Fluid Flow Metrology Velocity Measurements

VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS
Pitot tube point measurement dynamic distortion of the signal

mean velocity

Hot-wire Anemometry (HWA): Constant Temperature Anemometry (CTA) point measurement continuous signal instantaneous velocity high frequency range

Pulsed-wire Anemometry measurement along the distance discrete signal (t = const) limited frequency range

average velocity

Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) point measurement discrete signal (random time intervals t) high frequency range

Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) planar measurement (2D or even 3D) triggered measurement discrete time domain (t = const) limited frequency range

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Fluid Flow Metrology Velocity Measurements

POINT MEASUREMENTS OF VELOCITY

The nature of turbulent flows:

random variation in time and space 3D (3-dimensionality) fine scales wide frequency range

Measuring technique should meet the following requirements: Wide range of measured velocities applicable to any flow situation (natural convection transonic/supersonic flows) High-frequency response to accurate follow the flow instantaneous velocity Small size of a probe (point measurement) uniform distribution of velocity field Independence of temperature, density and composition possibility to apply to nonisothermal flows, mixtures of different species dependence enables to study temperature or species concentration

Detection of velocity components and reverse flows turbulence 3D motion

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Fluid Flow Metrology Velocity Measurements

High accuracy minimum uncertainty of instantaneous velocity measurement signal form enabling easy and accurate data processing accurate estimates of statistical measures

Linearity of the transducer nonlinearity may lead to distortions in inappropriate signal processing careful data treatment or application of the linearizer Ease of output signals processing output signals should have a useful form, easy to deal with application of commercial software Limited flow disturbance perfect solution: nonintrusive sensor optical techniques Ease of use alignment, calibration, adjustment, settings control Reliability equipment should operate hundreds of hours free of failures device characteristics should not change in time

Low cost (accessibility)

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire Anemometry

HOT-WIRE ANEMOMETRY principle of operation Hot-wire (thermal) anemometer measures fluid velocity by sensing the changes in heat transfer from a small, electrically heated sensor (fine wire) exposed to the fluid motion

velocity change heat flux transfer temperature resistance of a wire material typical wire parameters

wire

diameter: length: temperature: materials:

d = 15m L = 0.53mm w = 100300oC platinum, tungsten

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire Anemometry

governing equation
dqi = q E q ex [W / m] dt

(6 )

qi - thermal energy stored in a wire per unit length

q E - power generated by electrical current q ex - heat flux transferred to the surroundings q E = I 2 Rw / L Rw = R0 [1 + bo ( w o )] + .... where: I Rw, R0 0 b0 current wire resistance in w, 0 temperatures reference temperature temperature coefficient of the electrical resistivity of the wire material

(7 )
(8 )

possible ways of heat exchange between wire and a medium: conduction small q = f ( w s , L, w ) radiation negligible
4 q r = f ( 4 w f )

(9 )

(10)

convection
q = f Nu ( w f )

(11)
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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire Anemometry

where:

f ,w - heat conductivity of the medium (fluid) and wire material, respectively Nu - Nusselt number
Nu =

d f

(12)

- heat-transfer coefficient for convection f - ambient (fluid) temperature

Nu = f (Re, Pr, , Gr , M , c p / cv , L / d ,

f / w , ( w f ) / f )
where:

(13)

Pr - Prandtl number - angle between the mean velocity vector and normal to the wire Gr - Grashof number M - Mach number cp, cv - specific heat at constant pressure and volume, respectively (w-f)/f - overheat ratio for equilibrium conditions the heat stored in the wire is constant dqi =0 dt q E = q ex q

(14)

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire Anemometry

assumptions ensuring the appropriateness of the above relation: negligible radiation negligible conduction to the supports uniform temperature distribution along a wire (true for long wires) velocity normal to the wire velocity small compared to the sonic speed no temperature and density variations of the fluid

equilibrium equation
2 I 2 Rw = E w / Rw = L f Nu ( w f )

(15)

where: Ew - voltage drop along the wire for forced convection regime (free convection due to buoyancy can be ignored)

Re > Gr 1/ 3

( for air Re > 0.02)

(16)

and for incompressible flows

Re < 140 (17)

Nusselt number may be expressed as follows Nu = A'+ B' Re n = A"+ B"U n

leading to the so-called Kings law (18)

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire Anemometry

2 2 I 2 Rw = Ew = ( A* + B *U n )( w f )

(19)

where:

A*, B* n 0.5

- constants (Kings law coefficients) independent of velocity

E w = f (U , f

(20)

the voltage drop along the wire is a function of velocity and temperature of the fluid

hot-wire anemometry can be applied for velocity and temperature measurements

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

Modes of HWA operation

CCA (constant current anemometer) - velocity measurements (history) - temperature measurements CTA (constant temperature anemometer) velocity measurements CVA (constant voltage anemometer) practically not used

principle of operation

current through the probe (CCA) / voltage drop along the wire (CVA) / sensor temperature (CTA) is kept constant the measurement is controlled by electrical circuit based on a Wheatstone bridge with the feedback

voltage drop across the bridge E is measured instead of voltage drop along the wire Ew
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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

constant current anemometer (CCA) I = const while

I 0 (1 3mA)

w = f

(E )CCA

f (U )

(E )CCA =

f ( f )

CCA characteristic (voltage response to the variation of ambient temperature)

E = Eo + st ( f fo ) (21)

st - sensitivity with respect to temperature

st =

E E = = const f f

(22)

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

Putting

f = f + E = E + e
leads to the following relation

E + e = E 0 + st ( f + f 0 )

(23)

which could be split into two parts concerning average and fluctuating components, respectively

E = E0 + st ( f + f 0 ) e = st

(24)

constant temperature anemometer (CTA)

w ( Rw ) = const f = const

E f ( f )

(E )CTA =

f (U )
(25)

2 (E )CTA = A + BU n

A, B - constants and n 0.5

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

Putting U =U +u E = E + e we have
E +e = A+ B U +u

1/ 2

(26)

Splitting the above equation into constant and fluctuating parts requires expanding right-hand side expression into power series 1/ 2 u E +e = A+ B U + a1 + (27) U

where

a1 =

B U 4 A+ B U

(28)

Neglecting the terms of higher orders leads to

E = A+ B U

1/ 2

(29)

e= where

u = su u U 4 A+ B U

B U

(30)

su sensitivity with respect to velocity su = B U

4U A + B U

E U

(31)

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

Nonlinear response of a constant temperature anemometer

nonlinearity

E E (U )

how to solve the problem ? apply linearizer the instrument which makes the hotwire anemometer response linear
perform computer-aided measurement (CAM)
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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

Directional response of HWA

The output of a hot-wire anemometer, besides being a function of the velocity magnitude U, is also a function of the incoming flow direction. However, if the flow direction is unknown, the HWA output can be interpreted as a function of the velocity of the hypothetical flow directed perpendicularly to the sensor.

effective velocity (responsible for cooling effect)

U eff = f (U , , ) (32)

hot-wire anemometer response remains of the same form

n E 2 = A + B U eff

(33)

U Uy Uz Ux z x

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

YAW

- the inclination of the velocity vector from the xz plane (plane to the wire) Champagne law:
2 2 2 U eff = U 2 (cos 2 + k1 sin 2 ) = U x + k1U y

(34)

PITCH

- the inclination of the velocity vector from the xy plane (plane created by prongs) Gilmore law:
2 2 2 U eff = U 2 (cos 2 + k 2 sin 2 ) = U x + k 2U z

(35)

where:

Ux - normal Uy - tangential Uz - binormal

velocity vector components, and

k1, k2 - yaw and pitch factors, respectively

(From Joergensen 1971)

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

k1 = 0.1 0.3 (k1 0.2)

Ueff strongly decreases when increases because the wire is cooled by fluid that has already flown along the hot cylinder
k2 = 1.02 1.05 (k2 > 1) cooling effect is slightly intensified due to fluid acceleration of the flow (cross-sectional area is reduced by the prongs continuity eq.) Combining relation (34) and (35) gives single expression proposed by Jorgensen
2 2 2 2 U eff =Ux + k1U y + k 2U z

(36 )

For the simplicity lets make the following assumptions:

the mean flow velocity vector lies in xy plane

Uz =0

(37 )

the flow is characterised by low turbulence intensity

' ' ux / U , u 'y / U , u z / U << 1

(38 )

there are limited directional deviations of the velocity vector 20 o < < 160 o (39)

Applying the above assumptions the effective velocity may be expressed as follows:

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

U eff = U cos = U cos 1 +

ux
_

uy
_

tg

(40)

Putting (40) into (33) and splitting it into constant and fluctuating parts we have

E = A + B U cos
e = su (u x + u y tg ) = sux u x + suy u y

(41)
(42)

Sensitivities:
su = B U cos 4U A + B U cos (43)
(44 )

sux = su ; suy = su tg

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

Velocity correlation measurements

For turbulent flows there is a need to measure the stress tensor ui u j (6 components) Single-wire probe measurement a)
wire is located in xy plane

e0 = s0 u x
eI = s (u x + u y tg ) eII = s(u x u y tg )

(45a )
(45b) (45c)

Squaring and averaging in time leads to

2 2 2 = e0 / s0 ux
2 uy 2 e0 ctg 2 2 2 2 = + tg e e c I II 2 2 2s s0

(46a ) (46b)

b)

2 0.25 ctg (eI2 eII ) u xu y = s2 wire is located in xz plane

(46c)

eIII , eIV , eV

2 uz and u x u z

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

c)

wire is located in yz plane eVI , eVII , eVIII

u yu z

advantage relatively low cost:

single-wire probe one-channel CTA

disadvantages:
non-simultaneous measurement high uncertainty traversing problems

Double-wire probe (X-type probe)

Locating both the wires in z=const plane and assuming identical sensitivities of the wires (guaranteed by the probe producer) we have
e A = s (u x + u y ) e B = s (u x u y ) (47 a ) (47b)

Squaring and averaging in time gives

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

2 ux

0.25(e A + eB ) 2 = s2 0.25(e A eB ) 2 = s2

(48a ) (48b)

u2 y

u xu y =

0.25(e A + eB )(e A eB ) s2

(48c)

application of X-wire probe in turbulence studies:

common in 2D flows only one probes position required digital signal acquisition and data processing is recommended

Triple-sensor probe

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

Computer-aided measurement of a 3D non-isothermal flow

( E )CCA = Eo + st ( f fo )

( )

Ei2 CTA

= Ai ( ) +

Bi ( )U i0.5

{ k }, {U xk }, {U yk } {U zk }

(49)

Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

HWA signals acquisition and data processing Analogue way 1D (2D) isothermal flows statistical moments correlation and spectral functions analogue correlators, band-pass filters problems to overcome: nonlinearity of CTA characteristic temperature variations long lasting experiment nonsteady ambient conditions, probe contamination calibration checking high uncertainty of experimental results Digital way

1D 3D nonisothermal flows signal conditioning: mean removal (offset or HPF) gain filtering (LPF, HPF)

AD conversion:

sampling frequency, number of samples selection simultaneous sampling for multi-wire probes sample and hold system (S&H)

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Fluid Flow Metrology Hot-wire anemometry

specialised software required: data acquisition velocity components and/or temperature resolving data processing (statistical, correlation, spectral analysis) ease of use DANTECs StreamLine System

compact, multi-channel hardware (up to 6 channels) full PC control of all functions including fine tuning dedicated software ensuring full experiment documentation and data processing automatic temperature correction portable fully automatic calibration facility traversing support extremely user-friendly
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