1

Chapter 13
The Laplace Transform in Circuit
Analysis
13.1 Circuit Elements in the s Domain
13.2-3 Circuit Analysis in the s Domain
13.4-5 The Transfer Function and Natural Response
13.6 The Transfer Function and the Convolution
Integral
13.7 The Transfer Function and the Steady-
State Sinusoidal Response
13.8 The Impulse Function in Circuit Analysis
2
Key points
How to represent the initial energy of L, C in the
s-domain?
Why the functional forms of natural and steady-
state responses are determined by the poles of
transfer function H(s) and excitation source X(s),
respectively?
Why the output of an LTI circuit is the
convolution of the input and impulse response?
How to interpret the memory of a circuit by
convolution?
3
Section 13.1
Circuit Elements in the s
Domain
1. Equivalent elements of R, L, C
4
A resistor in the s domain
iv-relation in the time domain:
). ( ) ( t i R t v =
By operational Laplace transform:
{ } { } { }
). ( ) (
, ) ( ) ( ) (
s I R s V
t i L R t i R L t v L
=
= =
Physical units: V(s) in volt-seconds, I(s) in
ampere-seconds.
5
An inductor in the s domain
). ( ) ( t i
dt
d
L t v =
{ } { } { }
| | . ) ( ) ( ) (
, ) ( ) ( ) (
0 0
LI s I sL I s sI L s V
t i L L t i L L t v L
= =
'
=
'
=
initial current
iv-relation in the time domain:
By operational Laplace transform:
6
Equivalent circuit of an inductor
Series equivalent: Parallel equivalent:
Thvenin
Norton
7
A capacitor in the s domain
). ( ) ( t v
dt
d
C t i =
{ } { } { }
| | . ) ( ) ( ) (
, ) ( ) ( ) (
0 0
CV s V sC V s sV C s I
t v L C t v C L t i L
= =
'
=
'
=
initial voltage
iv-relation in the time domain:
By operational Laplace transform:
8
Equivalent circuit of a capacitor
Parallel equivalent: Series equivalent:
Norton
Thvenin
9
Section 13.2, 13.3
Circuit Analysis in the s
Domain
1. Procedures
2. Nature response of RC circuit
3. Step response of RLC circuit
4. Sinusoidal source
5. MCM
6. Superposition
10
How to analyze a circuit in the s-domain?
1. Replacing each circuit element with its s-domain
equivalent. The initial energy in L or C is taken
into account by adding independent source in
series or parallel with the element impedance.
2. Writing & solving algebraic equations by the
same circuit analysis techniques developed for
resistive networks.
3. Obtaining the t-domain solutions by inverse
Laplace transform.
11
Why to operate in the s-domain?
It is convenient in solving transient responses of
linear, lumped parameter circuits, for the initial
conditions have been incorporated into the
equivalent circuit.
It is also useful for circuits with multiple essential
nodes and meshes, for the simultaneous ODEs
have been reduced to simultaneous algebraic
equations.
It can correctly predict the impulsive response,
which is more difficult in the t-domain (Sec. 13.8).
12
Nature response of an RC circuit (1)
Q: i(t), v(t)=?
.
) ( 1
) ( ,
1
0 0 0

+
=
+
= + =
RC s
R V
RCs
CV
s I IR
sC
I
s
V
Replacing the charged capacitor by a Thvenin
equivalent circuit in the s-domain.
KVL, algebraic equation & solution of I(s):
13
Nature response of an RC circuit (2)
The t-domain solution is obtained by inverse
Laplace transform:
). (
1
) (
) (
) (
0
1 ) (
0
1
0
1
t u e
R
V
s
L e
R
V
RC s
R V
L t i
RC t
RC t

=
)
`

=
)
`

+
=
i(0
+
) = V
0
/R, which is true for v
C
(0
+
) = v
C
(0
-
) = V
0
.
i() = 0, which is true for capacitor becomes
open (no loop current) in steady state.
14
Nature response of an RC circuit (3)
To directly solve v(t), replacing the charged
capacitor by a Norton equivalent in the s-domain.
.
) (
) ( ,
1
0
0

+
= + =
RC s
V
s V
R
V
sCV CV
Solve V(s), perform inverse Laplace transform:
| | { } ). ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
0
1
0
1
t Ri t u e V RC s V L t v
RC t
= = + =

15
Step response of a parallel RLC (1)
i
L
(0
-
) = 0
v
C
(0
-
) = 0
Q: i
L
(t)=?
16
Step response of a parallel RLC (2)
KCL, algebraic equation & solution of V(s):
.
) ( ) (
) ( ,
1 1 2
+ +
= + + =
LC s RC s
C I
s V
sL
V
R
V
sCV
s
I
dc dc
Solve I
L
(s):
| |
| |
.
) 10 6 . 1 ( ) 10 4 . 6 (
10 84 . 3

) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
9 4 2
7
1 1 2
1
+ +

=
+ +
= =

s s s
LC s RC s s
LC I
sL
s V
s I
dc
L
17
Step response of a parallel RLC (3)
Perform partial fraction expansion and inverse
Laplace transform:
. s) (mA
) k 24 k 32 (
127 20
) k 24 k 32 (
127 20 24
) (

Z
+
+
Z
+ =
j s j s s
s I
L

| |
| | { }
| | { } . (mA) ) ( ) k 24 32sin( ) k 24 24cos( 24
(mA) ) ( 127 k) 24 ( cos 40 24
. . ) ( 20 ) ( 24 ) (
k) 32 (
k) 32 (
) k 24 ( k) 32 ( 127
t u t t e
t u t e
c c t u e e e t u t i
t
t
t j t j
L
=
+ + =
+ + =

18
Transient response due to a sinusoidal source (1)
For a parallel RLC circuit, replace the current
source by a sinusoidal one:
The algebraic equation changes:
( )
( )| |
( )| |
.
) ( ) (
) (
) (
,
) ( ) (
) (
,
1 1 2 2 2
1
1 1 2 2 2
2
2 2

+ + +
= =
+ + +
=
+
= = + +
LC s RC s s
s LC I
sL
V
s I
LC s RC s s
s C I
s V
s
sI
I
sL
V
R
V
sCV
m
L
m
m
g
e
e
e
). ( cos ) ( t u t I t i
m g
= e
19
.
) ( ) (
) (
*
2 2
*
1 1
| o | o e e j s
K
j s
K
j s
K
j s
K
s I
L

+
+
+
+
+

=
Driving
frequency
Neper
frequency
Damped
frequency
( ) ( ) { } ). ( cos 2 cos 2 ) (
2 2 1 1
t u K t e K K t K t i
t
L
Z + + Z + =

| e
o
Steady-state
response (source)
Natural response (RLC
parameters)
Transient response due to a sinusoidal source (2)
Perform partial fraction expansion and inverse
Laplace transform:
20
Step response of a 2-mesh circuit (1)
i
2
(0
-
)
= 0
i
1
(0
-
) = 0
Q: i
1
(t), i
2
(t)=?
21
Step response of a 2-mesh circuit (2)
MCM, 2 algebraic equations & solutions:

= + +
= +
) 2 ( 0 ) 48 10 ( ) ( 42
) 1 (
336
) ( 42 4 . 8
2 1 2
2 1 1

I s I I
s
I I sI
.
0
336
10 90 42
42 4 . 8 42
2
1
(

=
(

+
+

s
I
I
s
s
.
12
4 . 1
2
4 . 8 7
12
1
2
14 15
0
336
10 90 42
42 4 . 8 42
1
2
1
(
(
(

+
+
+

=
(

+
+
=
(

s s s
s s s
s
s
s
I
I
22
Step response of a 2-mesh circuit (3)
Perform inverse Laplace transform:
( ) . A 15
) 48 // 42 (
336
) ( 14 15 ) (
12 2
1
= =

t u e e t i
t t
( ) . A 7
48 42
42
15 ) ( 4 . 1 4 . 8 7 ) (
12 2
2
=
+
+ =

t u e e t i
t t
23
Use of superposition (1)
Given 2 independent sources v
g
, i
g
and initially
charged C, L, v
2
(t)=?
24
Use of superposition: V
g
acts alone (2)
1 2

=
'
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
'

=
'

'
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

=
'
+
'

'
=
'

'
+
'
+

'

. 0
1
,
1 1
. 0
) (
, 0
) (
2
2
1
1
2 1
1
2
2
1
1 2
1
2 1 1
1
1
V sC
R
V sC
R
V
V sC V sC
sL R
R
V
sC
V V
sC
V V
sL
V
R
V V
g
g
25
Use of superposition (3)
.
0
1
1 1
1
2
1
22 12
12 11
2
1
2
1
(

=
(

'
'

=
(

'
'

(
(
(
(

+
+ +
R V
V
V
Y Y
Y Y
V
V
sC
R
sC
sC sC
sL R
g
.
2
12 22 11
1 12
2 g
V
Y Y Y
R Y
V

=
'

For convenience, define admittance matrix:

26
Use of superposition: I
g
acts alone (4)
1 2
. ,
0
2
12 22 11
11
2
2
1
22 12
12 11
g
g
I
Y Y Y
Y
V
I
V
V
Y Y
Y Y

=
' '

=
(

' '
' '

Same matrix Same denominator

27
Use of superposition: Energized L acts alone (5)
1 2
. ,
0
2
12 22 11
12
2
2
1
22 12
12 11

Y Y Y
s Y
V
s
V
V
Y Y
Y Y

=
' ' '

=
(

' ' '

' ' '

Same matrix Same denominator

28
Use of superposition: Energized C acts alone (6)
1
2
.
) (
,
2
12 22 11
12 11
" "
2
" "
2
" "
1
22 12
12 11

Y Y Y
C Y Y
V
C
C
V
V
Y Y
Y Y

+
=
(

=
(

The total voltage is:

.
" "
2 2 2 2 2
V V V V V +
' ' '
+
' '
+
'
=
29
Section 13.4, 13.5
The Transfer Function and
Natural Response
30
What is the transfer function of a circuit?
The ratio of a circuits output to its input in the
s-domain:
) (
) (
) (
s X
s Y
s H =
A single circuit may have many transfer
functions, each corresponds to some specific
choices of input and output.
31
Poles and zeros of transfer function
For linear and lumped-parameter circuits, H(s)
is always a rational function of s.
Poles and zeros always appear in complex
conjugate pairs.
The poles must lie in the left half of the s-plane
if bounded input leads to bounded output.
Re
Im

32
Example: Series RLC circuit
If the output is the loop current I:
.
1 ) (
1
) (
2 1
+ +
=
+ +
= =

sRC LC s
sC
sC sL R V
I
s H
g
If the output is the capacitor voltage V:
.
1
1
) (
) (
) (
2 1
1
+ +
=
+ +
= =

sRC LC s sC sL R
sC
V
V
s H
g
input
33
How do poles, zeros influence the solution?
Since Y(s)=H(s)X(s), the partial fraction
expansion of the output Y(s) yields a term K/(s-a)
for each pole of H(s) or X(s).
The functional forms of the natural (transient)
and steady-state responses y
tr
(t) and y
ss
(t) are
determined by the poles of H(s) and X(s),
respectively.
The partial fraction coefficients of Y
tr
(s) and Y
ss
(s)
are determined by both H(s) and X(s).
34
Example 13.2: Linear ramp excitation (1)
50tu(t)
50/s
2
Q: v
o
(t)=?
35
Example 13.2 (2)
Only one essential node, use NVM:
, 0
10 05 . 0 250 1000
6
= +
+
+

s
V
s
V
V V
o o
g o
( )
.
10 5 . 2 6000
) 5000 ( 1000
) (
7 2
+ +
+
= =
s s
s
V
V
s H
g
o
H(s) has 2 complex conjugate poles:
V
g
(s) = 50/s
2
has 1 repeated real pole: s = 0
(2)
.
. 4000 3000 j s =
36
Example 13.2 (3)
The total response in the s-domain is:
| |
( ) ). ( 10 4 10
) ( ) 80 000 , 4 cos( 10 5 ) (
3
000 , 3 3
t u t
t u t e y y t v
t
ss tr o

+
+ = + =

( )
ss tr g o
Y Y
s s s
s
s V s H s V + =
+ +
+
= =
7 2 2
4
10 5 . 2 6000
) 5000 ( 10 5
) ( ) ( ) (
The total response in the t-domain:
poles of H(s): 3k j4k
pole of V
g
(s): 0
(2)
expansion coefficients depend onH(s) & V
g
(s)
.
10 4 10
4000 3000
80 10 5 5
4000 3000
80 10 5 5
4
2
4 4
s s j s j s

+
+ +
Z
+
+
Z
=

37
Example 13.2 (4)
Steady state
component y
ss
(t)
Total response
t = 0.33 ms, impact of y
tr
(t)
38
Section 13.6
The Transfer Function and
the Convolution Integral
1. Impulse response
2. Time invariant
3. Convolution integral
4. Memory of circuit
39
Impulse response
If the input to a linear, lumped-parameter circuit
is an impulse o(t), the output function h(t) is
called impulse response, which happens to be
the natural response of the circuit:
{ }
{ } { } ). ( ) ( ) ( ) (
), ( 1 ) ( ) ( , 1 ) ( ) (
1 1
t h s H L s Y L t y
s H s H s Y t L s X
= = =
= = = =

o
The application of an impulse source is
equivalent to suddenly storing energy in the
circuit. The subsequent release of this energy
gives rise to the natural response.
40
Time invariant
For a linear, lumped-parameter circuit, delaying
the input x(t) by t simply delays the response y(t)
by t as well (time invariant):
{ }
{ } { }
). ( ) (
) ( ) , ( ) , (
), ( ) ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) , (
), ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
1 1
t t
t t
t t
t t t
t
t t
t
=
= =
= = =
= =

t u t y
s Y L s Y L t y
s Y e s X s H e s X s H s Y
s X e t u t x L s X
t t
s s
s
41
Motivation of working in the time domain
The properties of impulse response and time-
invariant allows one to calculate the output
function y(t) of a linear and time invariant (LTI)
circuit in the t-domain only.
This is beneficial when x(t), h(t) are known only
through experimental data.
42
Decompose the input source x(t)
We can approximate x(t) by a series of
rectangular pulses of uniform width A:
By reducing the pulse width while maintaining
the pulse area x(
i
)A, one got an impulse train:
. ) ( ) ( ) (
0

=
A =
i
i i
t x t x o
impulse strength
43
Synthesize the output y(t) (1)
Since the circuit is LTI:
. ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
0
0

=
A
A
i
i i
i
i i
t h x
t x

o

; ) ( ) (
), ( ) (
), ( ) (
t y a t x a
t h t
t h t
i i i i
i i
o
o
44
As A0, summation integration:
. ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
} }

= d t h x d t h x t y
if x(t) extends (-, )
By change of variable u=t-,
. ) ( ) ( ) (
}

= du u h u t x t y
The output of an LTI circuit is the convolution of
input and the impulse response of the circuit:
. ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
} }

= =
- =
d h t x d t h x
t h t x t y
Synthesize the output y(t) (2)
45
Convolution of a causal circuit
For physically realizable
circuit, no response can
occur prior to the input
excitation (causal), {h(t)
=0for t <0}.
Excitation is turned on at t
=0, {x(t)=0for t <0}.
. ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
0
}
=
- =
t
d h t x
t h t x t y

46
Effect of x(t) is weighted by h(t)
The convolution integral
If h(t) is monotonically decreasing, the highest
weight is given to the present x(t).
t
0
}
=
t
d h t x t y
0
) ( ) ( ) (
shows that the value of y(t)
is the weighted average of
x(t) fromt =0to t =t [from
=t to =0 for x(t-)].
47
Memory of the circuit
. ) ( ) ( ) (
0
}
=
t
d h t x t y
implies that the circuit
has a memory over a
finite interval t =[t-T,t].
T
If h(t) only lasts fromt
=0to t =T, the
convolution integral
If h(t)=o(t), no memory, output at t only depends
on x(t), y(t)=x(t)*o(t)=x(t), no distortion.
48
Example 13.3: RL driven by a trapezoidal source (1)
.
1
1
) ( ,
1
1
+
= =
+
=
s V
V
s H V
s
V
i
o
i o
). (
1
1
) (
1
t u e
s
L t h
t
=
)
`

+
=
Q: v
o
(t)=?
49
Example 13.3 (2)
. ) ( ) ( ) (
0
}
=
t
i o
d h t v t v
Separate into 3 intervals:
50
Example 13.3 (3)
Since the circuit has certain memory, v
o
(t) has
some distortion with respect to v
i
(t).
51
Section 13.7
The Transfer Function and
the Steady-State Sinusoidal
Response
52
How to get sinusoidal steady-state response by H(s)?
In Chapters 9-11, we used phasor analysis to
get steady-state response y
ss
(t) due to a
sinusoidal input
If we knowH(s), y
ss
(t) must be:
| |
. ) ( ) ( ) ( where
, ) ( cos ) ( ) (
) (e u
e
e e
e u | e e
j
j s
ss
e j H s H j H
t A j H t y
= =
+ + =
=
The changes of amplitude and phase depend
on the sampling of H(s) along the imaginary axis.
( ). cos ) ( | e + = t A t x
53
Proof
( ) . sin sin cos cos cos ) ( t A t A t A t x e | e | | e = + =
.
sin cos
sin cos ) (
2 2 2 2 2 2
e
| e |
e
e
|
e
|
+

=
+

+
=
s
s
A
s
A
s
s
A s X
.
2
) (
2
sin cos
) (
sin cos
) (
) )( ( , ) ( where
), ( ) (
sin cos
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
*
1 1
2 2
|
e
e
e
e
| e | e
e
e
| e |
e
e e
e
| e |
j
j s
j s
ss
ss tr
Ae j H
j
j
A j H
j s
s
A s H
j s s Y K
j s
K
j s
K
s Y
s Y s Y
s
s
A s H s X s H s Y
=

=
+

=
=
+
+

=
+ =
+

= =
=
=
| |. ) ( cos ) ( . .
) ( 2
) (
) (
) (
1
e u | e e
e
e
| e u
+ + = +
)
`

=

t j H A c c
j s
Ae e j H
L t y
j j
ss
54
Obtain H(s) from H( je)
We can reverse the process: determine H( je)
experimentally, then construct H(s) from the
data (not always possible).
Once we knowH(s), we can find the response to
other excitation sources.
55
Section 13.8
The Impulse Function
in Circuit Analysis
56
E.g. Impulsive inductor voltage (1)
The opening of the switch forces the two
inductor currents i
1
, i
2
change immediately by
inducing an impulsive inductor voltage [v=Li'(t)].
i
1
(0
-
)=10 A
i
2
(0
-
)=0
Q: v
o
(t)=?
57
E.g. Equivalent circuit & solution in the s-domain (2)
.
5
10 60
12
) 5 (
) 150 65 6 ( 2
) (
, 0
2 15 3 10
) 30 100 (
2
0
0 0
+
+ + =
+
+ +
=
=
+
+
+
+
s s s s
s s
s V
s
V
s
s V
improper rational
initial current
58
E.g. Solutions in the t-domain (3)
). ( ) 10 60 ( ) ( 12
5
10 60
12 ) (
5 1
0
t u e t
s s
L t v
t
+ + =
)
`

+
+ + = o
To verify whether this solution v
o
(t) is correct, we
need to solve i(t) as well.
). ( ) 2 4 ( ) ( ,
5
2 4
2 15 3 10
30 100
) (
5
t u e t i
s s s s
s
s I
t
+ =
+
+ =
+ + +
+
=
jump
jump
59
Impulsive inductor voltage (4)
The jump of i
2
(t) from 0to 6 A causes ,
contributing to a voltage impulse
After t > 0
+
,
consistent with that solved by Laplace transform.
) ( 6 ) (
2
t t i o =
'
, 10 60 ) 10 ( 2 ) 2 4 ( 15
) ( ) H 2 ( ) ( ) 15 ( ) (
5 5 5
2 2
t t t
o
e e e
t i t i t v

+ = + + =
'
+ O =
). ( 12 ) (
2 2
t t i L o =
'
60
Key points
How to represent the initial energy of L, C in the
s-domain?
Why the functional forms of natural and steady-
state responses are determined by the poles of
transfer function H(s) and excitation source X(s),
respectively?
Why the output of an LTI circuit is the
convolution of the input and impulse response?
How to interpret the memory of a circuit by
convolution?
61
Practical Perspective
Voltage Surges
62
Why can a voltage surge occur?
Q: Why a voltage surge is created when a load
is switched off?
Model: A sinusoidal voltage source drives three
loads, where R
b
is switched off at t =0.
Since i
2
(t) cannot change abruptly, i
1
(t) will jump
by the amount of i
3
(0
-
), voltage surge occurs.
63
Example
Let V
o
=120Z0 (rms), f =60 Hz, R
a
=12 O, R
b
=8
O, X
a
=41.1 O (i.e. L
a
=X
a
/e=109 mH), X
l
=1 O (i.e.
L
l
=2.65 mH). Solve v
o
(t) for t >0
-
.
To draw the s-domain circuit, we need to
calculate the initial inductor currents i
2
(0
-
), i
0
(0
-
).
64
Steady-state before the switching
The three branch currents (rms phasors) are:
I
1
=V
o
/R
a
=(120Z0)/(12 O)=10Z0 A,
I
2
=V
o
/(jX
a
) =(120Z0)/(j41.1 O)=2.92Z-90 A,
I
3
=V
o
/R
b
=(120Z0)/(8 O)=15Z0 A,
The line current is: I
0
=I
1
+I
2
+I
3
=25.2Z-6.65 A.
Source voltage: V
g
=V
o
+I
0
(jX
l
)=125Z-11.5 V.
The two initial inductor currents at t =0
-
are:
i
2
(t)=2.92(\2)cos(120tt-90), i
2
(0
-
)=0;
i
0
(t)=25.2(\2)cos(120tt-6.65), i
0
(0
-
)=35.4 A.
65
S-domain analysis
The s-domain circuit is:
By NVM:
(L
l
=2.65 mH)
(I
0
=35.4 A)
(12 O)
(L
a
=109
mH)
, 0
0
= + +

a
o
a
o
l
g l o
sL
V
R
V
sL
V I L V
( )
| | ( ) t t t 120
85 . 6 86
120
85 . 6 86
1475
253
) (
) (
0
j s j s s L L L L R s
R I s V L R
V
l a l a a
a g l a
o
+
Z
+

Z
+
+
=
+ +
+
=

V
g
=
125Z-
11.5
V (rms)
66
Inverse Laplace transform
Given
,
120
85 . 6 86
120
85 . 6 86
1475
253
) (
t t t j s j s s
s V
o
+
Z
+

Z
+
+
=

| | ). ( ) 85 . 6 120 cos( 173 253 ) (
1475
t u t e t v
t
o
+ + =

t
t