DURACRETE structures

- A

guideline

for

durability-based

design

of

concrete

Carola Edvardsenl) and Louise Mohr2) COWI Consulting Engineers and Planners, Parallelvej 15, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark, Tel +45459722 Il, fax +4545972112, e-mail: cle@cowi.dk1), lmr@cowi.dk2)

Summary In the BriteuRam project 'DuraCrete' the durability design has been developed into a service life design based on performance and reliability taking into account the probabilistic nature of concrete structures. This offers the possibility to present a durability design approach at the same level as the structural design that has also been based on performance and reliability. This is not proposing a radical new method, but simply applying the same rigour to durability as to structural design. It may be expected that this approach will be the basis for service li fe design of concrete structures in the future. The methodology applied is described here and the design methodology is demonstrated in an illustrative example. Introduction The present design approach with respect to durability of concrete structures is based on simple deem-to-satisfy rules, for example minimum cover, maximum waterlbinder ratio, minimum air content and maximum crack width. Following these requirements the designer may assume that the structure will achieve an acceptably long, but unspecified life. Another disadvantage of this common design approach is that the rules are related to crude environmental classification. The rules are inadequate in some aggressive environments, while they are too rigorous in other environments. In practice, the designer selects values from tables without knowing the basis for these numbers. So we attempt to design long life structures without quantifying the right exposure conditions, without quantifying the design life and w hat durability limit states must be met, and without a defined basis for the proposed deemed-to-satisfy rules.

To improve this situation a new concept for durability design needs to be established. Similar to the current procedure for structural design, durability design should be performance based. This implies that it is necessaryto predict the degradation of concrete structures with time, i. e. the prediction of service life must be based on modeIs of the environmental actions, and of the relevant matelials, and be sufficiently accurate to predict the future behaviour of the structures.
The design must be developed on the basis of structural reliability theory [1]. Structural reliability theory offers a consistent framework to quantify the ability of a structure to meet the given performance requirements including the possibility of updating with all available information from observations and tests. To determine the probability that a structure is able to meet the performance requirements with a given level ofreliability, the uncertainty related to the pararneters describing the environment and the material must be estimated, i.e. it is necessary to formulate a probabilistic model of the considered destructive mechanisms.

The idea of using probabilistic methods for durability design was for the first time implemented on a larger scale within the Brite-EuRam project I'probabilistic Performance Based Durability Design ofConcrete Structures" (in shortDuraCrete).

Durability design Traditionally, guidelines of practice contain requirernents of design, which are formulated directly in terms of the load carrying capacity of the considered element. Durability has often been considered of secondary importance. Hence, requirernents to the durability of the design have typically been given implicitly. In this way the treatmmentof load carrying capacity and durability has been separated not only in the guidelines but also -and this is much worse -ih the profession of structural engineering. This had lead to a demand for a new design guideline [2], which is based on terms like performance, durability, limit states, reliability and service li fe as in structural design. To proceed on this basis the folIowing steps are needed:

Identification of environmental actions on one side and resulting processes and mechanismson the other Selection of probabilistic modeIs for degradation processes Definition of serviceability lifetime and limit states Definition of required level of reliability
The new durability design approach should be able to docurnent the efficiency of the matelials to resist the aggressiveness of typical environments in Europe. Therefore, the structural designer will be able to docurnent the fulfilment of a specific limit state. For the designer the detelioration modeIs showing the degradatio:n over time, or showing the service life as a function of appropliate design pararneters, are valuable tools. With the aid of this methodology for durability design the designer can make decisions on the required dirnensions and mateli al specifications for structures with service life requirernents. Service life and limit states

In designing for durability, the first step is the definition of the desired/required perfonnance of the structure. The client or the owner of the structure is asked to define the required target service life and the event, which identifies the end of the service life. Figure 1 shows in principle the perfonnance of a concrete structure with respect to reinforcement corrosion and related events. In general the points 1 and 2 represent events related to the serviceability of the structure, point 3 is related to both serviceability and ultimate failure and point 4 represents collapse of the structure.

Initiation Ic * CD

Propagation

(3)

GD
Time

Damage Events (1) G) Depassivation Cracking

w Gi)

Spalling Gallapse

Figure 1: Events related to the service life. The following events can be used to identify the service life

I. Depassivation of reinforcement The service life is limited to the initiation period, i.e. the time for the aggressivesubstanceto reach the reinforcement and induce depassivation.The initiation phaseends when the chloride concentration at the reinforcement reachesa critical threshold value or when the carbonation front reachesthe reinforcement. Depassivation does not necessarily representan undesirable state. However, this event must have occurred before corrosion will begin. 2. Cracking of concrete cover The secondevent is cracking of the concrete cover due to the expansive forces generatedby the corrosion products. In this casethe service life includes a certain propagation period of corrosion activity during which the cross section area of the reinforcement is progressively reduced. The crack width dependson the amount of corrosion, the cover/diameter ratio, the concrete quality (tensile strength) and the position of the bar.The propagation time ends when a certain a priori selectedor determined allowable crack width has been reached.Based on available knowledge a value of 0.3 mm has been chosen in the present guideline. 3. Spalling of concrete cover Corrosion continuing after cracking may lead to spalling of the concrete cover. Depending on the bar spacing,the concrete cover, and the tensile strength of the concrete, spalling may be either in the form of local triangular parts of concrete along each corroding bar, or the splitting forces from several corroding bars may interact and spall the cover over larger areas.The loss of reinforcement cross section and to some extent also the loss of concrete section willlead to a reduced load carrying capacity. Spalling of concrete is usually considered an unacceptable condition. However, spalling does not necessarilylead to collapse of the structure and may, therefore, be considered as a serviceability limit state. On the other hand, spalling of concrete mayendanger human life and limb. In such a casespalling must be considered as an ultimate limit state. Based on available knowledge spalling is supposedto occur when a crack width of approximately 1.0 mm has been reached.The propagation time is assumedto end at this stage. 4. Collapse Collapse of the concrete structure will occur if the load carrying capacity of the element is reduced sufficiently due to ongoing corrosion, by further cross sectionalloss of the concrete

and steel, ar lass af band

Degradation

modeis

The second step of the durability design is to analyse the environmental actions and to formulate the relevant degradation mechanism. Mathematical modeIs describing the time dependant degradation processes and the material resistance are needed. The big step forward to performance related durability design is that these modeIs enable the designer to evaluate the time-related changes in performance depending on the specific material and environmental conditions. In the last decades much effort has been put into the development of modeIs and methods for predicting deterioration of concrete structures, in particular corrosion of reinforcement due to carbonation or chloride ingress. A number of methods has matured to a level where these can be used in a formalised approach to assessment and design of concrete structures with respect to destructive mechanisms. The purpose of the DuraCrete project was to use the existing modeIs to formulate probabilistic modeIs, where the inherent physicaI uncertainty of the variables such as materiaI properties and the environment is taken into account, and where the accuracy of the chosen model is accounted for. This uncertainty can be quantified on the basis of measurements and experiments. However, because only a Iimited number of measurements and experiments can be carried out, the estimated pararneters are subject to some uncertainty, the so-called statisticaI uncertainty. It can be reduced by performing additionaI measurements and experiments.

In the present version of the guideline the mechanismswhich were modelled have been limited to: -initiation of carbonation induced corrosion -initiation of chloride induced corrosion -cracking and spalling of concrete due to corrosion products. The model used for describing the onset of chloride induced corrosion will be introduced by the folIowing example. All modeIs used within the DuraCrete project are presentedin detail in [3].
Develapment af the guideline-like durability guide

The durability design developed within the DuraCrete project is based on the LRFD approach (Load Resistance Factor Design). The LRFD approach is a so-called level 1 approach where all variables are represented by detefIninistic values and where the reliability of the structure with respect to a given event is assured by applying partial factors for the load and resistance variables.

As a first step, the design equations have been forrnulated using the perforrnance criteria required by the owner of the structures. Then the probabilistic model of the considered destructive mechanisms must be forrnulated. The related load and resistance variables, including material properties have to be statistically quantified, which is further described in [4] .Finally, a calibration of the partial factors has been carried out using reliability analysis.

Design equations, load and resistance variables The durability design methodology is based on reliability theory traditionally used in a structural design guideline. Similar to the structural design, load (S) and resistance (R) variables have to be defined. By definition, a load variable is a variable where an increase of the numerical value leads to a reduction of the reliability of the structure, whereas an increase of the numerical value of a resistance variable leads to an increase of the reliability. The purpose of a reliability analysis is to detefIlline the probability of a given event, e. g. the event which marks the end of the service life. The considered event is described in tefIlls of a limit state function g(x,t), where x denotes the vector of basic variables and t denotes the time. The limit state function (design equation) can be written: g(x,t) = R(t)- S(t) where R(t) and S(t) denotes the time-variant resistance and load variable, respectively The failure probability within the perlod t can be expressed as P{ failure} = Pf,t = P{R -S < o}t < Ptarget=<I>(-f3targeJ (2)
(1)

in which P{failure} 1- Pf.t Ptarget <I> 13target or Pf.t -the -the -the -the probability of failure of the structure within t reliability of the structure accepted maximum value of the probability of failure standard normal distribution function

-the target reliability index (this parameter is normally used in guidelines instead of the failure probability)

, Dis tribution of R(t)

--

'
~-~--

R,S
Pt

-- ---~

- --~-

-)-I arget s ervice

s (t) -.' -- .- -.
'Dis tribution of S (t): .

..,

.~

~,

:Mean service life .

~~ " ~, Time ~~..~

life

Figure 2: Failure probability and target service life (illustrative presentation). In Figure 2 a schematic representation of the problem is shown

Reliability level (acceptance criteria)

With the aid of probabilistic failure probability,

techniques the probability of an unwanted event (hereafter called can be calculated. With equation (2) a target service Pf, and thus the index fJ,

denoted as p f)

lifetime t = 4arget can be determined for a certain allowable failure probability, thus satisfying a certain acceptance criteria. Like in structural design the failure probability acceptance criteria, is usually being given in terms of a safety index or reliability defined by fJ= -<I>-I(Pf)

(3)

The target reliability (acceptance criteria) chosen for the present durability guideline is based on "example structures" designed according to today's "best practice" in the European countries. The acceptance criteria used for the partial factor calibration are related to a service life of 50 years and differentiated depending on the level of costs, see Table 1.

Cost of design and construction

Low Normal Hi!!:h

Cast af repair

Carbonation fJtarget

Chloride ingress fJtarget

4.3 2.3 0.8

High Normal Low

5.7 4.3 3.0

Table 1: Acceptance criterla for carbonation and chlorlde induced corrosion for a 50 years reference perlod For carbonation the target reliability years, respectively. Calibration of partial factors For practical lise the design has been simplified to a semi-probabilistic level with characteristic values of load and resistance variables and partial factors that are calibrated in slich a way that the target reliability will be achieved: Rc / YR-Sc .ys = Rd -Sd > O In which: Rc -load bearing capacity of the structure based on characteristic values yR -material factor Sc- characteristic value of the influence of the loading Ys-load factor Rd- design value of the load bearing capacity Sd- design value of the load (4) indices of 5.7, 4.3 and 3.0 correspond to the probabilities

of 10-7, 10-5 and 10-3 of observing a crack with a crack width of 1.0 mm after a perlod of 50

The probabilistic calculations result in sensitivity measures describing the influence of the specific pararneterson the total probability. Partial factors are calibrated in such a way that pararneters having a high influence on the given problem are assigned with a high partial factor and pararneterswith very little importance are assignedwith a partil factor equal to or close to I. The partial factors are calibrated such that a given design based on these partial factors obtains the applicable target reliability. This is achieved by determining the partial factors in such a way that the values of the design variables used in the deterministic design correspond to the

values of the basic variables in the most likely failure point when the reliability to the target reliability. Example In the fol lo wing, an example is given where the concrete cover of a column situated in a tidal zone is determined by use of both parti al factors and a probabilistic analysis. The cost of repair is normal compared to the cost of design and construction.

index is equal

Partial factor method The purpose is to determine the concrete cover by use of partial factors in order to obtain a sufficient reliability of the structure. The parti al factors meet the requirement of a 1% probability of chloride initiation (safety index /3 = 2.3) af ter 50 years. The design equation, g, stating that coITosion is initiated when the chloride concentration around the reinforcement exceeds the critical chloride concentration is given by l-erf 2~ Xd ,~
g = d Ccr -c d

x,t

d Ccr

-c:

(5)

"~ t is the exposure time and the remaining variables are described in Table 2 and Table 3. The time dependent diffusion coefficient can be found from Dd(t) = D~k;k;( ~ )nc .rD (6)

By isolating the exposure time, the time to initiation of corrosion can be estimated from
Ii c -n

d
I

2 XC -i1x

1 --f!:-

CC

1 Cs.r c,

r c"

)-2

m
.tn' o

Dc

.kc

.kc

rD

The upper case indices c and d denotes characteristic and design values, respectively. The input pararneters are given below in Table 2 and Table 3. The characteristic values are all defined as 50% fractiles, except the effective chloride diffusion coefficient Do which is defined as a 95% fractile.
Parameter
Concrete ~ cover, x

Dimension [mm]

Design 75

valne

Effective chloride diffusion coefficient, Critical chloride content, Ccr

I Age factor, ~

Do

[mm2/year] [wt.-%/concrete wt.]

179 0.9 0.37

Environmental factor, ke Curing factor, kc Surface chloride concentration, Cs Reference time, to

[-]
[-]

0.92 1 2.33 0.0767

(wt.-%/concrete wt.]
[years]

Table 2: Input pararnetersfor the deterministic design

Table 3: Margin and partial factors.

The time to initiation of corrosion is found to be:

t; d =

1
179.0.92.1.0.0767.37.2.2 1)-2

11=0:37
= 50 years .

The time to initiation of corrosion induced by chloride ingress is estimated to 50 years which is in accordance with the requirement. The concrete cover can therefore be specified as 75 mm, since this will give the sufficient reliability during the service lifetime of the structure.
Probabilistic analysis In a probabilistic analysis, it is not only possible to estimate the concrete cover in order to obtain a certain reliability at a given time, it is also possible to calculate the reliability at different times when making a parameter study over time. Moreover it is possible to perform a sensitivity analysis, which shows how much influence each of the different stochastic variables has on the joint reliability. This could be useful when it is difficult to obtain a sufficient level of reliability, therefore requiring a more detailed investigation of the material parameters, so that it can be pointed out which variables that would give the highest benefit of investigating.

The purpose is to determine the concrete cover obtaining a sufficiently small probability of chloride induced initiation of corrosion after 50 years. Since the partial factors used in this example are calibrated to a safety index of 2.3, the concrete cover will be determined so that a probability of corrosion will correspond to this reliability level. The limit state functions are the same as mentioned above in the partial factor design, though of course without the partial factors. The distribution and distribution pararnetersfor the input parametersare given below in Table 4.
Parameter
I Concrete cover, x

Dimension
[mm] Do [mm2/year] (wt.%/concrete wt.]
[-]

Mean valne 75 158 0.9 0.37

Standard deviation

Distribution
Log Normal Normal Normal Beta Gamma Fixed value

10 15.8 0.15 0.07 0.16

Chloride diffusion coefficient, Critical chloride content, Ccr

I Age factor, n
factor, k e

Environmental

0.92 1 2.33 0.0767

Curing factor, kc Reference time, to

[-]

Surface chloride concentration, Cs (wt. %/concrete wt.]

[years]

1.18

Normal Fixed value

Table 4: Input pararneters for the reliability

analysis.

The probability of chloride induced initiation of corrosion is calculated for the time until 100 years and the output can be seen below, where the probability of corrosion is shown in Figure 3.
Chloride induced corrosion

o o
10

20

30

Pigure 3: The probability of corrosion as a function of time. The probability of initiation of corrosion after 50 years is 1%, which corresponds to a reliability index of 2.3 implying a sufficient reliability in this case. The concrete cover can therefore be specified to 75 mm. In this example, the samereliability level is obtained in both design methods, the partial factor method and the probabilistic analysis. This did not necessarily have to be the case, since the parti al factors are estimated from a large number of different structures and the calibrated values are kind of averagevalues. Literature [1] Madsen, H. O., Krenk, S., Lind, N. C., Methads af Structural Safety, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewaad Cliffs, NJ, 1986.
DuraCrete/BE95-1347/R14 (1999) "General Guidelines for Durability Design and Redesign", Task 7 Report. Prepared by COWI Consulting Engineers and Planners AS, Denmark. DuraCrete/BE95-1347/R4-5 (1998) "Modelling ofDegradation", Task 2 Report. Prepared by Taywood Engineering Lirnited (TEL), United Kingdom. DuraCrete/BE95-1347/R7 (1999) "Statistical Quantification", Task 4 Report. Prepared by TNO Building and Construction Research, The Netherlands.

[2]

[3]

[4]

Acknowledgement The DuraCrete-project 'Probabilistic Perfonnance based Durability Design of Concrete Structures' is being carried out in the framework of the Brite-EuRam Programrne (project BE951347), with a financial contribution of the European Cornmission.

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