The Fifth Great Invention of Ancient China: Systemic Imitative Articulation Keywords: China; Chinese language; invention; Systemic

Imitative Articulation; speech origins; awrence !" #owell A$stract: The magnetic compass% paper ma&ing% mova$le type printing% and gunpowder are &nown as the Four Great Inventions of ancient China" A fifth great invention was Systemic Imitative Articulation" Introduction The magnetic compass% paper ma&ing% mova$le type printing% and gunpowder are &nown as % the Four Great Inventions of ancient China" The Chinese deserve credit for a fifth great invention% a highly intuitive method for e'pressing worldly phenomena in spo&en language; we may du$ this method Systemic Imitative Articulation (SIA)" Imitative Articulation (IA) designates the imitation of natural phenomena in speech% such as to mimic an avian call and use that sound as the $ird*s name" In +nglish the words chic&% crow% finch% &oo&a$urra and the ,whooping, portion of whooping crane originate in this &ind of mimicry" In -roto.Chinese (the language of the people later &nown as the #an% as used appro'imately /%011 to 2%111 years ago) as well% a small num$er of terms derive from standard IA" +'amples include the pronunciation of cow ()% which imitates the sound of lowing% dog (: $ar&ing)% crow (: cawing)% and mos3uito (: $u44ing)" #owever% the use of IA in the formative stage of Chinese is uni3ue in $eing thoroughgoing and systemic% employed for uses far $eyond the mere replication of sounds produced $y creatures" 5y applying inductive reasoning to what archeology and linguistics tell a$out ancient China% we can uncover the process according to which the early spea&ers of the language devised its voca$ulary" First% however% we need to consider the origin of language in general" 6rigins of Speech #uman speech was li&ely stimulated $y the advantages that collective life offered early humans to survive" 7nder the right circumstances a single individual or a single nuclear family can meet its needs for food% shelter and a$ove all% for protection from the elements% wild animals and other humans" #owever% these needs are met much more effectively $y wor&ing collectively" Collective activity in return demands effective communication" 8hen $oth or all communicating parties are in visual contact% gestures and signals are ade3uate means of conveying information" #owever% the need to communicate at night or in other situations where visual contact was poor or a$sent would have stimulated the use of oral9aural communication" #umans can produce sound in ways that do not depend on the voice" Aside from clapping% sound can $e produced $y ru$$ing or throwing o$:ects% or $y stri&ing them together" #owever% the voice has the distinct advantages of possessing tremendous modulation and of $eing always at the ready" The findings of linguists% anthropologists% $iologists and $ehavior analysts indicate that intelligi$le speech originated via a com$ination of the following" ;) <imicry (e'amples noted a$ove) 0) +'clamations: The sounds produced when we e'perience pain% pleasure% fear% surprise and so on" +nglish features words such as groan% hey% ouch% screech and yowl" /) 5ody noises: The words $urp% cough% lisp% mum$le (murmur; mutter) and whee4e originate in

sounds produced $y the $ody" 2) The suc&ling of $a$ies" 8hen a $a$y has a nipple and mil& in its mouth% the only sound it can produce is <a" =ou$ling that sound produces ,<ama%, in many languages a nursery term for <other" >) 5a$$ling" The theory here is that infants must compete with si$lings for the attention of their mother (or% in cases where children are raised collectively% to compete with all other children for the attention of the caregivers)% creating incentive for them to $a$$le and later produce meaningful utterances" ?) #umming and other vocali4ations used $y mothers to calm and reassure their infants" 6nce early humans gained the &nac& for communicating vocally they would have used speech to coordinate group endeavors such as attac&% defense% hunting% handcraft production% food preparation% cele$ration% worship% mourning and entertainment" Scientists tell us that humans developed the a$ility to spea& as early as 0 million years ago% or as recently as 21%111 years ago" The latter date $rings us toward the end of the -aleolithic +ra% which lasted from 0"? million to ;1%111 years ago" This era is characteri4ed $y the use of stone tools" @ow that we*ve e'amined the whys% hows and whens of human speech% let*s turn to what*s &nown a$out early Chinese history" +arly Chinese #istory In China% the earliest inha$ited site is Aiaochangliang () in #e$ei -rovince% dated to the middle of the -aleolithic +ra" The -aleolithic +ra was succeeded $y the @eolithic% the ma:or characteristic of which is farming" In China% two of the most important @eolithic sites are !iahu () in #enan -rovince and =amaidi (9) in the @ing'ia #ui Autonomous Begion% $oth of which are pro'imate to the Cellow Biver" !iahu is thought to have $een settled around D%111 5C+" +'cavations have revealed that the residents cultivated rice and millet" The e'cavations have also turned up numerous $urial o$:ects% primarily pottery" !iahu $elongs to what is &nown as -eiligang () culture" Ain4heng ()% another site in #enan -rovince $elonging to this culture% dates from several hundred years after activity appears to have ceased at !iahu" @e't came the Cangshao () culture (c" >111 to /111 5C+ or later% depending on area)% also located in #enan% as well as in Shaan'i and Shan'i -rovinces" A representative e'ample of Cangshao culture is found near Ai*an () in Shaan'i% in the village of 5anpo ()" Cangshao culture is typified $y settlements surrounded $y a protective moat" #ouses were constructed of wood% mud and thatch" In addition to millet and rice% the inha$itants of the settlements also cultivated wheat" They raised livestoc& and poultry% wove hemp and appear to have cultivated sil&worms% from which they produced sil&" They also carried on the -eiligang practice of pottery ma&ing" After the Cangshao came the ongshan () culture" The ongshan culture (c" /111.0111 5C+) ta&es its name from a town near !inan ( ) in Shangdong -rovince" Ceramic production was refined via use of pottery wheels" Sil&worm cultivation came to the forefront% and we o$serve a transition from settlements surrounded $y protective ditches to cities surrounded $y $oth moats and walls" 5y the time the ongshan culture declined China was already firmly into the 5ron4e Age% as evidenced $y a $ron4e smelter unearthed at +rlitou (!"#) in #enan -rovince" +rlitou may also have some connection with the somewhat legendary Aia =ynasty ($%)% which Chinese

historiography holds to have preceded the first dynasty of undisputed record% the Shang" The Shang =ynasty The Shang =ynasty (&%) was centered in present.day #enan -rovince" Annals state that the capital was moved on a num$er of occasions% with the last move $eing to Cin (') in ;/>1 5C+" Cin% in the northern part of the -rovince% is also another way of referring to the Shang =ynasty% although sometimes the term is used specifically to indicate the dynasty*s final few hundred years" The Shang appear to have ruled a large swath of what is now northeastern China% $ut the precise e'tent of their sway is uncertain" As with the cultures noted a$ove% the Shang practiced agriculture and raised livestoc& and poultry" Fishing and hunting also contri$uted to the populace*s diet" +'cavations have revealed the foundations of palaces% earthen fortifications and platforms% and turned up precisely crafted artifacts such as ceramics and :ade carvings" A$ove all% the Shang were masters of $ron4e technology" <ost of the $ron4e pieces e'tant are ritual vessels% with weapons ma&ing up the remainder" The heaviest $ron4e wor&s weigh upwards of two tons" Inscriptions on some of these $ron4e pieces and to an even greater e'tent on what are &nown as oracle $ones (animal $ones and turtle plastrons used for divination) tell us that Shang rulers were preoccupied with war% rituals and administration% and relied heavily on fortune.telling to ma&e important decisions" Also% the oracle $one inscriptions provide the earliest evidence that Chinese characters were $eing used to record the spo&en language in writing" @ow it*s time to consider how words were formed in -roto.Chinese" 8ord Formation in -roto.Chinese -roto.Chinese precedes what is designated 6ld Chinese" 6ld Chinese generally refers to the language used in China $etween the ;/th and /rd centuries 5C+" The first date corresponds to the earliest recorded use of oracle $ones" The second date corresponds to the unification of China under the Ein =ynasty in 00; 5C+" Scholars have reconstructed 6ld Chinese via ;) comparisons of similar terms in other mem$ers of what is called the Sino.Ti$etan languages% 0) study of words ta&en into 6ld Chinese from other languages and /) study of Chinese versions of foreign names" The most important part of the process% however% concerns 2) analysis of the rhyme schemes found in China*s oldest surviving poetry collection% Shi:ing (())% which contains poems and songs dating from the ;;th.Dth centuries 5C+" Specialists in 6ld Chinese render the reconstructed sounds with the comple' sym$ols and diacritics of the notation system &nown as the International -honetic Alpha$et" To give the flavor% here is how Sergei Starostin% A'el Schuessler% and 8illiam 5a'ter9 auren Sagart respectively denote * (ogre; demon): F&u:G 99 F&uiG 99 F&.Gu:G (@ote: F indicates a reconstructed reading)" Scholars are not entirely in agreement a$out the reconstructed sounds of 6ld Chinese" <eanwhile% de$ates over fine points of reconstruction and transcription tend to muddy the semantic and conceptual relations $etween groups of phonetically close terms" For these reasons% the following discussion of -roto.Chinese pronunciations eschews the sym$ols and diacritics of the I-A" According to this transcription style% * is rendered as F&uar" Terms in -roto.Chinese are comprised of the pattern consonant.vowel.consonant" The initial consonants are K.% .% <.% @.% -.% S. and T." The final consonants are .G9K% .<% .@% .-% .B% and .T" There is also an important final consonant that is clustered: .@G" @ow we*re set to e'amine how the spea&ers of -roto.Chinese decided which sounds to apply to which actions or o$:ects" #ere are the concepts according to which worldly phenomena were categori4ed"

Conceptual Categories in -roto.Chinese There are seven main concepts% si' secondary concepts% and three tertiary concepts" That is to say% each term in -roto.Chinese had at least one% sometimes two% occasionally three different oral9aural cues indicating the o$:ect $eing vocali4ed" (+'ception: The tiny num$er of terms originating in mimicry% or $orrowed from other languages") The main concept of a term is e'pressed $y the initial consonant" The seven main concepts are ;) Frame; 0) Continuum; /) Conceal; 2) Supple; >) Spread; ?) Small9thin; D) Straight" The secondary concept of a term is e'pressed $y the final consonant" The si' secondary concepts are: ;) +ncompass; 0) Adhere95e -ro'imate; /) -ress; 2) Continuum; >) Cut9=ivide9Beduce; ?) +'tend" The tertiary concept of a term% where applica$le% is conveyed $y a vowel which is formed $y :utting and rounding the lips" The three tertiary concepts are: ;) Curve; 0) Curve (to the point of $eing round); /) Circle9<ass" 8e might e'pect seven rather than si' secondary concepts% mirroring the num$er of main concepts conveyed $y the initial consonant" #owever% terms with final .G9K e'press meanings closely adhering to the contours of the main concept" In that sense% the pattern (Initial Consonant) H (Iowel) H (Final Consonant G or K) may $e regarded as normative" That is to say% F&.g9F&.& terms are closely related to the idea of a physical or conceptual Frame% Fl.g9Fl.& terms to a physical or conceptual Continuum% and so on for final .G9K terms in the <.% @.% -.% S. and T. groups" @ote that all these concepts are $ased on vision" Supple may seem to $e an e'ception% $ut this concept was generated not $y the te'ture of soft% droopy or wilted o$:ects% $ut rather $y their appearance" The <echanics of Systemic Imitative Articulation in -roto.Chinese According to what method% then% did the ancient Chinese pair ;) concepts $ased on visual cues with 0) articulation of those conceptsJ The answer: 5y manipulating the facial muscles and speech organs to mimic those concepts orally9aurally" Specifically% spea&ers of -roto.Chinese paired particular concepts with particular sounds" #ere are the pairs% with e'planations of the logic $ehind the choice of those particular sounds" Initial Consonants9-rimary Concepts ;) Frame: Initial Consonant K." K can only $e produced with an open mouth" The open mouth imitates the shape of a frame" 0) Continuum: Initial Consonant ." The connection with a continuum is the vi$ration of the vocal chords in articulating this sound" Ii$ration is one form of continuing action" /) Conceal: Initial Consonant <.: < is produced $y closing the mouth and articulating sound with $oth lips" Closing the mouth $efore producing sound articulates the concept conceal" 2) Supple: Initial Consonant @.: This consonant is produced through the nose rather than the mouth% lending it a softness articulating the concept supple9soft" The other soft consonantal sound% <% was used to indicate encompass9conceal% leaving @ to indicate soft9supple" >) Spread: Initial Consonant -.: -roducing the - sound involves e'pulsion of air through the lips% a spreading action" ?) Small9Thin: Initial Consonant S.: Air is channeled in a thin stream% articulating the concept small9thin" D) Straight: Initial Consonant T.: This consonant is produced $y first raising the tip of the tongue

straight up against the palate" ,Baise9rise, is a closely related concept often associated with initial T. terms (compare +% ,% -% . and /% all initial T. terms with this meaning)" 5efore e'amining the secondary concepts conveyed $y the final consonants% let*s loo& at the concepts of the initial consonants more closely" Terms9Characters Illustrating -rimary Concepts #ere are sample terms9characters conveying terms that the ancient Chinese associated with the primary concepts noted a$ove" K. Frame A frame can $e s3uare% rectangular% round% A.shaped and so on" A frame is also created $y two o$:ects standing in opposition% as they contain other o$:ects $etween them" A door (0) is framed $y% it hardly need $e said% its door frame" A framing tool (1) is what the name states% a tool that frames o$:ects $eing wor&ed upon" A tu$e that connects two o$:ects (2) is in turn framed $y them" A frame is also created $y pairs of gates (3) or towers (4) standing in opposition" The foundation of a $uilding (5) is the frame on which the $uilding rises" A winnow (6) frames the grain contained within it" Things that intersect create a frame: <eshing fangs (7)% notched stic&s fitted together (8)% crossing roads (9)" . Continuum Forming a continuum are neatly aligned o$:ects such as the $ones of the spinal column (:)% the arms of a measuring device (;)% rows of chestnuts (<)% and rippling muscles (=)" 8e also find in this group o$:ects that continue at length: A flowing stream (>)% the trees in a forest (?)% or grain piled neatly atop a food stand (@)" <. Concealment The group contains o$:ects that are covered and thus concealed% such as the sun% seen at ground level% concealed $y vegetation (A); a dancing figure with long% concealing sleeves (B); strings of grain or rice concealed in hus&s (C); person dimly visi$le in dar&ness (D); a dish% plate or $owl covered $y a lid (E); and a net that conceals the o$:ects caught within it (F)" @. Supple <em$ers of this group include woman (G)% ear (H and I)% droopy $eard (J and K)% soft sac& (L) and supple leaves (M)" -. Spread #ere we find o$:ects spread straight or flat over surfaces: A trowel (N) spread on a wall% a hand spread over an a' handle (O)% a water weed (P) or aligned rafts (Q) spreading on the surface of water% a single human figure (R) or multiple people (S) spread over the earth" As well% inanimate o$:ects spread over the earth% such as ice (T) formed on a fro4en river or flowing rivulets (UV )" Also% legs spread $eneath a ta$le (W)"

S. Small9Thin +'amples include a slender tu$e (X) containing a profusion of slender% inscri$ed $am$oo slats (Y9 Z) and a slender line of people standing outstretched ([)" 8e also find piles of small or slender o$:ects (\): A twig with sharp points piled on its surface (])% roc&s piled to dam a stream (^)% a pile of wood shavings (_)% a pile of slender threads (`)" There are also long and slender o$:ects: 8isps of steam (a)% a deep and slender well (b)% a long and slender sleeping pallet (c)" 8e also have slender o$:ects that penetrate: A hairpin thrust deep into and thus encompassed $y the hair (d); slender strands of hair penetrating the scalp (e); two arrows penetrating their target (f)" Certain slender o$:ects adhere or are close to other o$:ects: A sharp needle or cutting tool (g) in contact with the o$:ect it cuts; sharp mountain ridges () in close pro'imity with each other; slender $irds flying in tight formation (h)" T. Straight This group has two su$divisions: ;) Straight and vertical; 0) Straight and hori4ontal" 6$:ects that are straight and vertical include a pile of $rushwood or firewood (i)% a pile or lump of earth (j) or of stones (k)% a pile of grain in a storehouse (l)% and a sta&e rising from the ground (m)" +'amples of o$:ects that are straight and hori4ontal include a flat digging implement held hori4ontally (n)% creatures stretching over the ground such as a sna&e (o) or a li4ard (p)% and a rat9mouse with a long tail (q)" Terms involving vertical motion include ones such as raising the hands straight up to $oth sides of the head (r)% e'erting downward pressure in plowing furrows (s)% and the unification of heaven and earth $y an emperor (t)" Terms connected with straight% hori4ontal motion include the firing of an arrow (u)% the hori4ontal motion of a weaving shuttle (v)% a foot or leg in forward motion (w) and the moon ranging over the evening s&y (x)" Those are the initial consonants in -roto.Chinese% along with the concepts they convey" @ow let*s loo& at the secondary concepts" Final Consonants9Secondary Concepts Becall that these concepts are conveyed $y the final initials other than .G9K% namely .<% .@% .-% .B% .T and the cluster .@G" .< terms convey the concept +ncompass" To produce the < sound% one must first close the mouth% according to which the teeth and tongue are encompassed" This action imitates the concept encompass" .@ terms convey the concept Adhere95e -ro'imate" To produce the @ sound% one must force the tip of the tongue to adhere to the soft palate" .- terms convey the concept -ress" The lips are pressed together to produce this sound" .B terms convey the concept Continuum" @ote that the concept $orne $y final .B is the same as that $orne $y initial ." For terms with final .B% we may suppose the -roto.Chinese pronunciation involved a trill" The connection with a continuum is that a trill is produced $y (continuing) vi$rations $etween the speech organs and the place where the sound is $eing articulated" .T terms convey the concept Cut9=ivide9Beduce" T is a sharp sound% well.suited for conveying the concept cut" Terms with final .@G convey the concept +'tend" -roducing the @G sound re3uires the spea&er to

prolong nasali4ation" -rolongation imitates e'tension" Terms9Characters Illustrating Secondary Concepts 6$serve the influence of the concepts of $oth the initial and the final consonants in the meanings of the following terms" The medial vowels in these terms e'ercise no tertiary conceptual influence% and are rendered with a hyphen for uniformity" .< +ncompass F&.m Fl.m Fn.m Fp.m Fs.m Ft.m y ? z { d | A hole9depression in which something is encompassed or concealed @umerous trees growing alongside each other and encompassing villages A soft% yielding sac& which encompasses the goods placed inside
A length of cloth that encompasses a wide area in spreading over the o$:ect(s) it covers

A hairpin thrust deep into and thus encompassed $y the hair

Cattle fording a river% their $odies sin&ing in $eing largely encompassed $y the water

.@ Adhere95e -ro'imate F&.n Fl.n Fm.n Fn.n Fp.n Fs.n Ft.n .- -ress F&.p Fl.p Fn.p Fp.p Fs.p Ft.p .B Continuum F&.r Fl.r Fm.r Fn.r Fp.r Fs.r Ft.r C Garment $illowing over the $ody arge net% with a continuum of interstices Strings of grain or rice concealed in hus&s Close contact among mem$ers of a group of similar people Spread open (open up) a pelt% then align it over one*s $ody Irregularly aligned feet of people forming lines <uch meat in a tall% neat pile Contain o$:ects tightly $y pressing a cover on them Standing figure who e'erts continuous downward pressure on the ground A num$er of ears pressed together in listening to a whispered voice 5e pressed on account of lac&ing something re3uired 5irds assem$led in a tree% pressed tightly together 5ird stretching its long wings then folding9pressing them flat against its $ody } ~ A for&ed stic& or thic& $ar pressed to a com$atant to &eep him at $ay 8ill.o*.the.wisp% a flame or fire that appears in a long and clear chain A mas& adhering closely to and partially o$scuring the face -erson progressing through crops in harvesting Scattered seeds adhering to soil in a field Advance in small increments% the feet in close adherence The sun rising upon the long% flat line of the hori4on

.T Cut9=ivide9Beduce

F&.t Fl.t Fm.t Fn.t Fp.t Fs.t Ft.t .@G +'tend F&.ng Fl.ng Fm.ng Fn.ng Fp.ng Fs.ng Ft.ng

Cut9reap with a sic&le or other $laded implement Sever $ones and arrange them in rows Impaired vision% the eyes $eing covered with inward.growing eyelashes The sun% a $urning entity that softens o$:ects and9or reduces them in si4e Separate flesh from $one $y cutting Slender o$:ects produced $y cutting Cut9chop lum$er

Stretch over the shoulders a pole with heavy o$:ects at $oth ends ong and straight passageway The cries of a $ird% e'tending far Assume a rela'ed% stretched position while parta&ing of food indoors Two long% spreading lines of people Two parties tugging on a long% thin o$:ect ong stic&% e'tending to over three meters

5y conveying secondary meanings via final concepts% terms were rendered more specific" Iowels9Tertiary Concepts As noted earlier% some terms convey a tertiary concept via use of vowels pronounced similar to +nglish 6% 7A and 7" Terms with medial .6. indicate curvature" Terms with medial .7A. are close in $oth pronunciation and semantic influence to .6." .7A. terms indicate that o$:ects are curved% sometimes to the point of $eing round" Terms with medial .7. involve a circle% or a mass" 6$serve the influence of the concepts of the initial consonants (and% for .n terms% the secondary concept Adhere95e pro'imate) in the meanings of the following terms with tertiary semantic influence" .6. Curve F&og Flog Fmog Fnog Fpog Fsog Ftog A hand $umping into something then $ending or curving A long o$:ect such as a thread rolled $ac& upon itself Strands of fine% curly hair covering and concealing the surface of the s&in Soft wood made into curved weapon handles -lacenta9wom$ that envelops a fetus Small and curled% whittled shavings Sword with a curved $lade

.7A. Curve (to the point of $eing round) F&uag Fluan Fmuan Curved wings% raised high Swarm of fish eggs Curved% dou$le.doored gate% the doors adhering tightly in concealing what lies $ehind it

Fnuan Fpua& Fsuan Ftuan

Sunlight9heat contacting o$:ects and softening them =ogs lying curled at their master*s feet Set in place a valua$le cas& of alcohol Curved shield $ehind which one*s $ody immediately follows

.7. Circle9<ass F&ug Flu& Fmu& Fnug Fsug Ftug A rounded cavity% often referring specifically to the mouth =eer% understood as an animal forming a massive herd Tree with a mass of curving $ranches that cover the ground $eneath =renched and therefore soft and droopy
(-air of hands) offering a sacrificial animal the lim$s of which are gathered together

A stoc&y lamp stand giving off light

Those% then% are the nuts and $olts of Systemic Imitative Articulation" Conclusion So% what happened to SIAJ 8hy are the descendants of those who spo&e -roto.Chinese unaware of itJ The answer is simple: <any terms ac3uired a$stract% e'tended% or $orrowed meanings (see the Chart in the Supplement for e'amples)" The more a$stract% e'tended% or $orrowed meanings that entered Chinese% the more the SIA $asis of the #an language was o$scured% to the point that it disappeared entirely from collective memory" #owever% advances in linguistics have permitted the contours of Systemic Imitative Articulation% the fifth great invention of the ancient Chinese% to reemerge" (Supplementary material on following page)

@ote A separate article will treat consonant clusters in -roto.Chinese" #ere it suffices to note that the sound9concept correlations presented in this article pertain to the clusters as well" Supplement: Chart
Term9Character 6riginal Signification fruit pile earth to cut off the flow of a river converse dog meat roasting over a fire dancer whose face is covered $y a mas& food tied to a cord that winds a$out a peg sprouts put into a hothouse for cultivation summer A$stract Signification result $e; e'ist; stay +'tended Signification 5orrowed Signification +'planation

F&uar Fsag

result K ,fruit, of effort have solid e'istence% li&e a dam first.person pronoun thus; however; as it is (homonymic replacement) (homonymic replacement) dance performed in cele$ration of summer season when preserved or stored food is consumed direction associated with warmth% which hothouses were positioned to face sun settling into the earth as it sin&s into the hori4on

F&ag Fnan

F&ag $

Ftong

winter

Fnam

south

Fsar

nest in which chic&s settle

east

The same sort of transformations are at wor& for such fundamental terms as the natural num$ers ( ! """) and for the (ancient% twelve.part) rec&oning of time ( """)" L 01;2 awrence !" #owell