Beruflich Dokumente
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John Gough — Deakin University — jugh@deakin.edu.au
Most adults know how to multiply, using penandpaper, as well as pressing buttons on a
calculator. Most adults also have memorised recall of multiplication facts, often called
“tables” or “times tables”. Teachers not only know how to multiply, they also know how
to teach children multiplication. But at any one time, most teachers are only concerned
with a small section of the whole large process of teaching multiplication.
For example:
• in Year 1, the students may be learning to work with sentences such as “Eight boxes
of pencilsets, with 12 pencils in each set: how many pencils altogether?”;
• Year 3 students might be practising the 8times table: “One eight is eight, two eights
are sixteen, …”;
• Year 5 students might be learning how to calculate 23 x 456, using a vertical setting
out;
• Year 6 students might be learning how to multiply by fractions, such as twofifths
multiplying four and threequarters;
• Year 7 students might be revising multiplication of decimals, such as 2.3 x 0.45.
It is easy to lose sight of the wood, because of the close attention being given to
individual trees. What is the larger picture? How do children learn to multiply?
Most of the standard mathematics teachertraining books discuss the multiplication
curriculum, either as a standalone section, or as one case interspersed through successive
discussions of all four of the basic arithmetic operations, through different levels of
schooling, linked with related ideas and experiences of placevalue, numeration, addition,
and division. But the multiplication curriculum is surprisingly more complicated, or
intricate, than we might realise.
The short answer to the question “How do children learn to multiply?” is not so short.
Here is a comparatively brief outline. Multiplication is learned in several stages that
progressively accumulate the ideas and processes. Note that some of the following stages
occur simultaneously:
• skip counting (e.g. by 2s, 10s, 5s, 4s, and so on, from 0 as far as you like, and in
reverse, from a suitable multiple: students may count the number of chairlegs, four
legs at a time, “Four, eight, twelve, sixteen, …”): chanting, rapping, and putting
repetitive drills to catchy songs can help;
• making “so many lots of some number of items” and finding how many altogether:
students use oral counting, thinking, and/or manipulative materials to work out
questions such as “Six bags of apples, with 7 apples in each bag: how many apples
altogether?”;
• skipping in constantsteps along a beadframe or (better still) the numberline (visual
skipcounting), from 0, forwards, and backwards;
• summarising a written sentence such as “five lots of six apples” as 5 x 6, and saying
“five lots of six”, or “five multiplies six”, instead of “five times six” (note that the
word “times”, although widely used, contributes little meaning to any discussion of
multiplication, and the childspeak “timesing” and “I timesed it by 3” are abhorrent
expressions in a mathematics classroom);
• chanting and memorising multiplication facts (tables): for example, “one lot of 5 is 5,
two lots of 5 are 10, three lots of 5 are 15, …”: again, rhythm and melody can help
students memorise: note that knowing from memory is not necessarily knowing by
“rote”: it is essential to match memorisingpractice with thinking strategies in
working out problems, but the goal is to establish internalised, fluent, automatic
recall of isolated facts as well as the ability to explain each fact as part of a larger
pattern, or as repetitive addition, and in terms of placevalue and sequential
patterns;
• learning how multiples of ten, and multiples of a hundred work when they multiply
another number: for example, learning to use an already familiar singledigit
number fact such as 3 x 4 = 12, and grasp that thirty lots of 4 will be ten times
larger than three lots of four, or 12 (this is the REAL explanation for putting a zero
in the units column in the second line, and for putting two zeros in the third line,
etc.): Dienes’ MAB materials are a valuable aid for showing the way placevalue
regrouping naturally occurs when we have TEN of some quantity;
• writing singledigit multiplications horizontally (e.g. 3 x 5), OR vertically
(e.g. 5
x 3
;
• becoming familiar with a onedigit number multiplying a severaldigit number, such
as 4 x 98765: seeing that this is equivalent to working out subproducts, and then
adding up the results, that is, calculating each of 4 x 5, and 4 x 60, and 4 x 700, and
4 x 8000, and 4 x 90000, and using placevalue sensibly to handle carryacross
digits in successive placevalue columns, and then sensibly adding the results;
• working out how to handle the separate digits in twodigit multiplications, using a
combination of singledigit multiplying multidigit with multipleoften multiplying
multidigit, and adding the results: and hence using the standard vertical layout for
the standard algorithm: initially this will be done with carefully ruled and labelled
placevalue columns, and stepbystep, digitbydigit placevaluemeaningful verbal
explanation; and
• all through all of these stages using concrete materials where and when necessary to
model what is being said and what is happening, and what the processes and
explanations mean, in practice: this includes:
— using materials such as fingers, blocks, beans, packets of items, eggcartons,
fourlegged chairs, octopuses, and coins;
— shopping and packaging activities that involve multiples;
— visual displays of rows of objects set out in rectangular arrays;
— visual displays showing multipletreebranching as in the use of
multiplication to handle the different combinations of an example such as a
child who could wear 3 different colored hats, and 4 different colored shirts,
and 5 different colored trousers, and asking how many different combinations
of outfits can the child wear;
— multiplicative applications in everyday experiences with measurement
activities involving money, time, length, area, volume, and mass;
— using a 10x10 number grid to display and summarise known multiplication
facts and explore patterns in multiplication tables (e.g. the successive digits in
the NINES table), as well as experiencing tables for numbers large than 10,
such as 11s and 12s: the 15s are nice, also, being 10s plus 5s: and
experiencing the 20times and 40times tables, and others.
Through all of this wholenumber work it is also sensible to look at the same ideas as
they apply to simple fractions, wholenumber lots of fractional parts (e.g. 8 lots of one
third), and parts of dollars (with hints of decimal ideas, especially where the fractions are
tenths or hundredths).
By the last stages students will also be starting to learn more complicated fraction ideas,
such as working out onethird lot of 5, and threequarters lot of twoandfivesixths. And
students will start to do the same with decimals: 0.2 lots of 4, and 0.3 lots of 0.8, and so
on. The understanding of multiplication by fractions is the basis for explaining
multiplication by decimals.
But let me end by emphasising that this multiplication curriculum will be experienced as
part of a much larger numerationandcomputation curriculum which includes equivalent
steps for:
• counting, forwards and backwards, by 1s, 2s, 10s, and so on;
• learning and using placevalue ideas from Units through to Millions, and backwards
into Tenths and onwards to Millionths, …;
• addition, from singledigit countingbased experiences through to multipledigit
multiplenumbers being added, as well as adding fractions, and decimals, and
applying this to money, time, and other aspects of measurement;
• subtraction, as for addition; and
• division, with early experience of sharing materials equally between a given number
of people or containers, as well as the idea of finding how many lots of some given
quantity can be made from an initial total amount of something: this will be done,
from the start, with the sharing or partitioning sometimes working out evenly, and
sometimes ending with a remainder that needs to be considered: and extending this
to backwards skipcounting, learning or memorising divisionfact tables, and
grasping how division can be used with fractions and decimals.
With all of this multistranded curriculum there will be continual problem solving
challenges, such as HOW can we work THIS out (whatever the situation or question
might be), and then, HOW can we make this HARDER and still work it out?
Importantly, there will be continual emphasis on students being able to explain what they
are doing, and why. Mathematics, as a process, includes communication of meanings and
activities, using words as well as symbols and diagrams, and physical materials.
The following Twenty Multiplication Questions may help a teacher identify how far along
the multiplication curriculum road a student has already travelled. Obviously for young
students, a teacher will read the question. Notice the way I have deliberately included
fairly brief examples and explanations. This is unusual in tests, but it allows students who
may not have learned about aspects of multiplication, or may have misremembered earlier
lessons, to show what they can understand, without having to rely on their memory of
technical details. Students who attempt these Twenty Questions should be allowed to go
as far as they can with the questions, and take as much time as they need. But obviously
there is no point in requiring all students to attempt all the questions if some of the later
questions are clearly too difficult for a student.
Why Twenty Questions, and not some other number? This allows roughly three questions
per schoolyear, to have the curriculum covered by six to seven school years. But exactly
how fast a student can move through the curriculum depends on the individual and on the
rate at which the curriculum is taught. Keep the lessons simple, and the learning is likely
to stay simple. Challenge the student, and we may be surprised by what can be achieved.
Twenty Multiplication Questions
1. I have four boxes, and each box has six pencils: how many pencils altogether?
2. I am counting by sixes: 6, 12, 18, 24, … : what comes next?
3. I am skipcounting by threes:
Draw and label the next two skips.
4. Here is a sentence: five lots of four apples, makes twenty apples.
We can use an “ecks”, x , instead of “lots of”; and an “equals” sign, = , instead of
“makes”; and we can use numbers instead of numberwords.
The same sentence will then look like this: 5 x 4 = 20.
What is the answer for this sentence? 7 x 3 = ?
5. Here is the start of the multiplication table for multiplying fives:
1 x 5 = 5 ; 2 x 5 = 10 ; 3 x 5 = 15 ; 4 x 5 = 20 ; …
Can you write the start of the multiplication table for multiplying sixes?
6. Sometimes we write multiplication along a line, like this: 8 x 7 = 56
Sometimes we write multiplication downwards, like this:
7
x 8
56
Can you write the answer for this multiplication:
6
x 7
7. While we learn to multiply by singledigits (1, 2, 3, …9) we also need to learn how to
multiply by 10, and 100, and by tens and hundreds (and thousands …).
…For example, how much is 10 x 234?
The number 234 is two hundreds, and three tens, and four ones:
that is, 234 = 200 + 30 + 4.
If we have ten lots of 234, we have ten lots of 2 hundreds, and ten lots of 3 tens, and ten
lots of 4 units or ones.
We know ten lots of 4 is forty;
and ten lots of 3 tens is three hundreds
(because ten lots of ten is 1 hundred);
and ten lots of 2 hundreds is 2 thousands
(because ten lots of 100 is 1 thousand).
So 10 x 234 = 10 x 200 + 10 x 30 + 10 x 4
= 2000 + 300 + 40
= 2340
Can you work out the answer for this: 20 x 41 = ?
8. What is the answer? 3 x 28?
9. What is the answer?
56
x 4
10. What is the answer? 300 x 40?
11. What is the answer?
321
x 10
12. When we multiply by two digits, we work out the multiplication for each digit, and
add the results.
For example: here is how we work out the answer for 23 x 412 = ?
We know that 23 = 20 and 3
Then we calculate 3 x 412 — and the answer is 1263
And we calculate 20 x 412 — and the answer is 8240
And we add these two answers, to get the final answer: 1263 + 8240 = 10503
Can you work out the answer for this multiplication?
13 x 321
13. One book costs $2.75. How much does it cost for 8 books?
14. One pencil costs 54 cents. How does it cost for 12 pencils?
15. Fractions can multiply in the same way as wholenumbers.
For example, I can ask how many apples I have if I have 3 lots of 6 apples — the answer
is easy: 3 x 6 = 18.
I can also ask: How many apples do I have if I have a halflot of 7 apples: — this
answer is easy too: a halflot of 7 apples is 3 whole apples and onehalf apple.
What is a twofifth lot of 3? Or what is 2/5 x 3?
Here is a model of 3:
Here is the model of 3 sliced into fifths.
The shaded section shows a twofifths part of this model of 3.
This shows that twofifths of 3 is sixfifths.
We can combine all the shaded parts into one whole, and have one fifth left.
This shows that twofifths of 3 is sixfifths, or is one and onefifth.
Or = or =
Can you work out this? 3/4 x 2
16. One fraction can multiply another fraction. This uses the same ideas as with
multiplying wholenumbers: you find how much you get when you take some lot or part
lot of a given number.
For example, what is threefifths (3/5) lot of onequarter (1/4)?
Here is a diagram showing onequarter, as the shaded part of a square that represents 1.
We slice this (vertically) into fifths.
Then we take three of these fifthparts:
It is easy to see that the answer is three parts out of twenty parts.
That is: 3 x 1 = 3
5 4 20
Can you work out what this? 2/3 x 4/5?
17. The number 3 and 7tenths, , can be written as a decimal number, 3.7, and we read
this as “three point seven”.
Similarly the decimal 0.253 has zerounits, and 2 tenths, and 5 hundredths, and 3
thousandths.
Multiplying by a decimal is just like multiplying by a fraction: we work out the partlot
of the number being multiplied.
For example, 0.1 lot of 4 is the same as onetenth lot of 4, which is fourtenths, or 0.4.
That is 0.1 x 4 = 0.4
Can you work out the answer to this:
0.3 x 5
18. One decimal can multiply another decimal. We use fraction ideas, and then decimal
placevalue and wholenumber multiplication facts, to calculate the answer.
For example, 0.6 x 0.8 means the same as asking what is sixtenths lot of eighttenths.
Here is a model for 1 (one).
Here is a model that shows 1 sliced into tenths, with eight of the tenths shaded.
If we slice this model vertically into tenths, we can find what a sixtenth part of this will
look like. The sixtenth part is indicated by the small arrows.
If we shade only the sixtenth part we see the answer, measured in hundredths.
We can then simply count how many hundredths, or see this as 6 lots of 8 hundredths,
or 8 lots of 6 hundredths, and 6 x 8 = 8 x 6 = 48. So there are 48 hundredths. Also 40
hundredths are 4 tenths,
So we end up with 0.6 x 0.8 = 0.48.
Can you calculate the answer to this: 0.9 x 0.8 = ?
19. Can you calculate: 0.3 x 0.06?
20. Can you calculate 2.04 x 3.2?
References and Further Reading
Bobis, J., Mulligan, J., & Lowrie, T., Mathematics for children: Challenging children to
think mathematically. Pearson / Prentice Hall, Sydney, Second edition, 2004
Guidelines in number. A framework for a primary maths program, Levels 18.
Curriculum Branch, Education Department of Victoria, Carlton, 1985 (Levels 15
first printed 1983).
Booker, G., Bond, D. Sparrow, L., & Swan, S. (2004). Teaching primary mathematics,
Pearson Education / Prentice Hall, Frenchs Forest, 3rd edition (first edition 1992).
Gough, J. Diagnostic mathematics profiles, Deakin University Press, Geelong, 1999.
Heddens, J.W., Today's mathematics, 5th edn., SRA, Sydney, 1984: and later editions.
Kennedy, L.M., Tipps, S. Guiding children's learning of mathematics, 6th edn.,
Wadsworth, San Francisco, 1991: and later editions.
Perry, B., Conroy, J. Early childhood and primary mathematics: A participative text for
teachers. Sydney: Harcourt Brace, Sydney, 1994.
Reys, R. E., Suydam, M. N., Lindquist, M. M., Smith, N. L. (eds.) Helping children learn
mathematics (5th ed.). Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1998: and later editions.