The concept of linguistics Sub-fields of structure-focused linguistics include:

Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of speech (or signed) production and perception; Phonology, the study of sounds (or signs) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning; Morphology, the study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified; Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences; Semantics, the study of the meaning of words and fixed word combinations, and how these combine to form the logical, meaningful sentences; Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and nonlinguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning; Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed).

Linguistics is the study of language; Linguistics believe that at the abstract level, beneath the surface variation, languages are remarkably similar. Syntax is a branch derived from Linguistics that study how words combine to form meaningful phrases and sentences.

SUBJECT - The subject of a sentence or clause is the part of the sentence or clause about which something is being said. It is usually the doer of the action. It is a noun or a pronoun. All of the subjects on this page are italicized.

PREDICATE - The predicate of a sentence is that part of the sentence which says something about the subject. It expresses the action of the sentence or the condition of the subject. Example: Romans (SUBJECT) were powerful warriors and devoted citizens. (PREDICATE)

 DIRECT OBJECT - A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or shows the result of the action. It answers the question "What?" or "Whom?" after an action verb. An action verb with a direct object is called a transitive verb. Example: Josh received a letter.

INDIRECT OBJECT - An indirect object precedes the direct object and tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done and who is receiving the direct object. There must be a direct object to have an indirect object. Indirect objects are usually found with verbs of giving or communicating like give, bring, tell, show, take, or offer. An indirect object is always a noun or pronoun which is not part of a prepositional phrase. Example: She gave me the report.

Simle and complex verbs:

Simple verb phrases consist of only one verb, which may be imperative, present, or past. On the other hand, we often find other different structures:

John has finally found the love of her life. Customers may withdraw their purchases on the counter. Children must be respected as if they were adults.

Analyzing each one of them we notice that there is more than one verb in their structure. They are examples of COMPLEX VERB PHRASES which consist in the occurrence of more than one verb in a phrase structure. In a complex verb phrase verbs we find verbs that are actually responsible for the ongoing action while other complement their meaning indicating tense or mood.

These are called auxiliary verbs, and when inserted in the structure of phrases and sentences follow a strict order

Modal, followed by an auxiliary: You must follow the orders! Perfect (auxiliary have), followed by the participle form: She has finished her duties. Progressive (the auxiliary be), followed by an ing form: The detectives are interrogating a suspect. Passive (the auxiliary be), followed by an ed form: Brazil was discovered in 1500.

According to what was said previously we can conclude that there are verbs that complement the meaning of the verbs that express the actual action and other that complement verbs expressing mood. There is a name for each one of them:

As a result of the foregoing discussion, it can be said that there are lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs always precede main verbs within a verb phrase. Auxiliaries are also known as helping verbs. They contrast with lexical verbs, also known as main verbs since they are responsible for the meaning in a verb phrase.

PHrases words can be organized into higher units known as phrases. A phrase may consist of a single word or a group of words. The following examples are effective examples of the three major phrases: [The opposition] [demands] [more governmental investments in education].

Phrases can be identified by substitution that is, by replacing one expression with another to see how it fits into the structure. In particular, a multi-word can often be replaced by a single word phrase without changing its meaning. () We can also identify phrases by movement tests. A phrase can be moved as a unit to a different position. When we place one set of brackets inside another, this means that one phrase is embedded (i.e. included) inside another. The possibility of embedding sometimes means that a given structure can be understood in two or more different

Words make up phrases, which behave like units. A phrase can consist of either one word or more. Phrases can be identified by substitutions and movements tests. Differences in phrase structure show up in differences of meaning. Phrases can be embedded (i. e. one phrase can be part of the structure of another phrase).

SINTAX AND ROLE OF PHRASE

Phrases change both in their internal structure and in their syntactic performances. It means that in larger structures phrases become part of a logical arrangement. They can function as objects and subjects, for example. The ability to recognize this functional feature typical of phrases can be crucial for the interpretation of linguistic situations. According to the function performed, phrases can be classified in different types. 1.3 Clauses and their characteristics clauses can be defined as a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause may be either a sentence independent clause - or a sentence-like construction within another sentence dependent clause.

The clause is the key unit of syntax, capable of occurring independently (i. e. without being part of any other unit). It is useful to think of the clause as a unit that can stand alone as an expression of a complete thought that is a complete description of an event or of an state of affairs. Hence, many spoken utterances consist of a single clause: Have you got an exam on Monday? (CONV) and the same is true for many written sentences

2. Noun phrase The meaning or definition of a Noun Phrase is as follows. A group of words used to form a basic name when it is:

 impractical to employ a single noun word;

when a single noun would have too broad a concept if used as a basic name. For example, 'machine' and 'board.

See the examples:

The Vice President of the Textile Industries Association. The new vitamin packed high calcium low fat breakfast cereal. The crimson, ermine trimmed, velvet gown with gold trimmings was worn by Anne Boleyn at her coronation. A phrase with a noun as its head is a noun phrase. The head can appear in uncountable occasions preceded by determiners such as the, her, a and can be accompanied by modifiers.

Determiners are words that are used with nouns to clarify it. They can clarify:

To define something or someone. To state the amount of things, people or other nouns. To state possessives. To state someone or something is (or is not) specific. To state how things or people are distributed. To state difference between nouns. Determiners are a huge category and there are different types of them and their use is subject to the type of the noun to which it relates. Singular nouns always need determiners and they are optional when they are related to plural nouns. The same occurs when uncountable nouns occur. There are about different types of determiners in English: quantifiers, article, possessive, demonstratives, ordinals and numbers.

2. Noun phrase 2.2 Modifiers

Modifiers are optional elements in phrase structure or clause structure. Its occurrence is not mandatory or essential in a phrase or clause. Actually it can be removed and still not cause any damage to the idea that is being transmitted. In English, adverbs and adjectives function as modifiers, but they also have other functions. Moreover, other parts of speech (or even entire phrases or clauses) can function as modifiers. See the following examples:

His desk was in [the faculty office]. (noun in noun phrase) I saw [the man whom we met yesterday]. (clause in noun phrase) She's [the woman with the hat]. (preposition phrase in noun phrase) We've already [gone twelve miles]. (noun phrase in verb phrase) Modifiers can be placed in different ways in a phrase or clause and, according to its placement it is called pre-modifier, when placed before the head (the modified component). A postmodifier is a modifier placed after the head:

Ancient times > pre-modifier Men in black suits -> post-modifier

However it is good to remember that although modifiers may precede nouns or come after them, their placement must BE carefully measured so it is connected to the intended noun. Otherwise, the misplacement of modifiers can cause unintentional and unwanted changes in the general sense of the phrase or clause. Some modifiers, especially simple modifiers only, just, nearly, barely have a bad habit of slipping into the wrong place in a sentence. When a modifier improperly modifies something, it is called a "dangling modifier."

2.3 Noun clauses and noun phrases What is a clause? What is a phrase? Noun clause - The label noun clause refers to any kind of subordinate clause which can occupy the position of a noun or noun phrase. It can, for example, be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb.

She has decided that she will find a good job. (Here the noun clause that she will find a good job is the object of the verb decided.)

That she has not yet arrived worries me. (Here the noun clause that she has not yet arrived is the subject of the verb worries.)

Noun phrase - A noun phrase is a syntactic unit which can serve as subject, direct object or object of a preposition in a sentence. A noun phrase is constructed around a noun or a pronoun as its head. A noun phrase may be of any size. The simplest form consists of just one word.

Italian Renaissance painters left an incomparable legacy. NP = SUBJECT

Well, lets make a break here and gain breath for the next class!