Geographical Information System-An Introduction

1. Definition of GIS
What is a GIS
GIS: a particular form of information system applied to geographical data; It was
developed from the need to handle and manipulate geographically referenced spatial data.
A system: a group of connected entities and activities that interact for a common
purpose;
An information system: a set of processes, executed on raw data, to produce information
that will be useful for decision making;
Geographical data: spatially referenced data sets, namely, spatial data geo-referenced
with one type of coordinate systems.
Geographic: refers to the Earth’s surface and near-surface
Spatial (locational): refers to any space;
Geospatial: specifically to the Earth’s surface and near-surface.

Tool-box view
• A powerful set of tools for storing and retrieving at will, transforming and
displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes (Peter
Burrough, 1986)

Software component view

Marble (1984) gave a definition of GIS by detailing four component subsystems:
1) A data input and editing subsystem:
Collects and/or processes spatial data
Automated editing and verification
geocoding
2) A data storage and retrieval subsystem
Permits quick data retrieval for subsequent analysis, and rapid and
accurate updates of huge database. DBMS: relational DBMS, distributed
DBMS, object-oriented DBMS

3) A data manipulation and analysis subsystem

Performs a variety of tasks.
4) A data reporting subsystem:
Capable of displaying all or part of the original database as well as
manipulated data and the output from spatial models in tabular or map
form.

A blend view
• A system of hardware, software, data, people, organizations and institutional
arrangements for collecting, storing, analyzing, and disseminating information
about areas of the earth (Dueker & Kjerne, 1989)

2. Characteristics of GIS
 • The GIS developed from the need to handle and manipulate geographically
referenced spatial data. The primary purpose of the GIS must be efficiently to
manipulate spatial or coordinate-based data. A large body of data that have spatial
or locational properties.
• The GIS must deal with spatial relationships in an explicit fashion.
• The GIS must be capable of integrating individual layers of geographic raw data
through data fusion and synthesis (information integrator view). By its very
nature, a GIS is a data integration machine.
• The GIS must be capable of carrying out spatial analysis operations, based on
topologically structured spatial databases. (spatial analysis view/functional view)

Differences between GIS and Other Technologies

CAD (computer-assisted drawing or computer aided design): Often lacks
analytical capabilities of a GIS. No capability dealing with spatial relationships.

Database Management Systems: no capabilities for handling spatial data.

Computer Mapping Systems: most of early mapping systems, such as SYMAP,

SAS Graph, Atlas GIS, do not have strong analytical functions, and are unable to
deal with spatial relationships.

Image processing systems: only deal with raster-based data in an arbitrary

coordinate system. Not specially designed for geographically referenced data.
No the capabilities in handling vector-based data.

Major GIS software

ArcInfo and ArcView of ESRI
ArcInfo on Unix (1981)
PC ARC/INFO (1986)
ArcView GIS (1991)
ArcInfo for Windows NT (1996):
ArcGIS: ArcInfo, ArcEdit, ArcView, ArcIMS, ArcSDE.

GRASS: Geographic Resources Analysis Support System, (GRASS), originally

written by the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories (USA-
CERL) branch of the US Army Corp of Engineers. Now it is public domain
software. The GRASS Development Team has grown into a multi-national team
consisting of developers at numerous locations and now maintains dual
headquarters in both the United States (Baylor University) and Germany
(University of Hannover).

IDRISI:
Introduced in 1987
raster-based microcomputer GIS and image processing system on the market.
Originally developed by Ronald Eastman, now the Clark Labs within the
Graduate School of Geography at Clark University
 MapInfo
One of the first desktop GIS mapping package.MapInfo Corporation of Troy,
New York.
Maptitude
By Caliper Corporation, Newton, Massachusetts. TransCAD is the major product
of Caliper. Runs under Windows95, Windows NT.

Microstation MGE
Layer-based GIS by the Integraph Corporation of Hunrsville, Alabama. Runs on
PCs, Windows NT, and workstations.

AutoCAD Map 2000:

Built upon the capabilities of the substantial AutoCAD release 14 software for
automated drafting and design. This package is extensively used in planning,
engineering, and architectural offices. The software supports topology, query,
data managements, and thematic mapping.

Academic Journals of GIS

• International Journal of Geographical Information Science
• Cartography and Geographical Information Science (Formerly, American
Cartographer)
• Transactions in Geographical Information Systems
• Computers, Environment and Urban Systems
• Geographical Analysis
• Journal of Geographical Systems
• Geographical and environmental modeling

Reading assignment:
Longley, P.A., M.F. Goodchild, D.J. Maquire, D.W. Rhind, (2001) Geographic
Information Systems and Science, John Wiley & Sons, 454p.