MIT White Paper On Convergence

The Third Revolution:
The Convergence of
the Life Sciences,
Physical Sciences,
and Engineering
M A S S A C H U S E T T S I N S T I T U T E O F T E C H N O L O G Y
Convergence.cover.final 12/13/10 10:04 AM Page 2

Lettei to oui Colleagues:
This iepoit is piesenteu to the health science ieseaich community to help uelineate an
impoitant new ieseaich mouelconveigencewhich uiaws on an ongoing meigei of life,
physical anu engineeiing sciences.
This new mouel is being auopteu at many institutions in uiffeient foims. The past uecaue
has seen the evolution of new inteiuisciplinaiy ieseaich aieasbioinfomatics, synthetic
biology, nanobiology, computational biology, tissue engineeiing, biomateiials, anu systems
biology aie examples. These new fielus shaie a compaiable, unueilying ieseaich mouel,
conveigence, anu theie is a neeu to see them as a unity in oiuei to ensuie theii continueu
piogiess. The successful application of this mouel will iequiie not simply collaboiation
between uisciplines, but tiue uisciplinaiy integiation.
Conveigence will be the emeiging paiauigm foi how meuical ieseaich will be conuucteu in
the futuie. Bowevei, conveigence faces a seiies of policy challenges that must be iesolveu to
allow it to emeige at a scale that coulu be tiuly tiansfoimative.
The iepoit that follows attempts to uefine this new ieseaich mouel, offeis a seiies of cases to
inuicate its piomise, ieviews the iole of the new mouel in impioving the economics of health
ueliveiy, anu offeis a seiies of policy iecommenuations to bettei implement it. We thank
staff at NIT's Washington 0ffice foi assisting in this effoit, incluuing Amanua Ainolu, Alison
Fox, Kaii NcCaiion, Bill Bonvillian, anu Tiacy Kambaia. We, as faculty at NIT, offei this
iepoit to both encouiage uialogue with oui colleagues at many uiffeient institutions who aie
likewise auopting this new mouel as well as intiouuce conveigence as a bluepiint foi
innovation to otheis. We look foiwaiu to youi questions anu iueas.
Sinceiely,

Phillip A. Shaip
Institute Piofessoi anu Piofessoi of Biology

Chailes L. Cooney
Robeit T. Baslam Piofessoi of Chemical Engineeiing

Naic A. Kastnei
Bean, School of Science, Bonnei Piofessoi of Science

}acqueline Lees
Piofessoi of Biology anu Luuwig Scholai,
Associate Biiectoi, Koch Centei foi Integiative Cancei
Reseaich

Ram Sasisekhaian
E. B. Taplin Piofessoi of Bealth Sciences anu Technology,
Biiectoi, Baivaiu-NIT Bivision of Bealth Sciences anu
Technology

Nichael B. Yaffe
Piofessoi of Biology
Sangeeta N. Bhatia
}ohn anu Boiothy Wilson Piofessoi, Baivaiu-NIT Bivision
of Bealth Sciences anu Technology

Tylei E. }acks
Baviu B Koch Piofessoi,
Biiectoi, Koch Institute foi Integiative Cancei Reseaich
Bouglas A. Lauffenbuigei
Foiu Piofessoi anu Beau, Bepaitment of Biological
Engineeiing

Robeit Langei
Baviu B. Koch Institute Piofessoi

Paula T. Bammonu
Bayei Piofessoi of Chemical Engineeiing

Niiganka Sui
Paul E. Newton Piofessoi of Neuioscience, Beau,
Bepaitment of Biain anu Cognitive Sciences

!"#$"%& ()**
lor more lnformaLlon abouL Lhls reporL,
conLacL Lhe Ml1 WashlngLon Cfflce:
820 1
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SL. nL, SLe. 610
WashlngLon, uC 20002
202.789.1828 || 617.324.9981

1hls reporL ls also avallable onllne aL hLLp://web.mlL.edu/dc/

2011 MassachuseLLs lnsLlLuLe of 1echnology. All rlghLs reserved.
Convergence is a new paradigm that can
yield critical advances in a broad array
of sectors, from health care to energy,
food, climate, and water.

1ab|e of Contents
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RECENT BI0NEBICAL REv0L0TI0NS..........................................................................................................................6
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EXANPLES 0F C0NvERuENCE IN BI0NEBICAL RESEARCB...................................................................................9
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F0NBINu CBALLENuES ANB L0W-RISK RESEARCB............................................................................................ 22
C0NvERuENCE-STYLE PR0}ECTS AT NIB.............................................................................................................. 24
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1. ENS0RE TBAT C0NuRESSI0NAL F0NBINu NEETS 0R BEATS BRBPI, NIB'S BI0NEBICAL RESEARCB
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2. ESTABLISB A C0NvERuENCE EC0SYSTEN BY B0ILBINu C0NNECTI0NS ACR0SS ST0vEPIPEB SYSTENS.
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S. REF0RN PEER-REvIEW PR0CESSES T0 S0PP0RT INTERBISCIPLINARY uRANTS...................................... 29
4. BALANCE LARuE-SCALE EFF0RTS WITB SNALLER uRANT PR0}ECTS. ........................................................ Su
S. INPR0vE INTERBISCIPLINARY RESEARCB AN0Nu TBE 27 NIB INSTIT0TES ANB CENTERS. .............. Su
6. EB0CATE, EXPANB, ANB S0PP0RT TBE NEXT uENERATI0N 0F C0NvERuENCE RESEARCBERS........... Su
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1he Convergence of the L|fe Sc|ences, hys|ca| Sc|ences, and Lng|neer|ng 3

Introduct|on

Theie aie few challenges moie uaunting than the futuie of health caie in this
countiy. This papei intiouuces the uynamic anu emeiging fielu of conveigence
which biings togethei engineeiing anu the physical anu life sciencesanu explains
how conveigence pioviues a bluepiint foi auuiessing the health caie challenges of
the 21st centuiy by pioviuing a new knowleuge base, as well as a new geneiation of
uiagnostics anu theiapeutics. We uiscuss how conveigence enables the innovation
necessaiy to meet the giowing uemanu foi accessible, peisonalizeu, affoiuable
health caie. We also uiscuss the iole of goveinment agencies in auuiessing this
challenge anu pioviuing funuing foi innovative ieseaich. Finally, we iecommenu
stiategies foi embeuuing conveigence within agencies like the National Institutes of
Bealth (NIB), which aims to optimize basic ieseaich, impiove health technology,
anu fostei impoitant meuical auvances.
4 1nL 1nIkD kLVCLU1ICN

1. Cverv|ew of Convergence

What exactly is conveigence. We uefine it as the meiging of uistinct technologies,
piocessing uisciplines, oi uevices into a unifieu whole that cieates a host of new
pathways anu oppoitunities. It involves the coming togethei of uiffeient fielus of
stuuypaiticulaily engineeiing, physical sciences, anu life sciencesthiough
collaboiation among ieseaich gioups anu the integiation of appioaches that weie
oiiginally vieweu as uistinct anu potentially contiauictoiy.
We see conveigence as a bluepiint foi innovation. Auvances in infoimation
technology, mateiials, imaging, nanotechnology, optics, anu quantum physics,
coupleu with auvances in computing, moueling, anu simulation, have alieauy
tiansfoimeu physical science. They aie now beginning to tiansfoim life science as
well. Conveigence takes the technical tools, as well as the "uisciplineu uesign
appioach" tiauitional to engineeiing anu physics, anu applies them to life science
ieseaich. But conveigence is not a one-way stieet; biological mouels aie
simultaneously tiansfoiming engineeiing anu physical science. Auvances in biofuels,
biomateiials, anu viial self-assembly aie just a few examples of this iecipiocal
ielationship.
The conveigence ievolution is a
paiauigm shift, but not just, in Thomas
Kuhn's teims, a paiauigm shift S&)"&/ a
uiscipline.
1
Conveigence means a bioau
iethinking of how all scientific ieseaich can be conuucteu, so that we capitalize on 3
'3/7# of knowleuge bases, fiom miciobiology to computei science to engineeiing
uesign. In othei woius, the conveigence ievolution uoes not iest on a paiticulai
scientific auvance but on a new integiateu appioach foi achieving auvances.
A majoi beneficiaiy of conveigence will be biomeuicine, as inteiuisciplinaiy
ieseaich enhances oui existing knowleuge anu leaus to new meuical tieatments.
Fiom the infusion of uiffeient iueas anu backgiounu uesigns, ieseaicheis aie
alieauy making exciting uiscoveiiesnew uiug ueliveiy mechanisms at the
nanoscale, impioveu chemical anu uisease sensing, new pieuictive computei
mouels of uisease, new capabilities to mouify genetic uisoiueis, anu cost-effective
biometiic analysis foi peisonalizeu meuicine. By iecognizing conveigence as a
tiansfoimative tienu, we hope to offei a new vision foi the futuie anu builu

1
1homas S. kuhn, 1be 5ttoctote of 5cleotlflc kevolotloos, 3rd ed. (Chlcago: unlverslLy of Chlcago ress,
1996).
"We see convergence as a b|uepr|nt
for |nnovat|on."
1he Convergence of the L|fe Sc|ences, hys|ca| Sc|ences, and Lng|neer|ng S

awaieness of new oppoitunities foi the 0niteu States to continue leauing the woilu
in biomeuical innovation.
Thought leaueis at the National Acauemies of Sciences anu elsewheie in the
auministiation aie convening stuuy panels anu woikshops to uiscuss the
inteisection of scientific uisciplines,
2
but moie must be uone. Because of its cioss-
uisciplinaiy natuie, conveigence challenges the histoiic stiuctuie of univeisities,
which aie oiganizeu into uepaitments focusing on uisciete uisciplines.
Fuitheimoie, conveigence-style ieseaich uoes not fit neatly within the funuing
categoiies of the feueial ieseaich-suppoit agencies, noi uoes it align neatly with the
missions of these ieseaich institutes. It is impeiative that we continue effoits to
oveicome this pioblem of "stovepipes" anu uevelop both new investment
mechanisms anu new mouels foi oiganizational collaboiation.
Alieauy, the push to woik acioss uisciplines is escalating within the ieseaich
community anu coming to the attention of science policy makeis, who aie moving
the conveisation beyonu the integiation of uisciplines anu calling foi conveigence
to be embeuueu into Ameiica's R&B system. Foi instance, in his iemaiks at the
annual meeting of the National Acauemy of Sciences in 2uu9, Piesiuent 0bama
iefeiieu to the vast potential that a cioss-cutting feueial initiative on conveigence
coulu have foi biomeuical ieseaich:
In biomeuicine, we can hainess the histoiic conveigence between life
sciences anu physical sciences that's unueiway touay; unueitaking
public piojectsin the spiiit of the Buman uenome Piojectto
cieate uata anu capabilities that fuel uiscoveiies in tens of thousanus
of laboiatoiies; anu iuentifying anu oveicoming scientific anu
buieauciatic baiiieis to iapiuly tianslating scientific bieakthioughs
into uiagnostics anu theiapeutics that seive patients.
3

Similaily, two membeis of the Piesiuent's Council of Auvisois on Science anu
Technology wiote in 2u1u about the meiging of infoimation technology,
biotechnology, anu nanotechnology:

2
See naLlonal 8esearch Councll CommlLLee on 8lomolecular MaLerlals and rocesses, losplteJ by 8loloqy.
ltom Molecoles to Motetlols to Mocbloes (WashlngLon, uC: naLlonal Academles ress, 2008), naLlonal
8esearch Councll CommlLLee on lorefronLs of Sclence aL Lhe lnLerface of hyslcal and Llfe Sclences,
keseotcb ot tbe lotetsectloo of tbe lbyslcol ooJ llfe 5cleoces (WashlngLon, uC: naLlonal Academles ress),
and naLlonal 8esearch Councll CommlLLee on a new 8lology for Lhe 21sL CenLury, 1be kole of llfe 5cleoces
lo 1toosfotmloq Ametlcos lotote. 5ommoty of o wotksbop (WashlngLon, uC: naLlonal Academles ress,
2009), hLLp://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_ld=12392.
3
8arack Cbama, 8emarks by Lhe resldenL aL Lhe naLlonal Academy of Sclences Annual MeeLlng,"
WashlngLon, uC, Aprll 27, 2009, hLLp://www.whlLehouse.gov/Lhe_press_offlce/8emarks-by-Lhe-
resldenL-aL-Lhe-naLlonal-Academy-of-Sclences-Annual-MeeLlng/.

Each of these ieseaich fielus has the potential to enable a wealth of
innovative auvances in meuicine, eneigy piouuction, national
secuiity, agiicultuie, aeiospace, manufactuiing, anu sustainable
enviionmentsauvances that can in tuin help cieate jobs, inciease
the nation's gioss uomestic piouuct (uBP), anu enhance quality of life.
In combination, thiough what some have calleu the nano-bio-info
conveigence, the potential foi these fielus to tiansfoim society is even
gieatei.
4

The impact of conveigence will not be limiteu to meuicine; othei scientific aieas
stanu to benefit as well. An impoitant iepoit by the National Acauemy of Sciences
suggests that conveigence can yielu ciitical auvances in a bioau aiiay of sectois,
incluuing eneigy, foou, climate, anu watei.
3
In this white papei, howevei, we focus
on the application of conveigence in health ieseaich because we believe that this
fielu is iipe foi new uiscoveiies anu can poweifully uemonstiate the benefits of
conveigence.
kecent 8|omed|ca| kevo|ut|ons
Theie have been two uiamatic uevelopments in life science ieseaich in the last Su
yeaisthe moleculai anu cellulai biology ievolution anu the genomics ievolution.
These two ievolutions paveu the way foi the conveigence ievolution now taking
shape. We believe that combining knowleuge of engineeiing anu physical science
with life science expeitise will builu on iecent auvances in moleculai anu cellulai
biology anu genomics anu piouuce new bieakthioughs. 0f couise, we aie not
suggesting that we have ieacheu the pinnacle of ieseaich in moleculai anu cellulai
biology oi genomics; theie is still much moie to be uiscoveieu. Bowevei,
conveigence offeis an exciting oppoitunity to eniich piesent anu futuie ieseaich in
these fielusanu in otheis.
1he I|rst kevo|ut|on: Mo|ecu|ar and Ce||u|ar 8|o|ogy
The fiist biological-science ievolution involveu the use of moleculai anu cellulai
biology to unueistanu cells anu uiseases. This ievolution began with the uiscoveiy
of the stiuctuie of BNA by }ames B. Watson anu Fiancis Ciick in 19SS anu the biith
of moleculai biology. In the eaily 197us, this leu to the uevelopment of genetic
engineeiingcombining BNA fiom uiffeient oiganisms to piouuce new piouucts
anu piocesses. Leaueis in the fielu, like Salvauoi Luiia, quickly built on this game-

4
Shlrley Ann !ackson and Lrlc SchmldL, "ollshlng 1echnology's Colden 1rlangle," Cfflce of Sclence and
1echnology ollcy blog, !une 13, 2010, hLLp://www.whlLehouse.gov/blog/2010/06/13/pollshlng-
Lechnology-s-golden-Lrlangle.
3
naLlonal 8esearch Councll of Lhe naLlonal Academles. A New 8loloqy fot tbe 21st ceototy (WashlngLon,
uC: naLlonal Academles ress, 2009), hLLp://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_ld=12764. lor a
relaLed vldeo, see hLLp://www.youLube.com/waLch?v=8C!PhAMluCw.

changing uiscoveiy anu staiteu uisease-specific ieseaich centeis at univeisities to
apply the new unueistanuing of the stiuctuie of viiuses anu canceious cells.

Reseaicheis concluueu that they coulu tiuly unueistanu uisease only if they
unueistoou it at the moleculai level insiue the cell. The new fielu of moleculai anu
cell biology alloweu ieseaicheis to piobe the innei woikings of uiseaseu cells. By
uoing so, they maue iemaikable auvances in unueistanuing cancei anu othei
uiseases. Funuing anu othei suppoit came fiom the goveinment; in 1974 the NIB's
National Cancei Institute (NCI) set up basic science centeis foi cancei ieseaich
(CCRs) wheie expeits in moleculai biology, immunology, cell biology, viiology,
human genetics, anu chemical caicinogenesis coulu collaboiate with cancei
biologists, clinical oncologists, pievention expeits, anu suigeons. In cieating the
CCRs, NCI iecognizeu that new scientific auvances iequiie innovative institutional
suppoit mechanisms.
Soon enough, entiepieneuis launcheu
the biotechnology inuustiy by founuing
companies such as uenentech, Biogen,
anu Amgen, wheie univeisity-tiaineu
ieseaicheis coulu tianslate the new
technology into piouucts. The biotech
inuustiy has geneiateu tieatments foi some of the most uieauful human uiseases,
such as cancei, multiple scleiosis, anu hepatitis, anu cieateu tens of thousanus of
jobs.
1he Second kevo|ut|on: Genom|cs
The seconu majoi ievolution in life science ieseaich in iecent uecaues is the
genomic ievolution. It encompasses a uiive to stuuy an oiganism's entiie genome
ieauing the basic BNA sequence, iuentifying the physical location of uisciete genes,
anu unueistanuing intiagenomic phenomena. This ievolution got off the giounu
when the Bepaitment of Eneigy began funuing piojects to apply supeicomputing to
genetics ieseaich. As time went on, genome ieseaich shifteu to NIB.
NIB piogiess on sequencing the human genome began with genetic anu physical
mapping anu systematic BNA sequencing. Piogiess acceleiateu gieatly when
ieseaicheis intiouuceu fastei instiumentation anu computei techniques that
alloweu sequencing of the genome in a much shoitei time fiame. This in tuin
spaikeu one of the most cieative competitions in science histoiy, as NIB's Buman
uenome Pioject, leu by Fiancis Collins (Piesiuent 0bama's latei choice foi NIB
uiiectoi), anu Celeia's team, leu by Ciaig ventei, vieu to auapt the new technology
anu combine it with pievious mapping iesults. The two teams eventually announceu
success jointly, with paiallel human genome maps piinteu on the same uay in
E3).'# anu ;2&#/2# magazines, pioviuing an enoimously useful new tool set foi
unueistanuing the basis of human uisease.
"kesearchers conc|uded that they
cou|d tru|y understand d|sease on|y
|f they understood |t at the
mo|ecu|ar |eve| |ns|de the ce||."

The achievements in genome mapping also heialueu a new eia in biomeuical
ieseaich. If the moleculai biology ievolution enableu uiseases to be unueistoou at
the moleculai, "haiuwaie" level insiue the cell, the genomics ievolution enableu an
unueistanuing of the "softwaie" that uiives cell piocesses.
The auvances in genomic science have maue it possible to iuentify the genetic
founuations of many uiseases, which is the fiist step in ueveloping new tieatments.
uenetic mapping is also ciitical to ueveloping peisonalizeu meuicinetieating
patients with pieventive anu cuiative theiapies tailoieu to theii unique genetic
makeup anu shown to be effective foi theii specific uisease subtype, theieby
avoiuing costly, ineffective meuication anu haimful siue effects.
1he 1h|rd kevo|ut|on Convergence
Nuch of the exciting scientific ieseaich now occuiiing involves combining
moleculai anu cellulai biology with genomics, engineeiing, anu knowleuge of the
physical sciences. As we aie beginning to see, conveigence thus constitutes a thiiu
gieat ievolution in life sciences anu biomeuical ieseaich.
This illustiation helps to view these thiee ievolutions ovei time.
As alieauy noteu, conveigence uoes not simply involve a tiansfei of tool sets fiom
one science to anothei; funuamentally uiffeient conceptual appioaches fiom
physical science anu engineeiing aie impoiteu into biological ieseaich, while life
science's unueistanuing of complex evolutionaiy systems is iecipiocally influencing

0=>?@A +B Timeline highlighting some events ielateu to the moleculai biology, genomics, anu
conveigence ievolutions.

physical science anu engineeiing. Conveigence is the iesult of tiue intellectual
cioss-pollination.
A numbei of univeisity-houseu centeis have alieauy emeigeu as showcases of
conveigence, pioviuing the intellectual anu ieseaich space foi life scientists to
inteiact anu collaboiate with physical scientists anu engineeis. NIB has been ciitical
to this effoit, especially in cancei ieseaich. Foi example, the National Cancei
Institute (NCI) cieateu eight Centeis of Cancei Nanotechnology Excellence foi
inteiuisciplinaiy anu cioss-univeisity piojects. These centeis aie puisuing a vaiiety
of activities, incluuing ueveloping nanoscale uevices foi taigeteu uiug ueliveiy, foi
uiagnostics, foi noninvasive imaging, anu foi moleculai sensing of canceis, with an
emphasis on piostate, biain, lung, ovaiian, anu colon canceis.
NCI also cieateu nine Integiative Cancei Biology Piogiam Centeis thioughout the
countiy that exemplify conveigence. These centeis aie puisuing a systems-biology
appioach to asceitain what the most effective cell iegulatoiy noues might be foi
unueistanuing anu tieating cancei. This woik has uiiect application to iuentifying
the best uiagnostic anu ueliveiy taigets foi the new nanotechnology tools.
0f couise, applying engineeiing to
health is not a novel iuea. The biith of
the X-iay in 189S, foi example, gave
way to a ievolution in imaging that leu
to the electiocaiuiogiaph in the eaily 19uus, followeu by computeiizeu axial
tomogiaphy (commonly know as the CAT scan) in the 197us, anu the fiist
commeicial NRI (magnetic iesonance imaging) scannei in the 198us. These
inventions iequiieu the meiging of multiple uisciplines. Bowevei, a concentiateu
focus on conveigence can spui even moie innovation. viable commeicial piouucts
have alieauy uevelopeu fiom this appioach. The auvanceu BNA sequenceis aie
excellent examples. The new Illumina genome sequencei, foi instance, is helping to
lowei the cost of a full genome sequencing fiom billions of uollais (the piice tag
when the fiist genome was mappeu) to unuei $1u,uuu.
6
Noie conveigence-style
ieseaich is alieauy unuei way.
Lxamp|es of Convergence |n 8|omed|ca| kesearch
Conveigence bieakthioughs uepenu not only on new ieseaich institutions wheie
uiffeient uisciplines can finu common space, but also on collaboiative,
inteiuisciplinaiy ieseaich teams that opeiate within them. The woik of some
leauing biomeuical ieseaich teams is summaiizeu below to pioviue conciete
illustiations of conveigence in action. Seveial of the conveigence examples aie

6
new lllumlna Cenome Sequencer uramaLlcally Slashes CosLs, 1lme," onllne arLlcle aL Seeklng Alpha, !an.
16, 2010, hLLp://seeklngalpha.com/arLlcle/182969.
"Convergence |s the resu|t of true
|nte||ectua| cross-po|||nat|on."

uiawn fiom NIT because we aie most familiai with them, but compaiable ieseaich
is staiting to evolve at many ieseaich centeis.
Computat|ona| 8|o|ogy for Immune kesponse
632T7',./40 Auvances in computational simulation anu moueling analysis achieveu
thiough supeicomputing openeu the uooi to the genomics ievolution. The
ueveloping fielu of computational biology combines computei science, physics, anu
engineeiing with moleculai anu genetic biology to eluciuate mechanistic piinciples
that coulu leau to the iapiu iuentification of canuiuate gene anu cellulai taigets foi
new theiapies.
Foi example, ieseaicheis in Aiup Chakiaboity's lab at NIT have useu theoietical
anu computational appioaches to uncovei new mechanistic piinciples unueilying
the auaptive immune iesponse to pathogens.
7
By biinging statistical mechanics
togethei with engineeiing analyses of chemical kinetics anu genetic, biochemical,
anu imaging expeiiments, as well as clinical uata, Chakiaboity's team has uesciibeu
the moleculai mechanisms unueilying how T lymphocytes (essential foi auaptive
immunity) uevelop, uetect, anu iecognize the moleculai signatuies of pathogens
uisplayeu on the suiface of othei cells. This ieseaich is ievealing new piinciples that
govein the immune iesponse to BIv anu the emeigence of T lymphocyte-meuiateu
autoimmune uiseases.
;&7/&@&23/2#0 In using auvanceu computational mouels to apply statistical
mechanical methous to highly complex biological systems, Chakiaboity's
conveigence appioach has leu to new unueistanuing of how the bouy's immune
iesponse opeiates. This new knowleuge has, in tuin, cieateu the oppoitunity to
bettei manage the immune iesponse against uisease. Foi example, theie is usually
an inauequate immune iesponse to BIv infections, anu multiple scleiosis iesults
fiom an inappiopiiate immune iesponse against the bouy's own neivous system.
uaining a complete unueistanuing of how T lymphocytes woik in auaptive
immunity may pioviue auuitional avenues foi the uevelopment of theiapies anu
potential cuies. This giounubieaking theoietical woik has hau a majoi impact on
expeiimental cellulai anu moleculai immunology as well.
Imag|ng 1echno|ogy to revent 8||ndness
632T7',./40 Auvances in biomeuical imaging have alieauy leu to bieakthioughs in
the way uiseases aie uiagnoseu anu tieateu. NRIs anu othei scans aie now wiuely
useu to uetect vaiious uisoiueis as well as common bone injuiies, anu they pioviue
uoctois with poweiful new tools in the battle against eye uisease.

7
Arup ChakraborLy ls a professor of chemlcal englneerlng, chemlsLry, and blologlcal englneerlng aL Ml1.
lor deLalls abouL hls lab, see hLLp://web.mlL.edu/akcgroup/.

Because testing the eye's ietina by iemoving tissue causes uamage to the ietina,
lasei imaging has been evolving as an alteinative way to uiagnose uiseases that
cause blinuness. Bowevei, patients can keep theii eyes still foi less than a seconu
not enough time foi existing laseis to measuie eaily onset of uisease. In the 199us,
ieseaicheis uevelopeu optical coheience tomogiaphy (0CT), a new way to scan
laseis back anu foith at high speeus. In 2uu7, }ames Fujimoto's ieseaich gioup at
NIT cieateu new 0CT scanning technology that coulu iecoiu 2S6,uuu lines pei
seconu, a speeu 1u times fastei than was pieviously possible.
8
This new methou
combines two-uimensional cioss-sectional images of the ietina to foim a highly
piecise thiee-uimensional pictuie of the eye. This technology may become a ciitical
new uiagnostic tool foi eye uiseases, as impoitant as ultiasounu is foi othei fielus.
;&7/&@&23/2#0 The aging population of the 0.S. is incieasingly afflicteu with uisabling
eye uiseases. The new 0CT-baseu imaging technology maue possible by the
conveigence of physics, optics, electiical engineeiing, anu physiology will enable
uoctois to spot even the most subtle changes iesulting fiom uiseases of the ietina,
such as uiabetic ietinopathy, glaucoma, anu age-ielateu maculai uegeneiation,
which aie collectively the leauing causes of blinuness. This new technology coulu
also iapiuly inciease the speeu with which uoctois can take uetaileu images of the
eye to uiagnose anu tieat pioblems. Eaily tieatment will impiove the quality of life
foi hunuieus of thousanus of Ameiicans anu will lowei meuical costs by auuiessing
issues befoie they become moie seiious.
Nanotechno|ogy for 1argeted Chemotherapy De||very
632T7',./40 Reseaicheis have begun to use nanopaiticles to tianspoit time-ielease
anticancei uiugs uiiectly to canceious cells, such as those in the piostate.
Nanopaiticles, each a tiny fiaction of the size of a human cell anu engineeieu to be
accepteu by ceitain cells within the bouy, can uelivei stiong uoses of theiapeutics to
a specific location. A team of NIT ieseaicheis unuei Fiancesco Stellacci anu Baiiell
Iivine has uemonstiateu the engineeiing of nanopaiticles into homing uevices oi
"smait bombs" that impiove uiug ueliveiy by taigeting only canceious cells.
9

Theie aie seveial significant challenges
with this uiug ueliveiy system. Fiist,
ieseaicheis must isolate homing
uevices, such as RNA molecules calleu
aptameis that binu specifically to tumoi

8
!ames lu[lmoLo holds appolnLmenLs ln Ml1's LlecLrlcal Lnglneerlng and CompuLer Sclence ueparLmenL
and ln Lhe 8esearch LaboraLory of LlecLronlcs. lor deLalls abouL hls research, see
hLLp://www.rle.mlL.edu/lmml/lndex.hLm and hLLp://www.rle.mlL.edu/CCL/.
9
lrancesco SLellaccl and uarrell lrvlne are members of Lhe faculLy ln Ml1's ueparLmenL of MaLerlals
Sclence and Lnglneerlng.
"A team . has demonstrated the
eng|neer|ng of nanopart|c|es |nto hom|ng
dev|ces or 'smart bombs' that |mprove
drug de||very by target|ng on|y
cancerous ce||s."

antigens anu will be taken up by cancei cells. Anothei challenge is constiucting a
safe, biouegiauable nanopaiticle that can caiiy a uiug on the insiue anu binu to an
aptamei on the outsiue. A fuithei uifficulty has been ueveloping a synthetic mateiial
that can pass thiough a cell membiane without uestioying the cell. Stellacci anu
Iivine's ieseaich at the conveigence of engineeiing anu biology uemonstiateu that
golu nanopaiticles coateu with alteinating banus of neutial anu negatively chaigeu
molecules, known as "stiipeu" nanopaiticles, can quickly penetiate the piotective
cell membiane without killing the cell.
;&7/&@&23/2#0 A majoi pioblem with cuiient chemotheiapy uiugs is that they uo not
effectively uisciiminate which cells they kill, causing toxic siue effects such as
nausea, haii loss, anu, moie significantly, weakeneu immune systems. By taigeting
uiug ueliveiy to canceious cells thiough nanopaiticles, it may be possible to avoiu
the haimful effects of chemotheiapy. Bowevei, only thiough the conveigence of
mateiials science, engineeiing, chemistiy, anu biology can a nanoscale uiug ueliveiy
uevice be successfully uevelopeu fuithei foi clinical use.
8ra|n Grafts for 1reat|ng 8ra|n D|sorders and In[ury
632T7',./40 The conveigence ievolution is cieating majoi new oppoitunities in
neuioscience, a fielu within the life sciences that has tiauitionally attiacteu
ieseaicheis fiom uiveigent backgiounus such as electiical anu computei
engineeiing anu chemistiy. We aie leaining that the auult biain constantly auapts to
changes in stimuli; this plasticity appeais not only as leaining anu memoiy, but also
as uynamic changes in infoimation tiansmission anu piocessing. Reseaicheis aie
woiking to unueistanu long-teim biain plasticity anu shoit-teim uynamics in
netwoiks of the ueveloping anu auult coitex to unueistanu the mechanisms
unueilying many of the neuiological uiseases anu conuitions that challenge the
nation's health caie pioviueis.
Reseaicheis such as NIT's Niiganka Sui
10
aie using state-of-the-ait techniques
uevelopeu fiom physical anu engineeiing sciences, incluuing:
two-photon anu confocal micioscopy of cells, synapses, anu molecules in
vitio anu in vivo
multiple-electioue, single-unit iecoiuing in the coitex
high-iesolution optical imaging of activity fiom an expanse of coitex
whole-cell intiacellulai iecoiuing in slices anu in the intact biain
micioaiiays anu computational tools to iuentify genes in specific tissues.

1u
Mrlganka Sur ls a professor of neurosclence aL Ml1 and head of Lhe ueparLmenL of 8raln and CognlLlve
Sclences. lor deLalls abouL hls lab, see hLLp://web.mlL.edu/plcower/faculLy/sur.hLml.

;&7/&@&23/2#0 Recent neuioscience ieseaich using technologies auapteu fiom othei
fielus has sheu light on the tiue natuie of the auult biain. By "iewiiing" the
ueveloping biain, anu by ievealing iemaikably wiuespieau changes in the auult
coitex uuiing leaining, ieseaich is uemonstiating that the biain is fai moie plastic
anu auaptable than was pieviously believeu. With this auuitional infoimation,
ieseaicheis aie puisuing innovative iesponses to neuiological uisease anu injuiy,
incluuing the uevelopment of netwoiks of neuions giown in vitio that coulu one uay
seive as "biain giafts" to tieat victims of tiaumatic biain injuiy oi stioke.
8acter|a| |ast|c|ty for 1umor Detect|on and Drug De||very
632T7',./40 A majoi challenge foi meuical ieseaicheis has been ueveloping uiugs
that effectively fight uiseases but uo not uamage healthy tissues anu cells in patients.
Scientists have attempteu to solve this pioblem fiom a biological peispective by
focusing on cell maikeis anu immunological concepts. Although this appioach has
hau some success, conveigence-uiiven methous to optimize uiug ueliveiy aie
gaining momentum.
Chiis voigt's lab at the 0niveisity of Califoinia, San Fiancisco, specializes in
iepiogiamming bacteiia to peifoim functions useful foi biomeuical anu inuustiial
applications.
11
The voigt lab cieateu E. coli bacteiia that caiiy uensity sensois taken
fiom anothei bacteiial species. When the E. coli aie intiouuceu to mammalian cells,
the uensity sensois can uetect how uensely packeu the mammalian cells aie, baseu
on enviionmental cues such as oxygen levels. In auuition, above a ceitain uensity,
the sensois tiiggei the E. coli to invaue the mammalian cells by activating an
enzyme calleu invasin. This bioengineeiing feat shows piomise foi uiug ueliveiy,
especially against canceis. Canceious cells tenu to foim tumois, which aie high-
uensity clusteis of cells that can be uetecteu by the bacteiial sensois. If the E. coli
can be fuithei engineeieu to caiiy anticancei uiugs, this system can be useu foi
taigeteu theiapy. Because the cancei cells aie clusteieu togethei, they woulu be
uetecteu by the bacteiia anu the uiug woulu entei anu kill those cells, leaving
healthy cells unhaimeu.
;&7/&@&23/2#0 voigt's bacteiial cieation is a piime example of conveigence in which
engineeiing piinciples aie applieu to a biological system. The lab essentially copieu
the sensoi gene in one bacteiial species anu inseiteu it in anothei. This expeiiment's
potential foi uiug ueliveiy woulu iequiie even moie collaboiation acioss the
uisciplines; foi example, chemistiy woulu be iequiieu to calculate the coiiect
uosage of uiugs pei bacteiium. Bioinfoimatics may help iuentify bettei bacteiial
species, sensoi genes, oi anticancei uiugs foi human theiapeutic use, as moie
infoimation becomes available. 0ltimately, this bacteiial-sensoi uiug ueliveiy
system woulu ieuuce the siue effects of chemotheiapy anu othei iisky tieatments

11
Chrls volgL ls an assoclaLe professor ln Lhe ueparLmenL of harmaceuLlcal ChemlsLry aL 1he unlverslLy
of Callfornla, San lranclsco. lor deLalls abouL hls lab, see hLLp://volgLlab.ucsf.edu.

that jeopaiuize patients' oveiall health while attacking the cancei. The potential
meuical benefits of this ieseaich uemonstiate the iising neeu to make conveigence
a piioiity in the futuie of biology.
s|kNA for the nIV Vacc|ne
632T7',./40 Inteifeiing RNA (RNAi) is a natuial piocess useu by oiganisms to tuin
off oi silence the expiession of ceitain genes when they aie no longei neeueu.
Reseaicheis have alteieu this natuial piocess so that shoit inteifeiing RNA (siRNA)
can be ueliveieu to the insiue of cells to silence the genes associateu with the
peipetuation of uiseases. The ability to silence genes in mammalian cells thiough
RNAi has uiamatically expanueu the possibilities foi genotypephenotype analysis
in cell biology. siRNAs have oveilapping functions with micioRNAs, genes noimally
founu in mammalian cells that, when paiieu by paitial complementaiity to an
mRNA, pievent piouuction of the encoueu piotein. siRNA takes auvantage of the
existing cellulai micioRNA machineiy to silence specific genes. Reseaicheis have
begun engineeiing siRNAs complementaiy to known uisease genes, shutting off
those genes anu theieby pioviuing a new type of tieatment.
;&7/&@&23/2#0 Although it is potentially a veiy poweiful theiapeutic tool, siRNA is
uifficult to uispatch acioss membianes to taiget cells. The ueliveiy of tiny stianus of
RNA into taiget cells thiough nanotechnology auvances gives scientists the powei to
knock out inuiviuual genes ielateu to a wiue vaiiety of uiseases. Now a vital tool foi
genomic exploiation, RNAi also piomises to cieate new uiugs that woulu taiget the
genetic ioots of uisease. Foi example, ieseaicheis in Phillip Shaip's lab at NIT have
useu siRNAs to silence genes associateu with BIv entiy anu ieplication in human
cells, essentially stopping the spieau of the viius.
12
Similai appioaches coulu be
useu to combat othei uiseases with a genetic mechanism. siRNA, coupleu with
nanotechnology auvances fiom the physical anu engineeiing sciences, piomises a
common-pathway appioach cutting acioss uisease types.
C1C-ch|p for Detect|ng Cancer Metastases
632T7',./40 Befeating cancei has been a goal of meuical ieseaicheis foi uecaues,
anu it is becoming cleai that conveigence will be iequiieu foi the uevelopment of
successful tieatment options anu uetection techniques. By using physics,
engineeiing, biology, anu meuicine togethei in the fight against cancei, uoctois will
be able to pioviue moie-compiehensive tieatments that appioach cancei fiom a
mechanical as well as a biological view. Such integiateu ieseaich pioviues peihaps
the best hope foi attacking this life-thieatening uisease anu loweiing the cost of
tieatment.

12
hllllp Sharp ls a nobel rlze wlnner and lnsLlLuLe rofessor aL Ml1. lor deLalls abouL hls lab, see
hLLp://web.mlL.edu/sharplab/.
1he Convergence of the L|fe Sc|ences, hys|ca| Sc|ences, and Lng|neer|ng 1S

Nehmet Tonei uiiects a Boston-aiea ieseaich piogiam that focuses on ueveloping
technologies foi soiting anu analyzing bloou cells.
13
Recently, Tonei's gioup
uevelopeu the CTC-chip, a small uevice that shows piomise foi vastly impioving the
uetection of cancei piogiession. Ciiculating tumoi cells (CTCs) in the blooustieam
aie thought to be the ioot of incuiable metastatic canceis, so the soonei they aie
uetecteu, the soonei life-saving tieatment can be staiteu. Bowevei, CTCs aie
extiemely iaie anu uifficult to captuie; some expeits estimate the piesence of CTCs
to be as iaie as one cell in a billion noimal bloou cells.
Tonei's inteiuisciplinaiy woik significantly impioves the efficiency with which CTCs
can be uetecteu. The CTC-chip is a small chip coveieu with 78,uuu micioposts within
a suiface aiea of 97u squaie millimeteis, anu each miciopost is coateu with
antibouies that binu to specific maikeis that aie founu on CTCs anu inuicate
epithelial caicinomas, such as lung, coloiectal, bieast, heau, anu neck canceis. The
uevice also contains a pump that passes the bloou sample thiough the chip at the
piecise speeu anu angle neeueu to sepaiate the CTCs fiom othei bloou cells without
sheaiing oi uamaging them. As a iesult of the uetaileu physics, engineeiing, anu
biological piinciples that went into the uevelopment of the CTC-chip, the uevice is
extiaoiuinaiily sensitive; in one stuuy, the chip coiiectly uetecteu CTCs in ovei 99
peicent of cancei patients with metastases. The chip is now in clinical tiials.
;&7/&@&23/2#0 The CTC-chip is a shining example of conveigence; it uevelopeu fiom
the collaboiation of physicists who calculateu the optimal flow of bloou thiough the
chip, engineeis who constiucteu the micioposts on it, biologists who attacheu the
appiopiiate antibouies onto the micioposts, anu clinicians who testeu the chip
unuei ieal-woilu conuitions. The iesult is a piouuct that coulu significantly altei the
ability of uoctois to tieat canceis effectively. Boctois using the chip will be able to
ueteimine if the uiugs being auministeieu to patients aie ieuucing theii CTC
numbeis, anu if not, then patients coulu quickly begin uiffeient tieatments anu
impiove theii chances of suivival. At the least, the CTC-chip's fine-uetecting
capabilities will ieuuce the neeu foi iepeateu biopsies oi expensive imaging stuuies
on cancei patients.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
Conveigent technologies piomise to continue extenuing ieseaich fiontieis anu
pushing meuicine towaiu a moie peisonalizeu appioach that no longei accepts
haimful siue effects as a tiaueoff foi effective tieatment. We aigue that the
giounuswell conveigence movement alieauy unuei way shoulu be suppoiteu by the
feueial goveinment, not only because knowleuge foi the sake of knowleuge is woith
puisuing, but also because the goveinment has a vesteu inteiest in the health of
Ameiicans anu the wealth of the Ameiican economy. Investing in conveigence can

13
MehmeL 1oner ls a professor of surgery aL MassachuseLLs Ceneral PosplLal and Parvard Medlcal School,
and dlrecLor of Lhe 8loMLMS 8esource CenLer (hLLp://www.blomemsrc.org/).

solve health challenges that will oveiwhelm oui economy unuei the status quo;
equally impoitant, such investment can give the 0niteu States a global competitive
euge in technology uevelopment.

2. 1he Lconom|c Case for Support|ng Convergence

Economist anu Nobel lauieate Robeit Solow was among the fiist to cleaily
uemonstiate the ielationship between innovation anu economic giowth. Be showeu
that a laige poition of 0.S. economic giowth in the eaily 2u
th
centuiy was ueiiveu
fiom technological anu ielateu innovation.
In his woik uuiing the 19Sus, Solow founu that between 19u9 anu 1949, gains fiom
laboi anu capital intensity explaineu only a small poition of giowth in 0.S. gioss
national piouuct (uNP), while almost 2S of the iemainuei of uNP giowth was the
iesult of what he calleu "technical change."
14
Bis point was that technological anu
ielateu innovation was the pieuominant causative factoi behinu the bulk of 0.S.
economic giowth.
We aie only now beginning to giasp the piofounu implications of Solow's woik. In
the post-Woilu Wai II eia, the 0.S. auopteu a mouel, cuiiently being copieu
woiluwiue, of innovation-leu compaiative auvantage anu coiiesponuing giowth.
Keeping the 0.S. at the foiefiont of innovation is ciucial to oui countiy's economic
well-being. The infoimation technology ievolution, which biought huge economic
gains to the 0.S. economy, especially fiom 199S to 2uu1, is matuiing, anu the initial
phase of the biotech ievolution is playing out. Nany aie ponueiing the next phase of
innovation.
Theie aie likely to be highly fiuitful economic implications, puisuant to Solow's
mouel, foi expanuing 0.S.-leu suppoit foi the conveigence of the life sciences,
physical sciences, anu engineeiing thiough what some aie calling the "biology
economy". Biinging on a new phase of technological auvances that coulu contiibute
to anothei 0.S.-leu wave of woiluwiue innovation coulu be one of the keys to oui
futuie economic giowth. The countiy is giappling with how to cieate a new anu
stiongei founuation foi giowth; a cential pait of the answei is capitalizing on
conveigence.
Demograph|c Cha||enges and the Need for Innovat|on
The neeu to invest in biomeuical ieseaich is heighteneu by the cuiient health caie
ciisis anu coming uemogiaphic challenges. Accoiuing to the Agency foi Bealthcaie
Reseaich anu Quality, the 0.S. spenus a laigei poition of its gioss uomestic piouuct

14
8oberL M. Solow, Ctowtb 1beoty. Ao xposltloo, 2nd ed. (new ?ork: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 2000): lx-
xxvl. See also 8oberL M. Solow, CrowLh 1heory and AfLer," lecLure aL nobel rlze awards ceremony,
SLockholm, uec. 8, 1987, hLLp://nobelprlze.org/nobel_prlzes/economlcs/laureaLes/1987/solow-
lecLure.hLml.

(uBP) on health caie than any othei majoi inuustiializeu countiy. In fact, in 2uu2,
health caie expenuituies iepiesenteu one-seventh of the nation's uBP anu maue up
one of the fastest-giowing components of the feueial buuget.
13
In auuition,
accoiuing to the Centeis foi Neuicaie anu Neuicaiu Seivices (CNS), in 2uu8, total
health expenuituie equaleu $7,681 pei peison.
16

This cost issue isn't just affecting inuiviuuals anu families. CNS calculateu that in
2uu4, eveiy state except Belawaie anu Wyoming spent 1u peicent oi moie of its
gioss state piouuct on health caie. These statistics continue to climb, with national
health expenuituies expecteu to inciease an aveiage of 6.1 peicent pei yeai though
2u19.
17

As biomeuical auvances piolong Ameiican lives anu as the baby-boom geneiation
ages, oui health caie system will face substantial challenges, such as the inevitable
iise of ceitain uiseases anu an incieaseu neeu foi enu-of-life caie. }ust as cancei
iecently ieplaceu heait uisease as the leauing 0.S. cause of ueath (thanks to majoi
auvances in heait-uisease tieatment), some expect biain uiseases to, in tuin,
uisplace cancei in upcoming yeais. Alzheimei's uisease, foi example, will affect the
baby boomeis at such an alaiming iate that it is uncleai how oui cuiient health caie
system will cope. Accoiuing to the Alzheimei's Association, "the numbei of people
ageu 6S anu oluei with Alzheimei's uisease is estimateu to ieach 7.7 million in
2uSumoie than a Su peicent inciease fiom the S.1 million ageu 6S anu oluei
cuiiently affecteu."
18

The uemogiaphic shift that the countiy faces becomes significantly moie
manageable if the baby-boom geneiation can iemain a piouuctive pait of the
woikfoice. This will allow theii health caie costs to be spieau moie evenly ovei an
extenueu peiiou anu acioss the population base. Conveigence, anu the
coiiesponuing tiansfoimation of health caie it can tiiggei, is key to buying us the
time we will neeu to innovate oui way thiough this uiamatic population challenge.
Congiess tiieu to tackle many of oui health caie challenges by passing the Patient
Piotection anu Affoiuable Caie Act (PPACA) in Naich 2u1u. PPACA attempts to
ensuie incieaseu access to health caie, but it is uncleai how the associateu costs will
be manageu. Cost contiol is ciitical, anu it will uepenu to a laige uegiee on

13
PealLh Care CosLs: lacL SheeL," Agency for PealLhcare 8esearch and CuallLy, 8ockvllle, Mu, SepL. 2002,
p. 1, hLLp://www.ahrq.gov/news/cosLsfacL.pdf.
16
naLlonal PealLh LxpendlLure uaLa: nPL lacL SheeL," CenLers for Medlcare and Medlcald Servlces,
8alLlmore, hLLps://www.cms.gov/naLlonalPealLhLxpenduaLa/23_nPL_lacL_SheeL.asp (accessed !uly 24,
2010).
17
lbld.
18
2010 Alzhelmer's ulsease lacLs and llgures," Alzbelmet's & uemeotlo 6 (2010): 14,
hLLp://www.alz.org/documenLs_cusLom/reporL_alzfacLsflgures2010.pdf.

innovation. New technologies anu cieative appioaches aie neeueu to uiive
piouuctivity gains so that we can expanu access to health caie while also attempting
to ueciease the cost pei peison. 0nfoitunately, PPACA uiu little to auuiess the
impoitance of innovation. As one commentatoi put it, "The healthcaie legislation .
uoes not have an innovation focus . |Wje shoulu uo eveiything we can to encouiage
the soit of uisiuptive innovation in the meuical fielu that has chaiacteiizeu the
technology inuustiy."
19

The uemogiaphic challenges will be
upon us soon, iegaiuless of oui nation's
ieseaich piioiities. We will be faceu
with an aging population iequiiing
gieatei meuical attention anu suffeiing at an alaiming iate fiom conuitions foi
which we still have no cuies. Now is the time to piepaie oui meuical ieseaicheis
anu innovatois foi this societal challenge by embiacing conveigence anu all its
potential benefits.
n|gh keturns for Iedera| Investment |n 8|omed|ca| kesearch
Feueial investment in conveigence will not only help us confiont the upcoming
uemogiaphic challenges in health caie, it will also help us builu economic wealth.
Economist Baviu Bloom points out that when we weigh uecisions about whethei to
invest in new health technology ieseaich, we ioutinely unueivalue the benefits of
such ieseaich. This is because tiauitional cost-benefit analyses fail to consiuei that
tieatments anu piouucts that inciease the oveiall health of the Ameiican people
have iipple effects foi the economy. Longei life expectancy anu bettei quality of life
encouiage moie men anu women to iemain in the woikfoice anu continue to
invigoiate the economy.
Consiuei that Ameiicans boin at the enu of the 2uth centuiy can expect to live about
Su yeais longei than if they hau been boin in 19uu,
20
anu most ietiiees in theii 6us

19
Cary Shaplro, Where ls lnnovaLlon ln Lhe PealLhcare uebaLe?" 1be nlll, !an. 7, 2010, p. 2,
hLLp://Lhehlll.com/oplnlon/op-ed/74713-where-ls-lnnovaLlon-ln-Lhe-healLh-care-debaLe-. lor more
commenLary on Lhe need for lnnovaLlon ln healLh care, see !ohn C. LechlelLer, PealLh-Care 8eform and
Lhe 'lnnovaLlon 1esL,'" woll 5tteet Iootool, May 14, 2009,
hLLp://onllne.ws[.com/arLlcle/S8124227033842018311.hLml, and 8ruce nussbaum, PealLh Care 8eform
asses-now LeL's SLarL PealLh Care lnnovaLlon," 8loombetq 8osloess week, March 22, 2010,
hLLp://www.buslnessweek.com.
20
kevln Murphy and 8oberL 1opel, 1he value of PealLh and LongevlLy," Iootool of lolltlcol cooomy 114,
no. 3 (CcL. 2006): 871-904, hLLp://www.[ournals.uchlcago.edu/dol/full/10.1086/308033.
"Cost contro| |s cr|t|ca|, and |t w|||
depend to a |arge degree on
|nnovat|on."

anu 7us aie physically able to woik.
21
Bloom anu his colleagues have calculateu that
a one-yeai inciease in life expectancy impioves laboi piouuctivity by a uiamatic 4
peicent.
22
This tianslates to significant economic benefit. Between 197u anu 2uuu,
gains in life expectancy accounteu foi $S.2 tiillion pei yeai of national wealth, anu a
1 peicent ieuuction in cancei moitality iates was estimateu to mean cumulative
savings of $Suu billion to the health economy.
23

Feueial investment has been key to this effoit. As of 2uu6, accoiuing to the foimei
uiiectoi of NIB, the "estimateu total cumulative investment at NIB pei Ameiican
ovei the past Su yeais . is about $1,SS4 oi about $44 pei Ameiican pei yeai ovei
the entiie peiiou. In ietuin, Ameiicans have gaineu ovei six yeais of life expectancy
anu aie aging healthiei than evei befoie."
24
In fact, NIB investments in heait uisease
ieseaich, which amount to an aveiage of $4 pei yeai pei Ameiican, have helpeu to
cut the inciuence of fatal heait attacks anu stioke by moie than 6u peicent since
197S. Similaily, NIB-sponsoieu auvances have impioveu suivival iates foi BIv
patients, anu economists estimate that the iesulting savings to oui economy will be
close to $1.4 tiillion foi all past anu futuie cohoits of infecteu inuiviuuals.
23
Insteau
of being an epiuemic costing billions foi new hospital beus anu health caie, AIBS is
becoming a manageable outpatient uisease, anu BIv-AIBS victims aie iemaining
piouuctive in the economy.
In auuition to benefiting the economy by impioving health, NIB investments cieate
uiiect anu inuiiect economic gains by cieating jobs anu new goous anu seivices.
Families 0SA iecently ieleaseu a iepoit that outlines the effect of NIB ieseaich
uollais on inuiviuual states. The $2S billion that NIB investeu in all Su states in 2uu7

21
nlcole MaesLas and !ulle Zlsslmopoulos, Pow Longer Work Llves Lase Lhe Crunch of opulaLlon Aglng,"
worklng paper, 8Anu Corp, SanLa Monlca, CA, uec. 2009,
hLLp://www.rand.org/pubs/worklng_papers/2010/8Anu_W8728.pdf.
22
uavld 8loom, uavld Cannlng, and Mark WesLon, 1he value of vacclnaLlon," wotlJ cooomlcs 6, no. 3
(!uly-SepL. 2003): 13-39,
hLLp://www.sabln.org/flles/aLLachmenL/value_vacclnaLlon_bloom_cannlng_wesLon.pdf.
23
kevln M. Murphy and 8oberL P. 1opel, 1he value of PealLh and LongevlLy," weekly lollcy
commeototy, a publlcaLlon of 8esources for Lhe luLure (SepL. 28, 2009),
hLLp://www.rff.org/ubllcaLlons/WC/ages/1he-value-of-PealLh-and-LongevlLy.aspx.
24
Lllas A. Zerhounl, l?2007 ulrecLor's 8udgeL 8equesL SLaLemenL," presenLaLlon by nlP dlrecLor Lo
Pouse SubcommlLLee on Labor, Aprll 6, 2006,
hLLp://www.nlh.gov/abouL/dlrecLor/budgeLrequesL/fy2007dlrecLorsbudgeLrequesL.hLm.
23
lbld.

geneiateu ovei $Su billion in the piouuction of new goous anu seivices.
26
That
means that eveiy $1 million NIB investeu in 2uu7 geneiateu moie than twice that
($2.21 million) in new state business activity. Fuitheimoie, NIB giants in 2uu7
suppoiteu moie than SSu,uuu jobs anu the aveiage wage of those hiieu foi the new
jobs was $S2,uuusignificantly highei than the estimateu aveiage 0.S. wage at the
time, $42,uuu.
27

NIB-suppoiteu inuustiies, like the biophaimaceutical inuustiy, offei anothei goou
lens foi examining the impact of NIB funuing on employment anu wealth cieation.
Accoiuing to a iecent iepoit, the biotech sectoi consistently outpeifoims otheis in
job cieation:
Bioscience employment giowth gieatly outpaceu national
employment giowth fiom 2uu1 to 2uu8. The bioscience inuustiy
auueu 19S,748 jobs fiom 2uu1 to 2uu8, a hefty giowth iate of 1S.8
peicent. This iapiu iate of job giowth was 4.S times as much as the
oveiall giowth iate foi the national piivate sectoi (S.S peicent).
28

Cleaily, the economic ietuins on basic biomeuical ieseaich aie significant anu fai
outweigh the costs, especially when the effects of incieaseu lifespan on piouuctivity
anu national wealth aie factoieu in.
29
A moie inclusive analysis of costs anu benefits
thus pioviues a poweiful economic aigument foi piomoting conveigence-uiiven
ieseaich tailoieu to the 21st centuiy. If the 0.S. goveinment invests in the ieseaich
anu technology infiastiuctuie to fuithei the conveigence ievolution, we can not
only impiove health caie, but also stiengthen the 0.S. economy anu Ameiican
competitiveness.

26
lo oot Owo 8ockyotJ. now Nln looJloq nelps oot 5totes cooomy (WashlngLon, uC: lamllles uSA
loundaLlon, 2008), p. 3, hLLp://www.famlllesusa.org/asseLs/pdfs/global-healLh/ln-your-own-
backyard.pdf.
27
lbld., p. 4.
28
8ottelle/8lO 5tote 8loscleoce loltlotlves 2010, (8loLechnology lndusLry CrganlzaLlon and 8aLLelle
1echnology arLnershlp racLlce, May 2010), p. ll,
hLLp://www.blo.org/local/baLLelle2010/8aLLelle_8eporL_2010.pdf.
29
kevln M. Murphy and 8oberL P. 1opel, eds., Meosotloq tbe Colos ftom MeJlcol keseotcb. Ao cooomlc
Apptoocb (Chlcago: unlverslLy of Chlcago ress, 2003).

3. NIn's ko|e |n Advanc|ng Convergence

We have alieauy aigueu that conveigence is the next ievolution in biomeuical
ieseaich. The 0.S. is the histoiic leauei in biomeuicine because of NIB's eaily
investments in life science anu euucation anu because of the piivate-sectoi capital
that followeu. Now, with othei countiies eageily uuplicating the 0.S. mouel of
innovation in biomeuical ieseaich, it is ciitical that NIB uevelop a vision to take us
into the futuie. To uo so, NIB neeus consistent funuing, gieatei willingness to funu
seemingly iisky ieseaich, anu the infiastiuctuie to capitalize on the next ievolution
in life sciences.
Iund|ng Cha||enges and Low-k|sk kesearch
The NIB buuget neaily uoubleu between 1998 anu 2uuS.
30
Bowevei, since then, NIB
uiscoveiies, which piivate investment builus on, have been affecteu by funuing
levels that aie ueclining in ieal teims.
The enacteu NIB buuget foi FY 2u1u was $S1.2 billion, a 2.27 peicent inciease fiom
the pievious yeai.

Bowevei, the Buieau of Economic Analysis piojecteu the
biomeuical ieseaich inflation metiic (BRBPI) at S.1 peicent.
31
This means that the
buuget has not kept up with inflation (see giaph), anu that in constant uollais the
buuget actually shiank between 2uuS anu 2u1u.
32
Essentially, NIB's ability to funu
cuiient levels of ieseaich, let alone the emeiging conveigence ievolution, uecieaseu
significantly.
In Febiuaiy 2uu9, the new auministiation's Ameiican Recoveiy anu Reinvestment
Act (ARRA) pioviueu NIB with $1u billion in much-neeueu stimulus funuing.
Bowevei, this boost was a one-time funuing oppoitunity, anu it was available
pieuominantly foi alieauy-fileu giant applications, iathei than new awaius.
Without a sustaineu souice of incieaseu baseline funuing foi NIB, anu a

30
uaLa complled by Lhe Amerlcan AssoclaLlon for Lhe AdvancemenL of Sclence,
hLLp://www.aaas.org/spp/rd/nlhchL09.pdf (accessed !uly 24, 2010).
31
8lomedlcal 8esearch and uevelopmenL rlce lndex (88ul): llscal ?ear 2009 updaLe and ro[ecLlons
for l? 2010-l? 2013," memo from u.S. ueparLmenL of PealLh and Puman Servlces, leb. 1, 2010,
hLLp://offlceofbudgeL.od.nlh.gov/pdfs/l?11/88ul_ro[_leb_2010.pdf, and 1he nlP Almanac-
ApproprlaLlons," posLlng aL Lhe naLlonal lnsLlLuLes of PealLh webslLe, May 14, 2010,
hLLp://www.nlh.gov/abouL/almanac/approprlaLlons/lndex.hLm (accessed nov. 18, 2010)
32
1he nlP Almanac-ApproprlaLlons," posLlng aL Lhe naLlonal lnsLlLuLes of PealLh webslLe, May 14, 2010,
hLLp://www.nlh.gov/abouL/almanac/approprlaLlons/lndex.hLm (accessed !uly 24, 2010).

coiiesponuing ieneweu focus on conveigence, the 0.S. cannot expect to ietain its
leaueiship in making biomeuical auvances.
33

Foi seveial yeais, meuical-ieseaich
auvocates have expiesseu concein
that these ueclining investment
levels will, ovei time, ieuuce
ieseaich suppoit, uetei talenteu
inuiviuuals fiom going into
biomeuical ieseaich fielus, eioue
0.S. leaueiship in life science, anu
weaken oui capability to tackle
majoi health conceins.
34
We aie
now facing that ieality. A iecent
E3).'# aiticle notes that NIB is now
funuing fewei than one in five giant
applications:
|In 2u1uj, success iates foi
scientists applying foi the
agency's ieseaich-pioject
giants have uippeu to an estimateu 19 peicent, uown fiom 21 peicent
in 2uu9 anu fai lowei than the comfoitable S2 peicent of a uecaue
eailiei.The woiseneu ouus paitly ieflect an inciease of about 1u
peicent in the numbei of applications, many of which aie iecycleu
fiom faileu stimulus giant pioposals. In 2u11 anu 2u12, the giant
success iates aie expecteu to fall fuithei as stimulus funuing iuns out
anu its iecipients attempt to extenu suppoit foi theii piojects.
33

As a iesult of uecieasing giant success iates, scientists who peei-ieview NIB giant
pioposals have become moie selective anu moie conseivative when juuging the
meiits of ieseaich piojects.
36
In a well-unueistoou phenomenon that affects all
science ieseaich, a uecline in giant appioval iates piessuies peei ievieweis to
uemanu moie eviuence foi the eventual success of pioposeu theoiies befoie

SS
noLe: 1he proposed nlP budgeL for l? 2011 does meeL Lhe 88ul meLrlc. Powever, Lhere ls no cushlon,
and Lhe flnal allocaLlon ls uncerLaln, glven Lhe dlfflculL budgeL cllmaLe ln Congress.
34
8rown unlverslLy eL al., "A 8roken lpellne? llaL lundlng of Lhe nlP uLs a CeneraLlon of Sclence aL
8lsk," sLaLemenL by a group of unlverslLles and research lnsLlLuLlons, March 2008,
hLLp://www.brokenplpellne.org/brokenplpellne.pdf.
33
MeredlLh Wadman, "lrancls Colllns: Cne ?ear aL Lhe Pelm," Notote 466, no. 7308 (Aug. 11, 2010): 808-
810, hLLp://www.naLure.com/news/2010/100811/full/466808a.hLml.
36
lbld.

0=>?@A 3B Change in the NIB's buuget veisus BRBPI, a
metiic that measuies inflation in health caie costs.
Bata Souice: "Biomeuical Reseaich anu Bevelopment Piice Inuex
(BRBPI): Fiscal Yeai 2uu9 0puate anu Piojections foi FY 2u1u-FY
2u1S," memo fiom the 0.S. Bepaitment of Bealth anu Buman
Seivices, Feb. 1, 2u1u.

appioving funuing, which limits iisk taking in the ieseaich poitfolio. This
inauveitently changes the way science is conuucteu by uiscouiaging innovative,
novel iueas in favoi of moie conventional appioaches anu inciemental piogiess
towaiu scientific uiscoveiy.
NIB neeus a soliu founuation on which to builu a new conveigence ievolution with
tiansfoimational implications foi the 0.S. ieseaich anu uevelopment system. The
inheient conseivatism of peei ieview within the existing science suppoit system,
anu the inconsistent funuing base, hampei new appioaches to ieseaich that must be
embiaceu foi Ameiica to maintain its competitiveness anu innovative euge.
Convergence-Sty|e ro[ects at NIn
Bespite the challenges, conveigence is slowly peicolating thioughout the scientific
community. At NIB, conveigence-style piogiams have gotten a boost fiom stimulus
uollais anu fiom the NIB Common Funu, cieateu in 2uu6 to suppoit cioss-cutting
ieseaich involving two oi moie of the agency's institutes anu centeis. In auuition,
conveigence is gaining visibility thiough many of the initiatives that Fiancis Collins
has piomoteu since becoming NIB uiiectoi in August 2uu9.
In Novembei 2u1u, Bi. Collins piesenteu his five ieseaich piioiities. These five
pillais, as they've come to be known, aie:
high-thioughput technologies
tianslational meuicine
health caie iefoim issues, incluuing compaiative-effectiveness ieseaich,
uisease pievention, peisonalizeu meuicine, health uispaiities ieseaich,
phaimacogenomics, anu health ieseaich economics
global health issues, anu
ieinvigoiating anu empoweiing the biomeuical ieseaich community.
37

As pait of his effoit to make piogiess in these aieas, Bi. Collins helu the "Big Think"
meeting in Nay 2u1u to consiuei innovative iueas foi Common Funu oi othei NIB
suppoit. Coinciuentally, this meeting focuseu on the thiee pillais most ielevant to
conveigence: application of high-thioughput technologies, tianslation of basic
ieseaich into uiagnostics anu theiapeutics, anu utilization of science to benefit
health caie iefoim.
In an effoit to bieak beyonu the cuiient paiauigms, nontiauitional stakeholueis
fiom the science community outsiue of NIB weie inviteu. Piesenteis uiscusseu a
bioau aiiay of piomising aieas, incluuing, foi instance, metabalomics anu its

37
lrancls Colllns, CpporLunlLles for 8esearch and nlP," 5cleoce 327 (!an. 1 2010): 36-37.
1he Convergence of the L|fe Sc|ences, hys|ca| Sc|ences, and Lng|neer|ng 2S

applications foi clinical meuicine. In auuition, all attenuees weie offeieu the
oppoitunity to submit one-page memos on "big iueas" foi NIB. Inteiestingly, the
foimat foi these memos followeu the "Beilmeiei questions" foimulateu by ueoige
Beilmeiei, a foimei uiiectoi of the Befense Auvanceu Reseaich Piojects Agency,
inuicating that Bi. Collins is seiious about biinging new iueas into NIB.
With Bi. Collins at the agency's helm, it
may not be suipiising that piojects that
blenu seemingly unielateu uisciplines
aie gaining some suppoit. While theie
is still much moie to uo, two examples
of conveigence-style ieseaich at NIB
aie woith highlighting: The Cancei uenome Atlas (TCuA) anu Theiapeutics foi Raie
anu Neglecteu Biseases (TRNB).
1he Cancer Genome At|as (1CGA): 1argeted 1herapeut|cs for Cancer Subtypes
The Cancei uenome Atlas (TCuA) is a compiehensive anu cooiuinateu effoit to
acceleiate unueistanuing of the moleculai genetic basis of cancei thiough the
application of genome analysis technologies. These technologies incluue next
geneiation sequencing platfoims anu nanopoie technology, anu othei auvances
iequiiing the integiation of engineeiing with biochemistiy, chemistiy,
bioinfoimatics, nanotechnology, anu physics. As a joint effoit of the National Cancei
Institute (NCI) anu the National Buman uenome Reseaich Institute, TCuA cuts
acioss institutional lines as well as scientific uisciplines.
Begun in 2uu6, TCuA is alieauy yieluing impoitant new finuings. TCuA investigatois
iecently uiscoveieu that the most common foim of malignant biain cancei in auults,
glioblastoma multifoime (uBN), is not a single uisease but insteau appeais to
compiise foui uistinct moleculai subtypes. Reseaicheis also founu that iesponse to
aggiessive chemotheiapy anu iauiation uiffeieu by subtype. Aggiessive tieatment
was most effective foi patients with one paiticulai subtype, who appeaieu to
succumb to theii uisease at a iate appioximately Su peicent slowei than patients
tieateu with less aggiessive theiapy. The effect was less pionounceu foi patients
with two of the othei subtypes, anu it was not piesent at all foi patients with the
fouith subtype. These iesults may leau to moie peisonalizeu appioaches to tieating
gioups of uBN patients baseu on theii genomic alteiations. The stuuy, publisheu in
53/2#' 5#--, pioviues a soliu fiamewoik foi investigating taigeteu theiapies that
may impiove the piognosis foi patients with this cancei, which is neaily always
fatal.
38

38
8. C. verhaak eL al., lnLegraLed Cenomlc Analysls ldenLlfles Cllnlcally 8elevanL SubLypes of
ClloblasLoma CharacLerlzed by AbnormallLles ln uCl8A, luP1, LCl8, and nl1," coocet cell 17, no. 1 (!an.
19, 2010): 98-110. lor an nCl news release abouL Lhe flndlngs, see
hLLp://cancergenome.nlh.gov/medla/glloblasLoma4subLypes.asp.
"rogress can be qu|ck when
researchers w|th d|fferent
know|edge bases are encouraged to
come together."

As TCuA's uiscoveiies about uBN illustiate, piogiess can be quick when ieseaicheis
with uiffeient knowleuge bases aie encouiageu to come togethei. As conveigence-
style ieseaich stietches beyonu genomics anu becomes moie commonplace
thioughout NIB anu in othei agencies anu acauemic centeis, the auvances anu
societal benefits that aie suie to follow will fuithei uemonstiate the value of
investing in moie integiateu ieseaich.
1herapeut|cs for kare and Neg|ected D|seases (1kND): 8r|dg|ng the Va||ey of Death for G|oba| nea|th
The Theiapeutics foi Raie anu Neglecteu Biseases (TRNB) piogiam began in 2uu9
at the (NIB) Chemical uenomics Centei (NCuC). TRNB investigatois utilize high-
thioughput technologies (iobotics, uata piocessing anu uata-contiol softwaie,
liquiu-hanuling uevices, anu sensitive uetectois) to quickly conuuct millions of
biochemical, genetic, oi phaimacological tests on small molecules that hit uisease-
mouifying taigets. The iesults, a libiaiy of oiganic compounus of this class, aie often
canuiuates foi use as phaimaceuticals oi taigeteu theiapeutics.
The TRNB piogiam focuses on uiscoveiing uiug taigets foi iaie anu neglecteu
uiseases affecting, in aggiegate, a laige population aiounu the globe. Since iaie anu
neglecteu uiseases aie without a stiong economic maiket, TRNB's goal is to
investigate uiug taigets foi these uiseases to the point wheie it makes economic
sense foi inuustiy to uevelop the uiug. In this wayby investing in basic ieseaich
foi uiugs that foi-piofit coipoiations woulu not otheiwise funu, anu then hanuing
off those uiug taigets to be uevelopeu anu commeicializeu in the piivate sectoi
NIB is paving the way foi new tieatments.
39

In the shoit time the piogiam has been iunning, investigatois have uiscoveieu a
potential compounu that might be the basis foi tieating schistosomiasis, also known
as bilhaizia oi snail fevei. This uisease affects 2u7 million people woiluwiue anu
kills 2Su,uuu each yeai. Public-health expeits aie conceineu that the Schistosoma
paiasites will become iesistant to a cuiient uiug of choice, piaziquantel, which will
then lose its effectivenessas has been the case with agents useu to combat
malaiia, tubeiculosis, anu many othei infectious uiseases. Alteinative uiugs aie thus
potentially of gieat value, not only to the 7u tiopical nations wheie these uiseases
aie pievalent, but also to foieign-aiu uonois like the 0.S.
By incoipoiating computei science, engineeiing, phaimacology, anu biology into
one conceiteu effoit, TRNB is appioaching solutions to some of the woilu's most
oveilookeu meuical conuitions. Peihaps moie impoitantly foi the conveigence
mouel, the TRNB piogiam is piomoting a new kinu of collaboiation among a bioau
netwoik of actois that cuts acioss tiauitional ieseaich stiuctuies, public-piivate
paitneiships, anu uisciplines.

39
lor more lnformaLlon, see lrequenLly Asked CuesLlons" aL Lhe nlP Cfflce of 8are ulseases 8esearch
webslLe, hLLp://raredlseases.lnfo.nlh.gov/flles/18nu_lACs.pdf.

Imp||cat|ons for the Iuture
The conveigence ievolution is a smait investment if we aie to keep oui biomeuical
ieseaich the finest in the woilu, anu if we aie to extenu piogiess in othei scientific
aieas as well. The conveigence mouel offeis a vision foi NIB that will once again
captuie the imagination anu also justify consistent anu piogiessive funuing of the
agency.
Pioviuing auequate financial suppoit foi inteiuisciplinaiy ieseaich is key, but we
must also encouiage investigation that ciosses existing bounuaiies. While NIB is
peihaps the most likely locale foi uiamatic conveigence-uiiven auvances, all feueial
agencies shoulu woik towaiu shaieu goals by embiacing not only inteiuisciplinaiy
collaboiation but also cioss-agency collaboiation. Foitunately, Congiess alieauy
iecognizes the impoitance of such inteiaction. In a 2uu9 iepoit, foi example, the
Senate Appiopiiations Committee stateu:
The Committee applauus the successes which have been achieveu
when the Bepaitment of Eneigy has collaboiateu with the National
Institutes of Bealth |NIBj. These successes incluue the human genome
pioject, auvances in bioinfoimatics, anu bieakthioughs in atomic
iesolution stiuctuial biology. The Committee stiongly encouiages the
B0E 0ffice of Science anu the National Laboiatoiies to ieach out to
the NIB to institutionalize senioi level contacts with the goal of
iuentifying oppoitunities foi sustaineu collaboiation in ieseaich anu
uevelopment. The Committee notes that long-lasting ielationships aie
necessaiy to builu the types of integiateu collaboiative piogiams that
coulu biing about bieakthioughs in biomeuical imaging, systems
biology, anu othei key aieas of ieseaich.
40

40
SenaLe ApproprlaLlons CommlLLee, oetqy ooJ wotet uevelopmeot Apptoptlotloos 8lll, 2010, reporL,
111Lh Cong., 1sL sess., CommlLLee rlnL 111-43:104, hLLp://frwebgaLe.access.gpo.gov/cgl-
bln/geLdoc.cgl?dbname=111_cong_reporLs&docld=f:sr043.111.pdf.

4. kecommendat|ons

As we've explaineu, the iecent ievolutions in moleculai anu cellulai biology anu in
genomics continue to make ciucial contiibutions to meuical knowleuge anu health
caie. To capitalize on those auvances, we now neeu to heeu the calls foi a new,
integiateu ieseaich mouel anu suppoit a thiiu ievolution, the conveigence of the
life, physical, anu engineeiing sciences. Seveial impoitant stiategies aie outlineu
below.
1. Lnsure that Congress|ona| fund|ng meets or beats 8kDI, NIn's b|omed|ca|
research |nf|at|on metr|c, annua||y.
Foi the past seveial yeais, annual NIB funuing levels have faileu to keep up with the
NIB biomeuical ieseaich inflation metiic (BRBPI). Buugetaiy stiains, coupleu with
an alieauy conseivative peei-ieview system, mean that innovative ieseaich
appioaches aie likely to go unfunueu in favoi of moie pieuictable, inciemental
ieseaich.
Consistent funuing levels will allow NIB to plan anu incoipoiate a moie piomising
anu uiveisifieu-iisk ieseaich poitfolio. In auuition, in times of economic iecession,
when beating the BRBPI may not be possible, funuing foi extiamuial giants anu
flexible funuing piogiams like the Common Funu shoulu be piotecteu as the last in
line foi cuts.
2. Lstab||sh a convergence ecosystem by bu||d|ng connect|ons across
stovep|ped systems.
Scientific ieseaich has histoiically been funueu in sepaiate stovepipes by science-
mission agencies, incluuing the National Science Founuation, the Bepaitment of
Eneigy, the Bepaitment of Befense, anu the National Institutes of Bealth. In aieas
wheie collaboiation can be highly piouuctive, oui funuing agencies, not just oui
scientists, shoulu become collaboiatois. That means talking to one anothei, jointly
iuentifying the aieas of gieatest oppoitunity as well as the top scientific challenges,
anu ueveloping common stiategies foi piogiess.
Some inteiagency ieseaich uoes take place, but such piojects seem to uepenu on
infoimal fiienuships oi on slowly establisheu woiking ielationships between
inuiviuuals in vaiious agencies. Nechanisms to enable anu fostei such connections
neeu to be institutionalizeu.
The NIB Challenge uiants, which aie available to investigatois fiom outsiue NIB, aie
a goou fiist step. The next step might incluue incieasing oppoitunities foi

expeiienceu feueial agency ieseaicheis to take on shoit-teim assignments in othei
ieseaich agencies. Foi example, think-tank enviionments coulu be establisheu
within each ieseaich agency, anu agency uetailees fiom acioss the executive bianch
coulu be inviteu to visit foi seveial months anu collaboiate on the ieseaich
piioiities of the host institution. This might be cooiuinateu by the National Science
anu Technology Council.
We also suggest that the 0ffice of Science anu Technology Policy incluue
conveigence as a ciitical enabling scientific mouel in a Cabinet-wiue initiative on the
laigei biology economy. This effoit woulu help coalesce conveigence expeits anu
expose ieseaich oppoitunities, much as the National Nanotechnology Initiative
(NNI) anu the Bigh Peifoimance Computing anu Communications (BPCC) effoit
have cooiuinateu anu spuiieu activity in nanotechnology, anu computing
iespectively.
3. keform peer-rev|ew processes to support |nterd|sc|p||nary grants.
Peei ieview at NIB has long playeu a ciitical iole in the success of the 0.S. ieseaich
enteipiise in teims of both enabling meuical auvances anu suppoiting the
biomeuical economic sectoi. Bowevei, an incieasingly conseivative peei-ieview
system will leau to misseu oppoitunities.
NIB has iecently initiateu an effoit to iefoim its peei-ieview piocess anu piotect its
ability to unueitake cutting-euge, highei-iisk ieseaich, which tenus to ieceive less
emphasis when oveiall ieseaich funuing is in uecline. What is still neeueu is
acauemic eniichment of the peei-ieview teams, to inciease both cutting-euge
uisciplinaiy uepth anu the aiiay of uisciplines iepiesenteu. This will enable moie
immeuiate awaieness of piomising, conveigence-style ieseaich that iequiies a
gioup of nontiauitional collaboiatois incoipoiating expeiience in computing,
nanomateiials, genomics, imaging, anu othei evolving systems anu applying that
cumulative unueistanuing to a biomeuically oiienteu ieseaich mission.
Ceitain effoits that have alieauy staiteu shoulu be institutionalizeu anu expanueu.
These incluue the uevelopment anu utilization of a College of Scientific Revieweis in
eveiy NIB institute anu centei. These bouies aie ieview boaius composeu of
iespecteu scientists fiom outsiue NIB. With the help of mouein technology, the
membeis can ieview pioposals anu offei iecommenuations fiom theii offices acioss
the countiy, iathei than having to tiavel to NIB heauquaiteis in Bethesua, NB.
Wiuespieau use of such ieview boaius acioss the NIB campus will biing togethei
cutting-euge expeitise anu facilitate the funuing of conveigence-style piojects.
Theie may be auuitional ways to auapt the existing peei-ieview system foi
conveigence. To exploie the possibilities, a gioup of expeits in the NIB peei-ieview
piocess shoulu be biought togethei.

4. 8a|ance |arge-sca|e efforts w|th sma||er grant pro[ects.
Inuiviuual investigatoi, R01-style giants foi smallei piojects aie a time-honoieu,
iespecteu tiauition. Small piojects often leau to innovation anu new uiscoveiies, anu
suppoit foi them shoulu continue. At the same time, it is vital to also uiiect
iesouices to laige-scale piojects that incluue multiple piincipal investigatois. These
unueitakings allow ieseaicheis fiom many uisciplines to conuuct systematic
inquiiies into geneial taiget aieas while puisuing theii own specific inteiests.
Since collaboiation anu innovation in ieseaich methous aie moie uifficult if
inuiviuual ieseaicheis aie isolateu in sepaiate uepaitments at theii institutions, we
suggest the founuing of conveigence centeis at institutions acioss the countiy that
woulu incluue multiple piincipal investigatois. A gioup of agency anu acauemic
expeits shoulu convene anu use a systems appioach to uesign these centeis aiounu
national ieseaich piioiities.
S. Improve |nterd|sc|p||nary research among the 27 NIn |nst|tutes and centers.
NIB evolveu following Woilu Wai II in iesponse to an assumption that the pathway
to meuical solutions foi each uisease woulu be unique to that uisease. Bowevei, the
moleculai anu genetic ievolutions have taught us that cioss-cutting ieseaich can
piouuce auvances that will affect many uiseases. NIB's uisease-centeieu mouel was
not oiganizeu to accommouate this appioach. Each of the agency's 27 institutes anu
centeis (ICs) has its own ieseaich agenua anu tenus to opeiate autonomously.
Since 2uu6, the NIB Common Funu has suppoiteu tians-NIB ieseaich, but this effoit
neeus to be bioauei. The cuiient mechanisms foi ICs to collaboiate on
multiuisciplinaiy giants shoulu be ieexamineu, anu a moie effective system shoulu
be ueviseu. Neanwhile, the Common Funu can be an initial tool to encouiage
conveigence ieseaich in piomising aieas.
6. Lducate, expand, and support the next generat|on of convergence
researchers.
0niveisities incieasingly unueistanu that the meigei of scientific anu engineeiing
fielus is a ieality anu will be the futuie of the life science enteipiise. New effoits
neeu to be unueitaken to euucate the next geneiation of ieseaicheis to woik in
cioss-uisciplinaiy fielus. While a ueep uisciplinaiy backgiounu iemains vital,
incluuing a iobust cioss-uisciplinaiy euucation is essential auuitional piepaiation
foi oui futuie scientists anu impoitant foi ieseaich caieeis.
0ne iecommenuation is to offei moie ieseaich tiaining giants to encouiage
institutions to uevelop new couisespiogiams that piepaie stuuents, postuoctoial
ieseaicheis, anu fellows foi conveigence-uiiven ieseaich. This means cieating new
cuiiicula, appienticeships, anu tiaining piogiams to enable cioss-uisciplinaiy
expeitise.

In auuition, we must stiengthen the pipeline of futuie ieseaicheis by auuiessing the
uiveisity pioblem in oui euucational system. Accoiuing to a iecent iepoit, only 19
peicent of young people fiom families with incomes below $2S,uuu obtain a
community college uegiee oi highei, compaieu with 76 peicent fiom families with
incomes of $76,uuu oi moie.
41
It is cleai that we aie missing out on a laige pool of
potential talent. We neeu to continue effoits to engage a bioau iange of young
people in Science, Technology, Engineeiing, anu Nath (STEN) fielus.
To that enu, caieful consiueiation shoulu be given to the iecommenuations
containeu in two iecent stuuies. 0ne is a 2uu9 iepoit by the Council on uiauuate
Schools, titleu 6',34#/&/7 D3')&2&?3)&,/ &/ <'34.3)# U4.23)&,/V which outlines ways
to iuentify anu cultivate talenteu stuuents fiom gioups that aie tiauitionally
unueiiepiesenteu in science anu engineeiing giauuate piogiams9 The othei iepoit,
<#/4#' F&@@#'#/2#( 3) 5'&)&23- !'3/(&)&,/( &/ )"# 53'##'( ,@ ;2&#/2#V U/7&/##'&/7V 3/4
13)"#=3)&2( %32.-)8 (ieleaseu by the National Acauemies in 2u1u), suggests specific
stiategies foi achieving genuei equality on the STEN faculty caieei path.
In auuition to effoits encouiaging young people to puisue STEN caieeis, legislation
is neeueu to enable Ameiica to uiaw anu ietain biilliant ieseaicheis fiom acioss the
globe. Foi example, an enhanceu B-1B visa (Piofessional in a Specialty 0ccupation)
woulu enable talenteu non-Ameiicans euucateu at oui finest institutions to finu a
path to citizenship while they woik to enhance oui economy anu oui innovation
ecosystem.

41
aul CsLerman, College for All? 1he Labor MarkeL for College-LducaLed Workers," reporL for Lhe
CenLer for Amerlcan rogress, Aug. 2008,
hLLp://www.amerlcanprogress.org/lssues/2008/08/college_for_all.hLml.

CLCSING

The meigei of the life, engineeiing, anu physical sciences piomises to funuamentally
altei anu speeu oui scientific tiajectoiy. NIB anu othei affecteu agencies, if
auequately funueu anu maue ieauy, can be thought leaueis in this next scientific
ievolution. The time is iight foi NIB anu othei agencies to take up conveigence as
the wave of the futuie, cieating uiamatic new oppoitunities in meuicine foi new
theiapies anu uiagnostics, economic oppoitunity, as well as piomise in many othei
scientific fielus, fiom eneigy to climate to agiicultuie.



lor more lnformaLlon abouL Lhls reporL,
conLacL Lhe Ml1 WashlngLon Cfflce:
820 1
sL
SL. nL, SLe. 610
WashlngLon, uC 20002
202.789.1828 || 617.324.9981
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Washington DC Office
820 First Street NE, Suite 610
Washington, DC 20002
202-789-1828
http://web.mit.edu/dc/
10-11-0527

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