High Temperature Corrosion Failure of Super Alloy

Turbine Blades
V. Vijay Raghavan
Qatar Petroleum
P.O.Box 100001
Dukhan, Qatar
Fax No: (0974) 4717488
E-mail: v_vijayaraghavan@qp.com.qa

ABSTRACT:
Two first-stage turbine blades catastrophically failed in operation. The Fractured
surface indicated that the crack was propagated by high cycle fatigue (HCF). The
presence of corrosion products of sulfur on the blades pointed out a possibility of
Type 2 high temperature corrosion. The Manufacturers recommendation was to using
a heavy-duty filtration to remove contaminants to eliminate the High temperature
corrosion. The alloy used in the blades was a second generation CMSX-4, a product
especially developed for high temperature operations for aircraft turbines. This
means reason for the failure needed further investigation. This paper is a brief
presentation of the corrosion failure study conducted by the Qatar Petroleum’s
Corrosion Section.

Contents:
1. Super alloys -History.

2. Nickel Based Super alloys

3. Application of Nickel based super alloys

4. Super Alloy Casting

5. 1st , 2nd and 3rd Generation single crystal Nickel based Super alloys.

6. Microstructure of Single crystal super alloy casting.

7. What really happened? The failure

8. Investigation and Test Methodology

9.

1. Super alloys -History.

 The term "superalloy" was first used shortly after World War II to describe a group of
alloys developed for use in turbo-superchargers and aircraft turbine engines that required
high performance at elevated temperatures. The range of applications for which
superalloys are used has expanded into many other areas and now includes aircraft
turbines, land-based gas turbines, rocket engines, chemical, and petroleum plants. They
are particularly well suited for these demanding applications because of their ability to
retain most of their strength even after long exposure times above 650°C (1,200°F). Their
versatility stems from the fact that they combine this high strength with good low-
temperature ductility and excellent surface stability.

Super-alloys are based on Group VIIIB elements and usually consist of various
combinations of Fe, Ni, Co, and Cr, as well as lesser amounts of W, Mo, Ta, Nb, Ti, and
Al. The three major classes of super-alloys are nickel, iron, and cobalt-based alloys. As
CMSX 4 is a Nickel alloy we limit our discussion to Nickel based super alloys.

2. Nickel based Super alloys

Nickel-based alloys can be either solid solution or precipitation strengthened/Hardened.

Solid solution strengthened alloys, such as Hastelloy X, are used in applications requiring
only modest strength. In the most demanding applications, such as hot sections of gas
turbine engines, a precipitation strengthened alloy is required. Most nickel-based alloys
contain 10-20% Cr, up to 8% Al and Ti, 5-10% Co, and small amounts of B, Zr, and C.
Other common additions are Mo, W, Ta, Hf, and Nb (often still referred to as
"columbium" although the name "niobium" was adopted by the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1950 after more than 100 years of controversy). In broad
terms, the elemental additions in Ni-base superalloys can be categorized as being i)
formers (elements that tend to partition to the matrix, ii) ' formers (elements that
partition to the ' precipitate, iii) carbide formers, and iv) elements that segregate to the
grain boundaries. Elements which are considered formers are Group V, VI, and VII
elements such as Co, Cr, Mo,W, Fe. The atomic diameters of these alloys are only 3-13%
different than Ni (the primary matrix element). ' formers come from group III, IV, and V
elements and include Al, Ti, Nb, Ta, Hf. The atomic diameters of these elements differ
from Ni by 6-18%. The main carbide formers are Cr, Mo, W, Nb, Ta, Ti. The primary
grain boundary elements are B, C, and Zr. Their atomic diameters are 21-27% different
than Ni.

The major phases present in most nickel superalloys are as follows:

• Gamma ( ): The continuous matrix (called gamma) is an face-centered-cubic

(fcc) nickel-based austenitic phase that usually contains a high percentage of
solid-solution elements such as Co, Cr, Mo, and W.
• Gamma Prime ( '): The primary strengthening phase in nickel-based superalloys
is Ni3(Al,Ti), and is called gamma prime ( '). It is a coherently precipitating phase
(i.e., the crystal planes of the precipitate are in registry with the gamma matrix)
with an ordered L12 (FCC) crystal structure. The close match in matrix/precipitate
lattice parameter (~0-1%) combined with the chemical compatibility allows the
 ' to precipitate homogeneously throughout the matrix and have long-time
stability. Interestingly, the flow stress of the ' increases with increasing
temperature up to about 650oC (1200oF). In addition, ' is quite ductile and thus
imparts strength to the matrix without lowering the fracture toughness of the
alloy. Aluminum and titanium are the major constituents and are added in
amounts and mutual proportions to precipitate a high volume fraction in the
matrix. In some modern alloys the volume fraction of the ' precipitate is around
70%. There are many factors that contribute to the hardening imparted by the '
and include ' fault energy, ' strength, coherency strains, volume fraction of ',
and ' particle size.

Extremely small ' precipitates always occur as spheres. In fact, for a given
volume of precipitate, a sphere has 1.24 less surface area than a cube, and thus is
the preferred shape to minimize surface energy. With a coherent particle,
however, the interfacial energy can be minimized by forming cubes and allowing
the crystalographic planes of the cubic matrix and precipitate to remain
continuous. Thus as the ' grows, the morphology can change from spheres to
cubes (as shown in this figure) or plates depending on the value of the
matrix/precipitate lattice mismatch. For larger mismatch values the critical
particle size where the change from spheres to cubes (or plates) occurs is reduced.
Coherency can be lost by overaging. One sign of a loss of coherency is directional
coarsening (aspect ratio) and rounding of the cube edges. Increasing directional
coarsening for increasing (positive or negative) mismatch is also expected.
• Carbides: Carbon, added at levels of 0.05-0.2%, combines with reactive and
refractory elements such as titanium, tantalum, and hafnium to form carbides
(e.g., TiC, TaC, or HfC). During heat treatment and service, these begin to
decompose and form lower carbides such as M23C6 and M6C, which tend to form
on the grain boundaries. These common carbides all have an fcc crystal structure.
Results vary on whether carbides are detrimental or advantageous to superalloy
properties. The general opinion is that in superalloys with grain boundaries,
carbides are beneficial by increasing rupture strength at high tempeature.
• Topologically Close-Packed Phases: These are generally undesirable, brittle
phases that can form during heat treatment or service. The cell structure of these
phases have close-packed atoms in layers separated by relatively large interatomic
distances. The layers of close packed atoms are displaced from one another by
sandwiched larger atoms, developing a characteristic "topology." These
compounds have been characterized as possessing a topologically close-packed
(TCP) structure. Conversely, Ni3Al (gamma prime) is close-packed in all
directions and is called geometrically close-packed (GCP).

TCPs ( , µ, Laves, etc.) usually form as plates (which appear as needles on a

single-plane microstructure.) The plate-like structure negatively affects
mechanical properties (ductility and creep-rupture.) Sigma appears to be the most
deleterious while strength retention has been observed in some alloys containing
mu and Laves. TCPs are potentially damaging for two reasons: they tie up and '
 strengthening elements in a non-useful form, thus reducing creep strength, and
they can act as crack initiators because of their brittle nature.

3. Strength versus Temperature

Gas turbine thermal efficiency increases with greater temperature of the gas flow exiting
the combustor and entering the work-producing component—the turbine. Turbine inlet
temperatures in the gas path of modern high-performance jet engines can exceed 3,000°F,
while nonaviation gas turbines operate at 2,700°F or lower. In high-temperature regions
of the turbine, special high-melting-point nickel-base superalloy blades and vanes are
used, which retain strength and resist hot corrosion at extreme temperatures. These
superalloys, when conventionally vacuum

cast, soften and melt at temperatures between 2,200 and 2,500°F. That means blades and
vanes closest to the combustor may be operating in gas path temperatures far exceeding
their melting point and must be cooled to acceptable service temperatures (typically
eight- to nine-tenths of the melting temperature) to maintain integrity.

Thus, turbine airfoils subjected to the hottest gas flows take the form of elaborate
superalloy investment castings to accommodate the intricate internal passages and surface
hole patterns necessary to channel and direct cooling air (bled from the compressor)
within and over exterior surfaces of the superalloy airfoil structure. To eliminate the
deleterious effects of impurities, investment casting is carried out in vacuum chambers.
After casting, the working surfaces of high-temperature cooled turbine airfoils are coated
with ceramic thermal barrier coatings to increase life and act as a thermal insulator
(allowing inlet temperatures 100 to 300 degrees higher).

The strength of most metals decreases as the temperature is increased, simply because
assistance from thermal activation makes it easier for dislocations to surmount obstacles.
However, nickel based superalloys containing γ', which essentially is an intermetallic
compound based on the formula Ni3(Al,Ti), are particularly resistant to temperature.

Ordinary slip in both γ and γ' occurs on the {111}<110>. If slip was confined to these
planes at all temperatures then the strength would decrease as the temperature is raised.
However, there is a tendency for dislocations in γ' to cross-slip on to the {100} planes
where they have a lower anti-phase domain boundary energy. This is because the energy
decreases with temperature. Situations arise where the extended dislocation is then partly
on the close-packed plane and partly on the cube plane. Such a dislocation becomes
locked, leading to an increase in strength. The strength only decreases beyond about
600oC whence the thermal activation is sufficiently violent to allow the dislocations to
overcome the obstacles.

To summarise, it is the presence of γ' which is responsible for the fact that the strength of
nickel based superalloys is relatively insensitive to temperature. The yield strength of a
particular superalloy containing only about 20% of γ'. The points are measured and the
 curve is a theoretical prediction. Notice how the strength is at first insensitive to
temperature.

When greater strength is required at lower temperatures (e.g. turbine discs), alloys can be
strengthened using another phase known as γ''. This phase occurs in nickel superalloys
with significant additions of niobium (Inconel 718) or vanadium; the composition of the
γ'' is then Ni3Nb or Ni3V. The particles of γ'' are in the form of discs with (001)γ''||{001}γ
and [100]γ''||<100>γ

The crystal structure of γ'' is based on a body-centred tetragonal lattice with an ordered
arrangement of nickel and niobium atoms. Strengthening occurs therefore by both a
coherency hardening and order hardening mechanism. The lattice parameters of γ'' are
approximately a=0.362 nm and c=0.741 nm

4. Application of Nickel based Super alloys

Nickel-based superalloys are used in load-bearing structures to the highest homologous

temperature of any common alloy system (Tm = 0.9, or 90% of their melting point).
Among the most demanding applications for a structural material are those in the hot
sections of turbine engines. The preeminence of superalloys is reflected in the fact that
they currently comprise over 50% of the weight of advanced aircraft engines. The
widespread use of superalloys in turbine engines coupled with the fact that the
thermodynamic efficiency of turbine engines is increased with increasing turbine inlet
temperatures has, in part, provided the motivation for increasing the maximum-use
temperature of superalloys. In fact, during the past 30 years turbine airfoil temperature
capability has increased on average by about 4°F per year. Two major factors which have
made this increase possible are

1. Advanced processing techniques, which improved alloy cleanliness (thus

improving reliability) and/or enabled the production of tailored microstructures
such as directionally solidified or single-crystal material.
2. Alloy development resulting in higher-use-temperature materials primarily
through the additions of refractory elements such as Re, W, Ta, and Mo.
 About 60% of the use-temperature increases have occurred due to advanced cooling
concepts; 40% have resulted from material improvements. State-of-the-art turbine blade
surface temperatures are near 2,100°F (1,150°C); the most severe combinations of stress
and temperature corresponds to an average bulk metal temperature approaching 1,830°F
(1,000°C).

Although superalloys retain significant strength to temperatures near 1800°F, they tend to
be susceptible to environmental attack because of the presence of reactive alloying
elements (which provide their high-temperature strength). Surface attack includes
oxidation, hot corrosion, and thermal fatigue. In the most demanding applications, such
as turbine blade and vanes, superalloys are often coated to improve environmental
resistance

5. Super alloy Casting

The material and casting technique improvements that have taken place during the last 50
years have enabled superalloys to be used first as equiaxed castings in the 1940s, then as
directionally solidified (DS) materials during the 1960s, and finally as single crystals
(SC) in the 1970s. Each casting technique advancement has resulted in higher use
temperatures.

In DS processing, columnar grains are formed parallel to the growth axis. In nickel-based
alloys, the natural growth direction is along the <100> crystallographic direction. This
morphology is accomplished by pouring liquid metal into a mold that contains a water-
cooled bottom plate. Solidification first occurs at the bottom plate, after which the mold
is slowly withdrawn from the furnace, allowing the metal inside to directionally solidify
from bottom to top. The exceptional properties of DS and SC alloys is due to

1. The alignment or elimination of any weak grain boundaries oriented transverse to

the eventual loading direction.
2. The low modulus associated with the <100> directions enhances thermal
mechanical fatigue resistance in areas of constrained thermal expansion—
particularly turbine vanes. In general, the lack of transverse grain boundaries
coupled with the lower modulus can result in 3-5 times improvement in rupture
life.

SC casting were developed during the 1970s and were a spin-off from the technological
advances made in the DS casting processes. SC casting are produced in a similar fashion
to DS by selecting a single grain, via a grain selector. During solidification, this single
grain grows to encompass the entire part. Single crystals obtain their outstanding strength
through the elimination of grain boundaries that are present in both equiaxed and
directionally solidified materials. In addition, the elimination of grain boundary
strengtheners such as C, B, Si, and Zr raises the single crystal's melting point. By
increasing the alloy's melting point, the homogenization heat-treat temperature can be
increased without fear of incipient melting, thus allowing for more complete solutioning
of the ' and thereby increasing alloy strength and maximum use temperature.
6. 1st , 2nd and 3rd Generation single crystal Nickel based Super alloys

The single-crystal superalloys are often classified into first, second and third generation
alloys. The second and third generations contain about 3 wt% and 6wt% of rhenium
respectively. Rhenium is a very expensive addition but leads to an improvement in the
creep strength and fatigue resistance. It is argued that some of the enhanced resistance to
creep comes from the promotion of rafting by rhenium, which partitions into the γ and
makes the lattice misfit more negative. Atomic resolution experiments have shown that
the Re occurs as clusters in the γ phase. It is also claimed that rhenium reduces the overall
diffusion rate in nickel based superalloys.

The properties of superalloys deteriorate if certain phases known as the topologically

close-packed (TCP) phases precipitate. In these phases, some of the atoms are arranged
as in nickel, where the close-packed planes are stacked in the sequence ...ABCABC..
However, although this sequence is maintained in the TCP phases, the atoms are not
close-packed, hence the adjective 'topologically'. TCP phases include σ μ. Such phases
are not only intrinsically brittle but their precipitation also depletes the matrix from
valuable elements which are added for different purposes. The addition of rhenium
promotes TCP formation, so alloys containing these solutes must have their Cr, Co, W or
Mo. concentrations reduced to compensate. It is generally not practical to remove all
these elements, but the chromium concentration in the new generation superalloys is
much reduced. Chromium does protect against oxidation, but oxidation can also be
prevented by coating the blades.

Single-Crystal Superalloys, nominal compositions (wt%).

A nickel-base single crystal superalloy having high creep rupture strength at high
temperatures, said superalloy being obtained by subjecting a single crystal alloy having a
composition consisting essentially of, by weight,

Cr 4.5-10%,

W 7.5-20%,

Al 4.5-6%,

Ta 2-12%,

Co 5-10%,

Ni substantially being the balance,

 W+Ta=17-24%,

to a solutionizing treatment, an air cooling treatment and an aging treatment; and a

process for producing the same.

7. Microstructure of Super alloy Casting

CMSX-4 is an ultra high strength, single crystal alloy development of the Cannon
Muskegon Corporation. This second generation rhenium-containing, nickel-base single
crystal alloy is capable of higher peak temperature/stress operation of at least 2125°F
(1163°C). Large tonnages of CMSX-4 have been produced. Solar Turbines report blade
lives to overhaul of 25,000 - 30,000 hrs in their 15,000 hp Mars 100 industrial gas
turbine.

On the effect of orientation on the primary-creep mechanism of the Ni-based single-

crystal super-alloy CMSX-4, both the elastic and the mechanical properties are
anisotropic. Anisotropy is the property of being directionally dependent, as opposed to
isotropy, which means homogeneity in all directions. The young modules off these items
are anisotropic as well it varies from 130 Gpa (<001> orientation) to 290 Gpa
(<111>orientation). The effect of crystalline anisotropy is dependent on the chemical
composition, heat treatment, testing mode and temperatures.
 Turbine blades in gas turbine engines are subjected during operation to tri-axial stress
fields. For the description of the deformation behavior of anisotropic single-crystal
blades, constitutive equations are required which take account of modifications to the
deformation processes caused by evolution of the γ/γ' microstructure during service (γ'
rafting). A microstructure-dependent, orthotropic Hills potential, whose an isotropy
coefficients are connected to the edge length of γ' particles, has been applied. The shape
of γ' particles remains cubic below exposures at 700 °C. At high temperatures (above
850 °C) the γ' particles coalesce to rafts, and the visco-plastic response of the superalloy
is continuously modified. This reduces the creep resistance of 001 orientated specimen.
After tensile loading of the 001 -orientated specimens at 1000 °C, the rafting of γ' in the
(100) plane was observed as expected, whereas the 111 specimens did not reveal γ'
rafting. Torsionally loaded specimens exhibited rafting only in the near 100 -orientated
surface regions of the specimen. The deformation in the 111 tensile and 001 torsion
specimens occurred by octahedral slip of dislocations and not by cubic slip, as expected
from theoretical considerations. Rafting did not occur in the 111 -orientated specimens.
Tensile behavior of a new single-crystal nickel-based super-alloy with rhenium (CMSX-
4) was studied at both room and elevated temperatures. The investigation also examined
the influence of γ' precipitates (size and distribution) on the tensile behavior of the
material. Tensile specimens were prepared from single-crystal CMSX-4 in [001]
orientation. The test specimens had the [001] growth direction parallel to the loading axis
in tension. These specimens were given three different heat treatments to produce three
different γ' precipitate sizes and distributions. Tensile testing was carried out at both room
and elevated temperatures. The results of the present investigation indicate that yield
strength and ultimate tensile strength of this material initially increases with temperature,
reaches a peak at around 800 °C, and then starts rapidly decreasing with rise in
temperature. Both yield and tensile strength increased with increase in average γ'
precipitate size. Yield strength and temperature correlated very well by an Arrhenius type
of relationship. Rate-controlling process for yielding at very high temperature ( T ≥ 800
°C) was found to be the dislocation climb for all three differently heat-treated materials.
Thermally activated hardening occurs below 800 °C whereas above 800 °C thermally
activated softening occurs in this material.

8. What really happened? The failure:

Two first-stage turbine blades catastrophically failed in operation after around 9500 h
service (approximately 12 months). The expected service life was 40 000 h the failure
was visually analyzed by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM)and
X-ray diffraction (XRD) and dimensional metrology. The Fractured surface indicated that
the crack was propagated by high cycle fatigue (HCF). The presence of corrosion
products of sulfur on the blades pointed out a possibility of Type 2 high temperature
corrosion. The blades, manufactured in the nickel super-alloy CMSX-4, did not have any
protective coating the un-protected surfaces was susceptible for mechanical damage due
to particle impact and high-temperature hot corrosion (Type-II corrosion).
Hot corrosion may be defined as an accelerated corrosion, resulting from the presence of
salt contaminants such as Na2SO4, NaCl, and V2O5 that combine to form molten deposits,
which damage the surface oxides. Hot corrosion occurs when metals are heated in the
temperature range 700–900°C in the presence of sulphate deposits formed as a result of
the reaction between sodium chloride and sulphur compounds in the gas phase
surrounding the metals. At higher temperatures, deposits of Na2SO4 are molten (m.p. 884°
C) and can cause accelerated attack on Ni- and Co-based super-alloys. This type of attack
is commonly called ‘hot corrosion’. Accelerated corrosion can also be caused by other
salts, viz. vanadates or sulphates– vanadate mixtures and in the presence of solid or
gaseous salts such as chlorides. Contaminants such as Vanadium and sulfur from the fuel
gas/oil react to form Na2SO4 in the combustion system. During combustion of the fuel,
vanadium reacts with oxygen to form an oxide V2O5 (m.p. 670°C). Thus V2O5 is a liquid
at gas turbine operating temperature. These compounds, known as ash, deposit on the
surface of materials and induce accelerated oxidation (hot corrosion) in energy generation
systems. Corrosion occurs when these molten compounds dissolve the protective oxide
layers, which naturally form on materials during gas turbine/boiler operation. Further,
Vanadium compounds are good oxidation catalysts and allow oxygen and other gases in
the combustion atmosphere to diffuse rapidly to the metal surface and cause further
oxidation. As soon as the metal is oxidized, the cycle starts over again and high corrosion
rates occur.

Two types of sulfate-induced hot corrosion are generally identified. Type I takes place
above the melting point of Na2SO4 and Type II occurs below the melting point of Na2SO4
but in the presence of small amounts of SO3. In Type I the protective oxide scale is
dissolved by the molten salt. Sulfur is released from the salt and diffuses into the metal
substrate forming discrete grey/blue colored aluminum or chromium sulfides so that, after
the salt layer has been removed, the metal cannot rebuilt a new protective oxide layer.

How does a well-designed product like this can fail?

We asked ourselves a few questions:
Will high-temperature oxidation will take place in this material and will it damage the
surface? Yes
Will mechanical damage will occur on the surface of the ballade due to particle impinch
ment? Yes
Will these lead to catastrophic failure? No - it shouldn't
If the operation is under the threshold limit will any damage on the surface will lead to
catastrophic failure?
If NO then what could caused it.

An investigation has been undertaken into the creep behavior of the single-crystal super-
alloy CMSX-4. Creep deformation in the alloy occurs largely through dislocation activity
in the γ channels. Shearing of the γ′ dislocations is observed, but, at higher temperatures,
this does not occur until late in life via the passage of super-partial dislocation pairs. At
lower temperatures (1023 K) and high stress levels, shearing of the γ′ precipitates is
 observed relatively early in the creep curve through the passage of {111}〈112〉
dislocations, which leave super-lattice stacking faults (SSFs) in the precipitates.

The stress-rupture behavior of CMSX-4 has been modeled using a damage-mechanics

technique, where the level of damage required to cause failure is defined by the effective
stress reaching the material’s ultimate tensile strength (UTS). This technique ensures that
short-term rupture data extrapolate back to the UTS. High-temperature steady-state and
tertiary creep are modeled using modified damage-mechanics equations, where the strain
and damage rates are similar functions of stress. At intermediate operating temperatures
of 1023 to 1123 K, the material exhibits pronounced sigmoidal primary creep of up to 4
pct strain, which cannot be modeled using a conventional approach. This transient
behavior has been explained by the effect of internal stresses acting on dislocations in the
gamma matrix; such an internal stress has been included in the creep law and evolves as a
function of the damage-state variable.

9. Investigation and Test Methodology

Specimens 50mm by 8mm by 8mm were cut using electrical discharge machining. A
notch diameter of 4mm was chosen in order to make it possible to polish the notch. Finite
element analysis was carried out to determine the required depth of a 4mm diameter
notch to achieve a stress concentration of 2 (typical of stress concentrations at the notch
root fixing in service). Notches were then polished to a 1 _m finish using a specially
designed rig in order to remove oxide scale left over from machining process. Specimens
were tested in 3 point bend using an Instron 8501 servo-hydraulic machine fitted with a
high temperature chamber. Low frequency tests (0.25Hz) were conducted at an R ratio of
0.1 and a test temperature of 650°C using a 1–1–1–1 trapezoidal waveform (where ramps
up and down and dwells at maximum and minimum load were all of 1 second).
Temperature was controlled to within 1°C. A finite element model based on S-N data
supplied by ALSTOM was used to identify a strain range in the notch root that would
give around 10,000 cycles to failure (a typical service lifetime, and a test-time that would
allow replication within reasonable testing timescales). The model used was an elasto-
plastic 2D monotonic model using ANSYS finite element software and monotonic
CMSX4 material properties supplied by ALSTOM. Results for air tests at 650°C and
725°C are discussed within the results and analysis section of this report. Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) of the fractured surfaces was used to identify crack initiation
points and determine fracture modes. The SEM was also used to give topographical and
compositional scans of the fracture surface. Energy dispersive x-ray (EDX)
compositional mapping was conducted on sites of particular interest on the fracture
surface using a Jeol JSM-6500F FEG SEM in conjunction with Oxford Inca 300
software. Material left over from fatigue specimen machining was cut into ~8mm square
samples. Plain polished samples and polished and etched samples were prepared and
exposed at 650°C for 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 and 256 hours. These were then available
for examination by SEM after exposure in the furnace at 650°C.

10. Findings
 Lifetimes for each test are shown in Table 1. There is no clear
difference between orientation A and B over the range of temperatures
tested within this limited test matrix.

Temp (°C) Orientatio Pmax (%) Cycles

(kN
n to
)
Failure
650 B 6. 1.38 6500
2
650 A 6. 1.38 25,50
2 0
725 A 6. 1.38 5,271
2
725 B 6. 1.38 13,71
2 7

Crack initiation at high temperatures occurred at sub surface pores in all cases. Cracks in
the surface oxide do penetrate the substrate but do not initiate the critical crack. All
initiating sub surface pores were encircled by a halo (Figure 2). Subsurface pores were
predominantly irregular shapes consistent with interdendritic spacing both in size and
shape. The texture of the fracture surface within the halo differs from that seen in the
surrounding area. This is better observed using backscattered electron imaging (Figure 3)
to look at topographical features on the fracture surface. Using this method, several new
crack initiation points were identified. A compositional scan also picked up differences
within the halo region compared with the surrounding area.

11. Conclusions and recommendations

Crack initiation in all but one high temperature test occurred at

subsurface pores, this agrees with observations in the literature [i, ii,
iii]. Such initiation is characterised by a halo around the pore where
initial crack growth has occurred in vacuum. The proposed mechanism
that causes this halo effect is due to the crack initiating and
propagating in vacuum until it breaks the surface of the sample and is
exposed to air. Initial crack propagation conditions are that of fatigue
crack propagation in vacuum. Once air can enter the crack, the initial
fatigue area within the halo undergoes oxidation, after failure has
occurred. The boundary of the halo marks the point at which the crack
continues to propagate, but now under combined fatigue and oxidation
conditions. The two mechanisms described give rise to the change in
texture and composition of the oxidised fatigue crack (Figure 2 & Figure
3). Similar halo effects have been seen in polycrystalline disk alloys
[iv]. It is not yet fully understood why cracks do not initiate at the
notch surface at higher temperatures. There may be sufficient
oxidation of the surface pores to effectively plug them up therefore
reducing the stress concentration induced by the pore - similar to oxide
induced closure effects. The stress/strain fields below the notch surface
may change/redistribute at higher temperatures thus making sub
surface initiation more likely. Some initial analytical work has been
done to understand the effects of sub surface pore geometry. A simple
analysis of pore aspect ratio has been conducted using Scott and
Thorpe’s approximation for a semi-elliptical surface crack [v]. A pore
area was selected that was representative of those observed to initiate
cracks. The ratio of a/c was varied whilst keeping the area of the pore
constant. A pore with high aspect ratio with major axis parallel to the
notch surface gives the highest value of Kd (stress intensity at the
maximum depth position). The secondary orientation of the single
crystal will affect the direction in which interdendritic pores form and
therefore could affect initiation behaviour if further analysis shows that
the angle/orientation of the pore is important.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion it was derived that the turbine blades failure was due combination of
factors given below they are:

Time to time turbine blades were operating outside their thresh hold limits.
Uncoated surfaces and poor filtration of airflow was contributing for surface damage due
to high temperature corrosion and abrasion.
Continues operation of the turbines was contributing cumulative strain holding on the
blades while freezing stresses in the matrix.

With these findings in the hand the manufacturer was directed to establish the best-fit
solution for the present problems.

Initiation of fatigue cracks is affected by critical pore size, angle,

position and aspect ratio. The angle of the pores may be a direct effect
of the secondary orientation of the specimen as pores are normally
interdendritic.

Coalescence of the fatigue cracks depends on initial distribution of

initiating features (porosity). Pores have also been seen to cause
temporary crack arrest which can add to the specimen lifetime.

FURTHER WORK
What was our recommendations :

Limit the operational loading limit 15% under the fatigue thresh hold.

Selecting the right coating for application

Introduce controlled intervals between maintenance.

Regular Condition assessment.

Dynamic Testing and Monitoring

Corrosion Control and Environmental Chemistry Monitoring

Remaining life prediction – Routine lifetime evaluations based upon

condition.

Further work relevant to this report consists of: sectioning and

observation in SEM of some current test specimens and oxidation study
specimens, a literature search for Oxidation of CMSX4. Also a further
set of run out tests (650°C orientation A and B) on sub size CMSX-4
test specimens has been planned in order to generate S-N data and
more porosity data from fracture surfaces.