FACTS "Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems"

Title
FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems
M.P.Donsin Department of Electrical Engineering, Vigo University, Vigo (Spain)
25/11/2007
Outline
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
FACTS Definition FACTS Technology FACTS Classification FACTS Technical benefits FACTS Installing VSC (Voltage-Sourced Converter) SVC (Static Var Compensator) TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensators) SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator) DVR (Dynamic Voltage Regulator) STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator) DSTATCOM (Distribution Static Compensator) UPFC (Unified Power Flow Controller ) HPFC (Hybrid Power Flow Controller ) UPQC (Unified Power Quality Conditioner) HVDC (High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission) MV distribution grid with FACTs devices VFT (Variable Frequency Transformer)
19.
20.
FACTS Equipment. Installations

Conclusions
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FACTS Definition
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) is a static equipment used for the AC transmission of electrical energy. It is meant to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability. It is generally a power electronic a power electronics-based device. FACTS is defined by the IEEE as "a power electronic based system and other static equipment that provide control of one or more AC transmission system and increase the capacity of power transfer.
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FACTS Definition
Today, the concept of FACTS includes not only "thyristor based controllers" but all "power electronic-based" and other "static controllers". The definitions are: Flexibility of Electric Power Transmission: The ability to accommodate changes in the electric transmission system or operating conditions while maintaining sufficient steady-state and transient margins. Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS): Alternating current transmission system incorporating power electronicbased and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability. FACTS Controller: A power electronic-based system and other static equipment that provide control of one or more AC transmission system parameters.
N. G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, "Understanding FACTS, Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission System", IEEE Press, 1999
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FACTS Technology
The FACTS technology has a collection of controllers, that can be used individually or coordinated with other controls installed in the network, thus permitting to profit better of the networks characteristics of control. The potential of FACTS technology is based on the possibility of controlling the route of the power flow and the ability of connecting networks that are not adequately interconnected, giving the possibility of trading energy between distant agents.
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FACTS Technology
The following features resume the main advantages of the FACTS devices: They allow a grater control over the power flow, touting it through predetermined routes; It is possible to operate at safe load levels ( without overload ) near to the thermical limits of the transmission lines; Bigger capacity of power transmission between controlled areas, thus reducing considerable the reserve margin; They increase the system security by increasing the transitory stability limit; They damp the system oscillations that harm the equipment and limit the available capacity; They answer phase to the network condition changes and control the power flow at real time; They provide the network of flexibility to install new generating plants; They provide security in the connections through the joining lines between enterprises and neighbour areas; Great flexibility in the three operative status of the system: pre-fault, fault, post-fault and capacity to control transitory status and to impact phase in post fault status. 25/11/2007
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FACTS Classification
Depending on the type of connection to the network FACTS devices can differentiate four categories: Serial controllers Derivation controllers Serial to serial controllers Serial-derivation controllers on technological features, the FACTS devices can divided into two generations: First generation: used thyristors with ignition controlled by gate(SCR). Second generation: semiconductors with ignition and extinction controlled by gate (GTOs , MCTS , IGBTS , IGCTS , etc).
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Depending
FACTS devices
Static Var Compensator, SVC (TCR,TCS,TRS) Thyristor Controlled Series Compensations (TCSC,TSSC) Thyristor Controlled Reactor Series (TCSR,TSSC) Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST,TCPR) Thyristor Controlled Voltage Regulator (TCVR) Thyristor Controlled Voltage Limited (TCVL)
Attributes of control First Generation

Voltage control and stability, compensation of VARs. muffling of oscillations Current control, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability, limitation of fault current Current control, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability, limitation of fault current Control of active power, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability Control of reactive power, voltage control, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and voltage stability Limits of transitory and dynamic voltage
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FACTS devices
Synchronous Static Compensator (STATCOM without storage) Synchronous Static Compensator (STATCOM with storage) Static Synchronous Series Compensator (STATCOM without storage) Static Synchronous Series Compensator (STATCOM with storage) Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
Attributes of control Second Generation

Voltage control, compensation of VARs, muffling of oscillations, stability of voltage Voltage control and stability, compensation of VARs, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of tension stability Current control, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability, limitation of fault current Current control, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability Control of active and reactive power, voltage control, compensation of VARs, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability, limitation of fault current Control of reactive power, voltage control, muffling of oscillations, transitory, dynamics and of voltage stability
Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) or Back to Back (BtB)
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FACTS Technical benefits
The benefits of utilizing FACTS devices in electrical transmission systems can be summarized as follows: Better utilization of existing transmission system assets Increased transmission system reliability and availability Increased dynamic and transient grid stability and reduction of loop flows Increased quality of supply for sensitive industries Environmental benefits. Better utilization of existing transmission system assets. 25/11/2007
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FACTS Installing
There are three factors to be considered before installing a FACTS devices: The type of device The capacity required The location that optimize the functioning of the device Of these three factors, the last one is of great importance, because the desired effect and the proper features of the system depend of the location of FACTS.
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FACTS Installing
Steps for the identification of FACTS Projects:

The first step should always be to conduct a detailed network study to investigate the critical conditions of a grid or grids connections. These conditions could include: risks of voltage problems or even voltage collapse, undesired power flows, as well as the potential for power swings or subsynchronous resonances; For a stable grid, the optimized utilization of the transmission lines e.g. increasing the energy transfer capability could be investigated; If there is a potential for improving the transmission system, either through enhanced stability or energy transfer capability, the appropriate FACTS device and its required rating can be determined; Based on this technical information, an economical study can be performed to compare costs of FACTS devices or conventional solutions with the achievable benefits. 25/11/2007
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VSC (Voltage-Sourced Converter)

+ + VDC/2 VDC + VDC/2 o TaTa+ Tb+ Da a+ TbDaTc+ Db
+
Dc
+
Vab Vbc
Vc
Va Vb
Tc-
c Dc-
Db-
The topology of a conventional two-level VCS using IGBT switches Voltage-sourced Converters (VSCs) are six-pulse converters consisting of six power semiconductor switching devices and antiparallel diodes. From a direct current (DC) voltage source, the VSC generates a set of controllable three-phase output voltages at the frequency of the system voltage. Pulse width modulation is used to control the firing of the semiconductor switching devices, generating an average sine wave. Pulse width modulation also helps mitigate the amount of harmonics. 25/11/2007
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In recent years, voltage sourced converter technology has made significant progress through the development and advancement of high power controlled turn-off type semiconductor devices, such as GTOs, IGBTs, and GCTs. Because of the advantages over the line commutated type of converters in performance characteristics and compactness, various applications of the voltage sourced converter based technology have been commissioned. The wide-spread availability of this technology at practical MVA levels was illustrated by numerous references of actual applications. There are several Voltage Source Converter (VSC) topologies currently in use in actual power systems operation. Common aims of these topologies are: 1. to minimise the switching losses of the semiconductors inside the VSC. 2. to produce a high-quality sinusoidal voltage waveform with minimum or no filtering requirements
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Comparison of VSC topologies
Topology
Three-leg VSC with single dc capacitor Three-leg VSC with neutral clamped dc capacitors
Ns Nc
Comments
It uses the least number of switches and only a single dc capacitor. It however cannot compensate for the zero sequence currents in the four-wire distribution system. It can compensate loads working from three-phase threewire systems It can compensate for unbalanced load currents in a three-phase four-wire system. The zero sequence of the load current injected by the compensator will return to the compensator at the mid-point of the dc capacitors. To prevent drift in their voltages, the dc component of the load current is not compensated and the capacitors will have to be large to reduce ripple. It requires the minimum number of switches but it needs two dc capacitors which increases the bulk It can compensate for unbalanced load currents containing dc components in a three-phase four-wire system. It requires two extra switches for compensating the zero sequence component of the load currents. For controlling these two extra switches, a separate reference current must be generated along with an appropriate switching control strategy. It however needs only one dc capacitor. As the compensation of zero sequence components in the load currents is through the fourth leg and there is only one dc capacitor, the voltage of the dc capacitor is easier to control. An alternative topology using chopper and three-leg VSC with neutral clamped dc capacitors also uses eight switches but has more complex control
Four-leg VSC
Ns: number of switches. Nc: number of dc capacitors.
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SVC (Static Var Compensators)

Static Var Compensators (SVCs), the most important FACTS devices, have been used for a number of years to improve transmission line economics by resolving dynamic voltage problems. The accuracy, availability and fast response enable SVCs to provide high performance steady state and transient voltage control compared with classical shunt compensation. SVCs are also used to dampen power swings, improve transient stability, and reduce system losses by optimized reactive power control. When a VSC is interfaced to a transmission system it has to: (i) operate at the line frequency, and (ii) produce a balanced set of sinusoidal voltages. Therefore, a VSC coupled to the transmission system has only two control degrees of freedom - it can vary the magnitude and the phase angle of its output voltage relative to the system voltage.
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Typically an SVC comprises a bank of individually switched capacitors in conjunction with a thyristor controlled air- or iron-cored reactor. By means of phase angle modulation switched by the thyristors, the reactor may be variably switched into the circuit, and so provide a continuously variable MVAr injection (or absorption) to the electrical network. 25/11/2007
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A VSC interfaced to a transmission line - P, Q exchange The SVC two control degrees of freedom can be mapped into freedom to exchange active and reactive power with the transmission system. The amount of exchanged reactive power is limited only by the current capacity of the converter switches, while the active power coupled to (from) the line has to be supplied from (delivered to) the DC terminals, as shown symbolically in the Figure. 25/11/2007
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Ia Ib Ic Va Vb Vc
ITCRc ICc C1 ICb C2 n ICa C3 ITCR1
ITCRb ITCR2
ITCRa ITCR3 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR)
Bank of capacitors Branch 1
Branch 2
Branch 3
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Coarse voltage control is provided by the capacitors; the thyristorcontrolled reactor is to provide smooth control. Chopping the reactor into the circuit in this manner injects undesirable odd-order harmonics and so banks of high-power filters are usually provided to smooth the waveform. Since the filters themselves are capacitive, they also contribute to the net MVAr injection. Other arrangements such as a thyristor-switched reactor and thyristorswitched capacitors are also practical. Voltage regulation is provided by means of a closed-loop controller. Remote supervisory control and manual adjustment of the voltage setpoint are also common. The main advantage of SVCs over simple mechanically-switched compensation schemes is their near-instantaneous response to changes in the system voltage. For this reason they are often operated at close to their zero-point in order to maximise the MVAr reserves they can rapidly provide when required. They are in general cheaper and require lower maintenance than dynamic compensation schemes such as synchronous compensators. 25/11/2007
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Q VSVC Q C L VSVC BTSC(C) BTCR(L) Q Q
Q VSVC BTSC()
I SVC = jBSVCV
XL XC
Where:
2 ( ) + sin 2 XCXL
BSVC = BTSC BTCR = XL = L XC =

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VSVC Vmax Vmin
System reactive Load characteristic
Capacitive rating
Inductive rating ISVC
SVC voltage/current characteristic with system load
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bus k + VDC ma EvR IvR
Vk
E vR vR
YvR
bus k
Ik k
Vkk
VSC connected to the AC network via a shunt-connected transformer
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bus k Vk + VDC IcR ma bus m Vm
Ik k
Vkk
E cR cR
Im m
V m m
VSC connected to the AC network via a series-connected transformer
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TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator)
Thyristor controlled series compensators (TCSCs) are an extension of conventional series capacitors through adding a thyristor-controlled reactor. Placing a controlled reactor in parallel with a series capacitor enables a continuous and rapidly variable series compensation system.
TCSC Power Circuit The basic power circuit for the TCSC is simple. It has a separate circuit for each phase. The TCR needs control. The key Elements in the TCSC are: power circuit for the power converter; synchronization and gate control; control loops. 25/11/2007
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Representation of FACTS Controllers Based on Conventional Thyristors ITCR Q Q L VTCR C VSVC L
The thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR)
The static VAR compensator (SVC)
Iloopp L VTCSC
The thyristor-controlled series compensator (TCSC)
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The effective impedance is:
Where: And is the firing delay angle measured from the Vc peak.
TCSC Characteristic. Impedance versus firing delay angle 25/11/2007

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Typical TCSC Waveforms
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Typical TCSC Waveform
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TCR Internal Control Scheme A Thyristor controlled series compensator TCSC is planned for better utilization in India in 2000. The FACTS system was to be installed on the 400kV, 395km long , Kanpur- Ballabgarh line. Kanpur- Ballabgarh and Kanpur-Agra 400kV lines in Northern grid of UP carry about 800MW power from Singrauli and Rihand belt to western UP and Rajasthan. 25/11/2007
SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator)
This device work the same way as the STATCOM. It has a voltage source converter serially connected to a transmission line through a transformer. It is necessary an energy source to provide a continuous voltage through a condenser and to compensate the losses of the VSC. A SSSC is able to exchange active and reactive power with the transmission system. But if our only aim is to balance the reactive power , the energy source could be quite small. The injected voltage can be controlled in phase and magnitude if we have an energy source that is big enough for the purpose. With reactive power compensation only the voltage is controllable, because the voltage vector forms 90 degrees with the line intensity. In this case the serial injected voltage can delay or advanced the line current. This means that the SSSC can be uniformly controlled in any value, in the VSC working slot.
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SSSC - A VSC interfaced in series to a transmission line The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) uses a VSC interfaced in series to a transmission line, as shown in the Figure. Again, the active power exchanged with the line has to be maintained at zero - hence, in steady state operation, SSSC is a functional equivalent of an infinitely variable series connected capacitor. The SSSC offers fast control and it is inherently neutral to sub-synchronous resonance. 25/11/2007
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As mentioned, Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is placed in the group of series connected FACTS devices. As shown in Fig. 1, SSSC consists of a voltage source inverter connected in series through a coupling transformer to the transmission line. A source of energy is required for providing and maintaining the DC voltage across the DC capacitor and compensation of SSSC losses. Fig. 2 shows the model of SSSC which consists of a series connected voltage source in series with an impedance. This impedance represents the impedance of coupling transformer. 25/11/2007
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The SSSC when operated with an appropriate DC supply (an energy source and/or sink, or a suitable energy storage) can inject a component of voltage in anti-phase with the voltage developed across the line resistance, to counteract the effect of the resistive voltage drop on the power transmission. The capability of the SSSC to exchange both active and reactive power makes it possible to compensate for the reactive and resistive voltage drops, maintaining a high effective X/R ratio independently of the degree of series compensation Thus, a SSSC can work like a controllable serial condenser and a serial reactance. The main difference is that the voltage infected through a SSSC is not related to the line intensity and can be controlled independently. This important feature means that the SSSC can be used with excellent results with low loads as well as with high loads.
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Inductive and Capacitive modes of operation
Figure shows an example of a simple power transmission system with an SSSC operating both in inductive and capacitive modes, and related phasor diagrams.
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The transmission line with the inductive reactance XL delivering power form the sending-end voltage source to the receiving-end voltage source, having no compensation of any kind, is said to be in a steady-state. The voltage impressed by the effective reactance is the same with the voltage drop across the uncompensated line because the degree of series compensations is zero. The line reactance is constant and by adding variable series (capacitive/inductive) reactance, the amount of compensation can be controlled. The degree of series compensation in this case is defined as:
where XL is the line inductive reactance and Xq is the emulated series reactance.
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In the inductive mode of operation, the line current decreases as the inductive reactance compensation level increases from 0% to 100%. In the capacitive mode of operation the line current increases with the capacitive reactance compensation level from 0% to 33%. It is worthy to note from the diagrams that SSSC not only can increase the transferable power but it can also decrease it, simply by reversing the polarity of the injected voltage. The reversed voltage is added directly to the line voltage drop as if the line impedance was increased. The effects of the compensating reactance on the normalized power flow in the transmission line are as follows: when the emulated reactance is inductive, the active and reactive power flow decrease and the effective reactance increases as the reactance compensation increases in the negative direction, and when the emulated reactance is capacitive the active and reactive power flow increases and the effective reactance decreases as the reactance compensation increases in the positive direction. We can also approve of the general use of a serial controllable condenser in the case of SSSC it controls the dynamic energy flow and improves the stability between the angle and the voltage. The fact that a SSSC can induce capacitive and inductive voltage increases the operation field of the device. During the stability slot the potential of damping electromechanical oscillations increases.
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The SSSC version applied in distribution systems is the Dynamic Voltage Regulator (DVR) that basically consists on a three-phase converter connected transformer and with a load element ( or source) in the DC side of the converter. A voltage to synchronize it with the line voltage can be infected (or in cuadrature with the current) of a variable amplitude and phase, and this allows the active and reactive power exchange between the line and the energy storage device, compensates holes in the network voltage and improves the unbalances between phases. The Unified Voltage Controller UVC, is a cheap version of the DVR because it doesnt have the energy storage device, it is made to operate in network points with a high level of short circuit.
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These devices (SSSC, DVR, UVC) correct the voltage when there is a fault in the network but also have a lot of advantages in normal use, when there are no disturbances, like: Due to the continuous voltage injection and in combination with a properly structured controller, it is possible to control the power factor of connected loads; In the interconnected distribution network topologies, the additional voltage with its controllable magnitude and phase, van be used to work on the power flows. It can also help to cover the capacitive reactive power demand if cable networks, which is higher than in aerial lines, mainly during low load periods that cause inadmissible load elevations; It balances loads in interconnected distribution networks, providing a balanced system; It reduces the harmonics caused because of the use of distributed electrical generation pants at a distribution network level, by active filtering by injecting voltage with the converter at the load side. 25/11/2007
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DVR (Dynamic Voltage Regulator)
The Dynamic Voltage Regulator (DVR) is a series compensating device. It is used for protecting a sensitive load that is connected dowstream from sag/swell etc. It can also regulate the bus voltage at the load terminal. Inverters rated 2 MVA are applied in 2-, 4-, 6-, and 8-MVA systems to protect critical loads of 4 to 24 MVA. Inverters rated 5 MVA are applied in 5-, 10-, 15-, and 20MVA systems to protect critical loads of 5 to 60 MVA.
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DVR (Dynamic Voltage Regulator)
The DVR offers energy users dynamic subcycle protection from system disturbances originating on the transmission or distribution system. The DVR corrects voltage sags, swells, and unexpected load changes, maintaining the voltage to sensitive loads within acceptable tolerances. The result is improved process productivity and significant customer cost savings. DVR is designed to mitigate voltage sags of a magnitude 50% of nominal voltage for a duration of approximately 30 cycles.
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DVR. How It Works
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DVR. How It Works

The DVR is connected in series with the critical load. During sags and swells, the VSI synthesizes a voltage waveform of controlled magnitude, frequency, and shape. The series insertion transformer "adds" and scales this synthesized waveform and superimposes it upon the line voltage. The DVR reacts to voltage sags and swells within 1/4 of a cycle. The DVR uses DC capacitors to store the energy required to boost or buck the line voltage. During a sag or swell, the capacitors provide DC to the power transistors in the inverter, which synthesizes an AC voltage of the magnitude, waveform, phase angle, and duration needed to compensate for the event. Energy is not drawn from the system during the event. The capacitors are subsequently recharged through the inverter, which converts the line voltage to DC.
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DVR. Simulation
DVR using three-leg VSC with single dc capacitor. Network: Ra=Rb=Rc=2 , La=Lb=Lc=0.01 H Load: Ra=2 , Rb=0 , Rc=0.5 La=Lc=0.01 H, Lb=0 H
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DVR
Load currents charts for the three phases. We can see the non sinusoidal, unbalance and distortion produced by the load. We use a PSIM software based in Matlab for to obtain, by a time-step simulation, the evolution of different parameters.
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DVR
Load voltage charts for the three phases. We can see the non sinusoidal, unbalance and distortion produced by the load.
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DVR
Charts of the three phases inyect currents in the PCC by the VSI.
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DVR
Charts of the three phases voltages at the VSI.
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DVR
Charts of the three phases currents at the PCC. We can see the effect of the DVR.
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DVR
Charts of the three phases voltages at the PCC. We can see the effect of the DVR
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STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator)

It is a device connected in derivation, basically composed of a coupling transformer, that serves of link between the electrical power system (EPS) and the voltage synchronous controller (VSC), that generates the voltage wave comparing it to the one of the electric system to realize the exchange of reactive power. The control system of the STATCOM adjusts at each moment the inverse voltage so that the current injected In the network is in cuadrature to the network voltage, in these conditions P=0 and Q=0. In its most general way, the STATCOM can be modeled as a regulated voltage source Vi connected to a voltage bar Vs through a transformer.
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STATCOM - A VSC interfaced in shunt to a transmission line
The STATic COMpensator (STATCOM) uses a VSC interfaced in shunt to a transmission line. In most cases the DC voltage support for the VSC will be provided by the DC capacitor of relatively small energy storage capability hence, in steady state operation, active power exchanged with the line has to be maintained at zero, as shown symbolically in the Figure.
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STATCOM - A VSC interfaced in shunt to a transmission line
With the active power constraint imposed, the control of the STATCOM is reduced to one degree of freedom, which is used to control the amount of reactive power exchanged with the line. Accordingly, a STATCOM is operated as a functional equivalent of a static VAR compensator; it provides faster control than an SVC and improved control range.
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Each GTO converter generates a voltage that is stepped up by a lineside-series-connected multi-stage converter transformer. The converter transformer enables the build-up of a sine-wave voltage in both magnitude and phase. Because STATCOMs with multi-stage converter transformers do not generate significant internal harmonics, they generally require minimal, or no, harmonic filtering. If the number of firing pulses for the GTOs is increased (i.e., pulse-width modulation (PWM) order), the harmonics are further decreased. High-side voltage is generally used as a controller input, as indicated in the figure.
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The figure shows the equivalent circuit of a STATCOM system. The GTO converter with a dc voltage source and the power system are illustrated as variable ac voltages in this figure. These two voltages are connected by a reactance representing the transformer leakage inductance.
Equivalent circuit of a STATCOM
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Using the classical equations that describe the active and reactive power flow in a line in terms of Vi and Vs, the transformer impedance (which can be assumed as ideal) and the angle difference between both bars, we can defined P and Q. The angle between the Vs and Vi in the system is d. When the STATCOM operates with d=0 we can see how the active power send to the system device becomes zero while the reactive power will mainly depend on the voltage module. This operation condition means that the current that goes through the transformer must have a +/-90 phase difference to Vs. In other words, if Vi is bigger than Vs, the reactive will be send to the STATCOM of the system (capacitive operation), originating a current flow in this direction. In the contrary case, the reactive will be absorbed from the system through the STATCOM (inductive operation) and the current will flow in the opposite direction. Finally if the modules of Vs and Vi are equal, there wont be nor current nor reactive flow in the system. Thus, we can say that in a stationary state Q only depends on the module difference between Vs and Vi voltages. The amount of the reactive power is proportional to the voltage difference between Vs and Vi.
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There can be a little active power exchange between the STATCOM and the EPS. The exchange between the inverter and the AC system can be controlled adjusting the output voltage angle from the inverter to the voltage angle of the AC system. This means that the inverter can not provide active power to the AC system form the DC accumulated energy if the output voltage of the inverter goes before the voltage of the AC system. On the other hand, the inverter can absorb the active power of the AC system if its voltage is delayed in respect to the AC system voltage.
Principle of operation of a STATCOM 25/11/2007

The STATCOM smoothly and continuously controls voltage from V1 to V2. However, if the system voltage exceeds a low-voltage (V1) or high-voltage limit (V2), the STATCOM acts as a constant current source by controlling the converter voltage (Vi) appropriately.
V-I characteristic of a STATCOM
Thus, when operating at its voltage limits, the amount of reactive power compensation provided by the STATCOM is more than the most-common competing FACTS controller, namely the Static Var Compensator (SVC). This is because at a low voltage limit, the reactive power drops off as the square of the voltage for the SVC, where Mvar=f(BV2), but drops off linearly with the STATCOM, where Mvar=f(VI). This makes the reactive power controllability of the STATCOM superior to that of the SVC, particularly during times of system distress.
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In addition the STATCOM has other advantages compared to an SVC, such as: Quicker response time (A STATCOM has a step response of 8 ms to 30 ms). This helps with compensation of negative phase current and with the reduction of voltage flicker. Active power control is possible with a STATCOM (with optional energy storage on dc circuit). This could further help with system stability control. No potential for creating a resonance point. This is because no capacitor banks or reactors are required to generate the reactive power for a STATCOM. The STATCOM has a smaller installation space due to no capacitors or reactors required to generate Mvar, minimal or no filtering, and the availability of high capacity power semiconductor devices. Designs of systems of equal dynamic ranges have shown the STATCOM to be as much as 1/3 the area and 1/5 the volume of an SVC. A modular design of the STATCOM allows for high availability (i.e., one or more modules of the STATCOM can be out-of-service without the loss of the entire compensation system).
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In 1991, the worlds first commercial transmission system STATCOM (at the time known as SVG for Static Var Generator) was installed at the Inuyama substation of The Kansai Electric Power Company in Japan, for the objective of improving power system and voltage stabilization. It has been successfully operating for nearly 9 years. The figure shows the one-line diagram of this 80 MVA STATCOM.
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Application of the Three-Phase STATCOM in Voltage Stability
Voltage stability is one of the biggest problems in power systems. Engineers and researchers have met with the purpose of discussing and trying to consolidate a definition regarding to voltage stability, besides proposing techniques and methodologies for their analysis. Most of these techniques are based on the search of the point in which the systems Jacobian becomes singular; this point is referred as the point of voltage collapse or maximum load ability point. The series and shunt compensation are able to increase the maximum transfer capabilities of power network .Concerning to voltage stability, such compensation has the purpose of injecting reactive power to maintain the voltage magnitude in the nodes close to the nominal values, besides, to reduce line currents and therefore the total system losses. At the present time, thanks to the development in the power electronics devices, the voltage magnitude in some node of the system can be adjusted through sophisticated and versatile devices named FACTS. One of them is the static synchronous compensator (STATCOM).
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With the help of the previous one-phase STATCOM formulation, it is easy to deduce the three-phase model. The shunt voltage source of the three-phase STATCOM may be represented by: EvR = VvR (cos vR + jsin vR ) where indicates phase quantities, a, b and c. The equivalent circuit of the three-phase STATCOM is shown in Figure 4 in a wye configuration. This model is used to derive the steady state equations included into the three-phase power flow formulation
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Thus, the three-phase STATCOM model is integrated into the steady state formulation. In the simulations, the STATCOMs node where is connected, is represented as a PV type node. This node can change to PQ type when, during the process, one of the limits in the devices voltage magnitude is violated.
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DSTATCOM (Distribution Static Compensator)
When the STATCOM is applied in distribution system is called DSTACOM (Distribution-STACOM) and its configuration is the same, or with small modifications, oriented to a possible future amplification of its possibilities in the distribution network at low and medium voltage, implementing the function so that we can describe as flicker damping, harmonic filtering and hole and short interruption compensation. Distribution STATCOM (DSTATCOM) exhibits high speed control of reactive power to provide voltage stabilization, flicker suppression, and other types of system control. The DSTATCOM utilizes a design consisting of a GTO- or IGBT-based voltage sourced converter connected to the power system via a multi-stage converter transformer.
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The DSTATCOM protects the utility transmission or distribution system from voltage sags and/or flicker caused by rapidly varying reactive current demand. In utility applications, a DSTATCOM provides leading or lagging reactive power to achieve system stability during transient conditions. The DSTATCOM can also be applied to industrial facilities to compensate for voltage sag and flicker caused by non-linear dynamic loads, enabling such problem loads to co-exist on the same feeder as more sensitive loads. The DSTATCOM instantaneously exchanges reactive power with the distribution system without the use of bulky capacitors or reactors. In most applications, a DSTATCOM can use its significant short-term transient overload capabilities to reduce the size of the compensation system needed to handle transient events. The short-term overload capability is up to 325% for periods of 1 to 3 seconds, which allows applications such as wind farms and utility voltage stabilization to optimize the systems cost and performance. The DSTATCOM controls traditional mechanically switched capacitors to provide optimal compensation on a both a transient and steadystate basis.
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A typical control circuit of the D-STATCOM

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The three-phase load currents to be compensated (iLa, iLb, and iLc shown in the last Figure) are measured from the system and transformed to two phase orthogonal components (ip and iq) on rotating coordinates synchronized with the line voltage. The outputs of the filter circuit are inversely transformed to three-phase components (isa, isb, and isc shown in Figure). The output current of the DSTATCOM is controlled by three-phase current feedback control using isa, isb, and isc as reference signals for each phase. The output signals of the current control added by a sensed system voltage signal becomes the voltage reference signal of the PWM control. The PWM control circuit generates the firing signal of the GTO by comparing triangular wave carrier signals to the voltage reference signal.
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System configuration for arc furnace flicker compensation application
For weak distribution systems where the operation of arc furnaces causes significant power quality problems, a high performance flicker compensation device is necessary. As a solution to this particular power quality need, the DSTATCOM has been applied for a number of situations and has provided excellent performance for arc furnace flicker suppression. The Figure shows the system configuration for a flicker compensation installation.
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The flicker caused by the arc furnace operation was measured by use of a flicker meter. The output of the meter was 10, and was used as an indicating factor of voltage flicker. The voltage deviation of the meter from the reference value is calculated for each cycle. It is then filtered by a human eye sensitivity curve and integrated for one minute to output a value for 10.
The table shows the maximum values and the improvement ratio for operation of the DSTATCOM to compensate the flicker. In this application, the flicker suppression realized was 58% on average with utilization of the DSTATCOM. In this case, the capacity of the DSTATCOM was 21% of the maximum reactive power generated from the arc furnace. The measured results clearly indicate the high performance achieved by the DSTATCOM for flicker suppression.
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Voltage flicker without (top) and with (bottom) a DSTATCOM on the same voltage scale
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To prevent the unbalanced and distorted currents from being drawn from the distribution bus, a shunt compensator, DSTATCOM, can be used to ensure that the current drawn from the distribution bus is balanced and sinusoidal. A Voltage Source Converter (VSC) is used to realize a DSTATCOM. The structure of the VSC decides the extent of compensation it can provide.
Inverters rated 2 MVA are applied in 2-, 4-, 6-, and 8-MVA systems that protect the distribution system from non-linear dynamic loads of 4 to 24 MVA. Inverters rated 5 MVA are applied in 5-,10-,15-, and 20-MVA systems that protect the distribution system from non-linear dynamic loads of 5 to 60 MVA.
25/11/2007
VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM. How It Works
The DSTATCOM is connected in parallel with the non-linear dynamic load. When appropriate, the VSI synthesizes a current waveform of controlled magnitude, frequency, and shape. The parallel insertion transformer "adds" and scales this synthesized waveform and superimposes it upon the load current. The DSTATCOM responds in less than a 1/4 of a cycle to maintain bus voltage, thus eliminating flicker resulting from sudden changes in reactive power demand.
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VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM. Simulation
DSTATCOM using three-leg VSC with single dc capacitor. Network: Ra=Rb=Rc=2 , La=Lb=Lc=0.01 H Load: Ra=2 , Rb=0 , Rc=0.5 La=Lc=0.01 H, Lb=0 H
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VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM
Load currents charts for the three phases. We can see the non sinusoidal, unbalance and distortion produced by the load. We use a PSIM software based in Matlab for to obtain, by a time-step simulation, the evolution of different parameters.
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VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM
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VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM
Charts of the three phases inyect currents in the PCC by the VSI.
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VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM
Charts of the three phases voltages at the VSI.
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VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM
Charts of the three phases currents at the PCC. We can see the effect of the DSTATCOM.
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VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM
Charts of the three phases voltages at the PCC. We can see the effect of the DSTATCOM.
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VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM
We have analyzed the operation of a DSTATCOM using three-leg VSC with single dc capacitor. The operation of the switches S1S6 depends on the control strategy used. Since there is no return path for the zero sequence component of the currents, the three-leg VSC with single dc capacitor cannot inject currents having a zero sequence component. I 1a + I 1b + I 1c = 0 Hence, there will be a zero sequence component in the load current if the load is unbalanced. Full compensation will not be possible as the zero sequence component in the load current cannot be compensated. Hence, the application of this topology is limited.
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VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM
The picture shows a DSTATCOM with a three-leg VSC with neutral clamped dc capacitor
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VIGO (Spain)
DSTATCOM
The last structure shows the circuit of the three-leg VSC with neutral clamped dc capacitor. The neutral of the load and the neutral of the dc capacitors are connected together. If the load is unbalanced, the load current will have a zero sequence component and the compensator will be required to supply this zero sequence component. As there is a path for the zero sequence component to return to the compensator, the compensator will be able to compensate for unbalanced loads. The final choice of the dc capacitor value for the DSTATCOM will depend on the energy storage for the transient ride through support that the DSTATCOM is required to provide to the main ac system.
25/11/2007
VIGO (Spain)
UPFC (Unified Power Flow Controller )
UPFC - Coupling of converters' DC terminals offers a fundamentally different range of control options
The UPFC combines together the features of two FACTS devices: the Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) and the Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC). The DC terminals of the two underlying VSCs are now coupled, and this creates a path for active power exchange between the converters. Hence, the active power supplied to the line by the series converter, can now be supplied by the shunt converter, as shown in the Figure.
25/11/2007
VIGO (Spain)
UPFC - Coupling of converters' DC terminals offers a fundamentally different range of control options
This topology offers three degrees of freedom, or more precisely - four degrees of freedom (two associated with each VSC) with one constraint (active powers of the VSCs must match). Therefore, a fundamentally different range of control options is available compared to STATCOM or SSSC. The UPFC can be used to control the flow of active and reactive power through the line and to control the amount of reactive power supplied to the line at the point of installation.
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VIGO (Spain)
25/11/2007
VIGO (Spain)

BUSBAR A VA I
DC - AC CONVERTER DC -AC CONVERTER
VSERIES
BUSBAR B
VM= VA + VSERIES
STATCOM
SSSC
While operating both inverters as a UPFC, the exchanged power at the terminals of each inverter can be imaginary as well as real.
25/11/2007
VIGO (Spain)

Representative of the last generation of FACTS devices is the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). The UPFC is a device which can control simultaneously all three parameters of line power flow (line impedance, voltage and phase angle). The UPFC combines together the features of the Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) and the Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC). In practice, these two devices are two Voltage Source Inverters (VSIs) connected respectively in shunt with the transmission line through a shunt transformer and in series with the transmission line through a series transformer, connected to each other by a common dc link including a storage capacitor. The shunt inverter is used for voltage regulation at the point of connection injecting an opportune reactive power flow into the line and to balance the real power flow exchanged between the series inverter and the transmission line. The series inverter can be used to control the real and reactive line power flow inserting an opportune voltage with controllable magnitude and phase in series with the transmission line. Thereby, the UPFC can fulfil functions of reactive shunt compensation, active and reactive series compensation and phase shifting. Besides, the UPFC allows a secondary but important function such as stability control to suppress power system oscillations improving the transient stability of power system.
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VIGO (Spain)

The basic components of the UPFC are two voltage source inverters (VSI's) sharing a common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the system through coupling transformers. One VSI is connected in shunt to the transmission system via a shunt transformer, while the other one is connected in series through a series transformer. The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage system of controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to control active and reactive power flows on the transmission line. So, this inverter will exchange active and reactive power with the line. The reactive power is electronically provided by the series inverter, and the active power is transmitted to the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is operated in such a way as to demand this dc terminal power (positive or negative) from the line keeping the voltage across the storage capacitor Vdc constant. So, the net real power absorbed from the line by the UPFC is equal only to the losses of the two inverters and their transformers. The remaining capacity of the shunt inverter can be used to exchange reactive power with the line so to provide a voltage regulation at the connection point.
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VIGO (Spain)

The two VSIs can work independently of each other by separating the dc side. So in that case, the shunt inverter is operating as a STATCOM that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the voltage magnitude at the connection point. Instead, the series inverter is operating as SSSC that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the current flow, and hence the power flow on the transmission line. The UPFC has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is operating in such a way to inject a controllable current into the transmission line. This current consist of two components with respect to the line voltage: the real or direct component , which is in phase or in opposite phase with the line voltage, and the reactive or quadrature component, which is in quadrature. The direct component is automatically determined by the requirement to balance the real power of the series inverter. The quadrature component, instead, can be independently set to any desired reference level (inductive or capacitive) within the capability of the inverter, to absorb or generate respectively reactive power from the line.
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VIGO (Spain)

So, two control modes are possible: VAR control mode: the reference input is an inductive or capacitive var request; Automatic Voltage Control mode: the goal is to maintain the transmission line voltage at the connection point to a reference value. Instead, the series inverter injecting the voltage controllable in amplitude and phase angle in series with the transmission line influences the power flow on the transmission line. This series voltage can be determined in different ways: Direct Voltage Injection mode: the reference inputs are directly the magnitude and phase angle of the series voltage; Phase Angle Shifter Emulation mode: the reference input is phase displacement between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage; Line impedance emulation mode: the reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with the line impedance; Automatic Power flow Control mode: the reference inputs are values of P and Q to maintain on the transmission line despite system changes. In general the shunt inverter will be operated in Automatic Voltage Control mode and the series inverter in Automatic Power Flow Control mode. 25/11/2007
VIGO (Spain)

UPFC Operation
VSERIES MAX VBUS MAX VBUS MIN VSERIES VA
VA VB sin( ) VM= VA + VSERIESPs = X

VB
WITHOUT UPFC
u
( VA + VSERIE ) VB sin( u ) Ps = X
WITH UPFC
X = LINE REACTANCE
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VIGO (Spain)

Model of UPFC
Vs s r1 Ps & Qs V x1
Ishsh
Vserb r2
x2 r
V 0
xi
Vi i
UPFC
The mathematical UPFC model has been derived with the aim of being able to study the relations between the electrical transmission system and UPFC in steady and transient conditions.
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Ps
2
P 0.8 s
0.6
1 6
0.4 0.2
0 0 1 2
Qs 4
2
4 s
VIGO (Spain)

Injection Model
Vi i Iij
Vb Vm - + Ii
Xs
Vj j
It is shown that the active and reactive powers can be expressed as below:
Vb .Vi . cos b Xs
. cos(ij + b )
UPFC connected between bus i and j
Vm Iij
Vii Psi+Qsi
Vb
Qsi =
Vi
Qsj =
Vjj
Vb .Vj Xs
UPFC vector diagram

Xs
Psi = Psj =
Vb .Vj Xs
. sin(ij + b )
Psj+Qsj
UPFC injection model

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VIGO (Spain)

Flicker Compensation in Arc Furnace Power systems Using the UPFC
Topas 1000 Unilyzer U-812 S. Carregado
T1
220 kV 55 km
T2
MP
AC arc furnace 83 MW 120 TM
Scc=4400 MVA
Scc=1370 MVA Sn=120 MVA VT:220 kV/100 V
UPFC
Electrical circuit of the arc furnace supply from Carregado Substation
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Flicker Compensation in Arc Furnace Power systems Using the UPFC T1
HV/MV
T2
MV/LV
S. Carregado
Xp
Xf
Rf
AC arc furnace 83 MW 120 TM
Scc=4400 MVA
Scc=1370 MVA Sn=120 MVA
Typical arc furnace system diagram
The complex nature of these phenomena does not favour a physical approach to the study of arc-length variation. Therefore, flicker investigations have been performed on the basis of the harmonic analysis. The arc furnace load looks like a voltage source of harmonics behind a series of impedance consisting of the secondary cables to the electrodes. A typical arc furnace model for simulation will include the furnace lead impedance and a constant voltage source behind it at each harmonic of concern. A typical arc furnace system is shown in the figure.
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Under unbalanced conditions of electrode arcing, there could be significant amounts of third harmonic and its multiples. Also, fifth and seventh harmonics that occur under balanced conditions could increase under unbalanced arcing conditions. Measurements of arc furnace voltage have indicated a varying harmonic output. The recorded fifth harmonic voltage has varied from 8%, 6%, and 2.5% of the fundamental voltage during beginning of meltdown, end of meltdown, and refining, respectively. The process is optimized to operate around the rated regime, where the active power is maximum . But one heating is in fact composed of at least three steps: (1) The bore down, lasts one or two minutes. The electrodes have to dive deeply into the scrap to heat it, thus inducing a high instability of the arc (succession of arc extinction and short-circuit between electrodes and scrap). (2) When the scrap is hot enough, the electrodes arc set higher to begin the melting phase (about 10 minutes). Due to collapses in the scrap, the arc is still quite unstable. (3) As the scrap becomes liquid, the laden phase takes place for another 10 minutes. During this phase, the operating point is quite stable.
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Flicker is usually linked to the variation of arc length which is proportional to the arc voltage value V. Hence. We represent the flicker phenomenon by imposing a 10 Hz sinusoidal variation on V which provides the worst case of arc furnace operation. It is useful to investigate the effects of flicker compensation by UPFC. In order to approach periodic flicker behaviour, simulations can be made attributing to arc length a sinusoidal law with frequency close to the most sensitive for flicker perceptivity. For example, the frequency of 10 Hz can be chosen, which lies in the centre of the sensitivity range, close to the minimum of the flicker perceptivity threshold curve for sinusoidal voltage fluctuations.
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The main cause of harmonic problems in arc furnace operations is the interaction of power factor correction capacitors with the inductive reactance of the system. The power fluctuation which causes the voltage drop can be separated in two parts: Mean reactive power absorbed by the furnace, which could be compensated by fixed shunt-capacitor, and the instantaneous variation of the reactive power around its mean value with can only be compensated with a dynamic device. The Instantaneous Variation of the reactive power can be cancelled by means of several solutions.
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Flicker Compensation in Arc Furnace Power systems Using the UPFC Two compensations can be distinguished: -Shunt compensation: the reactive power consumed by the arc furnace must be kept constant. This type of compensation does not protect the arc furnace, consequently, in case of shortcircuit the installation of the furnace undergoes high currents. A shunt compensation of active power does note seem very interesting because of the inductive nature of the feeding system. - Series compensation: two types of compensation can be achieved by this structure: active and reactive compensation. To control the real and reactive power consumed by the arc furnace we need to inject series voltages of the appropriate magnitudes and angles. The instantaneous injected voltage (vpq) can be split into two components which are in phase (vp) and in quadrature (vq) with the source voltage. It is to be noted that the UPFC is located near the LV transformer. The voltage of the network at the connection point of the UPFC is used as reference to define the pq coordinate system for the instantaneous parameters. As a result the UPFC has four controllable parameters: the Vp and Vq components of the series injected voltage and the Ip and Iq components of the shunt current. 25/11/2007

The main cause of harmonic problems in arc furnace operations is the interaction of power factor correction capacitors with the inductive reactance of the system.
Illustrative diagram for UPFC with arc furnace 25/11/2007
HPFC (Hybrid Power Flow Controller )
Hybrid Power Flow Controller (HPFC) - Topology
The Hybrid Power Flow Controller (HPFC) uses two equally rated voltage-sourced converters to upgrade the functionality of the existing switched capacitors or static VAR compensators (SVCs). Since static converters are used together with passive devices, the power flow controller can be considered hybrid
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The HPFC is installed at some point along the transmission line connecting two electrical regions characterized by their Thevenin's equivalent voltage sources VS and VR. The line is thereby divided into two segments represented by the equivalent reactances XS and XR. Indices "S" and "R" identify "sending" and "receiving" end/segment of the line.
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Central to the HPFC's topology is the shunt connected source of reactive power shown as the variable capacitance, in the Figure. Next, there are two voltagesourced converters (VSCs) connected to the associated line segments in series using coupling transformers. The converters share a common DC circuit, coupling each other's DC terminals.
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By controlling the magnitudes and angles of voltages supplied by the converters, the flow of active power through the line and the amounts of reactive power supplied to the corresponding line segments can be simultaneously and independently controlled. The control of the shunt device is coordinated with the control of converters to supply the bulk of the total required reactive power.
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HPFC Equivalent circuit and operating constraints 25/11/2007

The variable capacitance, labelled BM, represents the controllable shunt connected variable susceptance. The range of values this parameter can assume depends on the installed power components; in general case it can be positive (capacitive), zero, or negative (inductive). Voltage sources VX and VY represent the high voltage equivalents of voltages generated by the VSCs. The common DC circuit of the VSCs is represented by the capacitor CDC, and this capacitor is charged or discharged based on the difference of active powers coupled by the converters. First, converters' voltage ratings impose magnitude limits on VX and VY. Additionally, magnitudes of IS and IR are limited, as these currents flow through the converters' switches. Then, line insulation requires that magnitudes of voltages V1 and V2 are limited, and voltage ratings of the shunt susceptance require limited magnitude of VM. And finally, in order to operate the converters, we require that VDC is maintained at a steady value, so in steady state PX has to be equal PY.
This new FACT equipment is only a proposal by J. Bebic, "A Symmetrical Hybrid Power Flow Controller", Ph.D. Thesis, University of Toronto, 2003.
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HPFC Transformation of condition of converters' power balance 25/11/2007
Constant power line
It is advantageous to provide a geometric interpretation for the condition of converters' power balance. Power is proportional to scalar product of voltage and current. Hence, for a given vector VS, sending end power PS is proportional to the projection of IS onto VS. Therefore, as depicted in the Figure. Current vectors IS1 and IS2 transfer the same sending end power, as would any other current vector that has its tip on the same line perpendicular to VS. This line may be considered a "constant power line".
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a)
b)
c)
d)
A procedure for solving steady state operating points based on specified PR(=PS), QS, and QR 25/11/2007

Voltage vectors VS and VR, and equal power lines corresponding to the desired power flow PR(=PS) are shown in Figure (a). Current vectors IS and IR are chosen so that their tips lie on these equal power lines. There is hence one degree of freedom in choosing the location for each vector. This degree of freedom can be viewed as freedom to select the amount of reactive power supplied from the corresponding line end. Specifying QS selects a unique IS, and specifying QR selects a unique IR. Voltages V1 and V2 are obtained by subtracting and adding voltage drops across the respective line segments, as shown in Figure (b). Next, IM and VM are obtained as shown in Figure (c). Finally, VX and VY are found as shown in Figure (d).
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HPFC used to reduce the power flow on a line
Let us first discuss the operating point that we just found we repeated it in the Figure. It corresponds to the power flow lower than the "naturally occurring" power flow. Notice that V1 and V2 are positioned in such way as to reduce the angular difference between the voltages VS and VR.
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Maintaining the same line operating point using step changed value of BM
The diagram in Figure demonstrates a possibility to maintain the same line currents for a step changed value of BM. Now, if IS and IR are to be maintained at the same value, IM has to remain the same; hence VM must be increased. The Figure demonstrates that this can be accomplished by reconfiguring the converters' voltages.
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Decoupled control of QR
The Figure demonstrates the decoupled control of reactive power supplied to the receiving end of the line. Converters' voltages are now configured so as to move IR along its constant power line and reduce the value of QR.
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Increased power flow
Increased power flow is shown in the Figure. Notice that V1 is now "below" and V2 "above" VM resulting in the increased combined angle. As expected, the magnitudes of IS and IR are increased.
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Power flow reversal
Finally, we show the reversal of power flow in the Figure. Relative position of VM and IM indicates that BM is inductive in this case.
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The steady state operating points presented by these vector diagrams show that the Hybrid Power Flow Controller has the qualitative characteristics of a UPFC. Specifically, it can control the flow of active power through the transmission line and supply the prescribed amounts of reactive power to sending and receiving segments of the line. But, while the UPFC uses a shunt connected converter, the HPFC needs only a shunt connected capacitor a considerable advantage considering the converter costs.
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The P curves of the HPFC and the P curves of the UPFC are compared in the Figure Curves 1 and 2 correspond to the line controlled by the HPFC to maximize and minimize the power flow, respectively; Curve 3 corresponds to the line compensated by the underlying SVC; Curve 4 corresponds to the power flow on the uncompensated line; Curves 5 and 6 correspond to the line controlled by the UPFC to maximize and minimize the power flow, respectively; and curve 7 corresponds to the power flow on the line compensated by the underlying STATCOM.
Comparison of P&delta curves HPFC vs. UPFC 25/11/2007
UPQC (Unified Power Quality Conditioner)
A Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC) is a device that is similar in construction to a Unified Power Flow Conditioner (UPFC). The UPQC, just as in a UPFC, employs two voltage source inverters (VSIs) that connected to a d.c. energy storage capacitor. One of these two VSIs is connected in series with a.c. line while the other is connected in shunt with the a.c. system. A UPQC that combines the operations of a Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) and Dynamic Voltage Regulator (DVR) together.
25/11/2007
VIGO (Spain)

One of the serious problems in electrical systems is the increasing number of electronic components of devices that are used by industry as well as residences. These devices, which need high-quality energy to work properly, at the same time, are the most responsible ones for injections of harmonics in the distribution system. Therefore, devices that soften this drawback have been developed. One of them is the unified power quality conditioner (UPQC), It consists of a shuntactive filter together with a series-active filter. This combination allows a simultaneous compensation of the load currents and the supply voltages, so that compensated current drawn from the network and the compensated supply voltage delivered to the load are sinusoidal, balanced and minimized. The series- and shunt-active filters are connected in a back-to-back configuration, in which the shunt converter is responsible for regulating the common DC-link voltage.
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VIGO (Spain)
General configuration of the Unified Power Quality Conditioner UPQC.
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VIGO (Spain)
A UPQC is employed in a power transmission system to perform shunt and series compensation at the same time. A power distribution system may contain unbalance, distortion and even d.c. components. Therefore a UPQC operate, better than a UPFC, with all these aspects in order to provide shunt or series compensation. The UPQC is a relatively new device and not much work has yet been reported on it. Sometimes it has been viewed as combination of series and shunt active filters.
25/11/2007
VIGO (Spain)
Equivalent Circuit for a UPQC
Taking the load voltage, VL as a reference phasor and suppose the lagging power factor of the load is CosL we can write;
v L = v L 0
iL = iL L
vt = v L (1 + k )0
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VIGO (Spain)

Where factor k represents the fluctuation of source voltage, defined as,
vt v L k= vL
The voltage injected by series APF must be equal to,
v sr = v L vt = kv L 0
The UPQC is assumed to be lossless and therefore, the active power demanded by the load is equal to the active power input at PCC. The UPQC provides a nearly unity power factor source current, therefore, for a given load condition the input active power at PCC can be expressed by the following equations,
pt = p L
vt i s = v L i L cos L
v L (1 + k ) i S = v L i L cos L
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iS =
iL cos L 1+ k
The above equation suggests that the source current is depends on the factor k, since L and iL are load characteristics and are constant for a particular type of load. The complex apparent power absorbed by the series APF can be expressed as,
* S Sr = v Sr iS
PSr = v Sr i S cos S = k v L i S cos S
QSr = v Sr i S sin S
s=0, since UPQC is maintaining unity power factor
PSr = v Sr i S = k v L i S
QSr 0
The complex apparent power absorbed by the shunt APF can be expressed as, *
S Sh = v L iSh
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The current provided by the shunt APF, is the difference between the input source current and the load current, which includes the load harmonics current and the reactive current. Therefore, we can write;
iSh = iS i L
iSh = iS 0 i L L
iSh = iS (i L cos L ji L sin L ) = (iS i L cos L ) + ji L sin L
PSh = v L i Sh cos sh = v L (i S i L cos L )

QSh = v L i Sh sin sh = v L i L sin L
Based on the above analysis the different modes of operation are discussed
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CASE I:
b) With Shunt APF Reactive Power Flow The reactive power flow during the normal working condition when UPQC is not connected in the circuit is shown in the Fig.(a). In this condition the reactive power required by the load is completely supplied by the source only. When the UPQC is connected in the network and the shunt APF is put into the operation, the reactive power required by the load is now provided by the shunt APF alone; such that no reactive power burden is put on the mains. So as long as the shunt APF is ON, it is handling all the reactive power even during voltage sag, voltage swell and current harmonic compensation condition. The series APF is not taking any active part in supplying the load reactive power. The reactive power flow during the entire operation of UPQC is shown in the Fig. (b). In this case no active power transfer takes place via UPQC, termed as Zero Active Power Consumption Mode. 25/11/2007
a) No UPQC

CASE II: Ps= Power Supplied by the source to the load during voltage sag condition Psr= Power Injected by Series APF in such way that sum Psr+Ps will be the required load power during normal working condition i.e. PL Psh= Power absorbed by shunt APF during voltage sag condition Psr=Psh
Active Power Flow during Voltage Sag Condition

If k < 0, i.e. Vf < VL, then PSr will be positive, means series APF supplies the active power to the load. This condition is possible during the utility voltage sag condition. iS will be more than the normal rated current. Thus we can say that the required active power is taken from the utility itself by taking more current so as to maintain the power balance in the network and to keep the dc link voltage at desired level. This active power flows from the source to shunt APF, from shunt APF to series APF via dc link and finally from series APF to the load. Thus the load would get the desired power even during voltage sag condition. Therefore in such cases the active power absorbed by shunt APF from the source is equal to the active power supplied by the series APF to the load. Since series APF supplies active power, termed as Active Power Delivering Mode. The overall active power flow is shown in the Fig.
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CASE III: Ps= Power Supplied by the source to the load during voltage swell condition Psr= Power Injected by Series APF in such way that sum Ps-Psr will be the required load power during normal working condition Psh= Power delivered by shunt APF during voltage sag condition Psr=Psh
Active Power Flow during Voltage Swell
If k > 0, i.e. vt > vL, then PSr will be negative, this means series APF is absorbing the extra real power from the source. This is possible during the voltage swell condition. Again iS will be less than the normal rated current. Since vS is increased, the dc link voltage can increase. To maintain the dc link voltage at constant level the shunt APF controller reduces the current drawn from the supply. In other words we can say that the UPQC feeds back the extra power to the supply system. Since series APF absorbs active power, termed as Active Power Absorption Mode. The overall active power flow is shown in the Fig. .
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CASE IV:
Active Power Flow during Normal Working Condition
If k = 0, i.e. vt = vL, then there will not be any real power exchange though UPQC. This is the normal operating condition. The overall active power flow is shown in the Fig.
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CASE V:
If the terminal voltage is distorted one containing several harmonics, in such cases the series APF injects voltage equal to the sum of the harmonics voltage at PCC but in opposite direction. Thus the sum of voltage injected by series APF and distorted voltage at PCC will get cancelled out. During this voltage harmonic compensation mode of operation the series APF does not consume any real power from sources since it injects only harmonics voltage. Here UPQC works in zero active power consumption mode.
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CASE VI: If the load is a non linear one producing harmonics, in such cases the shunt APF injects current equals to the sum of harmonics current but in opposite direction, thus cancelling out any current harmonics generated by non linear load. During this current harmonics compensation mode of operation them shunt APF does not consume any real power from the source since it injected only harmonics currents. Here UPQC works in zero active power consumption mode. The phasor representations of the above discussed conditions are shown in the Fig. 1 (a) (d) and Fig. 2 (a) (d) for inductive and capacitive type of load respectively. Phasor 1 (a) represents the normal working condition, considering load voltage vL as a reference phasor. L is lagging power factor angle of the load. During this condition iS will be exactly equal to the iL since no compensation is provided. When shunt APF is put into the operation, it supplies the required load vars by injecting a 900 leading current such that the source current will be in phase with the terminal voltage. The phasor representing this capacitive effect is shown in Fig. 1 (b). The phasor representations during voltage sag and voltage swell condition on the system are shown in the Fig. 1 (c) and Fig. 1 (d) respectively. The deviation of shunt compensating current phasor from quadrature relationship with load voltage suggests that there is some active power flow through the shunt APF during these conditions
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Fig. 1 a) d) Phasor Representation: Inductive Load 25/11/2007
Fig. 2 a) d) Phasor Representation: Capacitive Load 25/11/2007
Phasor in Fig. 2 (a) represents the normal working condition, considering leading power factor angle of the load. During this condition iS will be exactly equal to the iL. When shunt APF is put into the operation, it cancels out the vars generated by load by injecting a 900 lagging current such that the source current will be in phase with the terminal voltage. The phasor representing this inductive effect is shown in Fig. 2 (b). The phasor representations during voltage sag and voltage swell condition on the system are shown in the Fig. 2 (c) and Fig. 2 (d) respectively.
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Fig. 3 shows variation of angle FSh during different modes of operations of UPQC, represented by zones. Figure consists of seven zones of operations. The x axis represents the reference load voltage whereas the shunt APF compensating current can vary from 00 to 3600. Zone I, II and III represents the case of pure resistive, inductive and capacitive load respectively. If the load is pure resistive, shunt APF does not inject any compensating current since there is no reactive power demand from the load, this condition is represented by zone I. Considering the case of inductive load, the load var requirement is supplied by shunt APF by injecting 900 leading current. The magnitude of the compensating current would depend on the vars to be compensated. This condition is represented by zone II. Now, if the load is capacitive one, theoretically, the load would draw leading current from the source, i.e. load generates vars. This load generated vars are compensated by shunt APF by injecting 900 lagging current. The magnitude of compensating current depends on the vars to be cancelled out, represented by zone III. During the operation of UPQC in zone II and III larger the var compensation more would be the compensating current magnitude.
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Fig. 3. Variation of angle during different modes of operations of UPQC 25/11/2007
Zone IV and zone V represents the operating region of UPQC during the voltage sag on the system for inductive and capacitive type of the loads respectively. During the voltage sag as discussed previously, shunt APF draws the required active power from the source by taking extra current from the source. In order to have real power exchange between source, UPQC and load, the angle FSh should not be 900. For inductive type of the load, this angle could be anything between 00 to 900 leading and for capacitive type of the load, between 00 to 900 lagging. This angle variation mainly depends on the % of sag need to be compensated and load var requirement. Zone VI and zone VII represents the operating region of UPQC during the voltage swell on the system for inductive and capacitive type of the loads respectively. During the voltage swell as discussed previously, shunt APF feeds back the extra active power from the source by taking reduced current from the source. In order to achieve this angle FSh would be between 900 to 1800 leading and between 900 to 1800 lagging for inductive and capacitive type of load respectively.
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UPQC. Simulation
Network: Ra=Rb=Rc=2 , La=Lb=Lc=0.01 H Load: Ra=2 , Rb=0 , Rc=0.5 La=Lc=0.01 H, Lb=0 H
We use a PSIM software based in Matlab for to obtain, by a time-step simulation, the evolution of different parameters.
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UPQC
Load currents charts for the three phases. We can see the non sinusoidal, unbalance and distortion produced by the load.
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UPQC
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UPQC
Charts of the three phases inyect currents in the PCC by the VSI connected in shunt with the a.c. system
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UPQC
Charts of the three phases currents that flow from the VSI connected in series with the a.c. system
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UPQC
Charts of the three phases voltages at the VSI connected in shunt with the a.c. system
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UPQC
Charts of the three phases insert voltages in the PCC by the VSI connected in series with the a.c. system
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UPQC
Charts of the three phases currents at the PCC. We can see the effect of the UPQC.
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UPQC
Charts of the three phases voltages at the PCC. We can see the effect of the UPQC.
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We have analyzed the operation of a UPQC that combines the operations of a Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) and Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) together. The series component of the UPQC inserts voltage so as to maintain the voltage at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) balanced and free of distortion. Simultaneously, the shunt component of the UPQC injects current in the a.c. system such that the currents entering the bus to which the UPQC is connected are balanced sinusoids. Both these objectives must be met irrespective of unbalance or distortion in either source or load sides.
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HVDC (High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission)

Requirements of Selected Equipment in Asynchronous Interconnections
The selected equipment must have the ability to enable one interconnecting system to receive black start support from the other interconnecting system The equipment must be able to operate with no demand of reactive power from the interconnecting systems. This applies to both cases, when there is and when there is not exchange of active power between the two systems The equipment must have the ability to prevent voltage perturbations from propagating to the neighbouring system in order to prevent conditions of voltage collapse in that system
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In the past, transmission systems were conservatively designed with large stability margins and the then-available dynamic compensators, ... , were rarely required.
In recent years, energy, environment, right-of-way, and cost problems delayed the construction of both generation facilities and new transmission lines. This has necessitated a change in the traditional power system concepts and practices; better utilization of existing power systems has become imperative.
L. Gyugyi "Power Electronics in Electric Utilities: Static Var Compensators", Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 76, No. 4, April 1988.
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Overhead AC transmission lines
Overhead AC transmission is the standard technology for electric power transportation. Traditionally it was preferred over any other transmission technology, especially in rural areas. No other technology can compete with overhead AC transmission in terms of cost. Technically and economically, overhead AC transmission provides an advantageous solution.
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Overhead AC transmission lines
However, because of political, social and environmental factors overhead AC transmission is becoming less favorable. Conventional network reinforcement projects face ever tougher sitting opposition. The permitting process takes several years (ranging from 3 to 15 years). In order to avoid protest from environmentalists and those who live along the planned trajectory, it is recommended to inform the public about all issues concerning the planning of the new transmission line. The visibility of overhead lines is high.
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AC system
Transmission lines
Subestations
Production stations (Generation)
MV lines
Transformers
LV networks
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Underground AC cables
Underground AC cables do not suffer from the aforementioned problems. The permitting process takes less time and social and political resistance is less. These advantages come, however, at a cost. The capital cost of underground lines is 3 to 20 times higher (in /MVA) than that of overhead lines. Especially at high voltages, the cost difference is significant. Although there is a drive towards invisibility of the grid, it is economically not interesting to underground the entire grid.
S. Cole, D. Van Hertem, L. Meeus and R. Belmans The influence of renewables and international trade on investment decisions in the grid of the future, International Conference on Renewable Energy and Power Quality (ICREPQ06), Palma de Mallorca (Spain), April, 2006.
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A High-Voltage direct current (HVDC) system converts electrical current from AC to DC at the transmitting end and from DC to AC at the receiving end. Conventional HVDC is based on line commutated converters using thyristors. It is a well-established technology and since its first commercial introduction in 1954 (Sweden) more than 50 projects have been completed. HVDC transmission is most advantageous for long distances, without intermediate taps, and high amounts of energy, considering investments and losses but also land use. The worlds first commercial HVDC transmission link, was built in 1954 between the Swedish mainland and the island of Gotland, with a rating of 20 MW, 200 A and 100 kV. Recently, ABB and Siemens started to build HVDC systems using semiconductor switches (IGBT or MOSFET) and Pulse width modulation (PWM). The capacity of a HVDC system with VSCs is about from 30 to 300 MW. Operating experience is limited but many new systems are being built worldwide.
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HVDC-Converter-Station (ABB) 25/11/2007

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HVDC operating experience is limited but many new systems are being built worldwide.
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The HVDC technology
The technology allows power flow control, an interesting feature with respect to the discrepancies between contract paths and physical flows. The investment cost of HVDC converter stations is higher than the cost of AC substations. However, the cost of overhead lines or cables, right-of-way costs and operating and maintenance costs are lower with HVDC . The longer the distance of the transmission, the more advantageous HVDC is, compared to HVAC transmission. In specific cases such as special requirements with regard to power flow control, limitations to short-circuit current or stabilizing needs HVDC has additional advantages over HVAC.
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The HVDC technology
Typical thyristor valve
The HVDC transmission system are point-to-point configurations where a large amount of energy is transmitted between two regions. The traditional HVDC system is built with line commutated current source converters, based on thyristor valves. The operation of this converter requires a voltage source like synchronous generators or synchronous condensers in the AC networks at both ends. The current commutated converter can not supply power to an AC system which has no local generation. The control of this system requires fast communication channels between the two stations.
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AC bus
Transformer Converter
Smoothing reactor
Transmission cable
AC Filter. Control System
DC Filter
HVDC system components The most relevant components that comprise a HVDC system, are the following:
The thyristor or IGBT valves make the conversion from AC to DC and thus
are the main component of any HVDC converter.
The converter transformers transform the voltage level of the AC busbar to

the required entry voltage level of the converter.
smoothing reactor, which main functions are: prevention of the intermittent current, limitation of the DC fault currents and prevention of resonance in the DC circuits. 25/11/2007
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The

AC bus
Transformer Converter
Smoothing reactor
Transmission cable
AC Filter. Control System
DC Filter
HVDC system components The AC harmonic filters, which have two main duties: To absorb harmonic currents generated by the HVDC converter and to supply reactive power.
Also DC filters circuits have to be used. Beside active harmonic filters cab be supplement to passive filters due to their better perfomance. The surge arrester, which main task is to protect the equipment of overvoltages.
DC transmission circuit, which include DC transmission line, cable, high speed DC switches and earth electrode. Control and protection, 25/11/2007
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H T S ca bl es
Single-core HTS cable (Furukawa Electric Co., Ltd.)

High temperature superconducting (HTS) materials exist for a long time. Theoretically, superconducting materials could be used for almost all electric equipment in the power grid. HTS cables have no electrical resistance. The losses of the HTS cables are therefore significantly lower compared to conventional cable. However, the cost to maintain operating temperature is very high. Moreover, the capital cost of the superconducting materials and the cryogenic equipment is also very high. From an ecological point of view, HTS cables are more interesting than oil-filled or gas insulated cables. HTS cables are environmentally friendly
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25/11/2007

VSC HVDC
A new development is DC transmission using voltage sourced converters (VSC). The use of devices with controlled turn-on and turn-off capability such as IGBTs offers interesting technical advantages. VSC HVDC provides full power control, both active and reactive. As such, VSC HVDC is perfectly suited for the connection of intermittent energy sources such as wind. Also black-start and energizing passive AC systems become possible. Also, commutation failures do not occur. VSC stations can eliminate flicker and reduce harmonics in the AC system. The better wave shape eliminates the need for large switchable harmonic filters. As a consequence the footprint of the converter stations is reduced. The losses in the voltage source converters are however higher because of more frequent switching operations and the higher voltage drop across the switching elements.
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25/11/2007

VSC HVDC
The overall cost of VSC converter stations is higher than for LCC stations, primarily due to technology costs. However, VSC HVDC transmission is an emerging technology. Technical breakthroughs and increased market introduction will push down the costs. This will bring about a change in the cost function advantageous to VSC HVDC technology. VSC HVDC is an interesting alternative for high demand applications such as supplying additional energy to weak networks or connecting offshore wind parks. While traditional HVDC is most cost-effective in the high power range, VSC HVDC is better for small power applications. VSC technology is not yet suited for bulk power transmission due to high costs associated with high voltage and current ratings. It has been developed up to 550 MW, but this limit increases fast.
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A Terminal
Transmission line
B Terminal
MONOPOLAR SYSTEM:
One High Voltage conductor Current return through ground Comparatively low cost (Economical advantages). In some countries is not permitted due to the pipes and underground metalic objects corrrosion.
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Pole 1
Pole 2 A Terminal Transmission line B Terminal
BIPOLAR SYSTEM:
Two conductors, positive and negative polarity Mid point connected to ground Normal use, the current flow through the two High Voltage conductors without use the ground current. Fault in one conductor of durinf maintenance, the system can transmit almost the half power like monopolar system.
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HVDC system design
In general, for to iniciate the design of a HVDC system are requiered basic parameter such as: Distance of transmission Voltage levels Temporary and continuous overload Status of the network on the receiving end Environmental requirements, etc For tendering purposes a conceptual design is done following a technical specification or in close collaboration between the manufacturer and the customer. The final design and specifications are the result of the tendering and negociations with the manufactures/suppliers.
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HVDC system operation
The term operation denotes the continual activities that are aimed at keeping the system availability at designed levels, modern HVDC links can be operated remotely, in view of the semiconductor and microprocessor based control system included. Modern HVDC system are designed to operate completely unmanned. This feature is particularly important in situations or countries where skilled people are few, and these few people can operate several HVDC links from one central location.
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HVDC system maintenance
Maintenance of HVDC system is comparable to those of high voltage AC system. The high voltage equipment in converter stations is comparable to the corresponding equipment in AC substations, and maintenance can be executed in the similar way. Maintenance will focus on: AC and DC filters Smoothing reactors Wall bushings Valve-cooling equipment Semiconductor valves In all the above, adequate training and suport is provided by the supplier during the installation, commissioning and initial operation period.
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HVDC system maintenance
Normal routine maintenance of HVDC system is recommended to be one week per year. In a bipolar system, one pole at a time is stopped during the time required for the maintenance, and the othe pole can normally continue to operate. Dependeing on the in-built overload capacity it can take a part of the load of the pole under maintenance.
In addition, preventive maintenance shall be pursued so that the equipment will achieve optimally balanced availability with regard to the costs of maintenance, operating disturbances and planned outages
D.M. Larruskain, I. Zamora, A.J. Mazn, O. Abarrategui, J. Monasterio Transmission and Distribution Networks: AC versus DC. 9th Spanish Portuguese Congress on Electrical Engineering ()CHLIE). Marbella (Spain), 30 of June to 2 of July, 2005.
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Cost structure
8% 10% 16% 10% Valves CA filters Other equipment Engineering Freight, insurance 7% 10% Converter transformers Control 5% 20%
14%
Civil works, buildings

Erection, Comissioning
The cost of a HVDC transmission system depends on mamy factors, such as: power capacity to be transmitted, type of transmission medium, environmental conditions and other safety, regulatory requirements, options for optimal design (different commutation techniques, variety of filters, transformers) etc, make difficult to give a cost figure for a HVDC system. Nevertheless, a typical cost structure for the cnverter station can be shown in the figure.
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General Characteristics
Cost (M)
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 200 400 600
Total AC cost Total DC cost Losses Losses DC line cost

.
AC line cost DC terminal cost AC terminal cost

800 1000 1200 1400
Distance
(km)
HVAC-HVDC cost
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1)
Investment cost. A HVDC transmission line costs less than an AC line for the same transmission capacity. However, the terminal stations are more expensive in the HVDC case due to the fact that they must perform the conversion from AC to DC and viceversa. On the other hand, the costs of transmission medium (overhead lines and cables), land acquisition/righ-of-way costs sometimes are lower in the HVDC case. Moreover, the operation and maintenance costs are lower in the HVDC case. Initial loss levels are higher in the HVDC system, but they do not vary with distance in a high voltage AC system.
Above a certain distance, the so called break-even-distance, the HVDC alternative will always give the lowest cost. The break-evendistance is much smaller for submarine cables (typically about 50 km) than for an overhead line transmission. The distance depends on several factors, as transmission medium, different local aspects (permits, cost of local labour, etc) and an analysis must be made for each individual case.
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2)
Long distance water crossing. In a long AC cable transmission, the reactive power flow due to the large cable capacitance will limit the maximum transmission distance. With HVDC there is no such limitation. Then for long cable links HVDC is the only viable technical alternative. Lower losses. An optimized HVDC transmission line has lower losses than AC lines for the same power capacity. The losses in the converter stations have of course to be added, but since they are only about 0.6 % of the transmission power in each station, the total HVDC transmission losses come out lower than the AC losses in practically all cases. HVDC cables also have lower losses than AC cables. Asynchronous connection. It is sometimes difficult or impossible to connect two AC networks due to stability reasons. In such cases HVDC is the only way to make an exchange of power between the two networks possible. There are also HVDC links between networks with differents nominal frequencies (50 and 60 Hz) in Japan and South America.
3)
4)
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5) 6) 7)
Controllability. One of the fundamental advantages with HVDC is that it is very easy to control the active power in the link. Limit short circuit currents. A HVDC transmission does not contribute to the short circuit current of the interconnected AC system. Environment. Improved energy transmission possibilities contribute to a more efficient utilization of existing power plants. The land coverage and the associated righ-of-waycost for HVDC overhead transmission line is not as high as for AC line. This reduce the visual impact. It is also possible to increase the power transmission capacity for existing righ of way. There are, however, some environmental issues which must be considered for converter stations, such as: audible noise, visual impact, electromagnetic compatibility and use of ground or sea return path in monopolar operation.
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Transmission:
LOCATION Itaip, Brasil 1984 Leyte Luzn, Filipinas 1994 Rihand-Delhi, India 1990 Gotland, Suecia 1999 Transnergie, Australia 2000
PARMETERS 600MW, 600kV 785km + 805km 440 MW, 350kV 430km + 21km 1500MW, 500kV 814km 50MW, 80kV 70km
65km
CHOICE REASONS -distance -convertion 50/60Hz -underwater transmission
-distance -estability -Environmental aspect -Power quality supply 180MVA (3x 50MW) -Environmental aspect 80kV -Supply for short time
Distribution:
Gothenburg (Sweden): LV. Office suply DC Distribution Industrial power systems - U.S.A navy. Harbour electric power
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Back-to-back, 36 MW, 138 kV HVDC-VSC tie located at Eagle Pass substation. Used for export/import of electrical energy between AEP-TCC in Texas and CFE, Mexico 25/11/2007
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The HVDC-VSC at Piedras Negras Eagle Pass uses IGBTbased converters, which switch at 1260 Hz (mf = 1260/60 = 21) It connects the 138 kV grids of CFE and AEP-TCC. It consists of two 36 MVA VSCs fh = mf f1 PWM harmonics are generated at:
Harmonic order 19, 21, 23 39, 41, 43, 45 59, 61, 63, 65, 67 81, 83, 85, 87 207, 209, 211, 213
1 2 3 4 10
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The 3rd harmonic is also significant The 207th harmonic varied between 13% and 40% of the power frequency voltage, depending on the operation of the BtB and phase angle between the two inverters
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Future trends
HVDC technology will play an important role in the coming decades due to the availability of new high-power semiconductors with fast switching capabilities that allow extremely compact installations. Important breakthroughs in HVDC technology are resulting in the HVDC system approach beginning to be applied to the distribution grid levels. Hence, within the next few years the economical power range of HVDC systems is expected to fall to just a few MW, and to voltage levels typical of the MV distribution grid. Untill now, AC/DC converter technology has been too expensive for routine use in utility MV distribution systems. Technical innovations are changing this situation and making the replacement of even a typical 50-Hz MV/LV distribution transformer in the lower power range (100 kW to 2 MW per unit) by a high-frequency switched electronic transformer economically feasible. The power electronic based transformer can operate either off an AC MV input (three-phase or single-phase) or a DC MV input. The system enables load balancing and guarantees low harmonic current distortion.
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Small distributed Generation units
Future trends
MV distribution grid with DC subsystms (LV abd MV grid) 25/11/2007

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Future trends
Voltage dips or even complete short-time outages on the MV side can be bridged without any problems using available DC-link capacitors. For longer outages, local controllable resources can be connected directly to DC link. Moreover, MV and LV distribution networks benefit in several ways from greater use of DC links superimposed on the tradirional AC MV distribution grid: Local LV DC distribution networks can supply power direct to DC processes or power electronic systems with a DC link. The trasnfer of disturbances between MV distribution grids is drastically reduced when an MV DC link is used. Superimposed MV DC links allow efficient integration and high levels of power for large and widely spread distributed generation schemes. Superimposed MV DC links in conjunction with appropriate power flow control provide high power quality for large regions and better itilization of the MV distribution grid.
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MV distribution grid with FACTs devices
The liberalization of the worlds energy markets is forcing the electric supply industry to reorganize itself from the ground up. On the other hand, it is expanding to include energy services, power marketing and information technology based services; and on the other, it is increasing asset utilization, reducing maintenance costs, and saving on investments by optimizing operation of the existing grid and reducing staff, etc. In addition, economic and environmental trends point to distributed power generation units with a power output of less than 10 MW being a genuine commercial alternative to centralized power generation in the very near future.
L. Heinermann, G. Mauthe, J.J. Maillet, M. Hellum Power Quality. The new paradigm for MV power distribution, ABB.
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Deregulation and the increase in power produced by distributed generation units will both have an impact on the power quality (PQ) in the distribution grids. In such a fast-changing and competitive market environment, an even higher value will put on power quality than we already do today. The investment required to reach a certain PQ level can vary considerably as it depends on the structure of the distribution system. On the other hand, the value of power quality is decided by economic consequences of a PQ deficiency.
J.Arrillaga, M.Bollen, N.Watson Power quality following deregulation. IEEE Proceedings 88, No 2/2000.
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SVC, DVR, UPS-MT, STATCOM.....
AT / MT SSTS
GRANDES INDUSTRIAS
SUBESTACIN PRIMARIA SUBESTACIN SECUNDARIA PFC-BT
MT / BT AT / MT
SUBESTACIN SECUNDARIA PFC-MT SUBESTACIN PRIMARIA UPS-BT
AREAS URBANAS
EDIFICIOS DE OFICINAS, BANCOS, HOSPITALES...
Typical MV distribution grid with devices for improving the power quality (focus on primary technology) 25/11/2007
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AREAS RURALES
MT / BT

To meet the demand for high powe quality there are, in principle, two possible solutions: The PQ of the complete MV distribution grid can be increased by installing grid-level PQ systems close to the primary substations. Descentralized PQ systems can be installed close to the sensitive consumer or in the direct vecinity of the critical load.
The power level of a decentralized PQ system ranges from small ridethrough systems with a low power level of less than 1 kW to facility-wide protection systems fo heavy industry with power levels that can reach several tens of MW. Small PQ systems are always installed on the LV side, whereas for systems with a high power level the MV side has advantages.
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Today, the use of FACTs devices are usual for LV grid, and a huge worldwide market for these systems has firmly established itself. In MV grids, FACTs solutions represent only a small fraction of the PQ equipment installed today. However, with cost falling rapidly and highly reliable, low-loss semiconductors with high frequency switching capability now available, such solutions can be expected to increase their share of the MV distribution grid market in the next few years. Moreover, power electronics conversion systems will penetrate MV power distribution market segments which are dominated today by mature elecromechanical and electromagnetic technology.
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VFT (Variable Frequency Transformer)
The VFT is a new equipment for active power flow control which is based on a combination of hydro-generator, transformer and drives technologies The VFT may be seen as a three-phase, two-winding transformer with a rotary secondary, for continuously controllable phase shift. A drive system and control adjust precisely the phase angle and speed of the rotor to regulate the power flow through the VFT The vendors of the VFT technology argue that the equipment has low complexity and low maintenance costs
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VFT (Variable Frequency Transformer)

The figure shows a cut-away drawing of a 100 MW VFT installed at Langlois, Canada. The main components are: - The rotary transformer - The drive motor - The collector One power grid is linked to the VFTs rotor and the other grid is connected to the VFTs stator
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STATCOM and UPFC Installations: - Orange and Rockland - WAPA - TVA, Sullivan - AEP, St Inez STATCOM UPFC Model STATCOM STATCOM (UPFC) - SMI Arc Furnace - Pacific Gas & Electric - AEP, St Inez STATCOM STATCOM UPFC 80 MVA -20/+60MVA 320 MVA (2 160) 1998 1998 1998 100 MVA 160 MVA 1 MVA 1986 1993 1995 1997
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SSSC Installations: - Duke Power - Powercor (Australia) - Florida Power Corp - Scottish Power - Asian Electronics Manufacturer - Salt River Project SSSC 26MVA 1998 SSSC SSSC SSSC SSSC SSSC 2 MVA 2 MVA 2 MVA 4 MVA 2 MVA 1996 1996 1997 1997 1998
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HVDC-VSC Installations:
Hellsjn-Grngerg Gotland-Visby City Directlink in Australia Eagle Pass-Piedras Negras Cross Sound link in NY Murraylink in Australia 3 MW ; 10 kV 50 MW ; 80 kV 180 MW ; 80 kV 36 MW ; 138 kV 330 MW ; 150 kV 200 MW ; 150 kV March 1977 mid-2000 mid-2000 mid-2000 Sep. 2002 Oct. 2002
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Conclusions
The FACTS controllers offer a great opportunity to regulate the transmission of alternating current (AC), increasing or diminishing the power flow in specific lines and responding almost instantaneously to the stability problems. The potential of this technology is based on the possibility of controlling the route of the power flow and the ability of connecting networks that are not adequately interconnected, giving the possibility of trading energy between distant agents.
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VIGO (Spain)
Conclusions
FACTS is a recent technological development in electrical power systems. It builds on the great many advances achieved in high-current, high-power semiconductor device technology, digital control and signals gained with the commissioning and operation of high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) links and static VAR compensator (SVC) systems, over many decades, may have provided the driving force for searching deeper into the use of emerging power electronic equipment and techniques. Due to the, every time higher requirements of the liability and quality of the electricity the implantation of devices capable of guaranteeing these requirements will keep increasing.
25/11/2007
VIGO (Spain)
Conclusions
FACTS devices are improving the operation of an electric power system. The influences of such devices on steady state variables (voltage levels, transmission losses, and generating costs) are very remarkable. The benefit for each type of FACTS can be associated with its particularities and properties. They control the interrelated parameters that rule the operation of the transmission systems, including the serial impedance, the derivation impedance, the current, the voltage, the phase angle and the muffling of oscillations to different frequencies under the nominal frequency.
25/11/2007
VIGO (Spain)

FACTS "Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems"

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FACTS "Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems"

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FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems

M.P.Donsin Department of Electrical Engineering, Vigo University, Vigo (Spain)

FACTS Equipment. Installations

Attributes of control First Generation

Attributes of control Second Generation

Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) or Back to Back (BtB)

FACTS Technical benefits

Steps for the identification of FACTS Projects:

VSC (Voltage-Sourced Converter)

VSC (Voltage-Sourced Converter)

VSC (Voltage-Sourced Converter)

Ns: number of switches. Nc: number of dc capacitors.

SVC (Static Var Compensators)

SVC (Static Var Compensators)

SVC (Static Var Compensators)

SVC (Static Var Compensators)

ITCRc ICc C1 ICb C2 n ICa C3 ITCR1

ITCRa ITCR3 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR)

Bank of capacitors Branch 1

SVC (Static Var Compensators)

SVC (Static Var Compensators)

BSVC = BTSC BTCR = XL = L XC =

SVC (Static Var Compensators)

Inductive rating ISVC

SVC voltage/current characteristic with system load

SVC (Static Var Compensators)

VSC connected to the AC network via a shunt-connected transformer

SVC (Static Var Compensators)

VSC connected to the AC network via a series-connected transformer

TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator)

TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator)

The thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR)

The static VAR compensator (SVC)

TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator)

TCSC Characteristic. Impedance versus firing delay angle 25/11/2007

TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator)

Typical TCSC Waveforms

TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator)

Typical TCSC Waveform

TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator)

SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator)

SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator)

SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator)

SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator)

SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator)

Inductive and Capacitive modes of operation

SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator)

SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator)

SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator)

SSSC (Static Synchronous Series Compensator)

DVR (Dynamic Voltage Regulator)

DVR (Dynamic Voltage Regulator)

DVR. How It Works

DVR. How It Works

Charts of the three phases voltages at the VSI.

STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator)

STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator)

STATCOM - A VSC interfaced in shunt to a transmission line

STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator)

STATCOM - A VSC interfaced in shunt to a transmission line

STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator)

STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator)