Project Management1

1 WHAT IS A PROJECT?
1.1 A project is any sort o p!anne" #n"erta$ing
All of us have been involved in projects, whether they be our personal projects or in business and industry. Examples of typical projects are for example: Personal projects: obtain an MBA write a report plan a weddin plant a arden build a house extension !ndustrial projects: construct a buildin provide a as supply to an industrial estate build a motorway desi n a new car Business projects: develop a new course develop a new course develop a computer system introduce a new product prepare an annual report set up a new office Projects can be of any si"e and duration. #hey can be simple, li$e plannin a party, or complex li$e launchin a space shuttle. %enerally projects are made up of: a defined be innin , multiple activities which are performed to a plan, a defined end. #herefore a project may be defined as a means of movin from a problem to a solution via a series of planned activities. A project is a means of movin from a problem to a solution via a series of planned activities. A project has a definite be innin and end. Projects consist of several activities.

#wo essential features are present in every project no matter how simple or complicated they are. !n the first place, all projects must be planned out in advance if they are to be
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Prepared by #omas 'abol based on notes of (ohn Marsh, )niversity of *olverhampton, )+.

successfully executed. 'econdly, the execution of the project must be controlled to ensure that the desired results are achieved. ,n most projects it is possible to carry out multiple activities simultaneously. )sually it is possible to perform several activities at the same time, however there will be activities which cannot be in until a precedin activity has been completed. 'uch relationships are referred to as dependencies or precedencies, and when plannin a project it is important to establish the order of precedence of dependent activities, and to establish those activities which can be performed in parallel with other activities. -e ardless of the nature or si"e of your project a successful outcome can only be achieved by usin sound project mana ement techni.ues. #he most widely used and popular methods of project mana ement are %antt /harts, /ritical Path Method 0/PM1 and Pro ramme Evaluation and -eview #echni.ue 0PE-#1. 2owever, it is important to remember that projects are carried out by people, and the human aspects of project mana ement are critical for the project success.

1.% Termino!ogy an" &e initions

A project is an interrelated set of activities that has a definite startin and endin point and results in the accomplishment of a uni.ue, often major outcome. 3Project mana ement3 is, therefore, the plannin and control of events that, to ether, comprise the project. Project mana ement aims to ensure the effective use of resources and delivery of the project objectives on time and within cost constraints. An activity or tas$ is the smallest unit of wor$ effort within the project and consumes both time and resources which are under the control of the project mana er. A project is a se.uence of activities that has a definite start and finish, an identifiable oal and an inte rated system of complex but interdependent relationships. A schedule allocates resources to accomplish the activities within a timeframe. #he schedule sets priorities, start times and finish times. Project management is: the adept use of techni.ues and s$ills 0hard and soft1 in plannin and controllin tas$s and resources needed for the project, from both inside and outside of or anisation, to achieve results. #he purpose of project mana ement is to achieve successful project completion with the resources available. A successful project is one which: has been finished on time is within its cost bud et performs to a technical4performance standard which satisfies the end user.

1.' T(e Attri)#tes o S#ccess #! Project Management

#he effectiveness of project mana ement is critical in assurin the success of any substantial underta$in . Areas of responsibility for the project mana er include plannin , control and implementation. A project should be initiated with a feasibility study, where a clear definition of the oals and ultimate benefits need to be established. 'enior mana ers5 support for projects is important so as to ensure authority and direction throu hout the project5s pro ress and, also to ensure that the oals of the or ani"ation are effectively achieved within this process. #he particular form of support iven can influence the de ree of resistance the project encounters. +nowled e, s$ills, oals and personalities are all factors that need to be considered within project mana ement. #he project mana er and his4her team should collectively possess the necessary and re.uisite interpersonal and technical s$ills to facilitate control over the various activities within the project. #he sta es of implementation must be articulated at the project plannin phase. 6isa re atin the sta es at its early point assists in the successful development of the project by providin a number of milestones that need to be accomplished for completion. !n addition to plannin , the control of the evolvin project is also prere.uisite to success. /ontrol re.uires ade.uate monitorin and feedbac$ mechanisms by which senior and project mana ers can compare pro ress a ainst initial projections at each sta e of the project. Monitorin and feedbac$ also enables the project mana er to anticipate problems 0e. .: the $noc$7on effects of late start or finish times1 and therefore ta$e pre7emptive corrective measures for the benefit of the project overall. Projects normally involve the introduction of a new system of some $ind and, in almost all cases, new methods and ways of doin thin s. #his impacts upon the wor$ of others: the 3users3. )ser consultation is an important factor in the success of projects and, indeed, the de ree of user involvement can influence the extent of support for the project or its implementation plan. A essential .uality of the project mana er is that of bein a ood communicator, not just within the project team itself, but with the rest of the or ani"ation and outside bodies as well 0the users may be internal or external1. 1.'.1 *eat#res o projects Projects are often carried out by a team of people who have been assembled for that specific purpose. #he activities of this team may be co7ordinated by a project mana er. Project teams may consist of people from different bac$ rounds and different parts of the or anisation. !n some cases project teams may consist of people from different or anisations. Project teams may be inter7disciplinary roups and are li$ely to lie outside the normal or anisation hierarchies. #he project team will be responsible for delivery of the project end product to some sponsor within or outside the or anisation. #he full benefit of any project will not become available until the project as been completed.

!n recent years more and more activities have been tac$led on a project basis. Project teams and a project mana ement approach have become common in most or anisations. #he basic approaches to project mana ement remain the same re ardless of the type of project bein

considered. 8ou may find it useful to consider projects in relation to a number of major classifications: a1 Engineering an" constr#ction #he projects are concerned with producin a clear physical output, such as roads, brid es or buildin s. #he re.uirements of a project team are well defined in terms of s$ills and bac$ round, as are the main procedures that have to be under one. Most of the problems which may confront the project team are li$ely to have occurred before and therefore their solution may be based upon past experiences. b1 Intro"#ction o ne+ systems #hese projects would include computerisation projects and the introduction of new systems and procedures includin financial systems. #he nature and constitution of a project team may vary with the subject of the project, as different s$ills may be re.uired and different end7users may be involved. Major projects involvin a systems analysis approach may incorporate clearly defined procedures within an or anisation. c1 Respon"ing to "ea"!ines an" c(ange An example of respondin to a deadline is the preparation of an annual report by a specified date. An increasin number of projects are concerned with desi nin or anisational or environmental chan es, involvin developin new products and services.

Acti,ity
/onsider this last cate ory. /an you thin$ of any examples where your or anisation needs to respond to chan e and a project mana ement approach may be valid9

1.- Responsi)i!ities o t(e Project Manager

&. #o plan thorou hly all aspects of the project, solicitin the active involvement of all functional areas involved, in order to obtain and maintain a realistic plan that satisfies their commitment for performance. :. #o control the or ani"ation of manpower needed by the project. ;. #o control the basic technical definition of the project, ensurin that 3technical3 versus 3cost3 trade7offs determine the specific areas where optimisation is necessary. <. #o lead the people and or ani"ations assi ned to the project at any iven point in time. 'tron positive leadership must be exercised in order to $eep the many disparate elements movin in the same direction in a co7operative. =. #o monitor performance, costs and efficiency of all elements of the project and the project as a whole, exercisin jud ement and leadership in determinin the causes of problems and facilitatin solutions. >. #o complete the project on schedule and within costs, these bein the overall standard by which performance of the project mana er is evaluated. 1.-.1 W(y "o projects go +rong? #here can be many reasons why projects o wron . #he most common reasons are as follows: a1 Project oals are not clearly defined b1 #here can be constraints on the completion of projects arisin from the different objectives of: 'hort time scale -esource availability

 ?uality factors 2uman factors 1.-.% Pro)!ems +it( Project .oa!s #he project sponsor or client has an inade.uate idea of what the project is about at the start. #here may be a failure of communication between the client and the project mana er. #he may be due to a lac$ of technical $nowled e on the part of the client or an overuse of jar on by the project mana er. 'pecifications may be subject to constant chan e. #his may be due to problems with individual clients, decision ma$in processes at the client end, or environmental chan es. @or example the overnment may chan e the basic 3rules of the ame3 before the completion of the project. #he project oals may be unrealistic and unachievable, and it may be that this is only realised once the project is under way. #he client may become carried away with the idea of the project and may be unable to see clearly what can be achieved. Projects may be hi hly complex and may have a number of objectives that actually contradict each other.

#here are perhaps two sta es which can help in ensurin that oals are properly defined and achievable: a1 Ensurin that the client specification is clear and understandable. #o do this you must first of all establish the objectives of the project. !t would help to as$ the followin .uestions: *hat is it that the or anisation is settin out to achieve or is bein as$ed to achieve9 *ill the su ested project fulfil these objectives9 2ave all the alternatives been considered and is the chosen option the best one available9 2ave the full effects of the project, both inside and outside the or anisation, been considered9 b1 Preparation of a Project overvies 0Project brief1. #he brief should ta$e the objectives set out in the previous exercise and translate them into tar ets and oals. Any $ey constraints should also be identified and stated at this sta e. #his brief should be a reed by the sponsor4client and communicated to the project mana er. Any ambi uities or .ueries should be sorted out as soon as possible. A ood way forward would be throu h the establishment of s#ccess criteria for the project. !f you want the project to succeed 0and who doesn5t91, then you have to $now when you have succeeded. 'uccess criteria can be described as bein (ar" or so t: Har" criteria are often the most obvious criteria that are tan ible and measurable and can be expressed in .uantitative terms. #hey tend to pose the .uestion 3what93, that is 3what should be achieved93 So t criteria are usually less obvious, but not necessarily less important. #hey are often intan ible and .ualitative. /onse.uently they may be difficult to measure. #hey would

tend to as$ the .uestion 3how93 a/ Har" criteria Performance specifications: these may be set out in terms of the ability to deal with certain demands. @or example, this could be throu hput of traffic, number of patients, volume of transactions processed or the number of en.uiries dealt with. 'pecific .uality standards: this could relate to technical standards and tolerance, or may be the achievement of a favourable report from an outside inspection a ency. Meetin deadlines: this is probably the most obvious one of them all where projects need to be completed within a iven time scale. @or example, a new system may need to be implemented ready for the start of the financial year, or a new development may have to meet time re.uirements as laid down in contract specifications. /ost of bud et constraints: an important criterion may be to complete the project within a cost limit or bud et which has been determined. Additionally there may be re.uirements in terms of the on oin cost of the completed project. @or example, a new system may be re.uired to ma$e savin s for the or anisation on a continuin basis. -esource constraints: there may be other resource constraints such as ma$in use of existin premises or labour force. As you can see, the above criteria are relatively easy to establish and should also be .uite easy to specify in a project brief. )/ So t criteria 6emonstrative co7operation: this would be about showin that the project team could wor$ to ether effectively and without a de ree of conflict. !t could be an important consideration to develop and implement solutions for the or anisation which have a wide element of consensus and stem from a co7operative attitude. Presentin a positive ima e: this may also be important but obviously can be difficult or impossible to .uantify. Achievin a total .uality approach: this would be more about the adoption of a philosophy of continuous improvement than the achievement of specific performance tar ets on .uality. %ainin total project commitment: this is a ain about how the project is mana ed and the attitude of the project team to it. Ensurin that ethical standards are maintained: it can be very important to ensure that no corners have been cut that should not have been and that professional standards of ethics have not been breached. 'howin an appreciation of ris$: this would ensure that no unacceptable ris$s were ta$en in the pursuit of other project objectives. A ain this is about how the project is developed rather then the end product itself. 1.-.' Constraints on t(e comp!etion o projects a1 Time ,ur definition of a project stated that it was an activity which had a defined be innin and endin point. Most projects will be close7ended in terms of there bein a re.uirement for completion by a certain point in time. #his point may be the result of an external factor

such as new le islation, or may be derived from or anisational re.uirements. !t may also be partly determined by other constraints. #here is li$ely to be some relationship between the time ta$en for a project and its cost. A trade7off between the two constrainin factors may then be necessary. b1 Reso#rce A,ai!a)i!ity #here is li$ely to be a bud et for the project and this will clearly be a major constraint. /ost constraints may be set in a number of ways, for example as an overall cash limit or as a detailed bud et bro$en down over a number of expenditure headin s. Aabour resources in particular may be a limitin factor on the completion of the project. !n the short run it is li$ely that labour will be fixed in supply. *hilst the overall resource available may in theory be sufficient to complete the project, there may be difficulties arisin out of the way in which the project has been scheduled. #hat is, there may be a number of activities scheduled to ta$e place at the same time and this may not be possible iven the amount of resources available. c1 0#a!ity actors *hether the project delivers the oods to the ri ht .uality. #here are techni.ues which can be used to overcome the problems referred to above. #hese include: Budgeting, and the correspondin control of the project bud et throu h bud etary control procedures. Project planning and control techni.ues such as %antt charts and networ$ analysis. An important point to note at this sta e is how the various constraints on project completion are li$ely to be interlin$ed with each other. @or example, problems with time constraints or resource constraints may be overcome by spendin more throu h wor$in overtime, employin more people or purchasin better machines. Bud et problems may have a $noc$7 on effect on the achievement of deadlines. !t is important to remember that while project mana ement techni.ues are important, they tend to understate the importance of the $ey resource: people. !n a fact chan in environment where tas$s are often difficult, controversial with uncertain outcomes, 3people mana ement3 s$ills are called for.

S#mmary
A project should possess identifiable oals and a definite startin and finishin point. Project oals must be defined clearly. A useful chec$list can be developed in relation to success criteria. /riteria may be hard and concerned with what the project should achieve, or soft when they will cover how the project should proceed. #he major constraints on the completion of projects are #ime, -esource Availability and the need to achieve the re.uired standard of performance for the project.

% THE PROCESS O* PROJECT MA1A.EME1T

%.1 Project P!anning

A major decision at the outset of any project is to decide upon the or ani"ation and composition of the project team. !n so doin , it is worth rememberin that many members will have dual responsibilities of involvement in the project in addition to a commitment to other projects or mana ement of a functional area on a day7to7day basis. !t is at this sta e that a project mana er should be appointed and responsibilities made explicit for all members of the team. #he selection of the team will be dependent upon the s$ill re.uirements of the project, and upon the matchin of those s$ills to those possessed by individual members of the team. #here may be a conflict here with hierarchical status. #he project mana ement team will, therefore, be in its tas$ in advance of project proper so that a plan can be developed. An important first step is to set the objectives and then define the project, brea$in it down into a set of activities and related costs. !t is probably too early to determine exact resource implications at this sta e, but expected re.uirements for people, supplies and e.uipment should at least be estimated durin the plannin sta e.

%.% Project Sc(e"#!ing

#his phase is primarily concerned with attachin a timescale and se.uence to the activities to be conducted within the project. Materials and people needed at each sta e of the project are determined and the time each is to ta$e will be set. A popular and easy to use techni.ue for schedulin is the use of %antt charts. %antt charts reflect time estimates and can be easily understood. 2ori"ontal bars are drawn a ainst a time scale for each project activity, the len th of which represent the time ta$en to complete. Aetters or symbols can also be added to the left of each bar to show which other activities need to be completed before that one can be in. %.%.1 .antt C(arts A %antt /hart is a simple techni.ue that can be used to attach a time scale and se.uence to a project. A %antt /hart is a form of hori"ontal bar chart and hori"ontal bars are drawn a ainst a time scale for each project activity, the len th of which represents the time ta$en to complete. #o construct a %antt /hart the followin steps are necessary: &1 )se the hori"ontal axis to represent time :1 )se the vertical axis to represent activities ;1 -epresent each activity by a hori"ontal bar of appropriate len th <1 #a$e activity procedures into account by startin each activity bar to an appropriate point alon the time axis after its precedin activities. Bormally the start point for an activity is the earliest time that it could start after its precedin activities had finished. !t is possible to enhance the %antt /hart in several ways. @or instance the number of staff re.uired to do a tas$ can be entered into the bar on the dia ram. %antt charts, also commonly $nown as milestone plans, are a low cost means of assistin the

project mana er at the initial sta es of schedulin . #hey ensure that: &. all activities are planned for, :. the se.uence of activities is accounted for, ;. the activity time estimates are recordedC and <. the overall project time is recorded. #hey are therefore a simple, rou h and ready means of plannin a project and assessin pro ress and are sufficient for most simple projects. 2owever, where projects become complex, it becomes difficult to see relationships between activities by usin a %antt /hart. @or more complex projects Betwor$ Analysis techni.ues are used. %antt charts also provide a summary of the project as a whole and can be used as a rou h and ready means of assessin pro ress at the project control phase. At any date, the project mana er can draw a dateline throu h the %antt chart and see which activities are on7time, which are behind schedule and enerally record project status a ainst plan. %antt charts, named after 2enry A. %antt, one of the pioneers of scientific mana ement, are a useful means of representin a schedule of activities comprisin a project and enable the operations mana er to $now exactly what activities should be performed at a iven time and, more importantly, to monitor daily pro ress of a project so that corrective action may be ta$en when necessary. #o construct a %antt chart, the various activities are listed on a vertical axis and the hori"ontal axis is used to represent time. Activity precedencies are ta$en into account by startin a hori"ontal bar to represent the next activity at an appropriate point after its precedin activities, i.e. those activities which must ta$e place before the next activity can start, have ta$en place. Bormally this would be at the earliest time that it could start after its precedin activities had finished.

E2amp!e3
'uppose a project comprises five activities: A,B,/,6, and E. A and B have no precedin activities, but activity / re.uires that activity B must be completed before it can be in. Activity 6 cannot start until both activities A and B are complete. Activity E re.uires activities A and / to be completed before it can start. !f the activity times are A: D daysC B: ; daysC /: D daysC 6: = daysC and E: < days, i1 determine the shortest time necessary to complete this project. ii1 identify those activities which are critical in terms of completin the project in the shortest possible time.

So!#tion3
#he fi ure below indicates the form that a %antt chart would ta$e from the above information. Activity A Activity B Activity / Activity 6 Activity E

#ime #he above chart shows that activities A and B have no precedin activities and so can start ri ht away. Activity / re.uires Activity B to have been completed before it can be in. #he chart is then completed usin such precedence relationships as listed in the .uestion, with each hori"ontal bar bein proportional in len th to the activity time that it represents. Aoo$in at the chart it is apparent that the project ends when activity E has been completed. *or$in bac$ in time from activity E the 3steps3 which are crucial or critical in order to ensure that the project duration does not extend beyond the planned len th are: E,/ and B. #he shortest time in which the project could be completed from the iven information is therefore &> days. #he set of activities B,/ and E which to ether determine the project duration are referred to as the critica! pat( throu h the chart. #hose activities formin the critical path can be hi hli hted on the %antt chart to help the operations mana er to ive priority to them if lac$ of resources mean that such decisions have to be made. !t is important to reali"e thou h that activities not on the critical path can become so if they are allowed to drift too far. 2ow far could activities A and 6 drift before they affected the duration of the project9 Provided the project is not too complex in its activity relationships or simply too bi to be mapped on reasonably si"ed raph paper, %antt charts can be very useful tools for the project mana er and are raphically superior to the networ$ analysis methods of /PM and PE-#. #hey allow the critical activities to be found, i.e. those activities which must be performed on time if the project duration is not to increase, and any 3slac$3 or 3float3 in the se.uence of activities can easily be shown. %.%.% E2amp!es o .antt c(arts 1. A project comprises t(e o!!o+ing acti,ities3 Activity Immediate Predecessors 7 7 A A, B /, 6 6 E, @ Activity Time (days) &: > &; &: && &; &&

A B / 6 E @ %

a1 /onstruct a %antt chart which will provide an overview of the planned project. b1 2ow soon could the project be completed9 c1 *hich activities need to be completed on time in order to ensure that the project is completed as soon as possible9 %. A project (as t(e o!!o+ing acti,ity "etai!s3

Activity

Immediate Predecessors 7 7 7 / B A E, @

A B / 6 E @ %

Activity Time (weeks) ; < ; &: = E ;

6raw a %annt chart to represent the projectC determine those activities comprisin the critical pathC and estimate the project duration

'. T(e o!!o+ing in ormation is a,ai!a)!e on a management project3 Activity Immediate Predecessor s 7 7 B A A 6 6, E 6uration 06ays1 ; = : & > ; ; 'taff -e.uired 0per day1 > ; < < = > ;

A B / 6 E @ %

At present you have nine staff available. #emporary staff can be hired at a rate of F&GG per day. &1 6raw a %antt /hart to show the shortest time it will ta$e to complete the project. :1 !f the project is to finish on time, how many temporary staff are re.uired, and at what cost9

' 1ETWOR4 A1A56SIS

'.1 Intro"#ction to PERT an" CPM
#he two most common and widely used project mana ement techni.ues that can be classified under the title of Betwor$ Analysis are Pro ramme Evaluation and review #echni.ue 0PE-#1 and /ritical Path Method 0/PM1. Both were developed in the &D=G5s to help mana ers schedule, monitor and control lar e and complex projects. /PM was first used in &D=E to assist in the development and buildin of chemical plants within the 6uPont corporation. !ndependently developed, PE-# was introduced in &D=H followin research within the 'pecial Projects ,ffice of the )' Bavy. !t was initially used to plan and control the Polaris missile

pro ramme which involved the coordination of thousands of contractors. #he use of PE-# in this case was reported to have cut ei hteen months off the overall time to completion.

'.% T(e PERT7CPM Proce"#re

#here are six sta es common to both PE-# and /PM: &. 6efine the project and specify all activities or tas$s. :. 6evelop the relationships amon st activities. 6ecide upon precedences. ;. 6raw networ$ to connect all activities. <. Assi n time and4or costs to each activity. =. /alculate the lon est time path throu h the networ$: this is the 3critical path3. >. )se networ$ to plan, monitor and control the project. @indin the critical path 0step =1 is a major in controllin a project. Activities on the critical path represent tas$s which, if performed behind schedule, will delay the whole project. Mana ers can derive flexibility by identifyin the non7critical activities and replannin , reschedulin and reallocatin resources such as manpower and finances within identified boundaries. PE-# and /PM differ sli htly in their terminolo y and in networ$ construction. 2owever their objectives are the same and, furthermore, their project analysis techni.ues are very similar. #he major difference is that PE-# employs three time estimates for each activity. Probabilities are attached to each of these times which, in turn, is used for computin expected values and potential variations for activity times. /PM, on the other hand, assumes activity times are $nown and fixed, so only one time estimate is iven and used for each activity. %iven the similarities between PE-# and /PM, their methods will be discussed to ether. #he student will then be able to use either, decidin whether to employ variable 0PE-#1 or fixed 0/PM1 time estimates within the networ$. PE-# and /PM can help to answer the followin .uestions for projects with thousands of activities and events, both at the be innin of the project and once it is underway: *hen will the project be completed9 *hat are the critical activities 0i.e.: the tas$s which, if delayed, will effect time for overall completion19 *hich activities are non7critical and can run late without delayin project completion time9 *hat is the probability of the project bein completed by a specific date9 At any particular time, is the project on schedule9 At any particular time, is the money spent e.ual to, less than or reater than the bud eted amount9 Are there enou h resources left to complete the project on time9 !f the project is to be completed in a shorter time, what is the least cost means to accomplish this and what are the cost conse.uences9

'.' Critica! Pat( Ana!ysis

#he objective of critical path analysis is to determine times for the followin : ES 8 Ear!iest Start Time. #his is the earliest time an activity can be started, allowin for

the fact that all precedin activities have been completed. 5S 8 5atest Start Time. #his is the latest time an activity can be started without delayin the start of followin activities which would put the entire project behind schedule. E* 8 Ear!iest *inis( Time. #he earliest time an activity can be finished. 5* 8 5atest *inis( Time. #he latest time that an activity can finish for the project to remain on schedule. S 8 Acti,ity S!ac$ Time. #he amount of slippa e in activity start or duration time which can be tolerated without delayin the project as a whole.

!f E' and A' for any activity is $nown, then one can calculate values for the other three times as follows: E@ I E' J t A@ I A' J t ' I A' 7 E' or ' I A@ 7 E@ Analysis of the project normally involves: &. 6eterminin the /ritical Path. #he critical path is the roup of activities in the project that have a slac$ time of "ero. #his path of activities is critical because a delay in any activity alon it would delay the project as a whole. :. /alculatin the total project completion time, #. #his is done by addin the activity times of those activities on the critical path. #he steps in critical path analysis are as follows: a1 6etermine E' and E@ values for all activities in the project: the @orward Pass throu h the networ$. b1 /alculate A' and A@ values for all activities by conductin a Bac$ward Pass throu h the networ$. c1 !dentify the critical path which will be those activities with "ero slac$ 0i.e.: E'IA' and E@IA@1. d1 /alculate total project completion time.

'.- PERT an" Acti,ity Time Estimation

#he major distin uishin difference between PE-# and /PM is the use of three time estimates for each activity in the PE-# techni.ue, with /PM usin only one time for each activity usin /PM. #he three time estimates specified for each activity in PE-# are: i1 the optimistic timeC ii1 the most probable timeC and iii1 the pessimistic time. #he optimistic, most li$ely and pessimistic time estimates are used to calculate an expected activity completion time which, because of the s$ewed nature of the beta distribution, is mar inally rater than the most li$ely time estimate. !n addition, the three time estimates can be used to calculate the variance for each activity. #he formulae used are as follows:

t=

o +< m + p >

 p o v = >

*here: o, m, p 7 optimistic, most li$ely, and pessimistic times t 7 expected completion time for tas$ v 7 variance of tas$ completion time +nowin the details of a project, its networ$ and values for its activity times 0t1 and their variances 0v1 a complete PE-# analysis can be carried out. #his includes the determination of the E', E@, A', A@ and ' for each activity as well as identifyin the critical path, the project completion time 0#1 and the variance 0K1 for the entire project. Bormally when usin PE-#, the expected times 0t1 are calculated first from the three values of activity time estimates, and it is these values of t that are then used exactly as before in /PM. #he variance values are calculated for the various activity times and the variance of the total project completion time 0i.e. the sum of the activity expected times of those activities on the critical path1 is the sum of the variances of the activities lyin on that critical path.

'.9 Pro)a)i!ity Ana!ysis

,nce the expected completion time and variance 0# and K1 have been determined, the probability that a project will be completed by a specific date can be assessed. #he assumption is usually made that the distribution of completion dates follows that of a normal distribution curve. /onsider the example where the expected completion time for a project 0#1 is :G wee$s and the project variance 0K1 is &GG. *hat is the probability that the project will be finished on or before wee$ :=9 Answer: 0.69

'.: Wor$e" E2amp!es on 1et+or$s

&. A project has the followin activities, precedence relationships, and activity durations:

Activity

A B / 6 E @

Immediate Predecessor s 7 7 7 / B A

Activity 6uration 0wee$s1 ; < ; &: = E

% a1 b1 c1 d1 e1

E, @

6raw a %antt chart for the project. /onstruct a /PM networ$ for the project. !dentify those activities comprisin the critical path. *hat is the project5s estimated duration9 /onstruct a table showin for each activity, its activity duration, earliest start time, latest start time, earliest finish time, latest finish time, and the activity slac$.

Answers: c1 /, 6 d1 &= wee$s :. A project desi ned to refurbish a hospital operatin theatre consists of the followin activities, with estimated times and precedence relationships shown. )sin this information draw a networ$ dia ram, determine the expected time and variance for each activity, and estimate the probability of completin the project within sixty days. Activity Immediate Predecessor s 7 7 A B B, / 6 ,ptimistic #ime = &G & H := > Most Ai$ely #ime > &; : D ;> D ,ptimistic #ime E :H &= &> <& &H

A B / 6 E @

;. An activity has these time estimates: optimistic time o I &= wee$s, most li$ely time m I :G wee$s, and pessimistic time p I :: wee$s. a1 calculate the activity5s expected time or duration t. b1 calculate the activity5s variance v. c1 calculate the activity5s standard deviation. <. A project has the followin activities, precedence relationships, and time estimates in wee$s: Activity Immediate Predecessor s 7 7 A B B E ,ptimistic #ime &= H := &= :: &= Most Ai$ely #ime :G &G ;G &= := :G ,ptimistic #ime := &: <G &= :E ::

A B / 6 E @

% a1 b1 c1 d1 e1

:G

:G

::

/alculate the expected time or duration and the variance for each activity. /onstruct the networ$ dia ram #abulate the values of E',E@,A',A@ and slac$ for each activity !dentify the critical path, and the project duration. *hat is the probability that the project will ta$e lon er than =E wee$s to complete9

=. #he project detailed below has the both normal costs and 3crash3 costs shown. #he crash time is the shortest possible activity time iven that extra resources are allocated to that activity. Activity Immediate Predecessor s 7 A B B / /, 6 E, @ Bormal #ime = H : ; D E < Bormal #ime /ost 01 : GGG ; GGG & GGG < GGG = GGG < =GG : GGG /rash #ime < > : : > = : /rash #ime /ost 01 > GGG > GGG & GGG > GGG H GGG > GGG = GGG

A B / 6 E @ %

Assumin that the cost per day for shortenin each activity is the difference between crash costs and normal costs, divided by the time saved, determine by how much each activity should be shortened so as to complete the project within twenty7six days and at the minimum extra cost.

- MA1A.EME1T O* PROJECTS
%antt charts, PE-#, /PM and other schedulin techni.ues have proven to be valuable tools in the mana ement of lar e and complex projects. A wide variety of software pac$a es is available for project mana ers, for use on micro7 or lar er computers, to assist in the handlin of complex networ$ problems. PE-# and /PM, however, cannot ever purport to be able to solve all project schedulin and mana ement problems in service or manufacturin industries. %ood mana ement practices, clear responsibilities for tas$s, and accurate and timely reportin systems are the most essential .ualities for successful project completions. #he watchword is that useful as these techni.ues are, they are only tools to assist the mana er in ma$in better, more calculated decisions in the process of conductin lar e scale projects.

-.1 T(e Process o Project Management

#raditional approaches to project mana ement have emphasised the procedures involved. #his reflects an idea of project mana ement which has emphasised physical resources and the use of analytical techni.ues such as networ$ analysis. Another approach which has been found to be effective is much more people and or anisation oriented and can be bro$en down into a series of steps: a1 /larifyin the nature of the project

b1 6efinin oals and objectives c1 @easibility studies d1 6etailed or anisation of the project: Project definition Plannin and schedulin e1 Project implementation and control *e can have a loo$ at these in turn. -.1.1 C!ari ying t(e nat#re o t(e project #he followin need to be established at the plannin sta e of the project: -esourcin , mana ement support, nature of team wor$in C the balance, for example, between creativity and implementation s$ills, clarity of objectives. -.1.% &e ining goa!s an" o)jecti,es The success criteria for the project need to be defined. We have already seen that there could be hard or soft. -.1.' *easi)i!ity St#"ies #he basic .uestions to be as$ed are: !s the project feasible9 2ow feasible are the alternatives under consideration9 #he aim of the study would be to carry out a preliminary investi ation which should help to determine whether the project should proceed further and how it should proceed. #he relevance of this approach will vary with the nature of the project itself. #he more concrete the project is, the more li$ely that there will be established procedures in relation to feasibility. At the other end of the scale there will be less need for a feasibility study for an open project. #he project mana er responsible for conductin the feasibility study would normally consider: a/ Cost3 is this within the bud et set by the or anisation or within the capabilities of the or anisation to finance it9 2ow do the alternatives compare9 )/ Timing3 are there specific constraints on timin and is it possible to complete the project within these constraints9 c/ Per ormance3 will the project satisfy performance criteria which have been determined9 Basically this means will it do the job it is desi ned to do9 "/ E ect on t(e organisation3 is it feasible in the context of the or anisation and the effect which it will have upon it9

*e should have a loo$ at these factors in a little more detail. a1 Cost factors will be loo$ed at throu h a financial appraisal. #his should be related to financial criteria which have been determined. 8ou need to consider whether the followin criteria are relevant. i1 /apital expenditure implications: *hat are the costs of the project9 !f there are alternatives, what are the relative fi ures9 *hat effect will this have upon the or anisation5s finances particularly the capital bud et9 2ow will it fit with controls imposed upon the or anisation by central overnment. 2ow will the expenditure be financed9 *hat are the alternatives9 ii1 -evenue implications: 2ow much will this cost both in the current year and in subse.uent years9 *hat are the li$ely ains in terms of income9 *hat effect will this have upon the revenue bud et9 #he answers to these .uestions will determine the financial criteria upon which the feasibility will be jud ed.

b1 Timing3 the project schedule may need to comply with specific criteria which have been laid down. #imin can be important: to comply with le al or overnmental re.uirements. @or example, new le islation or new re.uirements may need to be implemented by a certain dateC for operational reasons. A new system may be re.uired as a matter of or anisational policy or to fit in with existin procedures and deadlinesC to assist with financin arran ements. %rants or borrowin approvals may need to be spent within a specific periodC to ive the or anisation an ed e over its competitors. c1 Per ormance speci ications: these may be: technical service based resultin from external re ulations re.uired by clients and customers

d1 Organisationa! conte2t3 *hat is the policy of the or anisation9 ,r anisational cultureC does the project fit in with the eneral values and beliefs of the or anisation9 2ow will it affect resourcin 9 0Are the s$ills, technolo y and physical space available91 2ow will the project fit in with existin procedures9 *hat effect will it have upon systems9 #he actual .uestions as$ed and the shape of the study and the conse.uent report will depend upon the type of project bein investi ated.

Acti,ity
Examine a live project in your own or anisation. Ma$e a list of .uestions that should be as$ed in relation to feasibility. 4.1.3.1 Feasibility eport #he project mana er will be responsible for reportin decision ma$ers or sta$eholders. on feasibility to the sponsorin

#his may be done in a variety of ways and with different de rees of formality. #ypical contents would include: project definition coverin oals and objectives eneral bac$ round and introduction with an outline description of the options a clear definition of success criteria or feasibility criteria findin s of the feasibility study financial appraisal preliminary compliance or anisational suitability the plan for the mana ement of the project includin implementation

S#mmary
@easibility is principally concerned with: cost timin performance or anisational factors -.1.- &etai!e" Organisation o t(e Project 4.1.4.1 Project !efinition #his be ins once the project has received formal approval to proceed. !ts purpose is to formally document the objectives of the project and decide how the wor$ will be underta$en. #he Project Mana er will carry out this wor$, in consultation with the Project 'ponsor, and 'ub7Project Mana er where there are sub7projects. Aar e projects may be divided into sub7projects, with each sub7project re.uirin its own sub7 project definition. &. Ens#re t(at Prere;#isites are in p!ace. Before definition can be in you should have: a Project Brief si ned off by all parties involved in the project authority to proceed a Project 'ponsor a Project Mana er

&. :.

C!ari y O)jecti,es. ,bjectives must be achievable by the project alone, and must be measurable. &etermine Project Scope. 6eterminin the scope of the project helps to clarify objectives and set the boundaries of the project. !t is often useful to state limitations i.e. what the project will not cover. &etermine Wor$ Str#ct#re. Aar e projects can be better controlled, and are therefore more li$ely to be successful, if they can be divided into smaller units of wor$ 0sub7projects1. !dentify tas$s which can be arran ed into lo ical roups to form sub7projects. %roupin could be on the basis of 0for example1: tas$s relatin to one functional area, tas$s to be performed by staff in one eo raphic location, tas$s relatin to a particular deliverable, tas$s to be performed by team members belon in to the same 6ivision or 6epartment.

;.

=.

I"enti y t(e Major Project Mi!estones Milestones are si nificant events in the life of the project, such as installation of hardware or completion of trainin . #hey are used in trac$in project pro ress. 6ates will be added to these durin Plannin .

>.

Ens#re Project Str#ct#re an" Responsi)i!ities are Esta)!is(e" Assi n 'ub7project Mana ers where appropriate. /larify composition and responsibilities of Project 'teerin %roup, and responsibilities of Project 'ponsor and Project Mana er. Produce a project or anisation structure to show reportin lines.

E.

&etermine Management Systems #hese will vary accordin to the si"e and nature of the project but should always include: a pro ress control system for recordin planned and actual times. #his could be an automated system or a manual one, acceptance procedures for formal review and a reement of each project deliverable scheduled mana ement chec$points !f the project is divided into sub7projects it is important that consistent mana ement systems are used across them all.

H.

&oc#ment t(e Project &e inition #he results of Project 6efinition must be documented and distributed for a reement to: Project 'ponsor 'teerin %roup members 0if applicable1 'ub7project mana ers Aine mana ers who are contributin si nificant resource to the project

#he precise format of the document is left to the discretion of the Project Mana er. 2owever the followin topics should be covered: .oa!s an" O)jecti,es 'tate the business oals and the project objectives. Wor$ Str#ct#re an" Scope A hi h level description of the wor$ to be performed includin : a brief statement of the current business situation and the chan es which the project is intended to brin about a list and brief description of each sub7project $ey events in the project i.e. the Major Milestones Organisation an" Responsi)i!ities !nclude an or anisation chart, names and responsibilities. 2i hli ht any functions or responsibilities peculiar to this project. Ris$s an" Ass#mptions Aist and briefly describe each identified ris$. %ive an indication of its severity i.e. the probability of its occurrence and the impact on the project if it does occur. Management Systems ,utline the systems to be used for trac$in and control of the wor$. Potentia! Pro)!ems Aist any other outstandin issues which mi ht affect the project, and any actions bein ta$en to resolve them. !nclude details of who is responsible for the action and the completion date. Appen"ices #he Project 6efinition document will first be issued as a draft. ,nce the 'ub7Project Mana ers have completed 'ub7project 6efinition their reports can be added as appendices. #he 'ub7project 6efinition should include ,bjectives, *or$ 'tructure and 'cope and ,r anisation. #he whole document will normally be only a few pa es. @or very lar e projects, where the document exceeds about a do"en pa es, it may be helpful to include a Mana ement 'ummary as the first section. 4.1.4." Project Planning and #cheduling Project Plannin be ins as soon as 6efinition allows. #he process involves plannin sub7 projects first and hence 6efinition must at least have identified the sub7projects and the major tas$s involved in them. @rom this point, Plannin and 6efinition tend to continue in parallel as a series of iterations, radually refinin and hardenin both 6efinition and Plans. #he purpose of the Project Plan at this sta e, is to provide detailed realistic estimates of time, duration, resource and cost, and plannin should be carried out only in sufficient detail to allow this to be achieved. 6etailed plannin for allocation of tas$s to individuals is carried

out pro ressively as the wor$ proceeds. *here there are sub7projects these should be planned first and then combined to produce the overall project plan. Produce a plan for each sub7project, or for the total project if there are no sub7projects as follows: &. !dentify Major Activities Brea$ the wor$ down into activities of the order of :G7=G days of effort, ensurin that milestones correspond to completion of one or more of these. !n practice the achievement of a milestone is usually a ood basis for identifyin an activity e. . 5prepare and perform user trainin 5. :. !dentify and /hart 6ependencies Produce a networ$ chart for the sub7project showin dependencies between the major activities and dependencies on other sub7projects or external events. Estimate Effort and 6uration Estimate effort and duration of each major activity. Provide /ontin ency At this sta e estimates are li$ely to be 5soft5 and probably expressed in ran es, because precise details of the wor$ are not settled. /ontin ency needs to be allowed both on the estimated effort and elapsed time because of: the li$elihood of unforeseen wor$ arisin , the li$elihood that tas$s will ta$e lon er than expected, the li$elihood of chan es to re.uirements or plans before publication. 0'ubse.uent chan es should be processed throu h /han e /ontrol1. /ontin ency provision should remain evident in plans 0probably as one or more contin ency 5tas$s51. #his provision should then pro ressively be removed from plans durin #rac$in and /ontrol as a result of either: bein used up by e. . tas$s ta$in lon er than planned, or reachin a point where uncertainty is reduced such that a part of contin ency provision can safely be deleted. #his usually means the deletion of contin ency allowed, but not used, on tas$s now completed. =. 'chedule Major Activities 6etermine start and end dates for each major activity and produce a bar chart or other dia ram, showin relationships between activities. /alculate -esource -e.uirements /alculate re.uirements for each time period. !dentify needs for each resource type 0e. . systems analyst, user staff1 and identify needs for special s$ills or scarce resources. /alculate /osts /alculate costs for the sub7project. #his should include 5hardenin up5 items such as cablin , trainin etc., for which an order of costs had been produced previously. 6etermine ,verall /osts and Benefits of the Project #he cost4benefit justification should have already been stated in the feasibility study. #his sta e provides the opportunity to review the case in the li ht of more detailed information.

;. <.

>.

E.

H.

D.

6ocument the Project Plan ,nce a viable plan has emer ed 0i.e. conflicts have been resolved, resource availability has been confirmed etc.1 the Project Mana er should produce the Project Plan coverin : Project 'chedule. #his should show major activities by sub7project on a bar chart or other dia ram. #he chart should also show project milestones and tar et dates. 'how contin ency as a sin le provision at the end. !nclude an overall project networ$ showin the critical path. Barrative explanation may be included for clarification. Major /hec$points and -eviews. Aist the dates of /hec$point -eports, /hec$point Meetin s, 'teerin %roup Meetin and the Post7!mplementation -eview. 6eliverables. Aist the major products of the project with delivery dates and acceptance procedures. -esources. 'ummarise the resource needs from the sub7project plans. /osts and Benefits fi ures. -evise and refine as a result of completion of 6efinition and Plannin . Potential Problems. Aist any ris$s, problems or assumptions which may jeopardise the Plan, to ether with actions needed to correct the situation. Appendices. Any useful supportin information includin 'ub7project Plans may be included.

&G. Ensure Mana ement 'ystems are in place. -.1.9 Project Imp!ementation an" Contro! #he role of the project mana er falls into three areas: i1 Mana ement of sta$eholders ii1 Mana ement of the project life cycle iii1Mana ement of performance An approach needs to be developed for each of these. /ontrol and monitorin procedures need to be put in place and appropriate information systems developed. #he procedures which are put into place can only be successful if: there is satisfactory information to enable the team to mana e the project effectivelyC they are simple and easy to operate and understandC they have the full support of the project team. 2ow should this relate to the three cate ories referred to above9 i1 Management o sta$e(o!"ers3

'ta$eholders5 interest must be monitored to ensure that: their interest and support is maintainedC their views and ideas are bein ade.uately reflected in the project developmentC their personal success criteria are bein pursued and achievedC environmental chan e is fully ta$en into account.

ii1 Management o t(e project !i e cyc!e3 #his is probably the most conventional view of project control. @eedbac$ systems need to be set up to monitor $ey areas.

Acti,ity
@or a project that is already underway in your or anisation, identify the $ey areas re.uirin monitorin and su est the $ind of information and procedures that would be involved. S#ggeste" Ans+er #he $ey areas would be as follows: #he project timetable, with particular reference to critical event times and potential bottlenec$s. #here should be feedbac$ on activity times achieved and their effect on the whole project. !f networ$ analysis is used, then it is vital that the networ$ is rewor$ed and updated to ta$e into account the actual performance achieved. #he project bud etC bud etary control procedures can be used as in respect of any other form of bud et. ?uality and performance standardsC these need to be monitored a ainst the ori inal project specification subject to chan es a reed with sta$eholders in the course of project development. *here possible this should all be done throu h positive reportin which will re.uired action to be ta$en. iii1 Management o per ormance3 #his is the least tan ible but possibly the most important of the three cate ories. 2ow it is tac$led will depend upon what $ind of project is bein carried out. !t is unli$ely that the project team will spend all of their wor$in time to ether in close proximity and under the direct supervision of the project mana er. !t is much more li$ely that they will wor$ apart most of the time, only meetin up occasionally and only meetin with the project mana er from time to time. /ontrol issues that need to be considered therefore would be: 2ow to et the best out of the team when they are to ether. !f you are holdin meetin s then they should be purposeful and effective. #hey should not simply be part of the routine. 2avin said that, they may be an important element in bindin the team to ether and in developin a team approach to plannin and monitorin of performance. Ensurin people wor$ when the team is apart. 8ou need to set people realistic deadlines and ensure that they see the importance of their contribution and that their contribution is fully valued. /ommunications are important in terms of disseminatin information and $eepin everyone informed. #here are views that team members should be iven information on a need to $now basis but this approach can cause problems. Ensurin continuin commitment by the team and adherence to the values and beliefs bein pursued by the team. /han e, in particular, needs to be communicated to team members .uic$ly and effectively.

!t is important to stress once a ain the need to loo$ at the team and also for the project leader to loo$ inwards at his or her own performance.

-.% *#n"ing t(e Project

#his will be determined by: a1 #he nature of the project b1 #he nature of the or anisation -.%.1 T(e nat#re o t(e Project A major capital scheme will call for a lar e injection of new finance into the or anisation. A mana ement project can often be mana ed by usin existin staffin resources. 2owever it should not be for otten that there is an opportunity cost to this. -.%.% T(e nat#re o t(e organisation /ompanies can use a variety of resources for capital projects. 'hare issues Aon term loans Aeasin #he ability of companies to raise finance will depend upon the perceptions of lenders of money. Public 'ector or anisations are often restricted in their sources of finance by overnment re ulations.

9 H<MA1 *ACTORS
%antt charts, PE-#, /PM and other schedulin techni.ues have proven to be valuable tools in the mana ement of lar e and complex projects. A wide variety of software pac$a es is available for project mana ers, for use on micro7 or lar er computers, to assist in the handlin of complex networ$ problems. PE-# and /PM, however, cannot ever purport to be able to solve all project schedulin and mana ement problems in service or manufacturin industries. %ood mana ement practices, clear responsibilities for tas$s, and accurate and timely reportin systems are the most essential .ualities for successful project completions. #he watchword is that useful as these techni.ues are, they are only tools to assist the mana er in ma$in better, more calculated decisions in the process of conductin lar e scale projects. 'o far little mention has been made of the human issues involved in the mana ement of projects. #hese issues will now be addressed.

.ro#p &isc#ssion3
6iscuss the .ualities you would loo$ for in appointin a project mana er. *hat factors would you ta$e into account when selectin members of a project team, and

how would you motivate them if you were the project mana er9 6iscuss any project with which you have been involved from the point of view of the projects objectives and constraints, its mana ement and implementation includin the use of plannin , schedulin and controllin techni.ues, any problems encountered and how they were dealt with.

9.1 H#man *actors in Project Management

6insmore uses the followin definitions for projects and project mana ement:

A project is a uni.ue venture with a be innin and an end, conducted by people to meet established oals within parameters of cost, time and .uality. Project mana ement is the combination of people, systems, and techni.ues re.uired to coordinate the resources needed to complete projects within established oals.

!t is all too easy to form the view that project mana ement and networ$ techni.ues such as /PM and PE-# are one and the same thin . Because networ$s are valuable tools for raphically showin relationships between project activities, pinpointin critical activities and for estimatin the probability of project completion by a certain date, some mana ers believe that they constitute the only important mana ement tool in the plannin , schedulin and controllin phases of a project. Bo project is mana ed effectively without a ood %antt4/PM4PE-# approach but e.ually there are other mana ement tools and practices re.uired for effective mana ement of projects.

.ro#p "isc#ssion point3

O#t!ine t(e "i erence )et+een Project Management an" Operationa! or *#nctiona! Management.

9.% Moti,ation
2uman motivation is a complex issue and a reat deal of research has been done on how best to motivate employees of an or anisation to achieve ood performance. #he term 3Motive3 has a dictionary definition of: Lcausin motion: concerned with the initiation of actionM, and 3Motivate3 has the definition: Lto provide with a motive, to induce.M Karious mana erial strate ies have been adopted to motivate people within an or ani"ation, and they are often cate orised under the headin s: Paternalistic, 'cientific, Participative. Paternalistic strate y assumes that simply by belon in to an or ani"ation with whose aims and objectives an employee can identify, that employee will be sufficiently motivated to perform well for the or ani"ation. 'cientific mana ement, as championed by @. *. #aylor, is of the carrot and stic$ variety and

is based upon the assumption that motivation can be directly lin$ed to reward for ood performance and a lac$ of reward for a poor performance. #he reward is tan ible and in the form of increased payment. Participative mana ement is based upon the theory that if an employee is iven an objective then he or she should be left to sort out the best method of achievin that objective without bein told what to do by 3the boss3. N'ee also the !ntroduction to Kroom Kroom O 6eci, Mana ement and Motivation, Pen uin, &DHDP.

.ro#p "isc#ssion3
*rom yo#r e2periences at yo#r company or organi?ation> +(ic( o t(e a)o,e c(aracterisations )est represents its management sty!e? *hatever strate y adopted, they are all based upon the premise that Lper ormance 8 a)i!ity times moti,ation=> i.e. that more competent and the more motivated an employee the reater will be his4her performance.

9.' Moti,ation T(eory

#o motivate is rather more than ivin a reason for doin somethin . !t is the creation of a $een enthusiasm or desire in a person for the achievement of a particular objective or set of objectives. Because human bein s have free7will and have a reat many other influences actin upon them, it is not surprisin that motivation is a complex issue. ,ne very important .uality needed by a project mana er is the ability to motivate the project team. 6ifferent people respond to various techni.ues of persuasion in sometimes very different ways, and it is necessary to $now how to approach a particular individual, or roup of individuals, in order to optimise your li$elihood of success in motivatin them into appropriate action.

9.- Mas!o+
,ne field of psycholo y that considers human motivation theory is that of EQ!'#EB#!AA P'8/2,A,%8 or 2)MAB!'#!/ P'8/2,A,%8, and one of its best $nown proponents is Abraham 2arold Maslow 0)'. Psycholo ist 0&DGH7&DEG1. Existential psycholo y emphasises that each individual is constantly ma$in choices, reat and small, which cumulatively determine the $ind of person he4she becomes. !t is concerned with the individual5s attempts to discover a satisfyin sense of personal identity and to ive meanin to his4her life. As well as Maslow you may wish to loo$ at the wor$ of -ollo May, and /arl -o ers. 2umanistic psycholo y is another term for existential psycholo y and which is critical of those schools of psycholo y which are preoccupied with 3'tatistics, white rats and computers3 preferrin instead to concentrate upon the individual from an existential viewpoint. N@urther readin : @. #. 'everin 0Ed.1, 2umanist Kiewpoints in Psycholo y, Bew 8or$, 0&D>=1P.

9.-.1 Mas!o+@s T(eory o H#man Moti,ation Maslow5s theory is based on the idea that there is a hierarchy of basic human needs. 2e or anised these into five cate ories: physiolo ical needs safety needs love esteem self actualisation. #hese are sometimes represented in the literature as a pyramid with the more basic needs at the bottom. Maslow uses the wor$ prepotent to indicate those needs which prevail over the others. 'o the more basic the unfulfilled need, the more prepotent it is as a motivator, and so on. @or example a person dyin from hun er or thirst is unli$ely to be hi hly motivated by the need for the esteem or respect of his collea ues. Maslow ma$es the point that only needs which are unsatisfied are motivatin factors. 'atisfied needs are not.

&isc#ssion point3
W(at re!e,ance> i any> "oes Mas!o+@s approac( (a,e or t(e management o projects +it(in yo#r organi?ation?

9.9 Project teams

As we have seen, the mana ement of a project involves rather more than just the mastery of %antt charts, networ$ analysis and other mathematical techni.ues. !t includes the creation and mana ement of a team of people who are iven the tas$ of handlin the project from its inception to successful completion. #he benefits of effective teamwor$ are clear to those who have experienced the syner y created by a team who wor$ to ether well, who cooperate with each other, and who are all committed to the project. Synergy is the state in which the team 5ta$es off5, wor$in to ether as a whole to achieve far more than the individuals, wor$in separately, could have done. #he opposite of such a syner istic roupin is sometimes called dysfunctional conflict 7 the unpleasant state when everyone seems to be wilfully at cross purposes with everyone else, and the roup achieves much less than the individuals wor$in separately, could have done. An effective team is more dependent upon the chemistry between the members of the roup than a strict matchin of the various roles su ested by Belbin et al. to the attributes of those roup members. Mutual trust is an effective lubricant to the effectiveness of team wor$.

#eamwor$ depends upon bein able to persuade people to wor$ to ether, to cooperate, and to be committed to the project. By their very nature, projects are usually one7off situations and the project team will usually be an ad7hoc matrix of individuals chosen for their specialist s$ills and who may not be used to wor$in to ether. #he role of the project mana er is particularly challen in under these conditions.

.ro#p &isc#ssion3
&ra+ing #pon yo#r o+n e2periences +it(in yo#r organi?ation> "isc#ss one e2amp!e o team+or$ +(ic( yo# consi"er to (a,e )een s#ccess #!> an" one e2amp!e +(ic( mig(t (a,e )een more s#ccess #! t(an it +as.

.ro#p "isc#ssion3
In t(e pre,io#s "isc#ssion point can yo# separate o#t t(ose actors +(ic( mig(t )e t(o#g(t o as interna! ones> an" t(ose +(ic( mig(t )e consi"ere" e2terna! actors.

: THE PROJECT MA1A.ER

So#rce3 Project Management A A Manageria! Approac(> Jac$ Mere"it( an" Sam#e! Mante!> Wi!ey> 1BB9. #he prime objectives of project mana ement are performance, cost and time NMeredith, &DD=P. /learly there is a relationship between these three objectives, and there may be trade7 offs between them to be mana ed by the PM. Performance

Cost

Time ...the PM is expected to integrate all aspects of the project, to ens re that the proper !nowledge and reso rces are availa"le when and where needed, and a"ove all to ens re that the expected res lts are prod ced in a timel# , cost$effective manner% &Meredith, '99(, p.)*.

/hapter ; of NMeredith, &DD=P is concerned with the Project Mana er and they discuss in section ;.& the differences between a functional mana er and a project mana er. A functional mana er bein defined as a person in char e of a functional department such as mar$etin , en ineerin , finance etc., within an or ani"ation. #hey ar ue that the functional mana er is li$ely to be a specialist in the area bein mana ed, and as such they are analytically oriented, so that when a technically difficult tas$ is encountered they $now how to analyse and tac$le it. +As f nctional managers the# are administrativel# responsi"le for how something will "e done, who will do it, and what reso rces will "e devoted to accomplish the tas!.+ By contrast, the PM is more li$ely to be a eneralist, or non7specialist, with a wide bac$ round of both experience and $nowled e, and who is re.uired to mana e a number of diverse functional areas, each comprisin a roup of specialists in their own fields. #he PM5s tas$ then is to brin to ether all the bits of the project to ether to form a coherent whole 7 i.e. the PM must be more s$illed in synthesis, whereas the functional mana er must be more s$illed in analysis. #he authors ar ue that the functional mana er uses an analytical approach whereas the PM uses a systems approach. #he analytical approach would brea$ a system down into smaller and smaller parts, but the systems approach is one which attempts to understand the lin$s between the components, as well as the components themselves, on the basis that the lin$s between components are as important in determinin the systems performance as the components themselves. !n order understand the system better, it is necessary to understand the environment 0or lar er system1 of which it is a part. #he authors maintain that the adoption of the systems approach is crucial for project mana ement, with an understandin of the or anisational pro ramme of which the project is a part, and the or ani"ation in which the pro ramme exists, as well as the environment within which the or ani"ation operates. ,n pa e &&&, the authors su est another difference between the functional an project mana ers. #he functional mana er is a direct, technical supervisor, whereas the PM is a facilitator. #he facilitation of co7operation between those who have various $inds of specialised $nowled e and those who need it. #hree .uestions face the PM at the outset of a project: *hat needs to be done9 *hen must it be done9 2ow are the resources needed by the project to be obtained9 !t will have occurred to you that the PM will often be reliant upon functional mana ers for answers to these .uestions, and for other specialist inputs and it is often the case that the functional mana ers will ma$e some of the fundamental and critical project decisions. @or example they may select the people who will be responsible for carryin out the project, and may develop the technolo ical plan detailin how to accomplish the project5s oals, as well as fre.uently influencin the precise deployment of the projects resources. !t is this separation of powers between functional and project mana ement that on the one hand ma$es for a successful outcome to the project, but on the other is a source of discomfort for both.

+,ote that the PM is responsi"le for organising, staffing, " dgeting, directing, planning, and controlling the project. -n other words, the PM manages the project, " t the f nctional managers ma# affect the choice of technolog# to "e sed within the project and the specific individ als who will do the wor!.+ &Meredith, '99(, p.'''$''..* /learly a ood project mana er will attempt to influence by ne otiation or other means the choice of specific individuals ma$in up the project team, and the PM cannot allow the functional mana er to usurp control of the project, since if this happens the project is li$ely to become secondary to the wor$ of that functional roup and conse.uently the project is li$ely to suffer. E.ually the functional mana er cannot allow the PM to usurp his4her authority when it comes to ma$in technical decisions in the functional area, or indeed to the assi nment of duties to personnel within that functional department or section. Another very real problem faced by the project mana er is that of micromanagement. #his is the unhappy state of affairs created by the PM5s line mana er ta!ing over the PM/s jo" "# exercising extremel# close s pervision over ever# action the PM ta!es, or will tell the PM precisel# what to do. 'ee box below for .uote from pa e &&: of Meredith and Mantel: At times, a senior mana er 0 the PM5s immediate superior1 will, in effect, ta$e over the PM5s job by exercisin extremely close supervision over every action the PM ta$es, or will actually tell the PM precisely what to do. All of the powers normally dele ated to the PM are withdrawn and the PM5s boss runs the project. #his condition is $nown as micromanagement. !t stamps out any creativity or initiative from the PM or project wor$ers, frustrates almost everyone connected with the project, and enerally ensures mediocre performance, if not failure. #he senior rationalises the need for control with such statements as: 3After all, the project is m# responsibility,3 or 38ou must understand how important this project is to the firm,3 or 3'uperboss expects me to $eep my eye on everythin that oes on around here.3 'uch nonsense sounds lo ical until subjected to analysis. #he first comment denies the virtue of dele ation. #he second assumes that everyone except the spea$er is stupid. #he third is an indication of the self7importance of the superior. #o be fran$ we do not $now how to cure or prevent micromana ement. !t is practised by individuals who have so little trust in their co7wor$ers that they must control everythin . Micromana ers are rarely li$eable enou h for anyone to try to help them. ,ur considered advice to PMs who are micromana ed is to re.uest a transfer. NMeredith, &DD=, p. &&:P

.#i"e!ines or Managing Projects

'et a clear %oal 6etermine the ,bjectives Establish /hec$points, Activities, -elationships, and #ime estimates /reate a 'chedule 6evelop people individually and as a team -einforce the commitment and excitement of people !nform everyone connected with the project Kitalise people by buildin a reements Empower yourself and others -is$ approachin problems creatively

'ource: -andolph and Posner, %ettin the (ob 6oneR Mana in Project #eams and #as$ @orces for 'uccess, Prentice72all, &DD:

.ro#p Acti,ity
)sin the approach outlined by 6ic$ Mc/ann 0in 2ow to !nfluence ,thers at *or$, 2einemann, &DHD1 and usin your perceptions of your collea ues determine which cate ory of team role each member of your team fits best. )se the templates provided to tic$ each perceived attribute for each of your collea ues, and present them with the completed templates. ,n receipt of your templates, count up the tic$s under each cate ory and see which one has the most tic$s.

Team Ro!es
$%plorer&promoters ,ut oin Enthusiastic *arm #al$ative 'timulatin !ma inative !mpulsive Excitable Persuasive ,pinionated Emotional @ar7si hted 6ramatic -is$7ta$er 'ssessor&developers ,ut oin Analytical Experimenter !dea7developer /hallen e7see$er 'ociable ,r ani"er Pra matic Ao ical Planner Product7champion #al$ative %roup7wor$er Expressive Thruster&organi(ers 6etermined Action7oriented 6isciplined #ou h !ndependent Ao ical 6ecisive @actual /ommandin !mpatient #as$7oriented 'tubborn /ompetitive /onflict7confronter

)oncluder&producers 'teady -eliable Effective Efficient 6ependable @inisher ,r ani"ed 'ystematic Practical 6eadline7conscious /risis7hardy /han e7resistant Present7oriented

)ontroller&inspector /onservative ?uiet Practical Ao ical 6etail7oriented #horou h Accurate /onscientious 6ependable -eserved /ritical 6istant 5Bit7pic$er5

*pholder&maintainer Beliefs7based ?uiet 'upportive 56efender of the faith5 /onscientious #raditional -eserved 5Aon fuse5 /onflict7avoidin /ontrollin Advisin /onsensus7see$in 'elf7effacin

eporter&advisers 2elpful +ind *ell7li$ed #hou htful +nowled eable 'upportive #olerant Easy7 oin !nformation7 atherer *illin /ooperative 'oft /onflict7avoidin Procrastinatin Principled

)reator&innovators !ma inative !ntuitive !ndependent 52ead7in7the7clouds5 -esearcher !nnovator !nformation7see$er Procrastinatin Absent7minded Bon7finisher 6eadline7misser @uture7oriented @lexible !dea7 enerator Kisionary

.#i"e to Strategic Pacing

Team Ro!e Explorer7promoter &os Explore ideas Allow them to tal$ %ive Spositive5 stro$es /oncentrate on the future Be enthusiastic -ecord important a reements in writin Be flexible Be prepared Analyse issues fully Explore possibilities Be factual 'pea$ clearly, lo ically and precisely #hin$ laterally Be businessli$e Be factual Be oal7oriented %ive incentives Be punctual Ma$es thin s happen 'ummari"e re ularly Be structured %ive notice of proposed chan es Be practical 'tic$ to your word +eep to deadlines @ocus on results )se memos to communicate 'end written information before meetin 'low down your pace #a$e time to understand them #al$ about details #hin$ before you spea$ Be practical 6evelop personal relationships Be clear and precise Encoura e them to tal$ Be supportive Be flexible 6evelop personal relationships Be cooperative %ive personal than$s Establish harmony Allow them to express their concerns &on@ts 6on5t tal$ about details 6on5t ta$e issue with their opinions unless they persist 6on5t dwell on the past

Assessor7developer

6on5t tal$ about subjects you $now little about 6on5t ive too many opinions 6on5t waste time

#hruster7or ani"er

6on5t attac$ personally but focus on the facts surroundin disa reements 6on5t be ambi uous 6on5t et off the subject 6on5t chan e your mind too fre.uently 6on5t Swaffle5

/oncluder7producer

/ontroller7inspector

6on5t Sdrop in5 unexpectedly 6on5t surprise them 6on5t be over7optimistic 6on5t rush them 6on5t concentrate on the future at the expense of the past

)pholder7maintainer

6on5t dominate discussions 6on5t i nore their feelin s

-eporter7adviser

6on5t put facts before feelin s 6on5t move too fast 6on5t be insincere

/reator7innovator

Explore ideas Be enthusiastic Ensure you have some $nowled e of the area under discussion %ive personal than$s #olerate their disor ani"ed ways -ecord important decisions in writin

6on5t be too structured 6on5t force them into difficult deadlines 6on5t be too conver ent in your thin$in