Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

Bernd Schr oder

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Introduction

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Introduction
1. We have seen that R is uniquely determined (up to isomorphism) by its axioms

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Introduction
1. We have seen that R is uniquely determined (up to isomorphism) by its axioms (R is the complete, totally ordered eld).

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Introduction
1. We have seen that R is uniquely determined (up to isomorphism) by its axioms (R is the complete, totally ordered eld). 2. We have noted that C has all the properties we would like when in comes to solving polynomial equations

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Introduction
1. We have seen that R is uniquely determined (up to isomorphism) by its axioms (R is the complete, totally ordered eld). 2. We have noted that C has all the properties we would like when in comes to solving polynomial equations (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra).

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Introduction
1. We have seen that R is uniquely determined (up to isomorphism) by its axioms (R is the complete, totally ordered eld). 2. We have noted that C has all the properties we would like when in comes to solving polynomial equations (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). 3. What other (useful) elds are there beyond R and C?

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Introduction
1. We have seen that R is uniquely determined (up to isomorphism) by its axioms (R is the complete, totally ordered eld). 2. We have noted that C has all the properties we would like when in comes to solving polynomial equations (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). 3. What other (useful) elds are there beyond R and C? 4. To answer this question, we rst need to talk about vector spaces and algebras.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Introduction
1. We have seen that R is uniquely determined (up to isomorphism) by its axioms (R is the complete, totally ordered eld). 2. We have noted that C has all the properties we would like when in comes to solving polynomial equations (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). 3. What other (useful) elds are there beyond R and C? 4. To answer this question, we rst need to talk about vector spaces and algebras. 5. As we work with vector spaces, we prove a few results that will be helpful when discussing the unsolvability of the quintic by radicals.
logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. A vector space over the eld F is a triple (X , +, ) of a set X and two binary operations, vector addition + : X X X and scalar multiplication : F X X, so that the following hold.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. A vector space over the eld F is a triple (X , +, ) of a set X and two binary operations, vector addition + : X X X and scalar multiplication : F X X, so that the following hold. 1. For all x, y, z X we have (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. A vector space over the eld F is a triple (X , +, ) of a set X and two binary operations, vector addition + : X X X and scalar multiplication : F X X, so that the following hold. 1. For all x, y, z X we have (x + y) + z = x + (y + z). 2. For all x, y X we have x + y = y + x.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. A vector space over the eld F is a triple (X , +, ) of a set X and two binary operations, vector addition + : X X X and scalar multiplication : F X X, so that the following hold. 1. For all x, y, z X we have (x + y) + z = x + (y + z). 2. For all x, y X we have x + y = y + x. 3. There is an element 0 X so that for all x X we have x + 0 = x.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. A vector space over the eld F is a triple (X , +, ) of a set X and two binary operations, vector addition + : X X X and scalar multiplication : F X X, so that the following hold. 1. For all x, y, z X we have (x + y) + z = x + (y + z). 2. For all x, y X we have x + y = y + x. 3. There is an element 0 X so that for all x X we have x + 0 = x. 4. For every x X there is a (x) X so that x + (x) = 0.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. A vector space over the eld F is a triple (X , +, ) of a set X and two binary operations, vector addition + : X X X and scalar multiplication : F X X, so that the following hold. 1. For all x, y, z X we have (x + y) + z = x + (y + z). 2. For all x, y X we have x + y = y + x. 3. There is an element 0 X so that for all x X we have x + 0 = x. 4. For every x X there is a (x) X so that x + (x) = 0. 5. For all x, y X and F we have (x + y) = x + y.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. A vector space over the eld F is a triple (X , +, ) of a set X and two binary operations, vector addition + : X X X and scalar multiplication : F X X, so that the following hold. 1. For all x, y, z X we have (x + y) + z = x + (y + z). 2. For all x, y X we have x + y = y + x. 3. There is an element 0 X so that for all x X we have x + 0 = x. 4. For every x X there is a (x) X so that x + (x) = 0. 5. For all x, y X and F we have (x + y) = x + y. 6. For all x X and , F we have ( + ) x = x + x.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. A vector space over the eld F is a triple (X , +, ) of a set X and two binary operations, vector addition + : X X X and scalar multiplication : F X X, so that the following hold. 1. For all x, y, z X we have (x + y) + z = x + (y + z). 2. For all x, y X we have x + y = y + x. 3. There is an element 0 X so that for all x X we have x + 0 = x. 4. For every x X there is a (x) X so that x + (x) = 0. 5. For all x, y X and F we have (x + y) = x + y. 6. For all x X and , F we have ( + ) x = x + x. 7. For all x X and , F we have ( x) = ( ) x.
Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. A vector space over the eld F is a triple (X , +, ) of a set X and two binary operations, vector addition + : X X X and scalar multiplication : F X X, so that the following hold. 1. For all x, y, z X we have (x + y) + z = x + (y + z). 2. For all x, y X we have x + y = y + x. 3. There is an element 0 X so that for all x X we have x + 0 = x. 4. For every x X there is a (x) X so that x + (x) = 0. 5. For all x, y X and F we have (x + y) = x + y. 6. For all x X and , F we have ( + ) x = x + x. 7. For all x X and , F we have ( x) = ( ) x. 8. For all x X we have 1 x = x.
Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. An element of a vector space is also called a vector and an element of F is also called a scalar.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. An element of a vector space is also called a vector and an element of F is also called a scalar. We will usually refer to the set X as the vector space.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. An element of a vector space is also called a vector and an element of F is also called a scalar. We will usually refer to the set X as the vector space. As is customary for multiplications, the dot is usually omitted.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F with addition dened pointwise by (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x)

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F with addition dened pointwise by (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x) and scalar multiplication dened pointwise by ( f )(x) := f (x)

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F with addition dened pointwise by (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x) and scalar multiplication dened pointwise by ( f )(x) := f (x) is a vector space.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F with addition dened pointwise by (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x) and scalar multiplication dened pointwise by ( f )(x) := f (x) is a vector space. All properties follow from the corresponding pointwise properties for F.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F with addition dened pointwise by (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x) and scalar multiplication dened pointwise by ( f )(x) := f (x) is a vector space. All properties follow from the corresponding pointwise properties for F. For example, for all x D we have that (f + g)(x)

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F with addition dened pointwise by (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x) and scalar multiplication dened pointwise by ( f )(x) := f (x) is a vector space. All properties follow from the corresponding pointwise properties for F. For example, for all x D we have that (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F with addition dened pointwise by (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x) and scalar multiplication dened pointwise by ( f )(x) := f (x) is a vector space. All properties follow from the corresponding pointwise properties for F. For example, for all x D we have that (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x)

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F with addition dened pointwise by (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x) and scalar multiplication dened pointwise by ( f )(x) := f (x) is a vector space. All properties follow from the corresponding pointwise properties for F. For example, for all x D we have that (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x) = (g + f )(x).

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F with addition dened pointwise by (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x) and scalar multiplication dened pointwise by ( f )(x) := f (x) is a vector space. All properties follow from the corresponding pointwise properties for F. For example, for all x D we have that (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x) = (g + f )(x). The neutral element for addition is the function that is equal to 0 F for all x X.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. Let d N and let F be a eld. The set Fd := (x1 , . . . , xd ) : xi F with componentwise addition and scalar multiplication is a vector space. Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The set F (D, F) of all functions f : D F with addition dened pointwise by (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x) and scalar multiplication dened pointwise by ( f )(x) := f (x) is a vector space. All properties follow from the corresponding pointwise properties for F. For example, for all x D we have that (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x) = (g + f )(x). The neutral element for addition is the function that is equal to 0 F for all x X.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space. A subset S X \ {0} is called linearly independent iff for all nite subsets {x1 , . . . , xn } S and all sets of scalars {1 , . . . , n } F the
n

equation

i=1

ixi = 0 implies 1 = 2 = = n = 0.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space. A subset S X \ {0} is called linearly independent iff for all nite subsets {x1 , . . . , xn } S and all sets of scalars {1 , . . . , n } F the
n

equation
n

i=1

ixi = 0 implies 1 = 2 = = n = 0.

A sum

i=1

ixi with i F and xi X is also called a linear

combination of x1 , . . . , xn .

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space. A subset S X \ {0} is called linearly independent iff for all nite subsets {x1 , . . . , xn } S and all sets of scalars {1 , . . . , n } F the
n

equation
n

i=1

ixi = 0 implies 1 = 2 = = n = 0.

A sum

i=1

ixi with i F and xi X is also called a linear

combination of x1 , . . . , xn . Denition.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space. A subset S X \ {0} is called linearly independent iff for all nite subsets {x1 , . . . , xn } S and all sets of scalars {1 , . . . , n } F the
n

equation
n

i=1

ixi = 0 implies 1 = 2 = = n = 0.

A sum

i=1

ixi with i F and xi X is also called a linear

combination of x1 , . . . , xn . Denition. A linearly independent set B X such that for every x X there are a nite subset {b1 , . . . , bn } B and a set of
n

scalars {1 , . . . , n } F so that x = i bi is called a base of a vector space.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

i=1

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero. Then {e1 , . . . , ed } is a base of Fd .

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero. Then {e1 , . . . , ed } is a base of Fd . Linear independence:

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero. Then {e1 , . . . , ed } is a base of Fd . Linear independence: For each i = 1, . . . , d let ei denote the jth component of ei .
(j)

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero. Then {e1 , . . . , ed } is a base of Fd . Linear independence: For each i = 1, . . . , d let ei denote the jth component of ei . Then for any 1 , . . . , d the vector equation
d i=1 (j)

iei = 0

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero. Then {e1 , . . . , ed } is a base of Fd . Linear independence: For each i = 1, . . . , d let ei denote the jth component of ei . Then for any 1 , . . . , d the vector equation
d i=1 d i=1 (j)

iei = 0 leads to the scalar equations

iei

(j)

=0

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero. Then {e1 , . . . , ed } is a base of Fd . Linear independence: For each i = 1, . . . , d let ei denote the jth component of ei . Then for any 1 , . . . , d the vector equation
d i=1 d i=1 (j)

iei = 0 leads to the scalar equations

iei

(j)

= 0, which

for each j simply state that j = 0

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero. Then {e1 , . . . , ed } is a base of Fd . Linear independence: For each i = 1, . . . , d let ei denote the jth component of ei . Then for any 1 , . . . , d the vector equation
d i=1 d i=1 (j)

iei = 0 leads to the scalar equations

iei

(j)

= 0, which

for each j simply state that j = 0, as was to be proved.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero. Then {e1 , . . . , ed } is a base of Fd . Linear independence: For each i = 1, . . . , d let ei denote the jth component of ei . Then for any 1 , . . . , d the vector equation
d i=1 d i=1 (j)

iei = 0 leads to the scalar equations

iei

(j)

= 0, which

for each j simply state that j = 0, as was to be proved. Representation of elements:

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero. Then {e1 , . . . , ed } is a base of Fd . Linear independence: For each i = 1, . . . , d let ei denote the jth component of ei . Then for any 1 , . . . , d the vector equation
d i=1 d i=1 (j)

iei = 0 leads to the scalar equations

d

iei

(j)

= 0, which

for each j simply state that j = 0, as was to be proved. Representation of elements: For each x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Fd we have that x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) = xi ei .
i=1

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Example. In Fd , let ei denote the vector such that the ith component is 1 and all other components are zero. Then {e1 , . . . , ed } is a base of Fd . Linear independence: For each i = 1, . . . , d let ei denote the jth component of ei . Then for any 1 , . . . , d the vector equation
d i=1 d i=1 (j)

iei = 0 leads to the scalar equations

d

iei

(j)

= 0, which

for each j simply state that j = 0, as was to be proved. Representation of elements: For each x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Fd we have that x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) = xi ei .
i=1

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X .

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F .

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. elements than F , then L

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F .

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F . There is a subset H F \ L so that C := L \ {b} H is a base of X

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F . There is a subset H F \ L so that C := L \ {b} H is a base of X (good exercise).

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F . There is a subset H F \ L so that C := L \ {b} H is a base of X (good exercise). But L \ {b} is not a base of X

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F . There is a subset H F \ L so that C := L \ {b} H is a base of X (good exercise). But L \ {b} is not a base of X (good exercise)

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F . There is a subset H F \ L so that C := L \ {b} H is a base of X (good exercise). But L \ {b} is not a base of X (good exercise), so H = 0. /
logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F . There is a subset H F \ L so that C := L \ {b} H is a base of X (good exercise). But L \ {b} is not a base of X (good exercise), so H = 0. / Hence, C has more elements than F .
logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F . There is a subset H F \ L so that C := L \ {b} H is a base of X (good exercise). But L \ {b} is not a base of X (good exercise), so H = 0. / Hence, C has more elements than F . Because b F , we obtain (L \ {b}) H F
Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F . There is a subset H F \ L so that C := L \ {b} H is a base of X (good exercise). But L \ {b} is not a base of X (good exercise), so H = 0. / Hence, C has more elements than F . Because b F , we obtain (L \ {b}) H F = (L F ) H
Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F . There is a subset H F \ L so that C := L \ {b} H is a base of X (good exercise). But L \ {b} is not a base of X (good exercise), so H = 0. / Hence, C has more elements than F . Because b F , we obtain (L \ {b}) H F = (L F ) H > |L F |
Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Theorem. Let X be a vector space with a nite base F. Then every linearly independent subset L of X has at most as many elements as F. Moreover, all bases of X have as many elements as F. Proof. Let F = {f1 , . . . , fn } be a nite base of X . Suppose for a contradiction that there is a linearly independent set L X that has more elements than F . WLOG assume that L is such that if is another linearly independent subset of X with more L F |L F |. Let b L \ F and elements than F , then L consider the linearly independent sets L \ {b} and F . There is a subset H F \ L so that C := L \ {b} H is a base of X (good exercise). But L \ {b} is not a base of X (good exercise), so H = 0. / Hence, C has more elements than F . Because b F , we obtain (L \ {b}) H F = (L F ) H > |L F |, a contradiction. logo1

Bernd Schr oder

Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Proof (concl.).

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Proof (concl.). Thus no linearly independent subset of X has more elements than F .

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Proof (concl.). Thus no linearly independent subset of X has more elements than F . Now, if B is another base of X

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Proof (concl.). Thus no linearly independent subset of X has more elements than F . Now, if B is another base of X , then |B| |F |.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Proof (concl.). Thus no linearly independent subset of X has more elements than F . Now, if B is another base of X , then |B| |F |. Therefore B is nite.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Proof (concl.). Thus no linearly independent subset of X has more elements than F . Now, if B is another base of X , then |B| |F |. Therefore B is nite. With the same argument as above, if L X is linearly independent, then |L| |B|.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Proof (concl.). Thus no linearly independent subset of X has more elements than F . Now, if B is another base of X , then |B| |F |. Therefore B is nite. With the same argument as above, if L X is linearly independent, then |L| |B|. Because F is linearly independent, we obtain |F | |B|, and hence |F | = |B|.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Proof (concl.). Thus no linearly independent subset of X has more elements than F . Now, if B is another base of X , then |B| |F |. Therefore B is nite. With the same argument as above, if L X is linearly independent, then |L| |B|. Because F is linearly independent, we obtain |F | |B|, and hence |F | = |B|.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space over the eld F and let : X X X be a binary operation.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space over the eld F and let : X X X be a binary operation. Then (X , ) is called an algebra iff

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space over the eld F and let : X X X be a binary operation. Then (X , ) is called an algebra iff 1. The multiplication operation is associative, and

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space over the eld F and let : X X X be a binary operation. Then (X , ) is called an algebra iff 1. The multiplication operation is associative, and 2. Multiplication is left- and right distributive over addition.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space over the eld F and let : X X X be a binary operation. Then (X , ) is called an algebra iff 1. The multiplication operation is associative, and 2. Multiplication is left- and right distributive over addition. 3. For all F and all x, y X we have that (xy) = ( x)y = x( y).

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space over the eld F and let : X X X be a binary operation. Then (X , ) is called an algebra iff 1. The multiplication operation is associative, and 2. Multiplication is left- and right distributive over addition. 3. For all F and all x, y X we have that (xy) = ( x)y = x( y). Example.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space over the eld F and let : X X X be a binary operation. Then (X , ) is called an algebra iff 1. The multiplication operation is associative, and 2. Multiplication is left- and right distributive over addition. 3. For all F and all x, y X we have that (xy) = ( x)y = x( y). Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space over the eld F and let : X X X be a binary operation. Then (X , ) is called an algebra iff 1. The multiplication operation is associative, and 2. Multiplication is left- and right distributive over addition. 3. For all F and all x, y X we have that (xy) = ( x)y = x( y). Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The vector space F (D, F) of all functions f : D F is an algebra with the multiplication operation dened pointwise by (f g)(x) := f (x) g(x).

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space over the eld F and let : X X X be a binary operation. Then (X , ) is called an algebra iff 1. The multiplication operation is associative, and 2. Multiplication is left- and right distributive over addition. 3. For all F and all x, y X we have that (xy) = ( x)y = x( y). Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The vector space F (D, F) of all functions f : D F is an algebra with the multiplication operation dened pointwise by (f g)(x) := f (x) g(x). All properties follow from the corresponding pointwise properties for elements of elds.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Denition. Let X be a vector space over the eld F and let : X X X be a binary operation. Then (X , ) is called an algebra iff 1. The multiplication operation is associative, and 2. Multiplication is left- and right distributive over addition. 3. For all F and all x, y X we have that (xy) = ( x)y = x( y). Example. Let D be a set and let F be a eld. The vector space F (D, F) of all functions f : D F is an algebra with the multiplication operation dened pointwise by (f g)(x) := f (x) g(x). All properties follow from the corresponding pointwise properties for elements of elds.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

1. An algebra with a few more properties (commutativity, unit element, multiplicative inverses) becomes a eld.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

1. An algebra with a few more properties (commutativity, unit element, multiplicative inverses) becomes a eld. 2. So can we go beyond C?

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

1. An algebra with a few more properties (commutativity, unit element, multiplicative inverses) becomes a eld. 2. So can we go beyond C? 3. It can be proved (with a lot of functional analysis) that any complete (dened through analysis) normed algebra over C with a multiplicative unit element and multiplicative inverses for all nonzero elements is isomorphic to C.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

So just like R, C is in some ways a constant of nature

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

So just like R, C is in some ways a constant of nature: Any complete normed eld that contains C is an algebra over C

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

So just like R, C is in some ways a constant of nature: Any complete normed eld that contains C is an algebra over C, and hence it must be equal to C.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

So just like R, C is in some ways a constant of nature: Any complete normed eld that contains C is an algebra over C, and hence it must be equal to C. So we cannot expand without losing at least one useful property.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

So just like R, C is in some ways a constant of nature: Any complete normed eld that contains C is an algebra over C, and hence it must be equal to C. So we cannot expand without losing at least one useful property. (Quaternions lose the third property in the denition of an algebra as well as commutativity.)

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science

Vector Spaces

Bases

Algebras

Final Comments on Number Systems

So just like R, C is in some ways a constant of nature: Any complete normed eld that contains C is an algebra over C, and hence it must be equal to C. So we cannot expand without losing at least one useful property. (Quaternions lose the third property in the denition of an algebra as well as commutativity.) On the other hand, because we want polynomial equations to be solvable, we cannot shrink to something smaller than C and expect an elegant theory.

Bernd Schr oder Beyond Fields: Vector Spaces and Algebras

logo1 Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science