Differentiation

Definition: Let ( ) y f x = be defined at any point x

in the interval , a b
| |
|
\
. The derivative at x of ( ) f x is
defined as

0
( ) ( )
( ) lim
x
dy df f x x f x
f x
x dx dx

+

if the above limit exists. ( ) f x

is a function by
itself and it is also known as the Newton quotient;
graphically, it is the slope of the tangent line of the
curve ( ) y f x = at x.


Slope of line PQ
f
x

. In the limit, if it exists,

0
lim
x
df f
x dx


=

= Slope of tangent line (a) at point P
x
Q
P
( ) f x
x

)

(a)
Example 1: If
3
( ) , 3
3
x
f x x
x
+
=

evaluate (2) f

.

0
x=2
0
0
0 0
( ) ( )
(2) lim
(2 ) (2)
lim
3 2
1 3 2
lim
3 2
3 2
1 5 1 6
lim 5 lim 6
1 1
x
x
x
x x
df f x x f x
f
x dx
f x f
x
x
x
x
x x
x x x x
| |
| |
|
|
|
\
|
| |
|
|
|
\
\
| | | |
| |
| |
| |
\ \




+
= =

+
=

+ +
+
=

+
+
= = =




Example 2: If , ( ) f x x = , show that ( ) 1 f x x = =

.

0 0
( )
( ) ( ) lim lim 1
x x
x x x
d x
f x x
x x dx

+

= = = =

Example 3: In a similar manner,
2
2 x x
| |
|
|
\

= . (Can
you prove that?)


Fortunately we do not have to evaluate the
derivatives of functions from first principles
always. We do that only for the derivatives of
some basic functions and then apply rules of
differentiation for the other cases.
Differentiation Rules

If ( ) u x and ( ) v x are differentiable functions of x
and c is a constant, then

1. The constant multiple rule

( )
d du
cu c
dx dx
=

2. The sum rule
d du dv
u v
dx dx dx
| |
|
\
=

3. The product rule

( )
d du dv
uv v u
dx dx dx
= +

4. The quotient rule

2
du dv
v u
d u
dx dx
v
dx
v
| |
|
|
\

=


If ( ) y f u = and ( ) u g x = , then ( ( )) y f g f g x = =
and

5. The chain rule

dy df df dg
du
dx du dx dg dx
= =
Example 1: Prove that
1 n n
x nx
| |
|
\

= , n is positive
integer.

Proof (by induction)

1. For 1 n= , 1 x =

. True.
2. Assume that
1 n n
x nx
| |
|
\

= is true for : n n =
3. Prove that proposition is true for : 1 n n = +

1
1
(product rule)
1
( 1)
n n n n
n n n n
n
x xx x x x x
x xnx x nx
n x
| |
| | | |
|
| |
|
\ \
\
+

= = +

= + = +
= +

QED.

Example 2: Show that
1 2
x x
| |
|
|
\

=
Apply quotient rule.

1 2
2
1 1 1 x x
x x
x
x
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
\
\

= = =

We will prove in the sequel that:



1
,
a a
x ax a
| |
|
\

= R


Example 3:
Show that
5 3 2 4 2
8 5 9 40 15 18
d
x x x x x x
dx
| |
|
|
\
+ = +

Constant product, sum rule, and known derivatives.

5 3 2 5 3 2
4 2
8 5 9 8 5 9
40 15 18
d
x x x x x x
dx
x x x
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
\ \ \ \

+ = +
= +



Example 4: find the derivative of
2
2
1
1
x
y
x
+
=

Quotient rule.

2
2
( )
1
( )
1
u x
x
y
v x
x
+
= =

, then

2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2 1 2 1
1
4
1
du dv
x x x x
v u
d u
dx dx
v
dx
v
x
x
x
| | | |
| |
| |
| |
\ \
|
|
\
| |
|
|
\
| |
|
|
\
+

= =

Example 5: Find
3
2
2 3
d
x
dx
| |
|
|
\
+

Chain rule.

2
2 3 x + is a composite function of the form ( ( )) f g x
where
3 2
( ) and ( ) 2 3 f g g g x x = = + . Therefore

3
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 3 ( ( )) 3 4
3 2 3 4 12 2 3
df dg
d d
x f g x g x
dx dx dg dx
x x x x
| |
| |
|
|
|
\
\
| | | |
| |
| |
\ \
+ = = =
= + = +


Example 6: Find
2
1
1
d
dx
x
| |
|
|
|
\
+


Chain rule.

1 2
2
2
3 2
2
3
2
1
1
1
1
1 2
2
1
d d
x
dx dx
x
x
x x
x
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
\ |
\
| |
|
|
\
| |
|
|
\

= +
+

= + =
+

Derivatives of Basic Functions

In this section we will derive the derivatives of
some basic functions.

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

We will prove from first principles that

(sin ) cos
d
x x
dx
=


0
0
0 0
sin( ) sin
(sin ) lim
sin cos sin cos sin
lim
sin 1 cos
cos lim sin lim
x
x
x x
x x x
d
x
x dx
x x x x x
x
x x
x x
x x



+
=

+
=


=



Now, from first principles (i.e. definition of
limits):

0
sin
lim 1
x
x
x

=

(can you prove that? Its not easy!)

and from the above result and trig. properties:

0
1 cos
lim 0
x
x
x

=

(can you prove that?)

Then:
(sin ) cos
d
x x
dx
=


Using similar reasoning as for sinx
| |
|
\

we can prove
all the known trigonometric derivatives and the
results are summarised in the following table.


Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
(sin ) cos
d
x x
dx
= (csc ) csc cot
d
x x x
dx
=
(cos ) sin
d
x x
dx
= (sec ) sec tan
d
x x x
dx
=
2
(tan ) sec
d
x x
dx
=
2
(cot ) csc
d
x x
dx
=



Example 1:

Find the derivative of
3 2
( ) 3sin 2cos f x x x = .

Sum and chain rule.

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
3 3sin sin 2 2cos cos
9sin cos 4cos sin
1
9sin 4 cos sin 9sin 4 sin2
2
df
x x x x
dx
x x x x
x x x x x

| |

|
\
=
= +
= + = +


Example 2:

Find the derivative of
2 2
( ) sin f x x a
| |
|
|
\
= + .
Successive chain rule.

2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
1
sin sin cos 2
2
cos
sin
d
x a x a x a x
dx
x x a
x a
| |
| | | | | |
|
| | |
| | |
|
\ \ \
\
| |
|
|
\
| |
|
|
\

+ = + +
+
=
+






Derivatives of Exponentials

1.
x x
e e
| |
|
\

=

Proof

2
2
1 1
1
1! 2! !
1
1! 2! !
1 2
0 1
1! 2! ! 1! ( 1)!
n
x
n
x
n n
x
x x x
e
n
x
x
x
e
n
x nx x x
n n
e
| |
| |
|
| |
| | \ \
|
\

= + + + + +

= + + + + +

= + + + + + = + + + +

=





2. ln
x x
a a a
| |
|
\

=

Proof

ln ln
x
x a x a
a e e
| |
|
|
\
= = , therefore
ln ln
ln ln
x x a x a x
a e e a a a
| |
| |
|
|
|
\
\

= = =



Derivatives of Exponentials
x x
e e
| |
|
\

= ln
x x
a a a
| |
|
\

=


Example 1: Evaluate the derivative with respect to
x of
sinx
e .

Chain rule.

)
sin sin sin
( sin cos
x x x
d
e e x e x
dx
| |
|
\

= =



Example 2: Find
2 3
cos( 1) x x d
e
dx
| |
|
|
\
+


Chain rule and product rule.

2 3 2 3
2 3
2 3
cos( 1) cos( 1)
2 3
cos( 1)
3 2 3 2
cos( 1)
3 4 3
cos( 1)
2 cos( 1) sin( 1) 3
2 cos( 1) 3 sin( 1)
x x x x
x x
x x
d d
e e x x
dx dx
e x x x x x
e x x x x
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
\
\
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
\
\
| |
|
|
\
+ +
+
+
= +
= + + +
= + +


Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

We can easily compute that

(sinh ) cosh
d
x x
dx
=

Indeed:

1
(sinh )
2 2
cosh
2
x x
x x
x x
d d e e d d
x e e
dx dx dx dx
e e
x
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
\
\

= =
+
= =



In a similar way:


Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
(sinh ) cosh
d
x x
dx
= (csch ) csch cot h
d
x x x
dx
=
(cosh ) sinh
d
x x
dx
= (sech ) sech tanh
d
x x x
dx
=
2
(tanh ) sech
d
x x
dx
=
2
(coth ) csch
d
x x
dx
=

Higher Order Derivatives

Recall that the derivative of a function ( ) f x is
denoted by
( ), or
df
f x
dx

If ( ) f x

is also differentiable, its derivative is

denoted by

2
2
( ), or
d f df
d
f x
dx dx
dx
| |
|
|
|
\

and it is called the second derivative of ( ) f x .

The nth derivative of ( ) f x , if it exists, is denoted
by
( )
( ), or
n
n
n
d f
f x
dx


Example: If
2
( )
x
f x x e = , then

2
2
2 2
2
3
2 2
3
2
2 4 2
4 2 6 6
x
x x
x x
df
e x x
dx
d f
d
e x x e x x
dx
dx
d f
d
e x x e x x
dx
dx
| |
|
|
\
| |
| | | |
|
| |
| |
|
\ \
\
| |
| | | |
|
| |
| |
|
\ \
\
= +
= + = + +
= + + = + +





Derivatives of Inverse Functions


Suppose
1
( ) y f x

= is an inverse of a function with

known derivative
df
dx
. Then, in order to find
dy
dx
we
proceed in general as following:


Since
1
( ) y f x

= , then ( ( )) x f y x = . Differentiating
both sides of the latter expression with respect to x
we get:

( ( )) 1 1
df dy dy df
dx d
f y x
dy dx dx dy dx dx
= = =

Substituting
1
( ) y f x

= into
df
dy
we get
dy
dx
as a
function of x.
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

As an example we calculate the derivative of

1
sin y x

=

Let
1
sin y x

= . Then sin x y = and 2 2 y in

order for the inverse function to exist.

Differentiating both sides of sin x y = with respect
to x, we get

1
1 cos
cos
dy dy
y
y
dx dx
= =

But
2 2
cos 1 sin 1 y y x = = . Now cos 0 y
since 2 2 y , so
2 2
cos 1 sin 1 y y x = = .
Therefore

1
2
1 1
sin
cos
1
dy
d
x
y
dx dx
x
| |
|
|
\

= = =

1 1 x


Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1
2
1
(sin )
1
d
x
dx
x

1
2
1
(csc )
1
d
x
dx
x x

1
2
1
(cos )
1
d
x
dx
x

1
2
1
(sec )
1
d
x
dx
x x

1
2
1
(tan )
1
d
x
dx
x

=
+

1
2
1
(cot )
1
d
x
dx
x

=
+


Derivatives of Logarithms

1.
1
log
ln
a
x
x a
| |
|
\

=

Proof

Let log
a
y x = . Then
y
x a = and differentiating both
sides of
y
x a = with respect to x, we get

1 1
1 ln
ln ln
y
y
dy dy
a a
dx dx a a x a
= = =

QED

Then you can prove easily (?)

2.
1
lnx
x
| |
|
\

=


Derivatives of Logarithms
1
log
ln
a
x
x a
| |
|
\

=
1
lnx
x
| |
|
\

=

Example 1: Show that
1
,
a a
x ax a
| |
|
\

= R
ln
ln ln
ln 1
ln
a a x
a a x a x
a x a a
x e
d d
x e e a x
dx dx
a a
e x ax
x x
| |
| |
| |
|
| |
|
\
\
\

= =
= = =

Example 2:

Show that
2
log 2 1
(2 1)ln
a
d
x
dx x a
| |
| |
|
|
|
\
\
+ =
+


Chain rule.

1
log 2 1 2 1
(2 1)ln
2
(2 1)ln
a
d d
x x
dx x a dx
x a
| |
| | | |
|
| |
|
\ \
\
+ = +
+
=
+


Example 3: Show that ln sin cot
d
x x
dx
| |
| |
|
|
|
\
\
=

Chain rule.

1 cos
ln sin sin cot
sin sin
d d x
x x x
dx x dx x
| |
| | | |
|
| |
|
\ \
\
= = =

Example 4: Show that
2
1 1
ln
1
1
d x
x dx
x
| |
|
|
|
\
+
=

Properties of logarithms and chain rule.

1
2
2
1 1
ln ln
1 1
1
ln 1 ln 1
2
1 1 1 1
2 1 1
1
d x d x
x x dx dx
d d
x x
dx dx
x x
x
| |
|
| |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| |
\
\
|
|
\
(
| | | |
| | | |
(
| |
| |
(
| |
\ \
\ \ (

(
(
(
(

+ +
=

= +
= =
+


Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

We calculate the derivative of

1
sinh y x

=

Since
1
sinh y x

= , then sinh x y = . Differentiating

both sides of sinh x y = with respect to x, we get


1
1 cosh
cosh
dy dy
y
dx dx y
= =


Since
2 2
cosh sinh 1 y y = and cosh 0 y , we have
2
cosh 1 sinh y y = + , so


1
2 2
1 1 1
sinh
cosh
1 sinh 1
dy
d
x
dx dx y
y x
| |
|
|
\

= = = =
+ +



Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
1
2
1
(sinh )
1
d
x
dx
x

=
+

1
2
1
(csch )
1
d
x
dx
x x

=
+

1
2
1
(cosh )
1
d
x
dx
x

1
2
1
(sech )
1
d
x
dx
x x

1
2
1
(tanh )
1
d
x
dx
x

1 x <
1
2
1
(coth )
1
d
x
dx
x

1 x>

Implicit Differentiation

The functions we met so far were described by the
explicit form ( ) y f x = where y was expressed
explicitly in terms of x. This may not always be
possible and x and y may be related implicitly
through an implicit form

( , ) 0 F x y =

Then, if x is the independent variable, y becomes
the dependent variable through the expression
( , ) 0 F x y = , i.e.

2 3
5 4 0 x y xy + + + =

From an equation defining an implicit function we
can derive
dy
dx
by differentiating both sides of the
equation with respect to x, keeping in mind that y is
a function of x and therefore applying the chain
rule.

Example 1: Find
dy
dx
, if
2 3
5 4 0 x y xy + + + =

Differentiating with respect to x both sides of
2 3
5 4 0 x y xy + + + = we have
2
2
2
2 3 5 5 0
2 5
3 5 2 5
3 5
dy dy
x y y x
dx dx
dy dy x y
y x x y
dx dx
y x
| |
|
|
\
+ + + =
+
+ = =
+



As it can be seen from the previous example,
special care should be taken with terms involving
both x and y, i.e.


Product rule

2 3 3 2 2
2 3
dy
d
x y xy x y
dx dx
| |
|
|
\
= +


Quotient rule

2
2
2
2 sin cos
sin
sin
dy
x y x y
d x
dx
dx y
y
| |
|
|
|
\

=


Chain rule and Product rule

sin cos
dy
d
xy xy y x
dx dx
| |
| |
|
|
|
\
|
\
= +
Example 2: Find the slope of the tangent to curve
having equation
2 2
3 4 0 x y xy + + =
at the point
( )
, 2,4 x y
| |
|
\
= .

Solution

Differentiating implicitly with respect to x, we have
2 2 3 3 0
3 2
2 3
dy dy
x y y x
dx dx
dy y x
y x dx
+ =

=


Since
( )
, 2,4 x y
| |
|
\
= satisfies the implicit equation of
the curve, the gradient at
( )
, 2,4 x y
| |
|
\
= is
(2,4)
4
dy
dx
=

Example 3: Find
dy
dx
of
x
y x = , [0, ) x

Solution

Take logarithms and differentiate implicitly with
respect to x.

1 1
ln ln ln 1 ln
1 ln
x
dy dy
y x x x x x y
y x
dx dx
dy
x x
dx
| |
|
\
| |
|
\
= = + = +
= +

Parametric Differentiation

So far we described points
( )
, x y of curves by
giving y as a function of x either explicitly, or
implicitly. Some curves are best described when
both x and y are given in terms of another variable t
called a parameter, i.e.

( ), ( ) x x t y y t = =

We can still find
dy
dx
as follows:

dy dy dy dt
dt
dx dt dx dx dt
= =

Note that
2
2
d y
dx
IS NOT
2 2
2 2
d y dt
d x dt
. Indeed ( )
dy
g t
dx
=
and therefore
dy
dx
is given in parametric form

( ), ( )
dy
x x t g t
dx
= =

So,

2
2
d y dg dg dt
dx dx dt
dx
= =

Example 1:

Given that sin x t = and cos2 y t = , find
dy
dx
and
2
2
d y
dx


Solution

cos
2sin2
cos
2sin2
4sin cos
4sin
cos
dx
t
dy dy dt
t dt
t
dx dx dt dy
t
dt
dy
t t
t
t
dx

)
=

= =
=

= =


2
2
4sin 4sin
4sin
4cos
4
cos
d y
d d dt
t t
dx dt dx
dx
d t dt
t
t
dx dt
| | | |
| |
\ \
| |
|
\
= =

= = =




Usually parametric expressions of curves are useful
when the corresponding implicit expressions are
not describing functions. Here are some known
curves in both implicit and parametric form.

Circles

Implicit form
2 2 2
x y r + =

Parametric form
cos , sin 0,2 x r y r
(
(

= =

Ellipses

Implicit form
2
2
2 2
1
y
x
a b
+ =

Parametric form
As
2 2
sin cos 1 + = use
cos , sin 0,2 x a y b
(
(

= =

Hyperbolas

Implicit form
2
2
2 2
1
y
x
a b
=

Parametric form
As
2 2
cosh sinh 1 t t = use
( )
cosh , sinh , x a t y b t t = =

Parabolas

Implicit form
2
4 y cx =

Parametric form
( )
2
, 2 , x ct y ct t = =

Example 1:

Find the slope of the tangent to a circle (i.e.
dy
dx
)
given in either implicit, or parametric form.

Solution

Implicit form
Differentiating with respect to x the implicit form
2 2 2
x y r + = we get
2 2 0
dy dy
x
x y
y
dx dx
+ = =

Parametric form
cos , sin 0,2 x r y r
(
(

= =

cos
sin
dy dy d
r x
y
dx dx d r

= = =