(From Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: food and drink.

Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., November 36, 1999. Ann G. Macfarlane, comp. American Translators Association, 1999. 275-308.)

TOPICS IN SPANISH LEXICAL DIALECTOLOGY: FOOD AND DRINK Andre Moskowitz

Keywords: Food, Beverages, Spanish, Regionalisms, Terminology, Dialectology, Lexicography, Sociolinguistics. Abstract: This paper presents information on regional Spanish-language terminology that relates to food, beverages and matters related to food and beverages.

INTRODUCTION

There are many foods, beverages, and related phenomena that have different names in different regions of the Spanish-speaking world. For example, Mexicans tend to use one word to refer to a drinking straw whereas Colombians have a different name for it. In cases where regional variation in terminology has been observed, this paper addresses a very basic question: In peoples everyday speech, who says what where? The emphasis is not on regional dishes (platos tpicos), but on foods that are common in many countries. The regional names for many fruits and vegetables1, and for some household objects2 that relate to food have been presented by the author in previous works and will not be discussed here. The word item will be used to refer to the food, beverage or other phenomenon that is addressed in each of the papers twenty sections. The material is catalogued under four general headings (meat & animals, desserts & sweets, miscellaneous foods & beverages, and things related to foods & beverages), and the title of each section is the items common name(s) or designation(s) in United States English, or several of the Spanish-language names, if no U.S. English equivalent exists (e.g. atado de dulce / panela / ra(s)padura). A) Meat & Animals: 1) hotdog, 2) pig, 3) bacon, 4) turkey. B) Desserts & Sweets: 1) atado de dulce / panela / ra(s)padura, 2) cake, 3) (ice cream) cone, 4) lollipop. C) Miscellaneous Foods & Beverages: 1) butter, 2) peanut, 3) popcorn, 4) soda / pop, 5) co(n)coln / concn / pega(o) / raspa(o), 6) chatino / patacn / tostn.

D) Things Related to Foods & Beverages: 1) (drinking) straw, 2) tooth pick, 3) tray, 4) cantina / fiambrera / porta(comidas) / (porta)vianda(s) (type of device), 5) hangover, 6) lagniappe. Each section is divided into three subsections: 1) 2) 3) 0.1 Terms by Country Details Real Academia Regional Review Terms by Country

These subsections consist of lexico-geographic tables in which the terms used in the Spanishspeaking regions of peninsular Spain and the nineteen Spanish-speaking countries of the Western Hemisphere are presented. Unfortunately, due to a lack of access to participants from these areas, almost no information was obtained on usage in the Canary Islands, Equatorial Guinea or other Spanish-speaking regions outside of Europe and Latin America. Since the countries are arranged in a geographical order, they often highlight lexico-geographic blocs, or groups of countries that are in geographic proximity and also share the same lexical usage for a given item. The information was gathered by the author from two hundred native speakers of Spanish, ten from each country, by one of the following methods: 1) through observation in the countries themselves; 2) by showing informants the item, or a picture of the item, or by giving them a description of the item and asking them to give the term most commonly used in their region for it; and 3) by asking informants who are highly proficient in English to give the equivalents of English language terms that are used in their native regions. Following each Spanish-language term, a percentage is given indicating the proportion of the informants who used a particular term or gave it as their response to a question. Thus, in the first table, hotdog,
MEXICO

hotdog (80%), perro caliente (30%).

is to be interpreted as, Of the ten Mexicans who were observed referring to a hotdog or were asked to give the term they used for this item, eight gave or used the term hotdog and three the term perro caliente (one person said both terms were used). In many cases, the people interviewed indicated that more than one term was commonly used in their homeland and, therefore, the percentages for the terms frequently total more than 100%. An effort was made to ensure that the informants from each country were from different regions and were of different ages, genders, and socioeconomic classes, but how representative they are of their entire nation is a question that can only be determined by research that tests much larger numbers of people. However, the author is confident that further studies will show that the usage indicated is typical for the region in question in the case of most of the terms that were given by 80% or more of the participants. In order to consolidate the information, the data for groups of countries is sometimes presented in a single line with the use of categories such as Hispanic Central America (Panama, Costa

Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala), Hispanic Antilles (Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico), Southern Cone (Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile), and Rest of Spanish America (all Spanish-speaking Latin American countries that are not listed in the table with an individual country specification). When informants used or offered several very similar variants, words or letters appear in parentheses or separated by slashes. Thus, where perr(it)o caliente appears, informants indicated that both perro caliente and perrito caliente are used. It should be noted that in more formal situations some educated Spanish Americans try to avoid using the terms that are most common in their own region__such as hotdog, chancho, chompipe, queque, cono and chuchaqui__because they perceive them as being regional, national, lower-class (popular or populachero) or anglicisms, and opt to use terms that they believe sound more international, proper, or pure Spanish (castizo), such as perro caliente, cerdo, pavo, torta/tarta/pastel, barquillo and resaca, respectively. Whether, for example, perro caliente can be considered more castizo than hotdog from any logical standpoint is irrelevant, and whether the use of restaurant is considered a reprehensible gallicism or more elegant than restaurante is a matter of cultural and linguistic taste. Although the preferences speakers exhibit may be the result of local linguistic customs, the choice of words can also serve as a badge with which they consciously display their sociocultural identity. 0.2 Details

In these subsections more detailed information is provided on the usage of particular regions, and of specific age and socioeconomic groups within regions. The issue of speech register (more formal vs. less formal usage) is also addressed when applicable. In both the Details and the Real Academia Regional Review subsections, a number of questions are posed that relate to peoples attitudes toward the Spanish language, both regarding what is considered good vs. bad Spanish and also what is considered Spanish, albeit regional Spanish, vs. what is considered foreign or other (Quechua, Guaran, English, etc.). 0.3 Real Academia Regional Review

These subsections present an evaluation of the 1992 edition of the Diccionario de la Lengua Espaola (the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary), henceforth referred to as the Real Academia. Its coverage of the regional usages described in this article is evaluated using the following grade scale: A Corresponding definition, correct regions. This grade is given when the Real Academia defines the term as used in the section of this article and correctly indicates the countries and/or regions in which the term is used in this sense. Corresponding definition, incorrect regions. This grade is given when the Real Academia defines the term as used in the section and specifies a region or regions but does not specify them correctly. Its definition either fails to include regions in which the usage occurs or includes regions where the usage does not occur. However, the grade of B is raised to an A if the Real Academias definition is appropriate, Amr. (Amrica, that is,

D F

Spanish-speaking Latin America) is specified in the definition, and the term is used in ten or more (over 50%) of the Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. Corresponding definition, no regions specified. This grade is given when the Real Academia defines the term as used in the section but does not specify any countries or regions in which the term is used in this sense. In essence, it fails to identify the usage as regional. However, the grade of C is raised to an A if the term is used in at least ten Spanish-speaking countries (at least 50% of them). No corresponding definition. This grade is given when the Real Academia does not include in its definition of the term a sense that corresponds to the section. Term not in dictionary. This grade is given when the Real Academia does not list the term at all.

In the case of compound terms, all components were tested and the grade assigned corresponds to that of the component that has the most complete information. For example, maz pira (F) means that the term maz pira does not appear in the Real Academia under maz or under pira. The purpose of this evaluation is to expose gaps and inconsistencies in specific Real Academia definitions in the hope that they will be modified in future editions to accurately describe usage in the Spanish-speaking world from an international perspective. How receptive its editors will be to the proposed changes remains to be seen. Although all dictionaries are by their very nature prescriptive, the Real Academia continues to shift from having a primarily prescriptivist philosophy, whereby it denies entry to those terms and usages which, for whatever reason, it finds objectionable, to that of taking a global-descriptivist approach: describing usage as it really is throughout the Spanish-speaking world. For example, this approach entails labeling common usages that are regional, colloquial, slang or vulgar as such rather than omitting them entirely. In recent decades, the Real Academia has made considerable strides in this direction. However, it is unclear to what extent this institution is prepared to create a dictionary that presents a truly international panorama of the Spanish language, albeit one viewed from the perspective of Castilla. The more progressive lexicographical practices exhibited in English- and Portuguese-language dictionaries are unlikely to affect the Real Academias approach as long as all other general Spanish-language dictionaries of widespread circulation continue to be largely based on the Real Academia. If one or several publishing houses came out with dictionaries that seriously challenged the Real Academias preeminent position as the definitive authoritative work on the Spanish language, the Spanish Royal Academy might decide to modify its approach. In time, it could even become a bastion of linguistic pluralism. However, mounting such a challenge will prove a difficult task for the countries of Spanish America. First, because they are developing nations with all of the economic handicaps that such status entails, and also because, in Spanish America, political independence from the mother country did not lead to cultural and linguistic independence to the same extent that it did in Brazil and the United States. Even today, it is not clear to what extent most educated Spanish Americans are proud of the fact that the Spanish they speak is quite different from that spoken in Madrid, or that the language spoken in their country has evolved into its own national standard.

A A1 A1.1

MEAT & ANIMALS HOTDOG Terms by Country (7 terms plus variants) perr(it)o caliente (90%), (salchicha de) frnkfurt (50%). hotdog (80%), perro caliente (30%). hotdog (80%), perro caliente (30%). hotdog (70%), perro caliente (40%). hotdog (100%). hotdog (100%), perro caliente (40%). perro caliente (70%), hotdog (40%). hotdog (100%), perro caliente (30%). perro caliente (100%). hotdog (70%), perro caliente (60%). hotdog (80%), perro caliente (20%), frankfrter (20%). perro caliente (100%). perro caliente (100%). hotdog (90%), perro caliente (30%). hotdog (100%). hotdog (80%), perro caliente (50%). pancho (100%), frankfrter (20%). frankfrter (60%), pancho (40%). pancho (100%). hotdog (90%), vienesa (50%), completo (40%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

A1.2

Details

General: In many of the countries hotdog and perrocaliente (or perro caliente) compete, but what are peoples perceptions of the two terms? Which is considered to be more proper or correct? Hotdog is often pronounced as if it were written jocdoc (stress on the second syllable). Chile: Completo generally refers to a hotdog with mayonnaise, tomato, saurkraut (called chucrut) and avocado, but some speakers use the term in the general sense of hotdog. Paraguay, Uruguay & Argentina: Pancho, according to some, derives from pan y chorizo; others claim it comes from Pancho, the nickname for Francisco. Perr(it)ocaliente or perr(it)o caliente? Should this term be written as one word or two? One way to answer this question is to ask whether caliente is an adjective that agrees in number with perro when the term is in the plural. In other words, in spoken language, do people say dos perros calientes or dos perrocalientes? If the former, then one can argue that the term should be written as two words. If, on the other hand, the perro component remains in the singular, then it should be written as one word. In fact, there is evidence that in many Spanish American countries the term is often written as one word, perhaps because it is a calque of the English term hotdog.

A1.3

Real Academia Regional Review

Completo (D), frnkfurt (F), frankfrter (F), hotdog (F), pancho (D), perritocaliente (F), perrito caliente (C?), perrocaliente (F), perro caliente (C?), salchicha de frnkfurt (F), vienesa (D). Perrito caliente is defined (under perrito) as fig. Panecillo caliente, generalmente untado de tomate frito y mostaza, en el que se introduce una salchicha cocida. The definition emphasizes the bun rather than the hotdog. Do Spanish speakers generally consider a perr(it)o caliente to be first and foremost the bun to which a hotdog is added, or primarily the hotdog which may or may not come with a bun? If the latter is in fact the case, then the thrust of the definition needs to be reversed.

A2 A2.1
SPAIN

PIG Terms by Country (15 terms) cerdo (100%), puerco (80%), marrano (70%), cochino (60%), gorrino (50%), guarro (50%), gocho (30%), cocho (10%). puerco (100%), cerdo (70%), cochino (70%), marrano (50%). coche (100%), cerdo (60%), puerco (50%), marrano (40%). cuche (90%), chancho (80%), puerco (70%), tunco (70%), marrano (60%), cerdo (40%), cochino (30%). chancho (100%), cerdo (70%), curro (50%), marrano (50%), puerco (50%), cochino (30%). chancho (100%), cerdo (40%), puerco (20%). chancho (100%), cerdo (70%), puerco (50%), cuche (40%), cochino (40%), marrano (20%). puerco (100%), cerdo (40%), chancho (30%), cochino (30%). cochino (90%), puerco (90%), cerdo (50%), marrano (40%), macho (30%). puerco (100%), cerdo (60%), marrano (40%), chancho (20%). cerdo (100%), puerco (70%), cochino (40%), marrano (30%). cochino (100%), marrano (30%), puerco (30%), cerdo (20%). cerdo (70%), marrano (70%), puerco (60%), chancho (30%), cochino (20%). chancho (100%), puerco (70%), cerdo (40%), cuchi (30%), marrano (20%). chancho (100%), cerdo (50%), cuchi (30%), marrano (30%), puerco (30%). chancho (100%), cerdo (80%), cuchi (50%), puerco (30%). cur (90%), chancho (90%), cerdo (30%). chancho (100%), cerdo (40%). chancho (100%), cerdo (50%). chancho (100%), cerdo (60%).

MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

A2.2

Details

General: Although the above terms can all refer to the same animal, they are not equivalent in so far as they correspond to different speech registers. Cerdo is the most polite way of referring to the animal in question and corresponds to the high register whereas puerco, chancho and many of the other more local terms are considered less polite words and correspond to a lower register. Cerdo and puerco are used in the sense of the animal almost everywhere, but in many countries there are regional terms that are more common, especially in everyday speech. Spain: Are cocho, gocho, gorrn, gorrino and guarro used throughout Spain, or primarily in certain regions? If the latter, which regions? Cuba: Macho appears to be used primarily in Oriente. Ecuador, Peru & Bolivia: In Ecuador, cuchi appears to be used more in the Sierra (highlands), especially by speakers of Quichua/Quechua. Is cuchi used in specific regions of Peru and Bolivia as well? Paraguay: The Guaran term, pronounced as if written cur, is used by many Paraguayans even when speaking Spanish. A2.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Cerdo (A), coche (C), cochino (A), cocho (C), cuche (F), cuchi (F), cuch (C), cur (F), curro (D), chancho (A), gocho (C), gorrino (C), guarro (C), macho (A), marrano (A), puerco (A), tunco (B). Cebn is defined as 2. m. puerco and gorrn as cerdo, puerco, gorrino. Where are these terms commonly used in this sense?

A3 A3.1
SPAIN

BACON Terms by Country (4 terms plus variants) tocino (entreverado) (80%), panceta (70%), beicon (60%), bacn (30%). tocino (90%), beicon (20%). beicon (80%), tocino (80%). tocino (90%), beicon (20%). tocineta (100%), tocino (40%). beicon (80%), tocino (70%). tocino (70%), beicon (60%), tocineta (20%). tocineta (90%), tocino (50%). tocineta (100%), beicon (40%), tocino (30%). tocineta (100%), tocino (40%). tocineta (100%), tocino (40%). panceta (100%), tocino (60%). panceta (100%), tocino (50%). tocino (100%).

EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA URUGUAY ARGENTINA REST OF SPANISH AMERICA

A3.2

Details

General: In countries where terms other than tocino were offered, some stated that tocino is thicker and fattier (perhaps equivalent to salt pork, fat back or lard) than beicon, panceta or tocineta. A3.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Bacn (F), beicon (C), panceta (C), tocineta (F), tocino (A), tocino entreverado (C). Beicon is defined as Panceta ahumada and panceta, in turn, is defined as Hoja de tocino entreverada con magro. Tocino is defined as Panculo adiposo, muy desarrollado, de ciertos mamferos, especialmente el cerdo. || 2. Lardo del tocino and tocino entreverado is defined (under tocino) as El [tocino] que tiene algunas hebras de magro. These definitions suggest that, at least in Spain, distinctions are made between beicon, panceta, tocino and tocino entreverado. Are any of these distinctions generally maintained in Spanish America?

A4 A4.1

TURKEY Terms by Country (13 terms) pavo (100%). guajolote (100%), pavo (70%), ccono (50%). chompipe (100%), pavo (50%), chumpe (30%), chunto (30%). chumpipe (70%), pavo (70%), chumpe (60%), chompipe (50%), huehuecho/gegecho (50%), guajolote (30%), jolote (30%). jolote (100%), pavo (80%), chumpe (50%), guajolote (50%), chumpipe (40%), chumpo (40%). chompipe (100%), pavo (50%). chompipe (100%), pavo (40%). pavo (80%), guanajo (70%). pavo (100%), pisco (50%), chumbo (10%). pavo (100%), chumbo (10%). pavo (100%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA CUBA COLOMBIA ECUADOR REST OF SPANISH AMERICA

A4.2

Details

General: Pavo is used everywhere to refer to some species of turkey, but in many Spanish American countries regional terms are used that are more common than pavo, especially when referring to the animal. In Spanish America some people use pavo to refer to turkey, the food, and their regional term (chompipe, guajolote, etc.) to refer to turkey, the animal. What are the most common species of turkey in each country? Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador & Honduras: These countries each have two or more regional terms. What, if any, are the regional differences within these countries? In Mexico, ccono appears to be characteristic of the northern part of the country.

Colombia & Ecuador: The Colombian and Ecuadoran who gave chumbo were from the department of Nario and the province of Carchi, respectively (extreme southern Colombia and extreme northern Ecuador, respectively). Gegecho or huehuecho: How should words that have the sound gua, ge or gi (or hua, hue or hui) be written? Should it be based strictly on etymology? What about words that derive from indigenous languages? The use of the gu and g forms is often considered inculto (uneducated/low-class), but many words that begin with this sound such as huehuecho/gegecho are inherently popular words so writing them with an hu will do little to make them standard and acceptable in polite conversation. In several Hispanic Central American countries huehuecho/gegecho refers to bocio (goiter) and, in El Salvador, perhaps by analogy, it also refers to the fleshy protuberance that hangs from the turkeys neck. A4.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Ccono (A), chompipe (B), chumbo (D), chumpe (F), chumpipe (B), chumpo (F), chunto (F), guajolote (B), guanajo (B), gegecho (F), huehuecho (F), jolote (F), pavo (A), pisco (B).

B B1 B1.1

DESSERTS & SWEETS ATADO DE DULCE / PANELA / RA(S)PADURA Terms by Country (c. 10 terms plus variants) piloncillo (100%), panela (40%), panocha (30%). panela (90%), ra(s)padura (60%), tapa de dulce (40%). atado de dulce (80%), (dulce de) panela (70%), dulce de atado (40%). (dulce de) ra(s)padura (100%), raspadura de dulce (30%), atado de dulce (30%). atado de dulce (60%), ra(s)padura (50%). tapa (de) dulce (90%), atado de dulce (70%), tamuga (60%). ra(s)padura (100%), panela (80%). papeln (90%), panela (80%). panela (100%). panela (70%), ra(s)padura (70%). chancaca (100%). chancaca (100%). raspadura (50%), not common (50%). chancaca (100%).

MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY CHILE

B1.2

Details

General: The item in question is a block of unrefined, brown sugar, often wrapped up in a banana leaf, corn husk or sugar cane leaf. What wrappers are most common in each country and what material is used to tie up the package?

Spain, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Uruguay & Argentina: The research from this study indicates that the item in question is not common in these countries although some Uruguayans indicated that rapadura (the Brazilian Portuguese word for this item) is found in Uruguayan towns along the Brazilian border. The term ra(s)padura is used in the Hispanic Antilles, but it refers to a type of dessert or sweet that has other ingredients such as milk, vanilla, coconut, orange, etc. depending on the region. Since Spain, Uruguay and Argentina are not tropical countries and have little sugar cane production, it is understandable why blocks of unrefined sugar would not be produced there, but why is this product not common in Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico? After all, these are some of the leading sugar-producing countries in the world. Is it precisely because sugar is produced on such a large scale in the Hispanic Antilles that this more primitive form of sugar is not common there? Mexico: Are panela and panocha used in this sense primarily in certain regions of the country? Where? El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua & Costa Rica: Atado de dulce, often shortened to atado or atadito, generally refers to two of these blocks of sugar that are wrapped up and tied together. Thus two panelas, raspaduras or tapas de dulce wrapped up together is one atado. B1.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Atado de dulce (F), chancaca (B or D?), dulce de atado (F), dulce de rapadura (F), dulce de raspadura (F), panela (B), panocha (D), papeln (C), piloncillo (F), rapadura (D), raspadura (D), raspadura de dulce (F), tamuga (F), tapa de dulce (F), tapa dulce (F). Chancaca is defined as Amr. Masa preparada con azcar o miel, y de diversas maneras. How accurately does this describe what Peruvians, Bolivians and Chileans call chancaca?

B2 B2.1

CAKE Terms by Country (c. 9 terms plus variants) tarta (80%), pastel (70%), bizcocho (60%), torta (30%). pastel (100%). pastel (100%). que(i)que/cake (100%), pastel (70%). que(i)que/cake (100%), pastel (60%). que(i)que/cake (100%), pastel (50%). que(i)que/cake (100%), pastel (40%). dulce (70%), que(i)que/cake (70%), pastel (40%), bizcocho (30%). que(i)que/cake (100%), panetela (50%), panqu (40%). bizcocho (100%). bizcocho (100%). torta (100%), panqu (40%), ponqu (40%). ponqu (80%), bizcocho (40%), torta (40%). torta (90%), que(i)que/cake (70%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR

10

PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

torta (100%), que(i)que/cake (70%). torta (100%), que(i)que/cake (60%). torta (100%). torta (100%). torta (100%). torta (100%), que(i)que/cake (60%).

B2.2

Details

General: In many countries there are people who use one term to refer to cakes that have frosting, cream and/or decorations and another to refer to pound cakes or other plain cakes without frosting. However, many speakers do not make the distinction. Cuba: Panetela and panqu refer to cakes without frosting. Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia & Chile: Queques/cakes generally refer to cakes without frosting whereas tortas tend to be cakes with frosting. Uruguay & Argentina: Bizcochuelo refers to a type of plain, yellow cake. Often dulce de leche or some other type of frosting is added to it to create a torta. Cake/queque/queique: In the countries that use this term or set of terms, how does pronunciation vary by region? The basic pronunciations are: 1) with two syllables, as if written queque; 2) with two syllables, as if written queique; and 3) with one syllable, as if written key or keik. Which pronunciations are most common in each country? What about the written forms? Where is the direct loan word cake preferred and where are the Castillianized versions queque or queique preferred? (For example, in Ecuador the word generally refers to unfrosted cakes, is usually pronounced with one syllable, and tends to be written cake by the educated and key by the uneducated.) B2.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Bizcocho (B or C?), bizcochuelo (F), cake (F), panqu (F), panetela (B or D?), pastel (C or D?), ponqu (B), queque (F), tarta (C), torta (B). Bizcocho is defined as Masa compuesta de la flor de la harina, huevos y azcar, que se cuece en hornos pequeos, y se hace de diferentes especies y figuras. || ... 5. Col. Pastel de crema o dulce. How accurately does sense one describe what Dominicans, Puerto Ricans and other Spanish Americans call bizcocho? Which Colombians use bizcocho in the sense of cake, costeos? Panetela is defined as 3. And., Cuba y P. Rico. Especie de bizcocho with no indication as to the type or types of bizcocho panetela refers to in Andaluca, Cuba and Puerto Rico. Pastel is defined as Masa de harina y manteca, cocida al horno, en que ordinariamente se envuelve crema o dulce, y a veces carne, fruta o pescado. This definition is quite broad in that it refers to many different types of pasteles, both de dulce and de sal. It does not clearly indicate that pastel means cake in particular countries. Also, does the word manteca in Masa de harina y manteca... refer to butter or lard? If the former, mantequilla should be used in the definition instead of manteca (see section C1). The Real Academias definitions imply that pastel is not equivalent to tarta which is defined as 2. Pastel grande, de forma generalmente redonda, relleno de frutas, crema, etc.; tambin se hace de bizcocho, pasta de almendra y otras clases de masa homognea. What is the best way to define the terms bizcocho, pastel, tarta and torta so that all of the foods they can refer to are covered and so that any Spanish-language reader, regardless of country of origin, will have a basic understanding of the different meanings?

11

B3 B3.1

(Ice Cream) CONE Terms by Country (5 terms) cucurucho (90%), barquillo (50%). barquillo (80%), cono (70%). cono (80%), barquillo (50%). cono (90%), barquillo (40%). cono (100%). cono (100%). cono (100%). barquillo (90%), cono (30%). barquillo (100%). barquilla (100%). barquilla (80%), cono (30%). barquilla (100%). cono (100%), cucurucho (20%). cono (100%). barquillo (90%), cono (30%), barquimiel (30%). barquillo (90%), cono (40%). cucurucho (90%), barquillo (60%). cucurucho (100%). cucurucho (100%). barquillo (100%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

B3.2

Details

General: Although the terms in this section are often used to refer to ice cream cones in general, some speakers may use different terms to refer to different types of cones such as sugar cones, wafer cones, or depending on the shape of the ice cream cone (whether in the shape of a cone or a truncated cone). B3.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Barquilla (D), barquillo (C?), barquimiel (F), cono (D), cucurucho (C). Does the Real Academia consider barquillo and cucurucho to be equivalents? The former is defined as Hoja delgada de pasta hecha con harina sin levadura y azcar o miel y por lo comn canela, la cual, en moldes calientes, reciba en otro tiempo figura convexa o de barco, y hoy suele tomar la de canuto, ms ancho por uno de sus extremos que por el otro. Cucurucho, in contrast, is defined as Papel, cartn, barquillo, etc., arrollado en forma cnica. Sirve para contener dulces, confites, helados, cosas menudas, etc. . t. en sent. fig. The Real Academia should indicate that the two terms can be equivalent and cross-reference them.

12

B4 B4.1

LOLLIPOP Terms by Country (c. 20 terms) chupachu(p)s (100%), piruleta (60%), pirul (50%), chupeta (20%). paleta (100%), pirul(n) (70%), chupaleta (50%). bombn (80%), chupete (60%), paleta (50%). bombn (100%), paleta (60%). bombn (100%), paleta (50%), piruln (30%). bombn (70%), paleta (60%). chupa-chupa (70%), popi (60%), piruln (40%). caramelo (100%). chambelona (100%), pirul(n) (60%), carioca (30%). paleta (100%), piln (70%), chupeta (50%), boln (30%). paleta (100%), piln (70%). chupeta (100%). colombina (90%), bombn (50%), chupeta (40%), piruln (20%). chupete (100%). chupete (100%), paleta (30%). chupete (100%), paleta (30%). chupetn (90%), paleta (30%), piruln (30%). chupa-chupa (70%), chupetn (60%), piruln (30%). chupetn (100%), piruln (50%). loli (70%), chupete (40%), piruln (30%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

B4.2

Details

General: Some speakers use different terms to refer to lollipops of different sizes and shapes (spherical, circular and flat, and conical ones), but more research is necessary to determine the words used in each country and the extent to which the distinctions are made. In general, pirul, piruln and piruleta tend to refer to the pointy lollipops and the others to the round ones. Some Spanish Americans indicated that the term cyac was also used as a slang term (from Koyak, the famous television detective played by Telly Savalas). Brand names: The following terms are, or were, brand names that are now often used as generic words: colombina, chupa-chupa, chupachups and chupaleta. B4.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Boln (D), bombn (D), caramelo (D), carioca (D), colombina (D), chambelona (F), chupa-chupa (F), chupachups (F), chupachs (F), chupaleta (F), chupeta (D), chupete (D), chupetn (D), loli (F), paleta (B), piln (D), piruleta (F), pirul (C), piruln (F), popi (F).

13

C C1 C1.1

MISCELLANEOUS FOODS & BEVERAGES BUTTER Terms by Country (2 terms) mantequilla (90%), manteca (20%). mantequilla (100%). manteca (100%). manteca (100%). manteca (100%).

SPAIN REST OF SPANISH AMERICA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA

C1.2

Details

Spain: One person from Alicante and one from Galicia indicated that manteca is used in the sense of butter. Is this the case only in certain regions of the country, or is this usage common throughout Spain? Paraguay, Uruguay & Argentina: What are peoples attitudes toward the use of manteca in the sense of butter, neutral, apologetic, positive? Some individuals queried made statements to the effect that they know that mantequilla is the correct term for butter, and that manteca really means lard, but that in our country we use manteca incorrectly. Why is manteca the predominant term for butter in these three countries? Is it because during the colonial period a large number of settlers to this region came from areas of Spain where manteca, rather than mantequilla, was used? The Portuguese word for butter is manteiga. Is it mere coincidence that the three Spanish-speaking countries in which manteca rather than mantequilla is the most common word for butter are also the three countries closest to Portuguese-speaking (i.e. non-Amazonian) Brazil? Or is there some connection between the two facts? If one asks how Paraguayans, Uruguayans and Argentines say lard (since manteca means butter), the answer is grasa de cerdo. C1.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Manteca (C), mantequilla (A). Manteca is defined as 3. Producto obtenido por el batido, amasado y posterior maduracin de la crema extrada de la leche de vaca o de otros animales. Suele designarse con el nombre del animal que produce la leche. MANTECA de vaca, de oveja. Mantequilla is defined as 2. Manteca de la leche de vaca. || 3. Producto obtenido de la leche o de la crema por agitacin o por batimiento, ya usando mquinas a propsito, ya mazando la leche en odres. Manteca should be cross-referenced to mantequilla so that it will be clear to the reader that the two can refer to one and the same thing.

14

C2 C2.1

PEANUT Terms by Country (7 terms plus variants) cacahuete (90%), man (40%), cacahu/cacahuey (20%). cacahuate (100%). mana (100%). cacahuate (80%), man (80%), cacahuete (40%). cacahuate (100%). cacaoman (60%), man (60%), cacahuate (20%). man (100%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA REST OF SPANISH AMERICA

C2.2

Details

Spain: Where and by whom are man and cacahu/cacahuey used? In certain regions of the country, or by older Spaniards? A number of people indicated that cacahu/cacahuey is not common, but that the plural form cacahueses is somewhat common among the lower socioeconomic classes. El Salvador & Nicaragua: These countries each have two or more regional terms. What, if any, are the regional differences within these countries? Or are separate terms used to refer to different types of peanuts? For example, some Salvadorans indicated that man refers to roasted and/or salted peanuts whereas cacahuate refers to raw, unshelled peanuts, but most indicated that man and cacahuate are synonyms. Paraguay: The Guaran term, manduv, is also commonly used even when Paraguayans are speaking Spanish. A nursery rhyme: The following nursery rhyme contains the word man and was heard in Ecuador: Pin, pin, San Agustn. De la ceca a la Meca a la tutuleca. Por aqu pas el hijo del rey, comiendo man, y a todos les dio, menos a m. Palo, palo para los caballos. Tuturut para que salgas t. It serves the same function as, Eenie, meanie, miney moe, catch a tiger by the toe. If he hollers, let him go. My mother said to pick the best one. In what countries is the above Spanish-language nursery rhyme, or variants of it, commonly used? If it is used in non-man countries, is some other term that ends in (such as ajonjol) substituted for man? C2.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Cacahuate (B), cacahu (C), cacahuete (C), cacahuey (C), cacaoman (F), manduv (F), man (A), mana (D).

C3 C3.1

POPCORN Terms by Country (c. 20 terms plus variants) palomitas (de maz) (100%), cotufas (20%). palomitas (de maz) (100%). poporopo (100%), palomitas (de maz) (20%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA

15

EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

palomitas (de maz) (90%), popcorn (40%), palomillas de maz (20%). palomitas (de maz) (90%), popcorn (60%), palomillas de maz (20%). palomitas (de maz) (100%), popcorn (20%). palomitas (de maz) (100%), popcorn (40%), rosetas de maz (40%). popcorn (80%), palomitas (de maz) (60%), millo (50%). rositas de maz (100%), palomitas (de maz) (20%). palomitas (de maz) (90%), cocaleca (70%), rositas de maz (40%), popcorn (20%). popcorn (100%), palomitas (de maz) (30%). cotufa(s) (100%). crispeta(s) (100%), maz pira (50%). canguil (100%). canch(it)a (80%), popcorn (80%), palomitas (de maz) (40%), canguil (20%). pipocas (90%), pasancallas (60%), poror (30%), palomitas (de maz) (20%). avat poror (100%), poror (70%). poror (80%), po(p) (60%). pochoclo (80%), poror (40%), maz pizingallo (30%). cabritas (100%), palomitas (de maz) (50%).

C3.2

Details

General: Popcorn, pronounced as if it were written pocor, is an anglicism that many Spanish Americans are familiar with even if they do not use it. This may be partly due to the fact that many movie theaters in Latin America have popcorn making machines that say popcorn on them. Spain: The two respondents who gave cotufas were from Lugo and the Canary Islands. Is the use of cotufa(s) in this sense common in any regions of Spain? If so, where? Panama: Some say millo refers to popcorn; others claim it is sweetened popcorn (see Cracker Jack below). Colombia: Maz pira seems to be used more in western Colombia in the sense of popcorn. Some Colombians consider maz pira to be the type of corn from which popcorn is made. Peru: The Peruvians who gave canguil were from northern Peru (Paita, Piura). Bolivia: The Bolivians who gave poror were from eastern (lowland) Bolivia. Several highland Bolivians indicated that pasancallas refer to a different type of sweet popcorn. Are pipocas and pasancallas synonyms in some regions of the Altiplano, or do they refer to different types of popcorn? The use of the term pipocas is the result of Brazilian influence; it is the Brazilian Portuguese word for popcorn. Paraguay: Avat poror, the Guaran term, is commonly used in this sense even when Paraguayans are speaking Spanish. Cancha (serrana)/tostado: In highland Ecuador and Peru there is a type of corn that expands when fried but does not pop. It is called tostado in Ecuador and cancha or cancha serrana in Peru. (In Peru, cancha without the modifier serrana can refer to both popcorn and tostado.) If this phenomenon exists in other Andean countries such as Colombia and Bolivia, what are its names? Cracker Jack: Are there regional names for sweetened, caramelized popcorn?

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C3.3

Real Academia Regional Review

Avat poror (F), cabrita (D), cancha (D), canguil (D), cocaleca (F), cotufa (D), crispeta (F), maz pira (F), maz pizingallo (F), millo (D), pasancallas (F), palomitas (A), pipocas (F), po (F), pop (D), pocor (F), pochoclo (F), popcorn (F), poporopo (F), poror (B), rosetas de maz (C), rositas de maz (C). Should the entry word for cabrita(s), cotufa(s) and crispeta(s) be the singular or the plural form?

C4 C4.1

SODA / POP Terms by Country (7 terms) refresco (70%), gaseosa (60%). refresco (80%), soda (60%). agua (100%), gaseosa (30%). gaseosa (100%), soda (30%). (re)fresco (100%). gaseosa (100%), bebida (50%), soda (20%). gaseosa (70%), soda (50%), refresco (40%). soda (100%). refresco (100%), gaseosa (30%). refresco (100%). refresco (100%), soda (50%). refresco (100%), gaseosa (20%). gaseosa (100%). cola (100%). gaseosa (100%), bebida (40%). gaseosa (80%), refresco (70%), soda (50%). gaseosa (90%), soda (20%). refresco (80%), gaseosa (60%), bebida (20%). gaseosa (100%). bebida (100%), gaseosa (40%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

C4.2

Details

General: Some people avoid using generic terms like gaseosa and prefer to use the name of the particular soda they are referring to, Pepsi, Fanta, etc. Although commonly used in many countries in the sense of soda/pop, refresco can also refer to various non-carbonated drinks. Mexico: Soda appears to be typical of northern Mexico whereas refresco is used in the rest of the country. Honduras: How do Hondurans distinguish between fresco = soda/pop and frescos that are made from fruit juices (see appendix)? Is it by context alone or are modifiers generally added to the fruit juice ones (e.g. fresco de tamarindo)?

17

C4.3

Real Academia Regional Review Agua (D), bebida (D), cola (D), fresco (D), gaseosa (A), refresco (D), soda (D).

C5 C5.1

CO(N)COLON / CONCON / PEGA(O) / RASPA(O) Terms by Country (9 terms not counting Spain) costra (100%). concoln (100%). raspa (100%). concn (100%). pegao (100%). cucayo/cucallo (30%), raspa (20%), not common (50%). pegao (70%), raspao (30%), pega (30%), cucayo/cucallo (30%). cocoln (100%). concoln (100%).

COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU

C5.2

Details

General: The item in question is the part of the rice that turns golden brown and crunchy on the bottom of the pan. In some countries it is quite popular whereas in others people generally do not intentionally prepare rice this way, do not like it this way, and have no special name for it other than arroz quemado. Spain: In the Mediterranean parts of Spain socarrao, socarrade, socarrat and sucarraet are used (depending on the language/dialect), although these terms generally refer to the crust of paellas. Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina & Chile: Is this phenomenon common in any of these countries? The people queried from these countries indicated that rice is not generally prepared this way and no specific term exists. Venezuela: People from the state of Zulia gave cucayo/cucallo. It seems that in many other parts of the country rice is not generally prepared this way and there is no special name for this item. Colombia: In which regions are the four different terms preferred? The three people who gave cucayo/cucallo were from the Costa (Atlantic Coast region). Cucallo or cucayo: How should this word be spelled? Because it is used primarily in spoken language and rarely written, people were unsure of the correct spelling, and pronunciation can not serve as a guide because in the regions where it was found to be used y and ll are pronounced identically (they correspond to the same phoneme). C5.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Cocoln (F), concoln (F), concn (D), costra (D), cucallo (F), cucayo (D), pega (D), pegao (F), raspa (D), raspao (F), socarrao (F), socarrade (F), socarrat (F), sucarraet (F).

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C6 C6.1

CHATINO / PATACON / TOSTON Terms by Country (5 terms) tostn (50%), not common (50%). tostn (100%). patacn (100%). patacn (100%). tostn (70%), pltano a puetazo (50%), chatino (40%), tachino (10%). tostn (100%). tostn (100%). tostn (80%), patacn (40%). patacn (100%). patacn (100%).

HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR

C6.2

Details

General: The item in question is a slice of green plantain (pltano verde, in some countries called simply verde) that has been fried, flattened and fried again. It is a common food in many tropical Spanish-speaking countries. Spain, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina & Chile: Is this phenomenon common in any of these countries? The people queried from these countries indicated it is not. Venezuela: The people who gave patacn were from Zulia. Is patacn commonly used in this sense in any of Venezuelas other (western) states? Fried ripe plantains: Are there regional terms for fried slices of ripe plantains? Pltano (maduro) frito and/or maduro frito seem to be used in most tropical Spanish-speaking countries, although some countries have special regional names for different types of plantains. C6.3 Real Academia Regional Review Chatino (F), patacn (B), pltano a puetazos (F), tachino (F), tostn (D).

D D1 D1.1

THINGS RELATED TO FOODS & BEVERAGES (Drinking) STRAW Terms by Country (11 terms plus variants) paj(it)a (100%). popote (100%). pajilla (100%). carrizo (100%). absorbente (70%), pajita (60%).

SPAIN MEXICO HISP. CENT. AMER. EXCEPT PANAMA PANAMA CUBA

19

DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA SOUTHERN CONE

calimete (100%) sorbeto (100%). pitillo (100%). pitillo (100%). sorbete (100%). ca(it)a (100%), sorbete (50%). bombilla (100%). pajita (100%).

D1.2

Details

Hispanic Central America except Panama: Pajilla is often pronounced as if it were written paja. (All words ending in illo or illa are often pronounced in this region as if they ended in o or a.) Cuba: Absorbente is masculine. Southern Cone: Bombilla refers to the special straw used to sip mate. Diminutive form vs. regular form: Regardless of the size of the drinking straw being referred to, caita and pajita appear to be used more often than caa and paja, respectively, in the countries where these terms are used. D1.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Absorbente (D), bombilla (D), calimete (F), caa (D), caita (F), carrizo (D), paja (C), pajilla (C), pajita (F), pitillo (D), popote (A), sorbete (D), sorbeto (F).

D2 D2.1

TOOTH PICK Terms by Country (5 terms plus variants) palillo (de dientes) (90%), mondadientes (50%). palillo (de dientes) (80%), picadientes (40%). palillo (de dientes) (100%). palito de dientes (90%), mondadientes (50%), palillo de dientes (40%). mondadientes (90%), escarbadientes (50%), palillo de dientes (20%). escarbadientes (100%). escarbadientes (100%), mondadientes (50%). escarbadientes (100%), palillo de dientes (40%), mondadientes (30%). mondadientes (100%), palillo de dientes (30%), escarbadientes (20%).

SPAIN MEXICO REST OF SPANISH AMERICA PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

D2.2

Details

General: Palillo de dientes is often shortened to palillo if context makes the meaning clear.

20

Mexico: Picadientes seems to be used in northern Mexico (Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua), but where exactly? D2.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Escarbadientes (C), mondadientes (C), palillo (A or D?), palillo de dientes (F), palito de dientes (F), picadientes (F). Palillo is defined as 2. Mondadientes de madera and mondadientes, in turn, is defined as Instrumento pequeo y rematado en punta, que sirve para mondar los dientes sacando lo que se mete entre ellos. These definitions indicate that a distinction is made between a palillo (a wooden toothpick) and a mondadientes (a toothpick in general). Although plastic or other nonwooden toothpicks are less common than ones made of wood, the question remains as to whether this distinction between palillo/palillo de dientes and mondadientes is generally made, both in Spain and in Spanish America. Does the definition of palillo accurately reflect usage? Limpiadientes is defined as Palillo, o instrumento semejante de otra materia, para limpiar los dientes, mondadientes. Where is this term commonly used in this sense?

D3 D3.1

TRAY Terms by Country (4 terms) bandeja (100%). charola (100%), bandeja (50%). azafate (70%), bandeja (40%). azafate (70%), bandeja (70%), charola (30%). azafate (100%), bandeja (40%). azafate (90%), bandeja (70%). bandeja (100%), azafate (40%). charol (100%). azafate (100%), bandeja (60%), charola (40%). charola (100%), bandeja (50%). bandeja (100%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS COSTA RICA PUERTO RICO ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA REST OF SPANISH AMERICA

D3.2

Details

General: In countries where bandeja is not the most commonly used word for tray, it often refers to a platter or other serving dish. Puerto Rico: Is azafate used to refer to specific types of trays or is it used in the general sense of tray in specific regions of the country? Responses from the Puerto Ricans who gave azafate varied on this point. D3.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Azafate (D?), bandeja (A), charol (B), charola (A?). Azafate is defined as Canastillo, bandeja o fuente con borde de poca altura, tejidos de mimbres o hechos de paja, oro, plata, latn, loza u otras materias. This does not appear to

21

accurately describe what Guatemalans, Salvadorans, Hondurans, Costa Ricans, Peruvians (and possibly other Spanish Americans) refer to as an azafate. Compare this to the definition of bandeja: Pieza de metal o de otra materia, plana o algo cncava para servir, presentar o depositar cosas.

D4 D4.1

CANTINA / FIAMBRERA / PORTA(COMIDAS) / (PORTA)VIANDA(S) Terms by Country (5 terms) fiambrera (40%), not common (60%). portaviandas (50%), not common (50%). portaviandas (60%), not common (40%). portaviandas (90%), vianda (30%). portaviandas (100%). cantina(s) (100%). cantina(s) (100%). fiambrera (100%). vianda (30%), not common (70%). portacomidas (80%), vianda (50%). vianda (90%), portaviandas (50%). portaviandas (90%), vianda (30%). vianda (70%), portaviandas (60%). vianda (80%), portaviandas (20%). vianda (100%). vianda (100%). vianda (100%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA HONDURAS REST OF HISP. CENT. AMER. CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

D4.2

Details

General: The item in question is a set of containers stacked one on top of the other and held together by a handle. In some countries it is commonly used by working-class people to transport prepared food. Many people from countries where portaviandas and/or vianda are used have indicated that they thought the individual containers should be called the viandas and the handle holding them together the portaviandas; they were unsure of what term should be used for the entire apparatus. Where are vianda and portaviandas used interchangeably? Spain, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador & Venezuela: Is this item common in these countries? Colombia: Portacomidas, which is sometimes shortened to porta, appears to be more common in central and eastern Colombia whereas vianda appears to be more common in western Colombia, especially in the department of el Valle. Gender of portacomidas and portavianda(s): The Real Academia indicates that these two terms are strictly masculine but many people queried said una portacomidas and una portavianda(s).

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D4.3

Real Academia Regional Review

Cantina (D or C?), fiambrera (C), portacomidas (B), portaviandas (A?), vianda (D). Portacomidas is defined as Col. y P. Rico. portaviandas which, in turn, is defined as fiambrera de cacerolas sobrepuestas which, in turn, is defined as 3. Conjunto de cacerolas iguales que, sobrepuestas unas a otras y con un braserillo debajo, se usan, sujetas en dos barras de hierro, para llevar la comida caliente de un punto a otro. If one looks up portacomidas, one should not be sent first to portaviandas and then to fiambrera in order to acquire the desired information. Given that portaviandas and vianda are the two most commonly used terms, why not have one of them be the lead entry containing the full definition (instead of fiambrera) and have the remaining terms be cross-referenced to the lead?

D5 D5.1

HANGOVER Terms by Country (11 terms plus variants) resaca (100%). cruda (100%). goma (100%), juma (40%). goma (100%), juma (30%). goma (100%). resaca (100%). resaca (100%). hangover (100%), resaca (20%). ratn (100%). guayabo (100%). chuchaqui (100%). resaca (100%). chaqui (100%). ca-u-ja-ge (60%), resaca (30%), ca-u-ka-ge (20%), ca-u-ya-ge (20%). resaca (40%), no specific term (60%). resaca (30%), no specific term (70%). caa mala (100%).

SPAIN MEXICO EL SALVADOR HONDURAS REST OF HISP. CENT. AMER. CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

D5.2

Details

Puerto Rico: Hangover is often pronounced as if it were written janbel. Paraguay: Ca-u-ja-ge, ca-u-ca-ge and ca-u-ya-ge (all with four syllables) are Castillianized phonetic approximations of the Guaran term. How is the beginning of the third syllable generally pronounced, or does it depend on dialect? Is there a standard form? Given that the concept is expressed as a single word in most other varieties of Spanish, should the Paraguayan Spanish term also be written as a single word and, if so, how should it be spelled? Cajag/cajahu, cacag/cacahu, or cayag/cayahu? Is there not a rule in Spanish that says a word can only have one accent mark? What percentage of Paraguayans would deny that ca-u-ja-ge is a Paraguayan Spanish term in the first place

23

and claim that it is strictly a Guaran term? Would the Real Academia take this view? What criteria should be used to distinguish Paraguayan Spanish from Guaran? Argentina & Uruguay: Those who stated that no specific term was commonly used for this item indicated that other expressions such as dormir la mona (literally to sleep off the drunkenness) are used to refer to the process of suffering the consequences of excessive drinking. Chile: Caa mala sometimes gets shortened to caa when the context makes the meaning clear. Related phrases and derivative forms: In Hispanic Central America the phrases estar de goma and amanecer de goma are commonly used in the sense of to be hung over as is estar/andar engomado. In Colombia and Venezuela, respectively, enguayabado and enratonado are the equivalent derivative forms. In Ecuador, chuchaqui is also an adjective (estar/amanecer chuchaqui). And in Colombia the phrase est desenguayabndose in the sense of his/her hangover is starting to go away has been heard. What other derivative forms are common? Humorous augmentative equivalents: A few Venezuelans indicated that if one has a really bad hangover, canguro is used instead of ratn (the former being a much larger animal). Are there other similar humorous augmentatives used in Venezuela and elsewhere? D5.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Caa mala (F), ca-u-ca-ge (F), ca-u-ja-ge (F), ca-u-ya-ge (F), cruda (A), chaqui (A), chuchaqui (F), goma (D), guayabo (D), hangover (F), juma (D), ratn (D), resaca (A or C?). Chaqui is defined with both a synonym and a full definition, Bol. resaca, malestar que padece al despertar quien ha bebido en exceso whereas cruda is merely cross-referenced with a brief explanation, Mj. resaca, malestar. Why this discrepancy? Why are cruda and chaqui included in the Real Academia, but not the other Spanish American regional usages? If the Real Academia editors were aware that caa mala, ca-u-ja-ge, chuchaqui, goma, guayabo, hangover, juma and ratn are used in this sense, would they include all of them and, if not, on what grounds would they censor the ones they would exclude?

D6 D6.1

LAGNIAPPE (see definition below) Terms by Country (c. 13 terms) propina (40%), not common (60%). piln (100%). ganancia (100%). vendaje (30%), ribete (10%), not common (60%). chascada (100%). ipege (100%). feria (100%). apa (80%), pesua (50%). contra (70%), apa (30%). apa (100%). apa (100%). apa (100%).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA

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COLOMBIA REST OF HISP. SOUTH AMERICA

apa (80%), encime (60%), vendaje (30%), encima (20%). llapa/yapa (100%).

D6.2

Details

General: The item in question is something extra that is given to the buyer by the seller. In some regions the custom is becoming less common or has died out. Although the freebie being sought may not be small in size relative to the purchase, the diminutive forms, apita, yapita, etc., are commonly used, especially by the buyer. Spain & El Salvador: Is this custom common here? The majority of the people queried from these countries indicated that this practice was not common in their region. Honduras: A chemiz, or chems, refers to something extra that the seller forces the buyer to purchase in order to buy what he or she wants to buy. Thus if milk is scarce and flour is plentiful, one may have to buy a half pound of flour de chemiz in order to be able to get the liter of milk one is really interested in. Is this practice common in other countries in times of shortage and, if so, does it have other regional names? Panama, Cuba & Colombia: These countries each appear to have two or more terms for this item. What, if any, are the regional differences within these countries? In other words, in Panama, who says apa and who says pesua/pezua? In Cuba, there is some evidence to suggest that contra is used more in Havana and apa more in Oriente, but how is the country divided? In Colombia, who says apa and who says encime/encima and vendaje? Yapa or llapa? Since Bolivia and Paraguay are the only countries in which yapa/llapa is used and where ll and y sometimes correspond to separate phonemes, pronunciation does not generally serve as a guide in helping us determine how this word ought to be spelled. Nevertheless, most South Americans queried indicated that they spell it yapa, but half of those from Chile indicated that they spell it llapa. Are there subregional differences with regard to which is considered the correct spelling? D6.3 Real Academia Regional Review

Contra (D), chascada (F), encima (D), encime (F), feria (A), ganancia (B), ipege (A), llapa (B), apa (A or B?), piln (A), propina (D), vendaje (B), yapa (B). The term adehala is used to define several of the above terms. Is adehala commonly used in everyday language anywhere? Where is the term alipego used in this sense?

APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL TOPICS The following is a small selection of additional topics in the field of Spanish lexical dialectology that relate to food. In many cases, only a few informants from each specified country have been observed or questioned regarding these issues, and the findings are therefore tentative at best. Although some information is provided on how the terminology varies by region, the topics are primarily presented to call attention to their existence as possible dialectological issues and to encourage others to research them further. All references to definitions are to those of the Real Academia.

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annatto. This red seed from a tropical plant that is used for coloring and flavoring is called achiote or achote in most of tropical Spanish America (the pronunciation is the same no matter which way you spell it). However, onoto is also used in Venezuela, and bija is used in the Dominican Republic. Is bija also used in Cuba? Many Cubans spoke of bijol, a powder made from annatto, but were not familiar with bija. Urucu or uruc is used in Paraguay, northern Argentina and eastern and Amazonian Bolivia. Finally, the term color (often feminine, la color, especially among the lower socioeconomic classes) also appears to be used in a number of countries, but where exactly? (cuts of) beef. What are all the different regional terms for different cuts of beef and what are their equivalences in other regions? For example, Argentines use the terms bife de costilla (T-bone steak?), bife de chorizo (New York steak?), cuadril (sirloin?), entraa (skirt steak?), lomo (filet mignon?), matambre (flank steak??), and vaco (flank steak??). Do people in other Spanish-speaking countries make these same distinctions and, if so, how do they refer to these cuts of beef? What part or parts of the animal do these and other cuts correspond to, that is, how should they be defined? What are all the Spanish equivalents of brisket, chuck, porterhouse, rump, round and shank, etc.? brown sugar. Although the terms azcar morena, azcar negra, azcar prieta and azcar rubia may refer to different types (shades) of brown sugar, are the different terms also used synonymously but with regional preferences? If regional preferences exist, what are they? There is also the issue of who uses azcar as a masculine word, who uses it as a feminine word, and who uses both genders. catsup / ketchup. Although catsup/ketchup, pronounced in various different ways, is used in many Spanish-speaking countries, salsa de tomate is commonly used in the sense of catsup/ketchup in parts of Hispanic Central America, Colombia, and Ecuador. Is this usage also common in Cuba, Peru and Bolivia? In many countries where both catsup/ketchup and salsa de tomate are used, the determining factor is socioeconomic class and sociocultural identity rather than region: Wealthier and more Americanized people tend to use catsup/ketchup whereas the more criollo population tend to use salsa de tomate. Where, if anywhere, is this the case? And what are the sociolinguistic perceptions associated with each term? Cach is used in the Dominican Republic and, possibly, Cuba. Where catsup/ketchup is the predominant term, ketchup seems to be the preferred spelling although many speakers queried were uncertain as to the written form. cocktail drink and cocktail party. Who says coctel and who says cctel when referring to cocktail drinks and/or cocktail parties? Is it with the accent mark in the Old World and without one in the New, or is the breakdown not quite that simple? coffee. What are all the different regional names for different types of prepared coffee? The following is a small sample that undoubtedly is only the tip of the iceberg: caf pasado (Ecuador, concentrated coffee that is added to hot water or milk to make coffee); caf puya (Puerto Rico, black coffee without sugar); carajillo (Spain, coffee with various types of liquor); guayoyo (Venezuela, weak coffee); marrn/marroncito (Venezuela, coffee with varying amounts of milk); perico (parts of Colombia, coffee with milk); tinto (Colombia, black coffee). Are any of the preceding terms used elsewhere? What about terms like cortado, cortito and pintado? How universal are they, and do they refer to the same type of prepared coffee everywhere they are used? cooler. Hielera is used in Ecuador (and elsewhere?) for the container used to keep food and beverages cool on picnics and outings. What other regional names exist? Neverita, heladerita?

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cotton candy. What are the Spanish equivalents of this? Algodn, algodoncillo, algodn de azcar, algodn dulce, azcar hilada, dulce de algodn, pelo de ngel? What other terms are used? crate (plastic, for bottles). Plastic crates divided into compartments that are used to hold beer or soda bottles are called cajas in many places, but in Ecuador they are called jabas. croissant. Many Spanish-speaking countries have crescent shaped rolls with regional names: cach(it)o (Guatemala?, El Salvador, Honduras?, Nicaragua?, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia); cangrej(it)o (Costa Rica and Cuba); cuern(it)o (Spain?, Mexico and Bolivia); medialuna/media luna (Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina); and pan camarn (the Dominican Republic). In addition, the word croissant__often pronounced as if it were written crasn, croasn, cruasn or curasn__is used in many Spanish-speaking countries. Some Spanish speakers use croissant to refer to a softer, fancier crescentshaped roll, typically made with butter, and their own regional term (cach(it)o, cangrej(it)o, cuern(it)o, etc.) to refer to the criollo (local/native) crescent-shaped roll, often made with margarine, shortening or lard, that is commonly produced and sold in their country. do(ugh)nut. Doughnuts are not widespread in Spanish-speaking countries but, partly through United States influence, they have become more common. What are they typically called in the different countries? La dona (feminine) or el donu(t) (masculine)? What about berln, bollo, buuelo, rosca, rosquilla and rosquita? Can any of these refer to baked goods that fit within the concept of donut? Where? to drink (any beverage). What are the differences in frequency of use and connotation between beber and tomar in each country? Where is tomar used more often, where is beber used more frequently, and where are both terms equally common in the sense of drinking any beverage? Tomar appears to be more common in this sense in Mexico, parts of Hispanic Central America (Guatemala? and Costa Rica?), Cuba and all of Hispanic South America. Beber, on the other hand, seems to be commonly used in Spain, parts of Hispanic Central America (El Salvador? and Nicaragua?), the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico. In many countries where tomar is the most commonly used word for drinking any beverage, beber implies drinking alcoholic beverages. Is the reverse true in countries where beber is the most common verb in the general sense? To be / get drunk (non-standard words and phrases). The following is a small sample of slang, popular and vulgar terms and phrases meaning to be drunk or to get drunk that have been heard being used by speakers from the countries indicated. No doubt many of the phrases are used in other countries as well, but most do not appear to be universal: tener una curda/estar en curda (Argentina, Chile, Cuba and Spain); estar curado/curarse (Chile); estar con la mona/pegarse una mona (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile and Peru); tener/tirarse una tranca (Argentina and Peru); estar mama(d)o (Argentina); estar a verga/a pija/a pichinga/a tranca (Honduras); estar bolo (Hispanic Central America); tener una merluza (Spain); estar ajumao (the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico); pegarse una juma/huma (Panama and Ecuador); estar en gimba (Panama); estar (en) pedo (Argentina, Uruguay and Mexico); enfuegarse/estar en fuego (Panama); estar en cuete (Uruguay); estar duro and estar neto (Bolivia); estar zampa(d)o (Peru); estar chuma(d)o/juma(d)o/pluto (Ecuador); estar jincho (Colombia); estar copetn (slightly drunk, Colombia); estar rasca(d)o (Colombia and Venezuela); estar jalao (Cuba); estar jendo and estar tumba(d)o (Puerto Rico); and estar cuete (Mexico). Are estar

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(a)juma(d)o (and/or humado), mama(d)o, mareado and tragueado used everywhere in this sense or are they also regional phrases? dulce de leche / arequipe / manjar (blanco). There are different regional names for a sweet made of boiled milk and sugar that is generally spreadable and is quite popular in most of Hispanic South America: arequipe (eastern and central Colombia); manjar, manjar blanco and/or manjar de leche (western Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile); and dulce de leche (Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina). In Bolivia both dulce de leche and manjar blanco appear to be used, but some Bolivians indicated that the two terms refer to two different types of the product. In Mexico, there is a similar product called cajeta, but it is often made of goats milk rather than cows milk. Is this product common in Spain, Hispanic Central America or the Hispanic Antilles? It should also be noted that in a number of Spanish-speaking countries of Central America and the Antilles, there is a different sugar-based sweet called dulce de leche that is not spreadable but is in the form of hard sweet balls. egg. Blanquillo appears to be used in parts of Mexico, in place of the more universal huevo, which is avoided by some Mexicans because of its association with testicles. In what situations and where do Mexicans tend to say blanquillos, and when/where do they say huevos when referring to eggs? Are there other regions of the Spanish-speaking world where people feel the need to avoid using the term huevos to such an extent that they too have come up with a substitute word? elephant ears (type of pastry). There is a type of heart-shaped and crunchy pastry that has different names: oreja (Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras?, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru); oreja de chancho (Peru); palmer(it)a (Spain, Cuba?, the Dominican Republic?, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Bolivia?, Paraguay, Argentina and Chile); and palm(it)a (the Dominican Republic?, Bolivia? and Uruguay). farm, plantation, ranch, etc. Granja and finca are used almost everywhere to refer to different types of agricultural enterprises, but how should the following terms be defined in the dictionary so that they accurately describe the type of agricultural enterprise that they refer to in each country? Barraca (Valencia, Spain?); colonia (Cuba); conuco (the Dominican Republic); cortijo (Andaluca); chacra (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile); estancia (Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, and southern Chile); fundo (Peru and Chile); hacienda (everywhere except Spain?); hato (Venezuela); masa (Catalua and Aragn); and parcela (?). What are all the different regional meanings of rancho (e.g. gauchos house in Argentina and rural hamlet in Mexico)? fish. What are all the species of fish that have different names in different regions? For example, in Ecuador marlins (black marlins?) are called picudos. What are they called in other tropical Spanish-speaking countries, pez espada, pez aguja, other terms? What terms are used to distinguish swordfish from marlins? Peje is defined as pez1, animal vertebrado acutico. Is this term commonly used as defined throughout the Spanishspeaking world? If not, where is it used? flight attendant. Women who serve food and beverages on airplanes have different names. Azafata appears to be universal, but aeromoza seems to be used more frequently in Mexico, Hispanic Central America, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Venezuela and Peru (and elsewhere?). Fly hostess, pronounced as if written flai jostes, was given by Peruvians. What terms are used for their male counterparts, camarero, sobrecargo, steward? All of these terms may eventually go the way of stewardess in English, to be replaced by

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gender-free and more professional sounding (non-sexist) terms such as auxiliar de vuelo or asistente de vuelo. frosting / icing (of a cake). In everyday language, are different terms used in different regions? Crema, decoracin, decorado, dulce, fondant, lustre, azcar glaseado? On a technical level, do bakers and caterers from different Spanish-speaking countries agree on their meanings? goat. Is chivo/chiva used in some Spanish-speaking countries more often than cabra in the general sense of goat (the animal)? If so, where? Chivo is defined as Cra de la cabra, desde que no mama hasta que llega a la edad de procrear yet many people from Spanish America seem to use chivo in the general sense of goat. green plantain chips. Thin slices of green plantain that are deep fried have special names in many Spanish American countries: chifles (Ecuador and Peru); mariquitas and chicharritas (Cuba); plataninas (Guatemala); platanitos (El Salvador?, Honduras?, Costa Rica?, Panama? the Dominican Republic, Venezuela and Colombia?); platanutres (Puerto Rico); tajad(it)as or tajadas de pltano (El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua); tostadas? (El Salvador? Honduras? and Nicaragua?); and chipilos? (eastern Bolivia?). Although they can be homemade, they are also sold commercially like potato chips. grocery store. There are many regional terms that designate small, corner grocery stores or general food stores. The following are not equivalents of each other, but all refer to some type of general food store: abarrotera (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Panama?); abarrotes and/or tienda de abarrotes (Mexico, El Salvador, Colombia?, Ecuador?, Peru?, Bolivia, Chile?); abastecedor and/or abasto(s) (Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Venezuela); almacn (Bolivia and the Southern Cone); bodega (Cuba, Puerto Rico, Venezuela? and Peru); colmado (Spain?, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico); (el) chino (de la esquina) (Peru); despensa (Ecuador, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile?); pulpera (Hispanic Central America except Panama? and the Dominican Republic); and (tienda de) ultramarinos (Spain). Many Spaniards indicated that colmados and tiendas de ultramarinos are dying out and/or that the terms are becoming outdated. What is the future of the mom and pops corner grocery store? Are they destined to be supplanted in most areas by supermarkets and 7-11 style mini-markets, or will they survive and even thrive in many regions? guarapo / guaro. Liquor made from sugar cane is called guarapo in Colombia (and where else?) and guaro in Hispanic Central America. What are all the regional names for aguardiente? For example, puro is used in this sense in Ecuador. herbal tea. Tea without caffeine (e.g. manzanilla, camomile) is generally called an agua aromtica or an infusin, but in Ecuador it is also referred to as an agua de vieja or agita. What other regional names are there for this class of tea? honey. In Ecuador, miel de abejas is used for honey in place of the more universal miel which generally refers to molasses (miel de caa and/or melaza elsewhere). Are there are other countries where this or some similar switch occurs? humi(n)ta / bollo de maz / envuelto (de maz). In many Andean countries there is a type of food made of ground up fresh corn and other ingredients that is wrapped in the husk and generally steamed. Its name varies: bollos de maz (eastern Colombia); envueltos (de maz) (southern and western Colombia); choclotandas and chumales (certain regions of highland Ecuador); humitas (Ecuador, Peru, Argentina and Chile); and humintas (Bolivia).

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ice cream. Helado is certainly quite universal, but other terms include mantecado, nieve, sorbete and the direct loan word, ice cream. Where are these and other terms for ice cream used and, if not used in a generic sense, what types of ice cream do they refer to? Sorbete seems to be quite common in El Salvador and Nicaragua. Nieve was given by a number of Mexicans. And mantecado was given by people from different countries with the meaning of generic ice cream, vanilla ice cream or soft ice cream (the type that comes out of a machine and is swirled into the cone). jam / preserves. Mermelada is fairly universal but jalea is used in the sense of jam in much of Hispanic Central America (where it appears a distinction is not generally made between jam and jelly). Also, marmelada appears to be used somewhat in Puerto Rico and possibly other countries (the Dominican Republic?, Cuba?, Honduras? and Nicaragua?). The term confitura appears to be used in Spain in the sense of certain types of jam (jam with a lot of whole fruit?). (fruit) juice. Is it zumo in Spain and jugo in Spanish America for fruit juice or is the linguistic landscape more complex? There is evidence that in Peru and Bolivia zumo is commonly used in the sense of certain types of fruit juices. Several Peruvians indicated that zumo to them is pure juice whereas jugo is juice with water or something else added. In many Spanish American countries zumo is also used to refer to the oily liquid that comes from the rind of lemons and other citrus fruits. juice mixed with water. In much of tropical Spanish America the terms fresco and/or refresco refer to beverages made with water and fruit juice, but in Mexico these are called aguas frescas or aguas. mayonnaise. Both (salsa) mahonesa and (salsa) mayonesa are listed in the Real Academia. In Spain, who says mahonesa and who says mayonesa? Are there any Spanish Americans who say and/or write mahonesa? meals. Breakfast: Desayuno is defined as Alimento ligero que se toma por la maana antes que ningn otro whereas almuerzo is defined, in sense one, as Comida que se toma por la maana. In what regions of the Spanish-speaking world is this distinction between desayuno and almuerzo really maintained? What are the characteristics (region, socioeconomic class, field, work schedule, etc.) of the people who eat a light meal in the very early morning and then a heavier one in the mid morning, and what terms do they use for each meal? Lunch: Almuerzo is defined as 2. Comida del medioda o primeras horas de la tarde and is certainly the most widely used term for lunch. However, in Spain, Mexico, and the Dominican Republic (or at least in some regions of these countries), comida is used to refer to the midday meal in addition to, and often in place of, the more universal almuerzo. Where exactly is comida used in this sense and how are the terms comida and almuerzo distinguished in the different regions of the Spanish-speaking world? Comida is defined as 2. Alimento que se toma al medioda o primeras horas de la tarde and merienda is defined as 2. En algunas partes, comida que se toma al medioda. Where is merienda used in this sense? Dinner: Cena is the most universal term for the evening meal, but comida is commonly used in Costa Rica, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Colombia, Peru and Chile, and merienda is used in Ecuador. In the countries that have words for dinner other than cena, the alternative word is generally used to refer to the common, everyday dinner (which is often lighter than their lunch), and cena is used more for fancier, specialoccasion dinners. Thus, for example, in Ecuador the light meal served at 6:00 or 7:00 PM

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on a typical weekday would be a merienda whereas a fancy dinner served on a special occasion at a restaurant at 8:00 or 9:00 PM would be a cena. Between meal snacks: What are all the different terms used for the food that is eaten at about 10:00 or 11:00 AM? Where are such terms as medias maanas, medias onces and merienda used in this sense? This snack is particularly common among individuals for whom breakfast is light and lunch is late, at 1:00 or 2:00 PM. What about the names for the snack between lunch and dinner that is common when lunch is light and dinner is often served at 9:00 or 10:00 PM? Merienda is defined as Comida ligera que se hace por la tarde antes de la cena. Where is this word used in this sense? milkshake / smoothie. Batido, licuado and/or sorbete are used in some regions to refer to milkshake-like drinks, but which terms are preferred where? nuts. What are the regional names for different types of nuts? For example, in highland Ecuador (and elsewhere?), tocte refers to a type of black walnut. In the Dominican Republic cajuil refers to what elsewhere is called maran. oatmeal. Quaker (pronounced as if written cuquer) is used in Ecuador (and elsewhere?) and mosh (from English mush?) is used in Guatemala in place of the more universal avena. pancake. Who says panqueques (three syllables) and who says panquis (two syllables)? What are the preferences with regard to spelling? See section B2 concerning cake. pastry (sweet pastry). There is a great variety of regional terms used to refer to the specific pastries of each region, but what about terms for sweet pastries in general? In addition to the not quite universal pastel/pastelito, the following more regional usages have been observed: repostera (Hispanic Central America); dulce (Panama, Cuba, Puerto Rico and Ecuador); masita (Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina); factura (a different class of pastry in Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina); and pasta (Ecuador). Where else are the above terms used in this sense? pie (with fruit). Although fruit pies are not as common in the Spanish-speaking world as they are in the United States, they do exist in many Spanish-speaking countries. What are they called? There is strong evidence to suggest the existence of regional preferences: tarta and/or pastel in Spain, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina; pastel and/or pie (pronounced as if written pay) in most of Spanish America; and in Chile kuchen is used (the result of German influence, pronounced as if written cujen). In the case of pie/pay, what is the preferred spelling among Spanish Americans, the direct loan word pie or the Castillianized version, pay (or pai)? And do Chileans prefer the direct borrowing, kuchen, or the Castillianized version, cujen? In the case of these alternate spellings, which is considered more correct and by whom? Which is the prestige spelling? Where two or more words compete, to what extent are distinctions made between, for example, tarta (open pie) vs. pastel (closed pie), kuchen/cujen (German style pie) vs. pie/pay (United States style pie)? potato chips. Papalinas is the term used in Guatemala in place of papas fritas and/or papitas which appear to be used in much of Spanish America. Most Spanish Americans seem to use papas fritas for both potato chips and French fries. Who uses papas a la francesa for French fries? In Mexico, sabritas are often used in the generic sense of potato chips even though this is really a brand name. In Spain, is it generally patatas fritas for both, or are patatas fritas a la inglesa used for potato chips? restaurant. Who pronounces the word as if it were written restaurante (four syllables), and who pronounces it with three syllables, as if written restorn or restaurn? Are there regional preferences for the written forms? Restaurante and restorn are the only spellings listed

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in the Real Academia, but restaurante and restaurant seem to be the two most widely accepted forms. sandwich. In some countries a distinction is made between a sandwich made with pan de molde (pre-sliced, square-shaped bread of the type sold in supermarkets), and one made of a longer, thinner French/Italian type bread (often called pan baguette). The former is a sndwich, or some variant of this word, and the latter is a bocadillo (Spain and Puerto Rico), a bocadito (Cuba) and a torta (Mexico). In most Spanish-speaking countries, however, this distinction is not made and a variant of sndwich is used for any type of sandwich. But which variants are most common? The answer appears to be partly a question of regional dialect and partly one of social dialect. The more educated and English-speaking classes seem to prefer the direct loan word, sndwich, and often spell it without an accent on the a. The middle and lower socioeconomic classes, on the other hand, tend to use a more criollo pronunciation such as snduche, sangiche, sngiche, snguche, sanhui, etc. and there appear to be some regional preferences. For example, in Ecuador snduche is the typical pronunciation and is not considered particularly lowclass usage. Which popular variants are most common in each country and what is their level of social acceptance in each country? In other words, to what extent does the use of the popular variants carry a social stigma in each region? Is the term emparedado primarily limited to dictionaries, literature, cookbooks and Lorenzo y Pepita (Dagwood) comic strips, or is the term used in everyday language in certain countries or by certain people within those countries? sediment (of a drink). Chingaste is used in this sense in Nicaragua (but is a term one would be well advised to avoid in Mexico). What other regional words for sediment of a drink are out there? Bagazo, borra, concho, gabazo, what else? sheep. Is borrego used in some Spanish-speaking countries more often than oveja in the general sense of sheep (the animal)? This appears to be the case in Mexico and Ecuador. Is this so, and where else is this true? Borrego is defined as Cordero o cordera de uno a dos aos which contradicts the definition of cordero, Hijo de la oveja, que no pasa de un ao. slaughterhouse. Rastro is used in Mexico (and in much of Hispanic Central America?) and camal is used in Ecuador and Peru (and parts of Bolivia?) in addition to the more universal matadero. In Mexico, Ecuador and Peru, the respective regional term is more common than matadero. Rastro is defined without any regional specification as 7. matadero, sitio donde se mata el ganado para el consumo. Is rastro commonly used in the sense of slaughterhouse in Spain? Is this usage common anywhere else outside of Mexico and Hispanic Central America? sno(w) cone. Regional terms include the following: copo (Costa Rica); fro-frio and yun-yun (the Dominican Republic); minuta (El Salvador); nieve (Honduras); piragua (Puerto Rico); raspa and rallado (Cuba?); raspadilla (Peru); and raspadillo (Bolivia). In addition, the terms granizado, granizada, raspado and/or raspada are used in many countries, but where exactly? Which terms are most common in each country? To what extent is a distinction made, in each region, between the traditional sno(w) cone made by a vendedor ambulante who actually scraped or shaved a block of ice and added the syrup, and the more modern version in which a machine grinds up the ice and adds the flavoring automatically? For example, some Dominicans view fro-fro as the traditional one and yun-yun (does it derive from English yum yum?) as the one that comes out of the machine, whereas other Dominicans consider the two terms to be synonymous. In the

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Dominican Republic, guayar means to scrape or grate. What about what New Yorkers call an (Italian) ice? Does it exist in parts of the Spanish-speaking world and, if so, what is it called? spaghetti / pasta. Tallarines is used in many South American countries to refer to any long pasta, regardless of whether it is actually spaghetti, spaghettini or tagliarini, etc. Who distinguishes between espaguetis and tallarines and what are the distinctions? Does everyone understand fideos as referring to the same class of pasta, or does the term mean different things to different people? spicy / hot. Food that has a lot of pepper or chilies in it is described as picante almost everywhere in the Spanish-speaking world, but in Mexico picoso and enchiloso are also common. to spill. The standard verb used to refer to the effect of spilling in most places is derramar, but regar appears to be more commonly used in a number of countries. Where? What about the verbs used to refer to the cause of spilling such as botar, virar and volcar (knock over, tip over)? What are the regional preferences? to stink, smell (bad). When food spoils and emits an unpleasant odor, do people say apesta or hiede? Apestar is defined as 4. intr. arrojar o comunicar mal olor... and heder is defined as Despedir un olor muy malo y penetrante. Nevertheless, there is some evidence to suggest that heder is more common in some regions (the Hispanic Antilles?) and apestar in many other areas. If this is so, in what regions/countries is each verb most common? syrup. Jarabe is fairly universal, but in many countries sirope is used. Where? What about almbar, miel and arrope? There is evidence to suggest that in some countries where sirope is commonly used for syrup, jarabe tends to refer to syrup that is medicine; thus sirope conjures an image of something pleasant whereas jarabe is something that is unpleasant. tamal. Let us examine the Real Academias definition and ask to what extent it does justice to the different varieties of tamales: Amr. Especie de empanada de masa de harina de maz, envuelta en hojas de pltano o de la mazorca del maz, y cocida al vapor o en el horno. Las hay de diversas clases, segn el manjar que se pone en su interior y los ingredientes que se le agregan. Many Spanish Americans might object to the use, in the above definition, of the following terms and phrases: empanada (tamales are not empanadas); harina de maz (the masa is frequently not made of harina de maz); de la mazorca del maz (in parts of Hispanic South America mazorca refers to an ear of dry corn and there tamales are made from fresh corn, choclo); and manjar (see the entry beginning dulce de leche above). Is it best to define tamal with a single broad definition, or with a series of more specific ones? How can the use of regionalisms in the definition(s) be avoided? What about derivative words such as nacatamal (defined as Hond., Mj. y Nicar. Tamal relleno de carne de cerdo.) and yoltamal? Should they be defined in terms of the ambiguous tamal, or be defined independently, without resorting to the base word which means different things to different people? waiter / waitress / server. People who wait tables at restaurants and other eating establishments have different names in Spanish and, although the following terms are not all exact equivalents, there do appear to be regional preferences: camarero (Spain, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and Cuba); garzn (Bolivia and Chile); mesero (Mexico, Hispanic Central America, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic?, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru); mesonero (Venezuela); mozo (Spain, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina and Chile); salonero (in a more humble

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establishment, Ecuador); and waiter, generally pronounced as if written witer (Panama). For many Spanish Americans camarero is used to refer to a waiter at a fancy establishment, such as in a luxury hotel, or on a cruise ship, and the other term (mesero, mozo, etc.) is used to refer to waiters at less elegant eateries. What are the different connotations and associations that each term has in each country it is used? In which countries is it common to have female servers or waitresses and, as a result, which of the above terms frequently have a feminine form? One would imagine there could be no such thing as a garzona or a weitera, but where are camareras, meseras, mesoneras, mozas and saloneras commonplace? (it) went down the wrong pipe. What popular expressions are used in each region that are equivalent to se ator or se atragant? Se le fue por el caminito viejo, se le fue por el galillo viejo, se le fue por el otro lado? What others and where?

NOTES 1. For information on fruits and vegetables whose names in Spanish vary by region see, Fruit and Vegetable Terminology in the Spanish-Speaking World: Regional Variation by Andre Moskowitz in Proceedings of the 38th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, San Francisco, California, November 5-9, 1997. Ed. Muriel M. Jrme-OKeeffe. American Translators Association, 1997. 233-261. 2. For information on household objects related to food, such as baby bottle, refrigerator and stove, whose names in Spanish vary by region see, Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: the home by Andre Moskowitz in Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, November 4-8, 1998. Ed. Ann G. Macfarlane. American Translators Association, 1998. 221-253.

REFERENCE Real Academia Espaola. 1992. Diccionario de la Lengua Espaola. Twenty-First Edition. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, S.A.

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