$? Bernheim, Hi''olyte, 5;> , ?$: Bettmann, Kr., des#ri'tion of hysteri#al gangrene, &>% Bewell, -lan, $CC Bien"ille, B. K. =., treatise on nym'homania, $C5 0$C& Birn)aum, Dathan, originator of the word 6ionist , re"iew of Houston Stewart Cham)erlain8s argument against the 'ure nature of the Eewish ra#e, ?&? Bise/uality, 5>> Bla# Keath, the, ?&; Bla# more, Sir Ri#hard, Enlightenment Hner"e do#tor,H $;; , $:> , 5?? Bla e, Lilliam, %> , $CC , $>; Blindness, &55 J and hysteria, 5* Blo#h, 3wan, nineteenth0#entury se/ologist, ?5C Blood, $& , $> 0$%, 5? , 5C , &* 0&$, && , ;& Blushing, $:& Bo##a##io, Gio"anni 9$&$&0$&C;<, 3talian 'oet and no"elist, %> , $&? Bodin, Eean, 'hiloso'her and e#onomi# thin er atta#hed to the #ourt of Henry 333, $$; Body, the 9see also 3ndi"idual 'arts: ,oot, Hand, S in, et#.<, %% , $*5 , $$$ , $$& , $5* , $55 , $?C , $;$ , $:* , $:? , $>& , 5&; , 5&> , 5?? , 5;: , 5:* , 5>> , 5%& , &&; , &:? , &C* J Hysteri#al )ody, Philoso'hi#al #on#e't of, %; J as Beta'hysi#al #ategory, %; Body language, $:$ Boerhaa"e, Hermann, Kut#h 'hysi#ian and #hemist, $;$ , $:& , $:> , 5:5 Bohemia, hysteria in, $:> Boss, E. B. D., $$ Bourne"ille, K.0B., ad"o#ate of Eean Bartin Char#ot8s tea#hings, 5&$ Bo"ary, Emma, $&? Bradshaw, Sir Lilliam, so#iety 'hysi#ian in 7irginia Loolf8s !rs. Dallo%ay , 5?C Brain, as the anatomi# 6one and sour#e of hysteria, $?* , $?; , $;$ , $;; , $;> , 5;5 , 5;? 05;:, 5%> ,

&>& , &>; , ?*5 J )rain stem, 5&5 J mythology of, &>; Bramwell, Byrom, twentieth0#entury s'e#ialist on ner"ous diseases, &%5 J Hdo#toredH 'hotogra'h of the hysteri# from HClini#al Le#ture on a Case of Hysteri#al Contra#ture,H &%: Brasa"ola, -ntonio 9$;**0$;;;<, annotated edition of the $phorisms and its Galeni# #ommentary, ;% Breton, -ndrF, ,ren#h 'oet, no"elist, and #riti#, his "iew a)out -ugustine, &$5 Breuer, Eosef 9$>?50$%5;<, -ustrian 'hysi#ian, $>* , 55C , 5>> , 5%5 , &*; , &$; 0&$>, &:: J "tudies on Hysteria , 5%$ J #ase study of -nna @., ?$% Briefe Discourse , $5$ Bright, =imothy, English 'hysi#ian trained at =rinity College, Cam)ridge, $$: Bri4uet, Pierre, $& , $>; , 5;> J HBri4uet8s syndrome,H 5&* British, the, $:$ British 3sles, the, $?% British Li)rary, the, :* Brothels, managed )y Eews, ?&5 Brouillet, -ndrF, 'ainting of Eean0Bartin Char#ot at the Sal'WtriFre, &?; , &;& , &;: , &:5 , ?$: J influen#e on the history of hysteria, &?: Brown, Ba er, nineteenth0#entury do#tor nown for 'erforming the 'ra#ti#e of hystere#tomy, o"arie#tomy, and #litoride#tomy, 5;; Brown, Eohn 9$C&;0$C>><, de"elo'ed the #on#e't of the irrita)ility of the mus#les from the wor of -l)re#ht yon Hailer, &:? Brown0SF4uard, C. E., nineteenth0#entury neurologist, ?$C , ?$% Browning, Eli6a)eth Barrett 9$>*:0$>:$<, &;C Br[# e, Lilhelm, 5&> + ?;> + Bu#han, Lilliam, 'o'ular medi#al writer on domesti# medi#ine, 5?$ Budel, H., eighteen0year longitudinal study among Eews in Estonia during the 'rewar 'eriod, ?&& Burg, 7i#tor Eean0Barie, 5;> 05;% Burghart, C. G., $:> Burrows, George Ban, 5;5 05;& Burton, Ro)ert, $$5 , $5> 0$5%J

The $natomy of !elancholy , $$? , $5: , $5% , ?*% Bushmen, 5%? By6antine Em'ire, the, ?? 0?:, :?

$
Caelius -urelianus, &% , ?> Cam)ridge, England, $;C Cam)ridge !ni"ersity, $5C Cami6ards, ,ren#h 'ro'hets, $C* Can#er, $$* , $?? , &;5 Canguilhem, Georges, "iew relating germ theory to hysteria, &;& Ca'italism, -meri#an, 5%; Carlyle, =homas, 5?: Car'enter, L. B., 5:5 Carter, Ro)ert, mid07i#torian 'hysi#ian, 5&5 05&&, 5?5 , 5:5 05:;, 5>% , &*$ 055C, &*5 , &5% J /n the athology and Treatment of Hysteria 9$>;&<, 5:5 , &** Casano"a de Seingalt, Gio"anni Gia#omo 9$C5;0$C%><, 7enetian ad"enturer and author, an international gam)ler and s'y, $:& , 5?& Casa66a, Ro)erto, his sur"ey of hysteri#al s in diseases, &>% Catarrh, in relation to hysteria, $:> Categori#al im'erati"es, and hysteria, $C% 0$>* Catherine of Sienna, Saint, &:C Catholi# religious e/'erien#e, &:C Catholi#s, the, as a religious #ategory, &C? Cause, s#ientifi#, %% Celsus, -ulus Cornelius, &: , &% , ?C Central !nion of the Ke#orati"e -rts, the, &$* Cere)ral fi)ers, 5;? Cere)ral 'alsy, 5;: Cer"antes, Biguel de 9$;?C0$:$:<, S'anish no"elist, $&% Chadwi# , E., > Cham)erlain, Houston Stewart, argument against the 'ure nature of the Eewish ra#e, ?&? Cham'ier, Claude 9fl. $;;:<, :* Char#ot, Eean0Bartin, i/ , /ii , > , $* , %& , $*5 , $*? , $C: , $>; , 55C , 5&; 05&:, 5&> , 5;: 05:*, 5:? , 5>% , 5%; , &*? 0&*C, &*% 0&$;, &5* , &55 0&5&, &;$ 0&;5, &;% , &:5 , &:? 0&C*, &C5 , &C? , &CC , &C% ,

&>& 0&>?, &>> 0&>%, &%$ , ?*5 , ?*? , ?*: , ?$$ , ?$: 0?$C, ?$% , ?5& , ?5C , ?&: J #lini# at the Sal'WtriFre, &*C J HKr. Char#ot8s Hysteria Shows,H 'rodu#tion a)out Char0#ot8s 'atient -ugustine 'erformed at =rinity College, Conne#ti#ut, &$& J images of hysteri#s, &:> 0&C$J 4es Demoni:ues dans l'art 9$>>C<, 5&$ , &C* , &C5 J letter to ,reud on 5& Do"em)er $>%$, ?$; J nosologi#al #ategories, ?$; J 'a'er with Paul Ri#her 'u)lished in the 2ournal of ,ervous and !ental Disease , &>$ Char#ot, Badame, &$* Charles 33, $&: Chau#er, Geoffrey 9$&?*0$?**<, %> Cheyne, George, S#ottish iatrome#hanist, $5? , $?; , $;$ 0$;5, $;? 0$;:, $:5 , $:; 0$:C, $C* , $>& 0$>?, 5:5 J The 1nglish !alady , $?> , $;$ 0$;5, $;C 0$;>, $:: J ner"ous theory, 5&5 Child)irth, $C , 5? , 5>C , &5: China, under the leadershi' of Bao =se0tung, 55> Chlorosis, % Chodoff, Paul, orginator of the term Hthe hysteri#al 'ersonality disorderH or KSB0$$$, 5>C Chodorow, Dan#y, &&* Cholera, 55: Christ, Eesus of Da6areth, &; , &:$ , ?5% J stigmata of in Saint Peters)urg, &>> Christianity, %> , $*; , $*C , &C5 , ?5% J and Bedie"al Christendom, 5&5 Chur#h, -r#hi)ald, Chi#ago neurologist, 5%% Cir#um#ision, ?5> , ?&* , ?&5 0?&: Ci"il Lar, the, 5%C Ci"ili6ation, $*5 , $;> J English, $5& J Euro'ean, $5& J Lestern, %? , &&; + ?;% +

Ci/ous, HFlGne, "iii , 5>: , ?$% J 'n Dora's &ase , &&5 J H=he Laugh of the Bedusa,H &&5 J The ,e%ly*Born )oman 9$%C;<, &&5 J ortrait de Dora 9$%C:<, &&5 Clar , L. Pier#e, argument that there are tetanoid sei6ures in e'ile'sy, &CC Clar , Bi#hael, 5?* Clar e, Edward, 5%C Clasius, George, $:> Class mo)ility, $:$ Classi#al -sso#iation =riennial Beeting, the, :; Clea"es, Kr. Bargaret, &** Clement, Catherine, de)ate with HFlGne Ci/ous in The ,e%ly*Born )oman , &&5 Cleo'atra, $5* Clini#al Chair of the Der"ous System, 5;C Clitoris, the, 5;$ Clouston, =homas, nineteenth0#entury British 'hysi#ian, 5?C Codes of ner"ousness, $:$ Codes of 'oliteness, $:* 0$:5 Codlings)y, Lord, #hara#ter in Lilliam =ha# eray8s &odlingsby , #on"ersation with Rafael Bendo6a, ?*% Cognition, $?& Cole, Kr. Lilliam 9see also Kr. =homas, Sydenham<, $&% Coleridge, Samuel =aylor 9$C550$>&?<, English 'oet, #riti#, and 'hiloso'her, 5&% 05?* CollGge de ,ran#e, &%$ Collins, Lilliam, English lyri# 'oet and early romanti#, $C* , $C$ Commentaries, By6antine, ?> Comte, -uguste, 5&: 05&C Con#e'tion, 5;* CongrGs -llemand de BFdi#ine 3nternationale, &5$ Congre"e, Lilliam 9$:C*0$C5%<, English Restoration dramatist, $:* Cons#iousness, 5:$ Constantine the -fri#an, ;; J 1#positio $forismi , ;; J

'n Hippocratis $phorismi , ;C Constantine Pro'hyrogenitus, By6antine em'eror, ?: Constantino'le, ?: Con"ulsions, $; Co4uetry, $;C 0$;> Cosmology, %> Cow'er, Lilliam 9 $C&$0$>**<, English 'oet, $C* , $C$ , $CC Craig, Bauri#e, nineteenth0#entury London 'hysi#ian, 5?C Craiglo# hart Hos'ital, &5: Cri#hton0Biller, Hugh, early twentieth0#entury military do#tor, 'res#ri'tion to #ure shell0sho# ed military offi#ers, &5& Crime, $:$ Cullen, Lilliam, $:: , $CC , $>& 0$>?, 5:5 J First 4ines of the ractice of hysic , $>$ J theory of hysteria in relation to neurosis, $>$ 0$>? Culture, $:% J -ugustan, $:5 J eighteenth #entury, $:; J Georgian, $:5 Cu''ies, =homas, famous Enlightenment do#tor, $:> C6e#h language, the, ?5*

,
Kaguerre, Louis Ea#4ues BandF 9$C>%0$>;$<, ,ren#h s#ene 'ainter and 'hysi#ist, use of 'hotogra'hy in treatment of the mentally ill, &;: Daily &hronicle , &5* Daily !irror , &5* Kanish, the, ?&* Karnell, @#ta'ia, hysteri#al #hara#ter in -oland Bla(e , 5%% Karwin, Charles, Descent of !an , ?5C J referen#e to )y ,ran#is Larner in The 1#pression of 1motions in !en and $nimals , &>& J study of the nature of e/'ression, &>5 Karwin, Erasmus, English 'oet and s#ientist, $C5 Kaudet, Leon, 4es !orticoles 9$>%?<, &$* Kaumer, Georg ,riedri#h, ?5%

Ka"id0BFnard, Boni4ue, ,ren#h twentieth0#entury 'sy#hoanalyst, 5:; , &5: , &5> J Hysteria from Freud to 4acan 9$%>&<, &5> Ka"idson, Peter, 'resentation of a #ase of hystero0#atale'sy from Li"er'ool, &%5 0&%& Keafness, &55 Keath, hysteria mista en for, && 0&;, ?: , ;$ , ;: , :& + ?:* + Ke#orum, #ults of, $;; 0$:;J "ariegated, $:5 KFga, Kr. Georgette, her studies at the medi#al fa#ulty of Bordeau/, &$& Keity, $$% Kelerium tremens, 55% Kemonology, %> J early modern diagnoses of demonia#s, 5&$ Kenmar , hysteria in, $:> Ke'ression 9see also S'leen, 7a'ors<, $?$ Kerangement, somati#, %% Kes#artes, RenF, $*> , $$C , $?& J Cartesian cogito , 5&C , 5?& J Cartesian dualism, $*> , $>? , 5&? J Cartesian ontology, 5&? J Cartesian s#ien#e, /i , %; Keuts#h, ,eli/, 'hysi#ian who treated 3da Bauer after she )ro e off her analysis with ,reud, ?5& Ke"il, the, $$C , $5$ , $55 , $&$ , &:$ Diagnostic and "tatistical !anual , the English0s'ea ing world8s authoritati"e 'sy#hiatri# hand)oo , 5&* Kiamond, Hugh L., &;> J the #ase of H-. K., aged 5*,H &;; J introdu#tion of 'hotogra'hy into the treatment of the mentally ill, &;& J 'a'er H@n the -''li#ation of Photogra'hy to the Physiognomi# and Bental Phenomena of 3nsanity,H &;; J 'ortrait of a #ase of religious melan#holy,H &;? Ki# ens, Charles, 4ittle Dorrit , $>; Kiderot, Kenis 9$C$&0$C>?<, ,ren#h 'hiloso'her, 5?& Kidi0Hu)erman, Georges, study of Eean0Bartin Char#ot, &$5

Kie'gen, P., ?$ Kiet, neo0Pythagorean, $C: J and =homas =ryon, $C: Kigestion, $* Kio#les of Carystos, thera'y used for hysteri#al pni# , &; Kiogenes Laertius, &? 0&;, :& 0:? Kisease, ?* , $$C J Hi''o#rates8 theory of, $: , 5C , 5% 0&*J histori#al identifi#ation of, 55: J mutation of, 55; 055:J ta/onomy of, $:$ 0$:5 Kisse#tion, &: J as "i"ise#tion, ?5 Ki"ine Bind, the, 5&C Koddridge, Kr. Phili', $C$ Kon in, Kr. Bryan, nineteenth0#entury English 'hysi#ian, &*5 , &*; Konne, Eohn, $&: Kora, the hysteri#al 'atient made famous )y ,reud 9see also Bauer, 3da<, i/ , 55> , 5&& , 5>: , &$: 0&$%, &&$ 0&&&, ?&* Korset, in the Lest Country, $&> Krama, Ea#o)ean and Restoration, $&; J refle#ting hysteria, $:* Kramatists, the, $&$ Krawing u' of lim)s, $* , ?C Krayton, Bi#hael 9$;:&0$:&$<, English 'oet, oly*/lbion , $5C Kream analysis, te#hni4ue for #uring hysteria, &$; , &5& Krin , $:$ KuBois, L9illiam< E9dward< B9urghardt<, Dus( of Da%n 9$%?*<, &&? 0&&; Ku'ont, E. C., $:> Kuras, Barguerite, /"i , %C , %% 0$*$, $*& 0$*?, $*: , $5? J 4a Douleur , $*? J The !alady of Death , $*? J The -avishing of 4ol "tein , $*? Kurling, R. E., ;*

Ky stra, Bram, 5?>

E
E#ole ,reudienne, s#hool for 'sy#hoanalysis in Paris, &5> E#ole Polyte#hni4ue, 5%; Eddy, Bary Ba er, founder of Christian S#ien#e, 5%* Eder, Ka"id, mem)er of early twentieth0#entury grou' 'ra#ti#ing ,reudian 'sy#hothera'y in London, &5? Edin)urgh, $;: J medi#al s#hool at, $:: , $:> , $C; , $C% , $>$ 0$>5 Edu#ation, medi#al, :? Edu#ation of women, 5%C 05%>, &5C Egy't, Gre#o0Roman influen#es on, &: , ?& Eissler, Kurt, hy'othesis a)out the dis#o"ery of 'sy#hoanalysis, &5* Elias, Dor)ert, 5&C Eli6a)ethan 'eriod, the, $5> , $&: , $:C , 5&* Ellen)erger, Henri, "ii 0"iii, ; Elliot0Smith, G., early twentieth0#entury military do#tor, 'res#ri'tion to #ure shell0sho# ed military offi#ers, &5& + ?:$ + Ellis, Ha"elo# 9$>;%0$%&%<, English 'sy#hologist, 5%C , &*% , ?5C Em'edo#les, && 0&?, ;5 0;& Em'iri#ists, the, ?* , $$% En#y#lo'edists, By6antine and an#ient, &C , ?$ , ?? 0?;, ?C 0?>, ;* , ;& England, $&? , $&: , $?5 , $;& , $:* , $:C 0$:>, $>5 0$>?, 5%& , 5%: 05%C, &** , &*: , &5$ J during the Enlightenment, $;$ J early modern, 55; England, =udor Stuart, great sweat and 'lague in, 55: English, the, 5;? J #i"ili6ed life, $;& English Ci"il Lar, the, $&> HEnglish Balady,H the 9see also Cheyne<, $;5 05C? 'assim English Restoration, the, $&: 05&C, $?& 0$?;, $?% , $:* J li)ertinism during, $?? J

hedonism during, $?? Enlightenment s#ien#e 9see also Dewton, Dewtonianism, and ,ren#h Re"olution<, $;* 0$C: Entralgo, Lain, 5&> E'ile'sy, $% , 5& , &C , &% J history of, &C% J hysteri#al e'ile'sy, 5;> Ergotism, and mass hysteria, 55; Erotomania, 5C5 0$C& Esgers, Ean, medi#al student of Herman Boerhaa"e, $:> Es4uirol, E.0E.0K., #reator of first modern 'sy#hiatri# atlas, $$: , 5;C , &?% Etherege, Sir George, $:&;0$:%$, English Restoration dramatist, $:* Eti4uette, #odes of, $:* 1uporiston , translated )y =heodorus Pris#ianus, ?> Euri'ides, $&5 J Hippolytus , $*? Euro'e, $?> 0$?%, $;: , $>5 , 55: , 55> , 5>C , &*; J early modern, $&* , $&? J medie"al, 55C J modern #ulture emerging around $C**, $&: J Lestern, ;? , $$? , $;& Euro'ean Enlightenment, / , %; 0%:, $** 0$*$, $*: 0$*C, $5? , $&5 , $?$ , $?C , $?% , $;& , $;C 0$;>, $:? , $C$ , $CC , $>5 , 55C , 5&> , 5?& , 5?C J aestheti# theory, &;> J art, &;: Euse)ius of Caesarea 9#. 5:&0&&%N<, Gree historian, ?5% E"e, $&$ E"elina, in the no"el )y ,ran#es Burney, $:& E/hi)ition of the -rts of Lomen in Paris, &$*

F
,a)re, Eean Henri 9$>5&0$%5;<, ,ren#h entomologist and author, 5>C ,a#e, the, &>& ,a#ultF de Paris, the, &*C ,ainting, $* ,air)airn, Lilliam R. K., 5&&

,al#oner, Lilliam, $C> ,alret, Eules, &*5 , &*; ,amily, the, sta)ility of, &*: ,armer, Hugh, -n Essay on the 1male2 Kemonia#s of the Dew =estament, $C$ ,arington, Eose'h, British lands#a'e 'ainter, $C> ,aul ner, BenIamin, owner and o'erator of a 'ri"ate madhouse at Little Chelsea in London, $C> ,ear, 'sy#hoanalyti# issue of, &5: ,e)"re, Lu#ien, $%> ,edi ew, Patri#ia, HBarguerite Kuras: ,eminine ,ield of Hysteria,H $*$ ,eli/, Cassius, first0#entury -.K . -fri#an writer, ?> ,ellatio, ?5* , ?5: , ?&* ,emale luna#y, $C% 0$>? ,emale re'rodu#ti"e system, the, 5;$ , 5%> , &5% ,emininity, theory of, 5>C ,eminism, %C , $$$ , 5>: , 5>> , 5%* , &*; 0&*:, &5% 0&&$, &&& 0&&; ,FrF, Charles, arti#le in the ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriAre , &CC J image showing sensiti"e s in of the e'ile'ti#, &C> ,eren#6i, SVndor, distin#tion of Lorld Lar 3 hysteri#al sym'toms, &5$ J #lini#al diary, &:; 0&:: ,ermor, -ra)ella, $;* "on ,eu#htersle)en, Ernst, nineteenth0#entury 7iennese do#tor, 5&5 , 5;; , 5%& ,ielding, Henry, $melia , 5:? J &aptain Booth , $:? J Tom 2ones , $C5 ,ienus, =homas, Renaissan#e medi#al theorist, $5? + ?:5 + ,in#h, -nne, the Countess of Lin#helsea, $;& J The "pleen: $ indari:ue /de by a 4ady , $;& ,irst Lorld Lar, the, 55% , 5?$ ,ish)erg, Bauri#e, ?$5 J The 2e%s: $ "tudy of -ace and 1nvironment 9$%$$<, ?*; ,lau)ert, Gusta"e 9$>5$0$>>*<, ,ren#h no"elist, 5%*

,let#her, 3an, &*: ,liess, Lilhelm, 5&& , ?&$ ,loren#e, 3taly, :& ,luss, Emil, ?5; ,ood, $:$ ,o's, $:$ "an ,oreest, Pieter, :& J /bservationum et curationum medicinalium , Boo 5%, :5 J @)ser"ations, 5; 0&?, :5 J scholia , &? ,orel, -ugust, The "e#ual 8uestion 9$%*;<, ?$> ,oreman, Ri#hard, H@ntologi#al0Hysteri# =heatre,H $&C ,orsyth, Ka"id, mem)er of early twentieth0#entury grou' 'ra#ti#ing ,reudian 'sy#hothera'y in London, &5? ,ortuna, Bona, Treatise on the 7iaticum , $$& ,ou#ault, Bi#hel, /"ii , %; 0%:, $$& , $:5 , $C% , 5&C , 5;* J and female, $;* 0$C5 'assimJ History of !adness , 5;* J History of "e#uality , &*& J inner s'a#es, $:5 ,ra#assini, -., $:> ,ran#e, $&: , $?5 , $?% , $:5 , $:> , $C? , $>& , 5%$ , &*5 , &*: , &5* J the fourth Re'u)li# of, $*; ,ran lin, BenIamin, &:$ 0&:5 ,raser, Lawren#e, $:> ,rau K., wife of Herr K., ?5: 0?5C, ?&: ,ree asso#iation, te#hni4ue for #uring hysteria, &$; , &5& ,ree will, $&$ ,ren#h, the, $;& J #i"ili6ed life, $;& ,ren#h Re"olution, the, %5 , $>$ 0$>&, $>? , &:* , &C* ,reud, -malia, mother of Sigmund ,reud, ?5: ,reud, -nna, &5C ,reud, Bartin, son of Sigmund ,reud, ?5:

,reud, Sigmund, "ii 0/, /" 0/"ii, %5 0%?, %> , $*5 , $*; , $$; , $5? , $?5 , $?; , $;: , $>* , $>? , 55C 055>, 5&$ 05&?, 5&: , 5&> , 5:? 05:;, 5>> 05>%, &*; , &$? 0&$%, &5& , &5; , &5C 0&5>, &&$ , &&& , &;% , &:? 0&::, ?*5 , ?*? 0?*;, ?$5 , ?$; 0?$C, ?5* , ?55 0?5&, ?5; 0?5>, ?&* 0?&$J death wish, 5&C J Differential Diagnosis of /rganic and Hysterical aralysis 9$>>:<, ?$; J Dora , &$C , ?$% , ?&: J H=he Kynami#s of =ransferen#e,H &$> J ego, 5&C J free0floating un#ons#ious, $$> , 5&? , 5&C J ,reudian Hmind do#tors,H 5?C J id, 5&C J 'nterpretation of Dreams , &:: , ?$$ J letter to Emil ,luss, ?5; J @edi'al #onfli#ts, &5C J @edi'al triangle, ?5* J 'a'er H@n Bale Hysteria,H &$? J "tudies on Hysteria , &** , &$; 0&$:, ?$% J 'enis en"y, &5C J su'er ego, 5&C J theory of se/ual etiology of the neuroses, &5* J theory of se/uality, &5; J translation of Char#ot8s 4econs de !ardi , &$? J use of Char#ot8s nosologi#al #ategory, ?$% ,rings, Bonsignor Eose'h, "iew a)out )eing Eewish in the twentieth #entury, ?5; ,roment, Eules, twentieth0#entury neurologist, &:: 0&:C ,u#hs, Leonhart 9$;*$0$;::<, translator of $;?; edition of $phorisms , :* ,umigation, remedy for an#ient gyne#ologi#al #onditions, 5* 05$ Furor uterinus 9see also Gyne#ology, !terus, 7agina<, $$5 0$?; 'assim ,ussell, Paul, #on#lusion that out of Lorld Lar 3 there originated a new world of mythology, &5? J glossary of the romanti# "o#a)ulary of Lorld Lar 3, &5?

G
Ga)riel, Georges0,ran_ois Barie, un'u)lished image of Eugene Hugo, &?% Gale, Susan 9see also Lordsworth<, $CC Galen of Pergamum, / , ; 0:, 55 , 5; 05>, &; , &C 0&%, ?$ 0?C, ;* 0:?, $5* J

#ommentary on Hi''o#rati# $phorisms , ;; , ;> 0:*J De usu respirationis , && J model of the )ody, ?: J /n the $ffected arts , 5: , &? , ?$ , ;& , :* J /n the !ethod of Healing the Glaucon , ?% , ;? J Tegni , ;C J theory of Hhysteri#al suffo#ation,H &? Galileo, $$C + ?:& + Gallo', Eane, 5>> Galton, ,ran#is, #om'osite 'hotogra'hy, ?*5 , ?$$ J H#om'ositeH and H#om'onentH images of the Eew, ?$* J 'hotogra'hs of H)oys in the Eews8 ,ree S#hool, Bell Lane,H ?*% Gamgee, -rthur, Professor of Physiology at @wens College, Ban#hester, a##ount of Char#ot8s e/'eriments with hy'notism in the British !edical 2ournal , &?% , &;% Gay, Eohn 9$:>;0$C&5<, English 'laywright and 'oet, $:* , $:? Gay, Peter, 5&> Gender, $&: 0$&C, $C* , $C5 , $C; , $C> , $>5 , 5%& , &*; , &:C J theory of, 55> Gender ideology, &&* Genital 'assage, the, &:: Genitalia, &> , ?& , &*C 0&*>, &%$ , ?5* 0?5$, ?5: , ?&$ J #ir#um#ised, ?$$ J female, ?5; J male, ?5; Gentleman's !aga.ine , $C$ Georget, Etienne, 5:5 German language, ?&; Germani# s#hool of neuro'hysiology, the, 5&: Germany, $:> , $C? J alleged wea ening of )y the Eews, ?&; GFr\me, Eean LFon 9$>5?0$%*?<, ,ren#h histori#al and genre 'ainter, &?; Ghost in the ma#hine, the, 5&$ J

ontology of, 5?& Gilles de la =ourette, Georges, essay on the s#hemati# re'resentation of the hysteri#, &%$ Gilman, Charlotte Per ins 9$>&$0$%*><, -meri#an feminist, reformer, and edu#ator, $>: , &** J H=he .ellow Lall'a'erH 9$>%5<, 5%% Gilman, "ander3 2e%ish "elf*Hatred , ?5; Girls, Roman Catholi#, &>> Gissing, George, #hara#ter -lma Rolfe in The )hirlpool 9$>%C<, &*: Globus hystericus , #ondition resulting when the wandering wom) of a Gree woman )e#omes lodged in her throat, ?*5 Glo"er, Bary 9see also Edward Eorden<, $$: 0$5$ God, $5$ , $C$ Gold fe"er, 55: Goldsmith, @li"er 9$C&*0$CC?<, English 'oet and dramatist, $:* Golds'eigel, HWlFne, &ontribution G l'Atude de l'hystArie che. les enfants 9$>>><, &$& Gosling, ,ran#is, 5?: , 5%: Goure"it#h, K., 5? Gout, in relation to femininity, $:> J to hysteria, $:> Grande hystArie , 'rolonged and ela)orate #on"ulsi"e sei6ure, &*C , &$5 , ?$: J arcen*cercle phase , &*> , &?; , &;% , &:$ 0&:5, &:> J the Hattitudes 'assionnelles,H &*> , &:5 J the H#lownismH 'hase, &*> J the e'ile'toid 'hase, &*> Graphic , the British news'a'er, &;: Grasset, E., "iew that #ere)ral0s'inal degenera#y is the sour#e of all hysteria, &>; Gra"es, Ro)ert, famous shell0sho# 'atient, &5? Gray, =homas 9$C$:0$CC$<, English 'oet, $C* 0$C$ Great 'lague of -thens, 55: J as des#ri)ed )y =hu#ydides, 55; HGreat sweatH of early0=udor England, 55: Gree s, the, ? , $? , $C , %$ , %C , 5*; , $>; , 5&5 , 5&> , &C5 , &C? J East, ;; , :? Green, Boni#a, :; J /n the !ethod of Healing3 to Glaucon , ?& , ;:

Green)latt, Ste'hen, $;> Greer, Germaine, The Female 1unuch , $5: Griesinger, Lilhelm, German 'sy#hiatrist, 5;? J !ental athology and Therapeutics , 5;; Gross, C. G, $:> Guidott, =homas, English Restoration 'hysi#ian, $:> 0$C* Guillain, Georges, Eean0Bartin Char#ot8s student and )iogra'her, &*% Guitti, Eliogoro, )elief that hysteria manifests itself internally, &%$ J image of an hysteri#al gut from H@sser"a6ioni Clini#he,H &%& Gurows i, -dam, Polish no)le, ?&? Gutmann, Eulius Boses, writing on the stru#ture of the Eewish fa#e, ?$* + ?:? + Gu6e, S. B., ? Gyne#ology, 5?% 05;$, 5:* J an#ient Gree , ? , $: , $C , &C , ?* , ?$ , ;* J Hi''o#rati#, ; , % , $: 0$C, ;; , ;C J Latin, ;?

H
"an de Haghen, C., medi#al student of Hermann Boerhaa"e, $:> Haight, Gordon, 5%: Hamlet, %; Hammond, Lilliam, $>C: history of hysteria, &C5 Hand, the hysteri#al traumati# 'aralysis of, and hysteri#al hand, &%$ Ha's)urg Em'ire, ?5* Hardy, =homas, #hara#ter Sue Bridehead in 2ude the /bscure 9$>%;<, &*: Harrington, -nne, 5;> Harsnett, Samuel, $ Declaration of 1gregious opishe >sic? 'mpostures. . . Under the retence of &asting /ut Devils 9$:*&<, $5C Har"ard Bedi#al S#hool, &$? Har"ey, Lilliam, dis#o"erer of the #ir#ulation of the )lood, && , $$; , $$C , $5: , $&$ 0$&& Haslam, Eohn, an offi#ial at Bethlehem for two de#ades, $C> , 5;$ Haygarth, Eohn, late0eighteenth0#entury medi#al theorist, treatise /f the 'magination3 as a &ause and as a &ure of Disorders of the Body , $C>

Heart, the, $:5 He)erden, Lilliam, 5:& 05:?, 5?? 05?; He)rew language, ?5; , ?&* He)rews, the, > He#4uet, Phili''e, ,ren#h 'hysi#ian of the an#ien rFgime, 4e naturalisme des convulsions dans les maladies de l'ApidAmie convulsionnaire 9$C&&<, $C* Hegar, -lfred, nineteenth0#entury 'hysi#ian nown for the 'ra#ti#e of hystere#tomy and o"arie#tomy, 5;; Heit6, Eean, essays to the ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriAre , &C5 Helmholt6, Hermann 9$>5$0$>%?<, German s#ientist, 5&> Hera#leides of Pontus, && 0&;, ?: J -'nous, &; Heresy, $$C Herndl, Kiane, &&& Herodotus, &$ Hero'hilus of Chal#edon, &: , ?* Herr, K., ?5& , ?5C 0?5> Her"ey, Lord, English 'oliti#al figure and diarist, $:C Hesiod, $C Highmore, Dathaniel, $?; , $:> , 5:5 J etiology from H)ad )lood,H $?* HHi'' and hy''ish,H as related to hysteria, $:C Hi''o#rates, the ,ather of Bedi#ine, & , $: , 5% , 5: , && , &> , ?& , :& , %5 , $*? , $*: , $$; , $$> , $;& , 5&$ , 5;* Hi''o#rati# #or'us of writings, & 0;, > 0%, $$ 0$5, $: , $> , 5: , 5> 05%, &5 , &: 0&>, ?$ 0?5, ?> 0;*, ;; , ;C , ;% , :? J $phorisms , ; , > , ?; , ?C 0?>, ;* , ;? , ;C 0:*J Diseases of )omen , C , $? 05*, 5& , 5; 05C, &* 0&5, &: 0&>, ?; , ?> 0;*, ;? , ;: J Diseases of 9oung Girls , ;: J Generation , ? , : , > , 5> , &* , &$ J ,ature of the &hild , &* 0&$J ,ature of )oman , $? 0$;, 55 , &> J /n the "acred Disease , &* J laces in man , &* J rognostics , ;C J

-egimen , &$ Hi''o#rati# s#ent thera'y, 5: , &> , ?$ , ?& , ?? , ?: 0?>, ;$ 0;5, ;? , ;: , :$ , :? Hi''o#rati# wom), the 9see also Lom)<, 5; Hirs#hfeld, Bagnus, nineteenth0#entury German se/ologist, ?5C Hitler, -dolf, dis#ussion of sy'hilis in !ein 5ampf , ?&5 , ?&? 0?&: "on Ha)lin, C., and -l6heimer, -., HEin Beitrag 6ur Klini und 'athologis#hen -natomie der Lest'hal0 Str[m'ells#hen Pseudos lerose,H image of the )rain stru#ture of the hysteri#, &>> Hodges, Ke"on, $5% Hogarth, Lilliam 9$:%C0$C:?<, English 'ainter and engra"er, $C? Holdheim, Samuel, Eewish ra))i and nineteenth0#entury reform leader, ?5% 0?&* Holland, $?> , $:5 , $:> Holl`nder, Eugen, twentieth0#entury 'hysi#ian, historian, and art #riti#, &C5 Holo#aust, $*? Homose/uality, &$% , &5: , &&? J Bale, 5%5 , &*? , &5? , ?&$ + ?:; + HH\'ital Char#ot,H the, &*C Horney, Karen 9$>>;0$%;5<, -meri#an 'sy#hiatrist and founder and dean of -meri#an 3nstitute of Psy#hoanalysis, &5C Horowit6, Ra))i La6ar, s'iritual leader of the orthodo/ Eewish #ommunity in 7ienna in the nineteenth #entury, ?&* Howells, Linifred, 5%% Human organism, the, %% Humanists, Erasmus, $5& J Bore, $5& J Petrar#h, $5& J Renaissan#e, $5& "on Hum)oldt, -le/ander, letter to the Ku#hess ,riederi e "on -nhalt0Kessau, &;C Hume, Ka"id, $;> Hunain i)n 3sha4 al0T3)adl, nown to the Lest as Eohannitius, ;* J 'sagoge , ;C Hungarian language, ?5* Hunt, Leigh, 'lay, $ 4egend of Florence , :& Hunter, Kianne, &$: , &&; J

HHysteria, Psy#hoanalysis, and ,eminism: =he Case of -nna @,H $*$ Hunter, Ri#hard, $C; Huntingdon8s #horea, 5;: Hurst, -rthur ,., 'a'er on )attle fatigue 9$%$><, &>? J study of hysteri#al #ontra#tures, &:: 0&:C, &C* , &%$ Hy'nosis, 5;> , &*C , &$; , &5& , &?% Hy'o#hondria, 5;; , 5%& 05%?J stigmati6ation of, 5%? Hysteria, )ise/uality, 5>> J edu#ation, 5%C 05%>, &5C J gender, 5>: 05>C, 5>% J intros'e#tion, 5?: 05?CJ marriage, 5& , 5? , ;: J menstruation, $& , 5;$ 05;&J 'assi"ity, 5%C 05%%, &$? 0&$CJ se/ roles, &*5 0&*&J #auses of, stress, 55> 055%, 5?5 05?&, 5?: , 5%; Hysteria, #reati"ity in relation to, $:> 0$C* Hysteria, diagnosis of, as 'hysi#al, $$ 0$5, 5& 05?, 55C 055%, 5&5 , 5&: 05&C, 5&% , 5?? , 5;5 05;;, 5;% 05:*J as 'sy#hologi#al, 5& , 55> , 5&5 05&&, 5&& 05&?, 5&: 05&%, 5?C 05?>, 5:$ 05:;, 5>> J retros'e#ti"ely, % , $* 0$$, ;& , 55C 055%, 5&$ J and hy'notism, 5;> J and magnetism, 5;> 05;%J and neurology, 5;; 05:*J )y women, 5>C J in men 9see Bale hysteria<J )y Hi''o#rates, $C 05; Hysteria dissenters and 9see also HysteriaJ feminism and<, $C$ 0$C;, &&? 0&&; Hysteria, dou)les in, $C& 0$C; Hysteria, the Enlightenment and, $;5 0$:>J golden age of, $?* 0$:>, es'e#ially $:$ 0$:&, and gout, $:> Hysteria, falsifi#ation of 9see also Lar neurosis<, )y women, :5 , 5;; , 5:$ 05:5, 5:& 05:?, &** 0&*5, &5C J

)y men, &5$ 0&5: Hysteria, feminism and 9see also ,eminism<, &*: 0&*:, &$: 0&$C, &5* , &5: 0&&*, &&5 0&&& Hysteria gender #onstru#ts and, 5>% , 5%5 05%&, &*& 0&*?, &*; 0&*:, &*% , &$% , &5: , &&& J and re'resentations of hysteria, &*% 0&$* Hysteria, gender formation and, $?* 0$C>, es'e#ially $:> 0$C*J 55% , 5>> Hysteria, history of, ? 0;, > , % 0$*, $5 , 55: , 55% 05&*, 5&$ 05&:, 5>C 05>>, &*& 0&*?, &$& , &5> 0&&*, &&5 0&&&, &&; J and language, 5%* 05%$J )y women, &$& , &5> 0&&* Hysteria, imitation as #ru#ial in, $>* 0$>5 Hysteria, latent, 5;> Hysteria, the law and, 5*? Hysteria, male 9see also Deurasthasia<, $* 0$$, $?* 0$C: 'assim, 5%* 05%$, &*? 0&*;, &*C 0&*%J alternati"e #onditions and terms for, 5&; , 5;; , 5%* 05%C, &$& 0&$?, &5$ , &5: J and )onding among males, $:> 0$C*J and feminine ner"ous #onstitutions among males, $:% , 55% , 5>% J and ,reud, &$? 0&$;J and hysteria in women, $& , &*C , &*% 0&$*, &$; J and 'oeti# genius, $:> J 'sy#hogeni# e/'lanations for, $:? 0$::J and tem'eramental sensiti"ity among males, $:% J and Lorld Lar 3 9see also Lar Deurosis<, &5$ ff.J and women analysts, &&& Hysteria, mass, $* J as sym'toms of ergotism, 55; Hysteria, mo# 0e'i# no"els and, $C5 Hysteria, nym'homania and, $C5 0$C& Hysteria, organi# resonan#e and, $>; Hysteria, 'arado/es of, $C& 0$CC Hysteria, 'redi#ta)ility of, $>* 0$>& Hysteria, 'sy#hoanalysis and, &$% 0&5* + ?:: +

Hysteria, shell sho# and 9see also Lar Deurosis<, &5& 0&5? Hysteria, sterility in women and, 5%$ 05%&, &*; 0&*: Hysteria, the surrealists and, &$5 0&$& Hysteria, ta/onomy and, $C% 0$>5 Hysteria, treatment of 9see also Hysteria, maleJ Se/ual inter#ourseJ Lar Deurosis<, 5* 05?, 5: , &: , &C , ?& 0?C, ;$ 0;5, ;? , 5?? 05?>, 5;? , &** 0&*5J )y women do#tors, ?$ , 5%% 0&**, &5C , &&& J )y re#onstru#tion of the 'atient8s story 9see also Hysteri#al narrati"e<, &$> 0&$%, &&& J #om'ression of genitals, &*C 0&*>J do#tor0'atient relations 9see also ,eminism<, $* 0$$, 5& , 5?? 05?;, 5%> 05%%J e"aluation of, &; , &*& , &$* 0&$$, &$% , &5C J in#ura)le, 5;& J literary #hara#teristi#s of, &$C 0&$>J and marriage, &$C 0&$>J and women8s inde'enden#e, &$: 0&$>, &5: 0&5C Hysteria, wor ing0#lass women and, &*; , &5* Hysteria as .eitgeist disease , % , $;> 0$:>, $:? 0$:; Hysteri# as 'erformer, &*% 0&$$, &5* J and #atarrh, $:> J "isi)ility of the, $?5 0$C: 'assim Hysterica passio , $5C 0$5% Hysteri#al gout, $:C 0$:% Hysteri#al mania, $:% Hysteri#al narrati"e, &$> 0&$%, &&& , &&; HHystFrie "irileH term used )y Eean0Bartin Char#ot to des#ri)e his #on#e't of male hysteria, &*% Hysteri a, meaning of, ; 0:, C 0>, $5 0$&, $; , ?$ 0?5 Hysteri(e pni# , medi#al sym'tom identified )y the Hi''o#rati#s as Hsuffo#ation of the wom),H ; , : , $? 05*, 55 , 5% 0&5, &; 0&:, &> , ?* 0?>, ;* 0;$, ;? , ;: , ;> 0;%, :$ , :? , %> Hystero0e'ile'sy, 55C , &CC Hysterogeni# 6one, &*C 0&*>

I
3atrome#hanists, $>? 3)n al0Ea66ar, ;& 0;:J 5itab 6ad al*!usafir , ;5 , ;;

3)n Sina 9-"i#enna<, dis#ussions of hysteri#al suffo#ation in his Sanum 9the &anon <, ;5 , ;C , :5 0:& 'conographie photographi:ue de la "alpBtrieAre , three0"olume medi#al atlas, &C? 3dealism, #onfli#t with materialism, 5&> 05?$ 3liad, the, &* 'llustrated 4ondon ,e%s , British news'a'er, &;: 3maginary, the, &&5 3magination, Eli6a)ethan, the, $&C J Restoration, the, $&C J as the sour#e of hysteria, ?*? 3magination, and disease, $?> 0$C> 'assimJ and hysteria, $:& 0$:;, ?*? 3ndians, Siou/, 5%? 3ndi"idualism, in relation to hysteria, $:5 J and nar#issism, $:5 3nflammation of the re'rodu#ti"e organs, $C% 3n4uisition, the, &;5 3nsanity, 5:$ 'nstinct and the Unconscious , &5; 3ntelle#t 9see also Sedentary life<, $:* 0$:5, 5:$ 3ntros'e#tion, 5?: 05?C 3senflamm, E. ,., $:> 3slami# #ulture, ;& , :? 3srael, Lu#ien, 4'hystAri:ue3 le se#e3 et le mAdecin , 5%* 3taly, hysteria in, $:5 , $:>

?
Ea# son, Eli6a)eth, arraigned on #harge of )ewit#hing the fourteen0year0old Bary Glo"er, $$: Ea# son, Eohn Hughlings, differen#e )e tween Ea# son8s model of hysteria and Char#ot8s model of hysteria, ?$C J "iew hysteria as a dissolution of the higher fun#tions of the ner"ous system, &:; Ea#o), Eose'h, ?$5 J dis#ussion of Galton8s finding of the a)solute Eewishness of the ga6e, ?*% 0?$* Ea#o)us, Bary, $>* , &&5 Ea#yna, L. S., 5?% Eames, Kr. Ro)ert, $;5

Eanet, Pierre, ,ren#h neurologist, $** , $$5 , 55C , 5&* , 5;% , 5:; , &$? Eansenists, &C* , &C5 + ?:C + Eardine, -li#e, Gynesis: &onfigurations of )oman and !odernity , $*$ Eenner, Edward, Glou#estershire do#tor and small'o/ resear#her, $C& , 5%& Eews, ?5* , ?55 0?5&, ?5; 0?5:, ?5> , ?&$ 0?&:J #ir#um#ised, ?&$ , ?&& J Eastern, &C5 , &>5 J as a high ris grou' for #ontra#ting the disease hysteria, ?*; 0?*:, ?$* 0?$>J as a religious #ategory, &C? Eewson, Di#holas, 5?? Eohannes, Platearius, De aegritudinum curatione , ;: Eohns Ho' ins !ni"ersity, &5> Eohnson, Ben, $&: Eohnson, Samuel, $&? , $:& Eones, Ernest, mem)er of early twentieth0#entury grou' 'ra#ti#ing 'sy#hothera'y in London, &5? , &5C Eordano"a, Ludmilla, 5%$ Eorden, Edward, $$5 , $$? , $$: , $$> 0$5?, $5: 0$5C, $5% , $&& , $?% , 5&5 J $ Briefe Discourse of a Disease &alled the "uffocation of the !other , 5% , :5 0:&, $$? , $$C Eorge, Eose B., HCo/algia histFri#a,H Z ray image from, 5%5 Eou)ert, Laurent, the #han#ellor of the !ni"ersity of Bont'ellier, $5& Eudaism, ?5% 0?&* Eudis#her ,rauen)und, the League of Eewish Lomen, &$:

K
Kahane, Claire, 5>> Kat6, Susan, "iew a)out ,reud8s ideologi#al 'osition towards women and men, &$> Keller, E"elyn ,o/, 5%$ Kelley, Bary, 5>: Kier egaard, Soren, /" Kilgour, Korothy, From &ommunion to &annibalism: !etaphors of 'ncorporation , /"i King, Helen, 55C , 5&$ Klein, the Hungarian Eew who wandered on foot to Paris and was admitted to the Sal'WtriFre the ne/t day, ?*:

Klein, Belanie, &5C Kohon, Gregorio, British hysteri#al analyst, 5>C Krafft0E)ing, Ri#hard, )elief that #i"ili6ation regularly )rings forth degenerate forms of se/uality, ?$> , ?5C Kriste"a, Eulia, "iii , %C , $*& , $$$ , $5? Krohn, Kr. -lan, $*: , $5; , $:; , 55: , 5&* 05&$

L
La#an, Ea#4ues, /"i , %; , $&5 , &&& , &&? , ?5* Lady Bary, $:C Lamar4ue, Henri, and Bitot, Emile, &%C J des#ri'tion of the s#hemati# re'resentation of the hysteri#, &%$ J image of the 'osture of the s#hemati# 'atient from HSur un #as d8hystFro0traumatisme #he6 l8homme,H &%; Langenheim, Lilliam and ,rederi# , use of lantern slides for the HmoralH treatment of the 'atients in the Philadel'hia Hos'ital for the 3nsane, &;: Langhorne, Eohn, 4etters on -eligious -etirement3 !elancholy3 and 1nthusiasm 9London, $C:5<, $CC Language, $$C , $?& , 5%* La4ueur, =homas, $&* , 5;* Lattes, L., wor on #hanges in the 4uality of the hysteri#8s fa#e, &>? Latin Lest, the, ;; , ;C , :? Lauren6iani, Loren6o 9#a. $?;*0$;*5<, ;% La"ater, Eohann Cas'ar, his study of 'hysiognomy, &>& La"oisier, -ntoine0Laurent, &:5 Lawyers, in Dew .or , 5%? Lay#o# , =homas, British 'sy#ho'hysiologist, 5:5 J Treatise on the ,ervous Diseases of )oman , :& Layne, George S., &;: Lederer, Lolfgang, Gynophobia ou la eur des Femmes , /ii Lef owit6, B. R., $; Leoni#eno, Di##olR 9$?5>0$;5?<, translator of the =heodorus Ga6a edition of the $rticella , ;% Leontes, $5% J The )inter's Tale , $5> Le'ois, Charles, the 3talian 'hysi#ian also nown as Carlo Piso 9$;:&0$:&&<, $&% 0$?* Lewis, Be"an, mid07i#torian British 'hysi#ian, 5?:

Lewis, G., > Lewis, 3. B., 5& + ?:> + Leytonstone, London su)ur) where Ro)ert Carter 'ra#ti#ed medi#ine, 5:5 Lieutaud, Eose'h, $5? Lilien, E'hraim Boses, drawing of a Eewish female, ?*> Linton, Eli6a Lynn, term Hthe shrie ing sisterhood,H &*: Literary #riti#ism, $?& , 5>% Little Hans, one of ,reud8s 'atients, &$> LittrF, Emile, Dictionnaire de la langue fran+raise 9$>:&0$>CC<, $& 0$;, 5* 05$, 5& , 5% 0&* Li"er, $% , 55 , 5& , &5 , ?% Li"er'ool Bedi#al History So#iety(So#iety for the History of S#ien#e, the, :; Lo# e, Eohn, /ii , $&> J 1ssay &oncerning Human Understanding , $?> 4ogos , the, 5C Lom)roso, Cesare, ?5C J study of e'ile'ti#s, &CC Londe, -l)ert, head of the Sal'WtriFre8s 'hotogra'hi# ser"i#e, &;* , &C% London, England, $&: , $&> , $;: , $C* , $>5 , 5%5 London Times , the, &5* Lord Her"ey, target of -le/ander Po'e8s satire in 1pistle to Dr. $rbuthnot , $:C Lote, George, Ra)elais s#holar, $5& Louis Z73, ,ren#h ing 9$C;?0$C%*<, $>? Louyer07illermay, Eean Ba'tiste, ,ren#h 'hysi#ian, 5%5 Lo"e, %% , $5* Lo"e si# ness, $$5 0$$? Lo"ela#e, -da, Byron8s daughter, 55C Lusitanus, -matus, :& Luys, Kr. E.0B. 9$>?>0$>%C<, author of an early 'hotogra'hi# medi#al atlas, &?% , &>; J image of the hysteri#8s )rain from HRe#her#hes nou"elles sur les hFmi'lFgies emoti"es,H &>C Luys, Georges, )rother of Kr. E.0B. Luys, 'hotogra'h HEsther,H &?% Lyn#h, Eohn, "iew on the e/'loitation of manliness during Lorld Lar 3, &5;

6
Ba#al'ine, 3da, $C; Baddo# , -lfred Beaumont, 5;& Badhouses, $C$ 0$C> Badness, $C> 0$>5J theory of, $C; Ba#Konald, Bi#hael, $5; Bagi#, $$C , $5; , $5C Bale hysteria, see under Hysteria, male !alleus !aleficarum , the HLit#hes Hammer,H $$; Bande"ille, Bernard, English satiri#al writer on e#onomi# and ethi#al su)Ie#ts, $?: 0$?C, $;$ , $;? , $;> , $:5 , $:> , $>? , 5?; J The Fable of the Bees , $?; J Treatise of the Hypochondriac( and Hysteric( assions , $?: Bann, L. D., > Banners, #ults of, $:* 0$:5 Bannheimer, 3saa# Doah, ra))i of the Seitenstettengasse synagogue, ?&* Bantega66a, Polo, study of Erthro/ylon and its deri"ati"e, #o#aine, ?5C J trilogy on lo"e and se/, Fisiologia dell' amore 9$>C5<, 'giene dell' amore 9$>C5<, and Gli amori degli uomini 9$>>;<, ?5C 0?5>, ?&$ , ?&& Bantias, follower of Hero'hilus, &: Bantua, Countess of, $5* Bao =se0tung, leader and founder of Chinese Communist 'arty, 55> Ba'let, Eohn, English Restoration 'hysi#ian, $:> 0$C* Bar#ellus Em'iri#us, Boo( of !edicines , ?? Bar#ellus, Bar#us Claudius, #ommentary on Kios#orides, Philotheus, and Paul of -egina, ;% Barriage, 5& , 5? Barsden, C. K., % Bartial 9Bar#us 7alerius Bartialis< 9-.K.C . ?*0#. $*?<, 1pigrams , ?5 , :5 Bartin, Emily, 5%$ Bartin du Gard, Roger 9$>>$0$%;><, ,ren#h no"elist, &*% Bartineau, Harriet, $&? Bar/, Karl, des#ri'tion of his ar#hri"al ,erdinand Lassalle, ?&; Bar/ism, ?$% 0?5* Basson, Eeffrey, 5;; J

"iews a)out ,reud8s 'atient Kora, &$C Bastur)ation, &$C , &$% , ?55 0?5&, ?5% J anti0mastur)ation #am'aigns, $>5 0$>:J mastur)atory disease, &>> + ?:% + Baterialism, 'hiloso'hies of, $$C , $;C , $>* , 5?* Bathemati#s, $;* Batossian, Bary, 55; , 55: Baudsley, Henry, late 7i#torian 'sy#hiatrist, 5?* , 5?C , 5;$ , 5;? , 5%C , &*5 J and materialism, 5;? Baudsley Hos'ital, &5C Baulit6, Russell, 5?% Bead, George Her)ert, remar s a)out the fundamental assum'tions of s#ien#e, ?$; Be#hani#s, Dewtonian, $;$ , $:& J me#hanism, $$C Bedi#al edu#ation, ?; 0?:, ?% Bedi#al history, 55; , 55: , 5&* J #hanges in nineteenth #entury, 5?> 05?%J emergen#e of s'e#iali6ed fields, 5?% Bedi#al s#hools, hysteria and, $:> Bedi#al theory, $$% , $&& , $:; , $:C , $C$ , $C? Bedi#ine, :? , $$% , $5& , $5% , $:: , $>$ , 5&: , 5&% 05?*, 5?> 05;*, 5:: , 5>% J -ra)i#, ?? , ;; 0;:J -ssyrian, $: J Ba)ylonian, $: J By6antine, ?C J Enlightenment, $?: , 5;; J Galeni#, ;? 0;:J Georgian, $;5 J Hi''o#rati#, & , > , $; 0$:, $> , 5? , 5% , ?* , ?% , ;? , :$ J mathemati#al, $;? J me#hani#al, $CC J medie"al Euro'ean, ;5 J

nineteenth#entury, 5?; , 5;* , 5;& , 5;C , 5:; , 5:% J Roman, 5? J Lestern, %5 Bedie"al world, the, :? , %$ , $*C Beige, Henry, editor of the ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriAre after $%*$, &C5 J dissertation of $>%& on the wandering Eew, ?$$ J image of Boser C., ?$& J image showing the 'hysiognomy and the ga6e of HGottlie) B.,H ?$? J image of a wandering Eew as the model for the 'sy#ho'athology of the Eastern Eew, ?$5 Belan#holy, 5%& Bendo6a, Rafael, #hara#ter in Lilliam =ha# eray8s &odlingsby , #on"ersation with Lord Codlings)y, ?*% Beno'ause, $> , 5;5 Benstrual 'ain, 5;; Benstruation, ; , $* , $> , 55 , 5C , &C , ?* , ?5 0?&, ;* , ;5 , ;& , ;C , 5;* 05;&, 5%> , &%$ Ber#ier, Charles, 5?: , &*5 J res'onse to Ka"id ,orsyth8s #riti#ism in the Lan#et, &5? Bers ey, Harold, 5&* Besmer, ,ran6 -nton 9$C&&C0$>$;<, German 'hysi#ian res'onsi)le for de"elo'ing the treatment nown as mesmerism, $*? , $>& 0$>;, 5&5 , &;% J 'ortrait of, &:5 Besmerism, meaning of, &:5 Besmerism, treatment of hysteria and, &*% 0&$* Besmerist, image of the, &:* Bethodism, ?* , &C5 Bethodists, the, &C* !etsitsah , Eewish #ir#um#ision ritual, ?&* de La Bettrie, Eulian, 5?* Beynert, =heodor, 5&> J 'u)li#ly e/'ressed s e'ti#ism a)out Eean0Bartin Char#ot8s sym'tomatology, &$? Bi#ale, Bar , /"i 0/"ii, :; , $:> , 5&; , 5;C , 5>C , &*% , &$& , &5> Bi#haelis, Eohann Ka"id, eighteenth0#entury German #ommentator, ?5% Bi#helet, Eules, nineteenth0#entury ,ren#h so#ial historian, %C Biddle -ges, the, %: , %% , $$5 , $$> , &C% J late, %C , $**

Biddlese/ riots, the, $>5 Bidwi"es, ?$ Bill, Eohn Stuart, 5?: Billar, Eohn, 5;? Billett, Kate, &&* Bilton, Eohn 9$:*>0$:C?<, %> , $&; Bind, the, $*& , $$& , $5* , $55 , $;: , $:* , 5&; , 5&C , 5?? , 5?C , &>& Bind and )ody, Cartesian, $:5 0$:> !ischling , term from ra#ial s#ien#e 'arallel to )astard, ?&; 0?&:. Bit#hell, Euliet, $$$ , $>* , 5>> , &$% , &&& Bit#hell, Kr. Silas Leir 9$>5%0$%$?<, -meri#an 'hysi#ian and author, $C: , 5?; 05?:, 5%C 05%>, &** , &*5 0&*&J arti#le in Doctor and atient , 5%> J image of the ul#erated s in of the hysteri# from HHysteri#al Ra'id Res'iration, Lith CasesJ Pe#uliar ,orm of Ru'ial S in + ?C* + Kisease in an Hysteri#al Loman,H &>% J -oland Bla(e , 5%% Bit#hinson, L., on nineteenth0#entury Canadian medi#ine, 5% Bodernism, %: Boi, =oril, study a)out ,reud, &$> , &&& !ohel , role 'erformed )y the #ir#um#iser in the Eewish #ir#um#ision ritual metsitah , ?&* Bonro, Harold 9$>C%0$%&5<, English 'oet, $C> , $>? Bontagu, Lady Bary Lortley, $:* , $:C Bonte Cassino, monastery founded #. ;5% )y St. Benedi#t of Dursia, ;; de Bontgeron, Louis Basile CarrF, a##ount of the Eansenist mira#les, &C* J 4a veritA des miracles operas par l'intercession de !. de `ris et autres appellans demontrAe contre !. 4'archevB:ue de "ens , &C$ Bont'ellier, $5& Boreau de =ours, Ea#4ues Eose'h, &?: , &?% J $>%* 'hotogra'h HHysteri#s of the CharitF on the Ser"i#e of Kr. Luys,H &?> , &;: , &;% , &:5 Borgagni, Gio"anni Battista, "eats and &auses of Diseases . . . 9English "ersion $C:%<, $CC Borris, C. -., British surgeon during the Boer Lar, &5$ Bos#u##i, @rnella, 5?% , 5;;

Bott, ,rederi# , early twentieth0#entury shell0sho# treatment theorist, &55 Buhammad i)n0Pa ariyya8 ar0Ra6i 9Rha6es<, twenty0four "olume #olle#tion of wor s, #itation of Hi''o#rati# te/t Diseases of 9oung Girls , ;& J 5itab al*Ha%i , ;$ J 5itab al*!ansori , ;$ Bulti'le s#lerosis, 5;: Bunthe, -/el, nineteenth0#entury Swedish do#tor, his des#ri'tion of Char#ot8s =uesday le#tures, &$$ Bus#io, translator of Soranus, &% , ?> Butism, &55 Byers, Kr. Charles S., #ase studies of amnesia, im'aired "ision, and emotional distress among British soldiers in ,ran#e, &5$ Bysti#s, Catholi#, &:C

N
Da'ier, Ri#hard, early Stuart 'arson0'hysi#ian, $5; Dational S#hool of -gronomy, &C? Da6i Germany, $*; Deologisms for hysteria, $:C Der"e #ulture, $;5 0$C>J in Georgian England, $;: 0$C: Der"es, the, $:$ , $:; , $C* , $C5 0$C&, $C; , $>5 , 55C J ner"e do#tors, $;& , $;C , $:5 , $:? 0$:;, $C& , $C; 0$C:, $C% 0$>*, $>5 0$>?, 5?; 05?:, 5>% J semioti#s of, $:5 ,ervous constitution , term used )y Kr. =homas Sydenham to des#ri)e an im'ro'erly understood sensation, $?5 Der"ous dis#ourse, $:: 0$:> Der"ous organi6ation, $;* 0$C> 'assimJ meta'hors of, $:5 0$:; Der"ous sensi)ility 9see also Sensi)ility<, $:$ 0$:5, $:& Der"ous style, $:: 0$:C Der"ous system, the, $?& , $?: 0$?C, $;* 0$;$, $;? , $>; , 5&5 , 5;5 , 5:5 , ?$> J #entral, $?; J female, $*& J Dewtonian flu/ions to, $*; J semioti#s of, $?* 0$C; 'assim

Der"ous tension, $:* 0$:>, $:* 0$C5 'assim Detherlands, hysteria in, $:> Deurasthenia, ner"ous disorder named )y George B. Beard defining a #ondition of ner"ous e/haustion, 55> , 5?; , 5%? 05%C, &*: J and Hrest #ure,H 5%C 05%> Deuro)iology, $;C Deurology, 5?% , 5;; 05:* Deurosis, $& The ,e% Testament , $C$ Dewton, Sir 3saa#, hilosophiae naturalis principia mathematica , $?> J Dewtonianism, $;$ , $;& Dewtonian dissertations on hysteria, $:C Dewtonian matter theory, $>? Dewtonian re"olution, $;$ 0$:> Dewtonian s#ien#e, /i ,e% 9or( Times , editorial on the $%>% Sunday Bass interru'tion at Saint Patri# 8s Cathedral, &&? Diet6s#he, ,riedri#h, /" + ?C$ + Dile ri"er, the, 5&? Dilus, Saint, &:> Dishi, H., &hugai ';i "hinpo , #hart re'resenting the image of 'sy#hi# for#es in the Ea'anese male hysteri#, ?*& Dorth -meri#a, 55: , 55> Dorwi#h, #ounty seat of Dorfol , England, $&* ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriCre , &?% 0&;$ Dym'homania 9see also Hysteria<, $C5 0$C&, 5;?

#
@)stetri#s, 5?% @edi'al rule, the, %; @edi'us #om'le/, the, in ,reudian 'sy#hology, %; /edipus -e# , Gree tragedy, %; @8Hara, S#arlett, &5% @li"er, P., and Hali'rF, -., HClaudi#ation intermittente #he6 un homme hystFri4ue atteint de 'ouls lent

'ermanen,H image de'i#ting Char#ot8s diagnosti# #ategory of intermittent #laudi#ation, ?5? @nania #rusades, the, $>5 0$>& @ri)asius, &> , ?? , ?: , ?> , ;* , ;? J "ynopsis , ?; @rient, the, $C: @rgani# #hemistry, 5?% @rgasm, 5:5 J female, $$5 , $&* , 5;* , 5>C @riginal sin, Christian do#trine of, $&$ @rigen 9#a. -.K . $>;0#a. 5;? -.K .<, Christian theologian, &; , ?5% @/ford, England, $;C @"aries, the, 5;? , &%$ @"ulation, 5;* @wen, Lilfred, famous shell0sho# 'atient, &5? @/ford !ni"ersity, $&> 0$&%, $C*

P
Paganism, $*C Page, Her)ert, 'n;uries of the "pine and "pinal &ord 9$>>&<, ?$C Pain, $>; 0$>:J and emotion, $>; 0$>: Palingh, -)raham, image of the wit#h from 8t $fgeruc(t !om*$ansight der Tooverye: Daar in bet bedrogh der ge%aande Toverye3 naa(t ontdec(t3 en eml ge.one -edenen en e#emplen de.er 1eu%e aange%e.en %ort 9$>>C<, &C? J study of wit#h#raft, &C? Pani#, hysteria and, $:? J in relation to #rime, $:? Pa''enheim, Bertha, 5%* , &$; , &&5 , ?$% 0?5*, ?&5 Para#elsus, -ureolus, $5& , 5&5 Paralysis, $* , $; , &55 ParF -m)roise, ,ren#h 'hysi#ian, $$; , $5& Paris, ,ran#e, $** , $>* , 5%; , &$? , &;% Par inson8s disease, 5;: Parma, 3talian #ity, ;% Parry, Cale), 5:5

Parsons, =al#ot, 5&& Pasteur, Louis, de"elo'er of a germ theory of #ontagious disease, &;& Pathology, $C: , 5?% Paul of -egina, &> 0&%, ?? , ?: 0?C, ?% 0;*, ;? Paul of -etius, ;$ Paul, Saint 9d. -.K . :CN<, a'ostle to the Gentiles, ?5% Pausanias, &? Pear, =. B., early twentieth0#entury military do#tor, 'res#ri'tion to #ure shell0sho# ed military offi#ers, &5& Pel"i# stru#ture, &%$ Penis, as animal, 5> J #ir#um#ised on a Eewish man, ?5; 0?5:J infe#tion )y sy'hilis, ?&? Periander of Corinth, &$ Per ins, Charlotte, nineteenth0#entury hysteri#, $*$ Perley0Gu6e #riteria, in 'sy#hiatry, % Perry, Charles, the Le"ant, $C: 0$CCJ /n the &auses and ,ature of !adness 9$C5&<, $C: Personal identity 9and hysteria diagnosis<, $:* 0$:$ Pharma#oe'ia, 5? Pharoahs, 5&; Philaretus, on 'ulses, ;C Philo 9#. 5*, B.C .0-.K.C . ;*<, -le/andrian Eewish 'hiloso'her, ?5% + ?C5 + Philoso'hy, $:; , 5?* J me#hani#al, $:& J modern linguisti#, 5&? J natural, $?> Philotheus, :* Philumenos of -le/andria, ?; 0?: Phelgm, $% Photogra'hy, and hysteria, history of, &;: 0&;CJ use as a means of 'sy#ho0thera'y, &;; 0&;:, &;> , &>$ , &%5

Physi#ians, %% , $*5 , $$$ , $$? , $5* , $55 , $5? , $?& , $;: , 5?* , 5?% , 5:$ , 5%: J -meri#an, &*; J -ra)i#, &C J eighteenth0#entury, $$: , $5& J Enlightenment, $;? , $;; , 5?5 , 5;& J London, $C* J nineteenth0#entury, 55% J Renaissan#e, 5&$ 05&5J 7i#torian, 5?* , 5%> , &** , &*5 Physiognomy, hysteri#al, medi#al literature of, &>? Physiology, $$5 , $$C , $&* , $?$ , $:% J Cartesian, $*> J se/ual, %% Pineal gland, $*> Pinel, Phili''e 9$C?;0$>5N<, ,ren#h 'hysi#ian and 'sy#hiatrist, $$: , $:> , $C% 0$>*, 5&5 , 5;; , 5;C , 5:$ 05:5, &?% 0&;*, &:5 , &C* , &>? Pit#airne, -r#hi)ald, 'rofessor of medi#ine at Leyden and Edin)urgh, $;$ Pithiatism, suggested alternate terminology for hysteria, 5&; Plague, $$* , 55; 055:, ?&; Plath, Syl"ia, &&? Plato, && , &; , $*C , $&5 J Platonism, 5&C , 5?* J Timaeus , 5; 05>, ?5 , ?? J theory of the wom), 5: , ?: , ;5 0;&, $$> Platter, ,eli/ 9Platterus<, $$& Pleasure, %% Plin#a 'oloni#a, s in disease attri)uted )y Lestern dermatologists to the Eews of the East, &C% Pliny, the Elder, : , &? 0&;, :& Plutar#h, !oralia , &$ Poe, Edgar -llan, essays on the daguerreoty'e, &;> Poets, Romanti#, $&5 Politeness, #ults of, $;C 0$:? Pollo# , Griselda, nineteenth0#entury art #riti#, &$* Pomme, Pierre, ,ren#h 'hysi#ian, a $:> J

treatise on HHysteri#al -ffe#tions in )oth Se/es,H $C> 0$C% Po'e, -le/ander, English 'oet, $;& , $:C J The -ape of the 4oc( , $;* , $;> Portland, Ku#hess of, $:* Possession, 5& Positi"ism, logi#al, 5&& J medi#al diagnosis and, 5&: , 5;% 05:*J =hird Re'u)li#, 5;% Poststru#turalism, 5&? Pra/agoras of Cos, && Pregnan#y, $% , 55 , ?* Priestley, Eose'h, English radi#al theologian and s#ientist 9$CC&0$>*?<, $C$ rogrCs !Adical , the Sal'WtriGre medi#al Iournal, &$& Prostitution, $&: J lin )etween the Eew and sy'hilis, ?&5 Protestant lands, $&? Proteus, sea0god, the son of @#eanus and =ethys, %$ , $** , $*> , $?: , $:: Psy#hasthenia, suggested alternate terminology for hysteria, 5&* Psy#he, 5&> J female, $*; , $5& Psy#hiatry, %& , $&> , 5&& , 5?% , 5;% , 5:$ , 5:? , 5>% , &:C J 'sy#hiatri# #lini#s in Lestern Euro'e, ?$$ J rise of, $:5 Psy#hoanalysis, "ii , i/ , /" , 5&& , 5&; , 5&C 05&>, 5:; , &$% 0&5*, &5? , &5> , &&* J ,reudian, %& , $*? , 5&5 , 5>> , &$: , &$> J La#anian, 5>C J te#hni4ue of, &$; J 7iennese s#hools of, &:: Psy#hoanalyti# method, the, 5>> Psy#holinguisti#s, "iii Psy#hology, $:% , 5;% 05:*, ,reudian, 5& Psy#ho'athology, &:C , &C? Psy#hosis, 55>

Psy#hothera'y, $5* , &&? J ,reudian, &5? Pur#ell, Kr. Eohn, self0'rofessed Hner"e do#tor,H $?% , $;& , $:> Pure Reason, as de"elo'ed in the tradition of a Christian0Platoni# di"ine0right monar#hy, 5&> Py)us Clu), the, :;

@
Sueen -nne, $?% 0$;* Sueen 7i#toria, :& + ?C& + Sueens)ury Rules, the, 5&* Suinsey, the stre'to##o#al infe#tion, 55;

R
Ra)elais, ,ran_ois 9#. $?%*0$;;&<, $&? J Gargantua and Pantagruel, $5& J Tale of a tub , $;5 Rad#liffe College, 5%> Rad#liffe, Kr. Eohn, $?% Railway s'ine, hysteri#al trauma resulting from railway a##idents, ?$C 0?$> Ra es, $:$ Ranelagh Gardens, the, $** Ra'hael, #itation of )y Eugen Holl`nder, &C5 J s et#h transfiguration , &:> 0&:%, &C? Raulin, Eose'h, des#ri'tion of male hysteria in Glafira -)ri#osoff8s )oo 4'hystArie au# H7''e et H7'''e siCcles , &$& Ra"enna, fifth(si/th0#entury 3talian #ity, ;C J Romanes4ue mosai#s of, &:C Raymond, ,ulgen#e, ,ren#h 'sy#hiatrist who8s mis4uotation )y Bauri#e ,ish)erg )e#ame the leading "iew in German 'sy#hiatry, ?*; J and Eanet, Pierre, HBalformations des mains en T'in#es de humard,H image H-symetrie du #or's #he6 une e'ile'ti4ue,H &>* Realism, $*% , $$$ , $5& Regnard, Paul, &CC J

image of a "isual hallu#ination, &C: J 4es maladies ApidAmi:ues de l'esprit: sorcellerie magnAtisme3 morphinisme3 dAlire des grandeurs , &C& , &C; J monogra'h on the "isual relationshi' )etween magnetism, mor'hinism, and madness, &C? J 'hotogra'hs of -ugustine from the se#ond "olume of the 'conographie de la "alpBtriCre , &C5 Rei#h, Lilhelm, 5&> , 5>% Reil, Eohann, asylum su'erintendent during the nineteenth #entury, 5:$ Reininger, Ro)ert, #laim we #onstru#t our understanding of the world from our internali6ed system of "alues, ?&: Religion, history of, &C* Religious enthusiasm, $CC Religious melan#holy, $:5 0$C; 'assim Rem)randt, 9Harmens6oon "an RiIn<, tradition of anatomies, &?; Renaissan#e, the, ;C , %$ , %; 0%C, %% , $*$ , $*: 0$*>, $$5 , $5? , $5: , $5% , $&$ 0$&5, $;> , $>$ 0$>&, 55C , 5&% , 5?$ , 5%5 , &C? Re'ort of the Royal Commission on Besmerism, &:$ 0&:5 Re'rodu#ti"e organs, the, $C% , 5;? , 5%C , &** Re'u)li# of Letters, the, $:* Res'iration, && , ?C Rest #ure for hysteria, 5?: 05?>J for neurasthenia, 5%C 05%>J for shell sho# , &5& J failure with men, 5%% J 'rotests against, 5%% 0&** Re"illon, Charles, ,ren#h 'hysi#ian, author of -echerches sur la cause des affections hypochrondria:ues , $C* -evue de l'hypnotisme , &>> -evue photographi:ue des HIpita# des airs , &?% Reynolds, Eohn Russell, $ "ystem of !edicine , 5>% Ri#hardson, Samuel, $C* J "ir &harles Grandison , $;5 J &larissa Harlo%e 9$C;&<, $>; Ri#her, -ntoine, 4es Demoni:ues dans l'$rt 9$>>C<, 5&$ Ri#her, Paul, #olleague of Eean0Bartin Char#ot, &?; , &;* , &:C , &CC , &C% , &>& J Ltudes clini:ues sur le grande hystArie ou hystAro*Apilepsie , &:& J

HGonflement du #ou #he6 un hysteri4ue,H &;$ Risse, G. B., $* Ri"ers, L. H. R., early twentieth0#entury British 'sy#hologist, &5; 0&5:J "iew on ,reud8s theory of the un#ons#ious and the method of 'sy#ho0analysis founded u'on it, &5$ J study of shell sho# , &5; J theory of the un#ons#ious, &5; Ro)), Kr., nineteenth0#entury 'hysi#ian, & , C 0>, $? , $: Ro)ert0,leury, =ony, 'ortrait, HPinel ,reeing the 3nsane,H &?C J influen#e of, &?; Ro)inson, Kr. Di#holas, $;$ , $;& , $;; 0$;:, $:> J HDewtonian dissertation on hysteria,H $:C Romans, the, ? , > , $? , &: , :? + ?C? + Romanti#s, the, $$* J Romanti# 'oetry, $CC J Romanti#ism, 5?> Rbona, S., wor #ontinued from Bori6 Ka'osi on forms of s in eru'tions whi#h #ould )e la)eled hysteri#, &>% Ross, =. -., suggestions for training Lorld Lar 3 soldiers, &5? Rousseau, Eean Ea#4ues 9$C$50$CC><, ,ren#h 'hiloso'her, 5?& Rousselot, Eean, study of medi#ine in art in 'ost Lorld Lar 33 era, &C5 Rowley, Lilliam, English 'hysi#ian s'e#iali6ing in female diseases, author of $ treatise on female3 nervous3 hysterical3 hypochondriacal3 bilious3 convulsive disease J apople#y and palsy %ith thoughts on madness and suicide3 etc ., $CC Roy, -le#, 5&* J Hysteria 9$%>5<, $* Royal College, the, $$C Royal So#iety, the, $?: , &;; Rudol'hy, K., H@hro'erationen )ei Hysteris#hen,H #hart re'resenting the o'erations of the German hysteri#8s hearing, ?*? Russett, Cynthia, 5%$

S
Sade, Konatien -l'honse ,ran_ois, #omte de 9$C?*0$>$?<, ,ren#h author nown as the mar4uis de

Sade, $>? Sa#erdote, -., wor on the #hanges in 4uality of the hysteri#8s fa#e, &>? Sadler, Eohn, "ic(e )oman's rivate 4oo(ing*Glasse %herein !ethodically are handled all uterine affects3 or diseases arising from the %ombe< enabling )omen to informe the hysician about the cause of their grief e , $&$ St. Bartholomew8s Hos'ital, &*5 Saint Patri# 8s Cathedral, Dew .or City, &&? Salem wit#h0hunting trials, $** Salerno, s#hool of, ;; , ;: , $?> Salmon, =homas, early twentieth0#entury British 'hysi#ian, &55 Sal'WtriGre hos'ital, 5?5 , 5;C , 5;% , 5:? , 5>% , &*5 , &*; , &*> 0&$5, &$? , &?; 0&?:, &?% , &;5 , &;% , &:; , &:: 0&:C, &C5 , &CC , &>& 0&>?, ?*: , ?$$ , ?55 0?5& Sartre, Eean Paul 9$%*;0$%>*<, 5%* Sassoon, Siegfried, famous shell0sho# 'atient, &5? Satan, %> , 5&5 J satanism, %% Satow, Ro)erta, ? , HLhere Has -ll the Hysteria GoneNH $*$ de Sau"ages, Boisser, 5:5 Sa"age, Sir George, nineteenth0#entury London 'hysi#ian, 5?C Sa"ill, =homas K., study of s in on hysteri#al #hildren, &>% J image of the hysteri# with sy'hilis from H- Clini#al Le#ture on Hysteri#al S in Sym'toms and Eru'tions,H &%* S#hreiner, @li"e 9$>;;0$%5*<, South -fri#an author and feminist, 5%5 S#ien#e, $5% , 5&5 , 5?* , 5;% J Enlightenment, $:; J nineteenth0#entury, $C: J medi#al, 5&$ J of the )ody, 5&: S#ientifi# re"olution, the, 5&% S#otland, $:> , $C? , $>& S#ott, Eoan, 'ost0Lorld Lar 33 -meri#an historian, &&* S#ri)lerians, the, writers8 #olle#ti"e, $:* de S#hweinit6, George Edmund, Philadel'hia o'thalmologist in the early twentieth #entury, &>? S#ully, K. H., ?

S#ul'tured image of a #ase of hemi'legia from the tea#hing #olle#tion of the Sal'WtriGre, &>; Sedentary life 9see also 3ntelle#t<, $:* 0$:5 Self0fulfillment, de"elo'ing #odes of, $:* 0$:$ Semiology of illness, $:* Semioti#s, medi#al, 5>: , &:5 , Semites, the, 55C Sennett, Ri#hard, -meri#an so#iologist, $:5 Sensation, $?& Sensi)ility, #ults of, $:* 0$:$ Sergt, B., hysteri#al 'atient with wounds on his right forearm, &:C Se/ism, &5% 0&&$ Se/ual etiology of the neuroses, &5? Se/ual inter#ourse, ?* , ?5 , ;* , ;5 , :5 , ?5: J with a #ir#um#ised 'enis, ?55 Se/ual organs, the, %% 0$**, 5;$ , 5%C J female, $$5 0$$?, $&? Se/ual 'assions, the, 5:5 + ?C; + Se/ual 'oliti#s, and hysteria in the eighteenth #entury, $:5 Se/ual theory, nineteenth #entury, 5?% 05;*J twentieth0#entury, $&5 0$&& Se/uality, $&: , $:& , 5;* , 5%5 , &5C , &5% , &&& , ?5C J female, %& , 5;$ , 5%5 , &*& 0&*?, &&; J Gree origins of term, &5% J male, $C$ J re'ression of, $>5 0$>;, &*5 0&*&, &5: Sha es'eare, Lilliam, $$? , $5& , $5: 0$5%, $&$ , $&& J Hamlet , %; J 5ing 4ear , $5$ , $5C 0$5> Shamanism, 5& Shar', Eane, a male H4ua# do#torH in Restoration England, $&5 Shaw, Eames, study of the #on#e't of asymmetry in the hysteri#8s fa#e, &>? Shaw, Peter, His BaIesty George 338s Physi#ian E/traordinary, The -eflector: -epresenting Human

$ffairs3 $s They $re: and may be improved , $:& Shell sho# 9see also Lar Deurosis<, 'ost traumati# sym'tom first e/'erien#ed )y soldiers after Lorld Lar 3, 55% , 5?C , 5%5 , &*? , &5$ , &5: , &:C , &C* Shelley, Per#y Bysshe 9$C%50$>55<, HGine"ra,H :& 0:? Shorter, Edward, % , 5% , 5%C 055%, &5: Showalter, Elaine, /iii , /"i , Si#hel, Ba/, Eewish 'hysi#ian during Lorld Lar 3, ?&& Siemerling, E., "iew of #ere)ral0s'inal degenera#y as the sour#e of hysteria, &>; Sigerist, Henry, &5> Sil"erman, Ke)ora, #omments a)out the Central !nion of the Ke#orati"e -rts 'rogram in the $>%*s, &$* Simon, Bennett, !ind and !adness in $ncient Greece , 55 05? Sitwell, Kame Edith, $C$ S ae, Ka"id, nineteenth0#entury British 'hysi#ian, 5?C S ey, ,. C., nineteenth0#entury English 'hysi#ian, &*5 S in, hysteri#alJ as an image of the disease hysteria, ?*5 J relation )etween the a''earan#e of s in to the state of the genitalia, &>% , &%$ , ?&? S inner, Suentin, $?5 S ull, the, &>& S ultans, 7ieda, historian of English madness, 5%& Slater, Eliot, ? , 5?5 Sla"ney, Philli', des#ri'tion of Etienne =rillat8s study HPers'e#ti"es on Hysteria,H &&; Small'o/, &;5 Smart, Christo'her, $C* , $C$ , $CC Smith, -dam, S#ottish Enlightenment 'hiloso'her, $&? Smith0Rosen)erg, Carroll, feminist historian, &*5 Smollett, =o)ias: Kon Sui/ote, the fi#tional #hara#ter, $C5 J Laun#elot Grea"es, the fi#tional #hara#ter, $C5 Snee6ing, as treatment for hysteria, ? 0;, ?* , ?; , ;: , ;> , ;% , :* 0:$ Snow, C9harles<. P9er#y<. 9$%*;0 <, English no"elist, Htwo #ulturesH di#hotomy, 5&C So#iety, $:% J Lestern Euro'ean, $*? , $?% , $C; Sofer, Press)urg Ra))i Boses, ?&* Sollier, Paul, #ase of the #ontra#ture of the hand in the male hysteri# in the fourth "olume of the ,ouvelle 'conographie de la "alpBtriCre , &%$ J

image of the hand of the male hysteri# from HContra#ture 7olontaire #he6 un HystFri4ue,H &%? Somatism, 5&C , 5&% , 5?; Sontag, Susan, /"i J 'llness as !etaphor , $$* Soranus, gyne#ologi#al theories of, 5; 05>, &; 0?5, ?? , ?C , ;& 0;;, ;C , %$ J Gynecology , $; , &C , ;& "orciCres , early twentieth0#entury ,ren#h feminist Iournal, &&$ S'ain, $?> S'ee#h disorders, &5: S'en#er, Her)ert 9$>5*0$%*&<, English 'hiloso'her, 5%; 05%:J arti#le written for the )estminster -evie% , 5%; S'en#er, Eohann, eighteenth0#entury theologian, ?5% S'enser, Edmund, %> S'ino6a, Baru#h, $:&50$:CC, Kut#h 'hiloso'her, ?$* S'irits, e"il, &:$ S'leen, the, 5&$ , 5;; , 5%& HStartle effe#t,H &;> + ?C: + Steffens, Paul, twentieth0#entury Ham)urg 'hysi#ian, &>; Steindler, -., essay on hysteri#al #ontra#ture, &%5 J image of 'osed hysteri# from H@n Hysteri#al Contra#tures,H &%C Ste'hen of Pisa, ;; Sterility, hysteria and, 5%$ 05%&J neurasthenia, 5%; 05%: Sterne, Lauren#e 9$C$&0$C:><, British author of Tristram "handy , $:& , $C* , $C& , 5?& "an Ste"eni# , Lu#as, medi#al student of Hermann Boerhaa"e, $:> Ste"enson, -nne, her remar s to the #ontro"ersy #on#erning the use of Hhysteri#alH as a #riti#al term for the 'oetry of Syl"ia Plath, &&? Stigma and illness, $C; 0$C>J and gender, $C: 0$CC Sto# , Eohann Christo'h, $:> Stone, Bartin, early twentieth0#entury shell0sho# s#holar, &5; Strauss, H., HEr ran ungen dur#h -l ohol und Sy'hilis )ei den Euden,H #hart re'resenting the Eewish hysteri#, ?*C J

study of the 'athology of the Eews, ?*: , ?&& Stress, 55> 055%, 5?5 05?&, 5?: , 5%; Stuart England, $*; Surrealism, &$5 0&$& Surrey County Lunati# -sylum, the, &;: Sweat, great, 55: Sweden)org, Emanuel 9$:>>0$CC5<, Swedish s#ientist, 'hiloso'her, and theologian, $>& 0$>; Swift, Eonathan, $:* , Tale of a Tub , $;5 , $C* Swit6erland, hysteria in, $:> Sydenham, Kr. =homas, /ii , $& , %& 0%?, %> , $*5 0$*?, $*: , $*% 0$$*, $$: , $5? , $&C 0$?%, $;$ 0$;&, $;; , $;C , $:5 , $:C 0$:>, $C* , $C& 0$C?, $CC , $>* 0$>$, $>; , 5&5 , 5?; , 5;> , 5%& J 1pistolary Dissertation , $&% , $?$ , $?& Sym)oli#, the, &&5 Sy'hilis, 55> , 55% , &>% , ?$C , ?5$ 0?5&, ?5> 0?&; S6as6, =homas, 5&? 05&;, 5&% , 5:; J The !yth of !ental 'llness , 5&&

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=a)es, ?55 =al)ot, ,o/, use of 'hotogra'hy in treatment of the mentally ill, &;: =ears 9see also Blushing<, $:& =eeth, grinding as sym'tom of hysteria, $; , $% , 5& =etanus, &:? , &:: , &:> , &C% =esti#les, the, &*> =ha# eray, Lilliam, ?*% , &odlingsby , ?*: =heodorus Ga6a, traductio nova edition of the $rticella , ;> 0;% =heology, 5&> , 5?* J Christian, 5&C =heo'hanes Donnos, medi#al #om'ilations )y, ?: =heo'hilus, on urines, ;C =hera'ists, High 7i#torian, 5?: =heseus, $*? =hird Re'u)li#, the, 5&$

=hora/, the, 5?$ =hroat, the, 5?$ =hu#ydides 9#. ?:*0?** B.C .<, Gree historian of -thens, des#ri'tion of the Hgreat 'lagueH of -thens, 55; =i# ner, Lisa, study of the British suffrage mo"ement, &*: =ilt, Edward, 7i#torian 'hysi#ian, 5>: =imaeus of Lo#ri, 5; Times 4iterary "upplement , &&? =issot, Samuel -uguste, Swiss Hantimastur)ationH do#tor, $>5 , 5?; , 5:5 =ode, Eohannes, $:> =ran#e, 5& =ra"el to seaside resorts, $:? =rillat, Etienne, 5;C , &&; J Histoire de l'Hysterie 9$%>:<, "ii , ; , % 0$*, 5% , ?$ 0?5, 5%$ =rinity College, Hartford, Conne#ti#ut, &$& =rota, twelfth0#entury female 'hysi#ian, &um auctor , ;: J Ut de curtis , ;: =rum)a#h, Randol'h, $&: =ryon, =homas, mysti# and "egetarian, Discourse of the &auses of !adness , $C: =u)er#ulosis, 55> =udor0Stuart England. "ee England, =udor0Stuart + ?CC + =uesday Clini#, #lini# o'erated )y Eean0Bartin Char#ot, 5?5 , 5?C , 5:* =uesday le#tures, the, &;* , ?$; =u e, Ha# , 5:; =u es, the 9Lilliam, Henry, and Samuel<, asylum su'erintendents during the nineteenth #entury, 5:$ =ur)ayne, C. B., 5; =urner, Lilliam, $:> =us egee e/'eriments, ?&&

U
!ffi6i Gallery, Ba##hi# s#ene of Hdying Ba##hante,H &C5 !nited Kingdom, the, war hos'itals for mental 'atients, &5$ !nited States, the, 5>C , 5%? 05%C, &*; 0&*:, ?&?

!ni"ersity 'oly#lini#, the, 5?% !ni"ersity of San ,ran#is#o, the, &&$ !r)an s'rawl, in relation to gender arrangements, $;? 0$:: !terus, the, 5;$ , 5;? , 5%5 , &;% , ?*5 J uterine system, the, 5;5

7agina, 5;$ , 5;? J relationshi' to the #ir#um#ised 'enis of a Eewish man, ?5; 7an Keusen, E. H., &*; 7an Swieten, Gerard, 5:5 H7a'ours,H $$% , $?% 0$;*, $;5 0$;&, $;; , $C* , 5;; , 5>% , 5%& 7as#ular system, the, 5;5 7assar College, 5%> 7eith, 3l6a, medi#al historian of hysteria, $*? , $*: , $*% , $$; , $&% , $?5 , $;C , $>& , 5&5 05&&, 5&; , 5&C , 5?5 , 5?: , 5;; , 5:5 , &5% 0&&*J &an 9ou Hear the &lapping of /ne Hand 9$%>%<, &&$ J Hysteria: The History of a Disease , "ii , /"ii , ? 0;, C 0>, 5: , %& , %: , $$% 0$5$, 5&5 J Hysteria 9$%:;<, &5> 0&&$ 7esalius, -ndreas, :& J De humani corporis fabrica 9$;?&<, :? 7i#o, Gio"anni Battista, /" 7i#torians, the, $>; 7ienna, -ustria, ?5* , during the time of ,reud, $?? , $C? , $>& , &$; , ?*5 , ?*; , ?5C 7ienna General Hos'ital, &5& 7ienna Psy#hiatri# So#iety, the, &$? 7ienna Psy#hoanalyti# So#iety, ?*; 0?*: 7ienna, !ni"ersity of, ?*? 7iennese Eewish #ommunity during the early nineteenth0#entury de)ate on the a)olition of #ir#um#ision, ?&* 7iennese So#iety of Physi#ians, ?*5 7indi#ianus, ?> 7iolen#e, $:$ 7irago, early twentieth0#entury English 'u)lishing #om'any, &&$

7irard, P., $:> 7irgins, $5& , $&; 7isi)ility of the hysteri#. see Hysteri# 7isionaries. "ee Cami6ards, ,ren#h 'ro'hets, Bla e, English lyri# 'oets

3
La# , Bary, :? , %% , $$& Lar fe"er, 55: Lar Deurosis, &5$ 0&5: Larner, ,ran#is, The 1#pression of 1motions in !en and $nimals , &>& Larner0Eauregg, Professor Eulius, re'ort for the -ustrian #ommission a''ointed to in"estigate the treatment of Lorld Lar 3 war neuroti#s, &5& Leilder, Lalter Baer, image showing eyes, and sight of the hysteri#, &>: J wor on hysteri#al )lindness, HSome @#ular Banifestations of Hysteria,H &>? Leir Bit#hell rest #ure, the, &5& Lell#ome 3nstitute for the History of Bedi#ine, the, :; Lestern medi#al model )efore $>**, the, %5 Leyer, Eohannes, Kut#h 'hysi#ian, $$5 , $? 0$$:, $55 0$5C, $?% , 5&5 LH-B, a)ortion rights grou', &&? Lharton, Edith 9Eones< 9$>:50$%&C<, -meri#an no"elist, 5%% Lhite, -ndrew Ki# son 9$>&50$%$><, study of #onfli#t )etween s#ien#e and theology, &C? Lhite, Hayden, /iii Lhytt, Ro)ert, S#ottish 'hysi#ian, $C% 0$>*, $>& 0$>?, 5:5 J /bservations on the nature3 causes and cure of those disorders %hich have been commonly called nervous , + ?C> + hypochondriac3 or hysteric3 to %hich are pre*fi#ed some remar(s on the sympathy of the nerves , $:: 0$:CJ HProteus and the #hameleon,H $C: Lidows, $5& , $&; Lilde, @s#ar, 5%5 , &?: Lillis, =homas 9$:5$0$:C;<, English 'hysi#ian and anatomist, authority on )rain and ner"ous system, $*? , $5? , $&> , $?* 0$?$, $?& , $?; J $?C , $;$ 0$;5, $;; , $;> , $:5 , $>& 0$>?, 5?$ , 5:5 J

$ffectionum :uae dicuntur @ hypochondriacae pathologia . . . 9$:C5<, $?* J theory of sym'athy, $?C Lilson, D. G., summary on -le/andrian medi#ine, ?; Lit, Restoration and S#ri)lerian, $:* Lit#h#raft, %: 0%>, $** , $*? , $5$ , $5C , $&5 , $?> , &5% Lit#hes, %> , $** 0$*$, $*; , $$C , $5? , $5: , $&5 , $?% , $CC , 5&& , &;5 , &:$ , &C? , &CC J the late medie"al wit#h #ra6e, 55; J wit#h0hunts, 5:; , 5>C , &5% J wit#h trials, 5?5 , &5% J wit#h8s #law, the, $*? 0$*; Lit#hes, the, early women8s grou', &&$ Littmann, Blan#he, the HSueen of Hysteri#s,H 55% , 5?5 , &*% 0&$*, &?; 0&?: Lom), the, $$ , $5 , $& , $? , $; , $> , $% , 5C , 5> , &: , &> , $$C , $$% , $&* 0$&?, $;C , $>$ , 5&5 , 5:: , &;: , ?*? J dry wom), $> 0$%J mo"ement of, $5 , $? , $C , 5? , 5; , 5C , 5% , &* , &5 , &> 0&%, ?5 , ?: , ?> , ;* 0;&, ;; , :? J origin of all diseases, &* J Plato8s des#ri'tion of, 5; 05>, $*? , $$> , $5& J suffo#ation of, see Hysteri(e pni# J wandering, 5; 05:, ?5 , ?% , ;? , $$: , $$> , $5$ , $5; , $?* , &&; , ?*5 , ?*? J wom), as animal, 5; 05:, 5> , &> 0&%, ?* 0?$, ?& 0??, ?: , ;5 , ;: , $>; J wom) as o"en, as hearth, &$ 0&5 Lomen, hysteria and. "ee under Hysteria Lomen8s suffrage, in England, &5: J in the !nited States, &5: Loodruff, R. -., ? Loolf, 7irginia, !rs. Dallo%ay , 5?C Lordsworth, Lilliam 9see also Gale, Susan<, $&5 , $;& J H=he 3diot Boy,H $CC Lorld Lar 3, 5%5 , &** , &5$ , &:: , ?&& Lright, Kr. -lmwroth, arti#le H@n Bilitant Hysteria,H &5*

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Z0ray medi#al analysis, &>$ , &%$

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.iddish, ?5; 0?5:

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Pam'ieri, Komeni#hino 9$;>$0$:?$<, &:> Pet6el, Eli6a)eth Rosen)erg, Emergen#y Bedi#al Ser"i#e 'sy#hiatrist during Lorld Lar 33, &&* J first analyti# 'a'er, HLar Deurosis: - Clini#al Contri)ution,H &5C Pe"iani, G. 7., $:> Pil)oorg, Gregory, medi#al historian, 5&$ 6ionist , alleged )astard ra#e originating from se/ual sele#ti"ity, ?&? 6oFphilist , English anti"i"ise#tionist Iournal, &$$
Preferred Citation: Gilman, Sander L., Helen King, Roy Porter, G. S. Rousseau, and Elaine Showalter Hysteria Beyond Freud. Ber eley: !ni"ersity of California Press, #$%%& $%%&. htt':((ar .#dli).org(ar :($&*&*(ft*'&**&d&(