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PHNG PHP PHN X MAGNETRON RF TRONG CH TO M NG MNG


Hc Vin thc hin : Phm Vn Thnh I. PHNG PHP PHN X 1 Phn x l g ? Phn x (Sputtering ) hay Phn x catt (Cathode Sputtering ) l k thut ch to m ng mng da tr n nguyn l truy n ng nng bng cch dng cc in kh him c tng tc di in trng bn ph b mt vt liu t bia vt liu, truyn ng nng cho cc nguyn t ny bay v pha v lng ng trn .

I . 2 H s p h n Hnh 1 : M hnh phn x

2. Bn cht qu tr nh phn x Khc vi phng php bay bc nhit , phn x khng l m cho v t liu b bay hi do t nng m thc cht qu tr nh phn x l qu trnh truyn ng nng . Vt liu ngun c to th nh dng cc tm bia (target) v c t ti in cc (thng l catt), trong bu ng c ht chn khng cao v n p kh him vi p sut thp (c 10 -2 mbar). Di tc dng ca in trng, cc nguyn t kh him b in ha, tng tc v chuyn ng v pha bia vi tc ln v bn ph b mt bia, truyn ng nng cho cc nguyn t vt liu ti b mt bia. Cc nguy n t c truyn ng

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nng s bay v pha v lng ng trn . Cc nguy n t ny c gi l cc nguyn t b phn x. Nh vy, c ch ca qu tr nh phn x l va chm v trao i xung lng, ho n ton khc v i c ch ca phng php bay bc nhit trong chn khng. II. CC LO I PHN X 1. Phn x phng in mt chiu (DC discharge sp uttering) L k thut phn x s dng hiu in th mt chiu gia tc cho cc in kh hi m. Bia vt liu c t trn in cc m (catt) trong chung chn khng c ht chn khng cao, tu thuc vo thit b m din tch ca b ia nm trong khong t 10 n vi trm centimet vung sau np y bi kh him (thng l Ar hoc He...) vi p sut thp (c 10 2 mbar). Ant c th l hoc ton b thnh chung chn khng. Khong cch catt -ant ngn hn rt nhiu kho ng cch ngun- trong bc bay chn khng v thng l di 10 cm. Trong cc kh tr, A rgon c s dng phn x nhiu hn c, p sut ca n c duy tr trong chung c 1 Torr. Plasma trong trng hp ny c hnh thnh v duy tr nh ngun i n cao p mt chiu. C ch hnh thnh plasma gi ng c ch phng i n lnh trong kh km. Ngi ta s dng mt hiu in th mt chiu cao th t gia bia (in cc m) v mu (in cc dng). in t th cp pht x t catt c gia t c trong in trng cao p, chng ion-ha cc nguyn t kh, do to ra lp plasma ( l trng thi trung ha in tch ca vt cht m trong phn ln l cc ion dng v in t). Cc ion kh Ar+ b ht v catt, bn ph l n vt liu l m bt cc nguyn t ra khi b mt catt. Qu trnh ny l qu trnh phng in c km theo pht sng (s pht quang do in ha). V dng in l dng in mt chiu nn cc in cc phi dn in duy tr dng in, do k thut ny thng ch d ng cho cc bia d n in (bia kim loi, hp kim...). Tuy nhin, hi u sut phn x trong tr ng hp n y l rt thp. Ngy nay phng php phn x cao p mt chiu m khng s dng magnetron h u nh khng c s dng trong cng ngh ch t o mng.

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Hnh 2. S h phng i n cao p mt chiu (DC -sputter)

2. Phn x phng in xoay chi u (RF discharge sputtering) L k thut s dng hiu in th xoay chiu gia tc cho in kh him. N vn c cu to chung ca cc h phn x, tuy nhi n my pht l mt my pht cao tn s dng dng in tn s sng v tuy n (thng l 13,56 MHz). in p t trn in cc ca h chn khng l ngun xoay chiu tn s t 0,1 MHz tr ln, bin trong khong 0,5 n 1 kV . Mt dng ion t ng hp ti bia trong khong 1 mA/cm2, trong khi bi n ca dng cao t n tng hp cao hn rt nhiu (c khi ln gp mt bc hoc h n na). V dng in l xoay chi u, nn n c th s dng cho cc bia vt liu khng d n in. My pht cao t n s to ra cc hiu in th xoay chi u dng xung vung. V h s dng dng in xoay chiu nn phi i qua mt b phi hp tr khng v h t in c tc d ng tng cng su t phng in v bo v my pht. Qu tr nh phn x c hi khc so vi phn x mt chiu ch bia va b bn ph bi cc in c nng l ng cao na chu k m ca hiu in th v b bn ph bi cc in t na chu k dng. Phn x cao tn c nhiu u im hn so vi phn x cao p mt chiu, th d in p thp, p hn x trong p sut kh thp h n, tc phn x ln hn v c bit phn x c tt c cc loi vt liu t kim loi n oxit hay ch t cch in. Plasma trong phn x cao tn c hnh thnh v duy tr nh ngun cao tn, cng ging nh qu trnh ion ha x y ra trong phn x cao p. Tuy nhin, ngy nay phn x cao tn ri ng bit cng khng cn c s dng bi hiu sut phn x vn cn cha cao. Ngi ta s dng magnetron khc phc nhc im n y.

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Hnh 3: S h phng in cao t n c t chn lm tng hiu sut bn ph ion. 3. Phn x magnetron L k thut phn x (s dng c vi xoay chiu v mt chiu) ci tin t cc h phn x thng dng bng cch t b n di bia cc nam chm. Nh m t phn tr n, vi cu hnh ca in cc trong c hai phng php phn x u c in trng vung gc v i b mt bia. Nhng vi magnetron chng ta c n thy t trng ca cc nam chm to ra ng sc vung gc vi in tr ng (c ngha l song song v i mt phng ca bia). V th , t trng c tp trung v tng cng plasma v ng gn bia. T trng ca nam chm c tc dng by cc in t v in li gn bia v tng hiu ng in ha, tng s ln va chm gia cc in, in t vi cc nguyn t kh ti b mt bia do l m tng tc lng ng, gim s bn ph ca in t v in trn b mt mng, gim nhit v c th to ra s phng in p sut thp h n. By gi chng ta xem by in t l m vic nh th no? Cu hnh nh m t trn hnh 4 (a, b) to ra hiu ng cun in t trong h ng Chng ta c mt hiu ng Hall, chng l n dng cu n ny v c hng chuy n ng quanh bia nh nhng con quay

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Hnh 4 : S nguyn l by in t bng t trng trong h phn x magnetron. Bn knh qu o () ca con quay c xc nh bng cng thc:

m qB

trong : m- l khi lng ca in t, v l thnh ph n vung gc ca tc in t i vi ng sc, B l cm ng t. Nhn chung, trong cc h phn x thc, bn knh qu o c gi tr nh, ch khong mt n v i milimt. V vy, s giam h m in t gn b mt bia l rt hiu qu. Cc in t chuyn ng quanh ng sc cho n khi chngb tn x bi nguy n t. Trn thc t, magnetron c n tn ti mt khong th i gian ngn sau khi lc khng c n, v cc in t vn c n b by sau mt s lt chuyn ng v ng quanh. hiu tt hn vn magnetron, chng ta xem xt v d di y. Thng thng bn ph cc target l kim lo i hay cht dn in c th ta dng dng 1 chi u (Direct Current) to plasma (DC magnetron sputtering). Nu cc target l cc ch t cch in nh cc oxid... th bt buc ta phi d ng dng RF to plasma.

4. Cc cu hnh phn x khc


Ngoi ba ki u phn x n u trn, trong th c tin ngi ta cn ch to cc thit b phn x vi cu h nh khc (cc b phn chnh vn da tr n cu hnh ca hai loi trc). Trong c loi cu h nh s dng n phn th trn kch thch bn ph ion v qu trnh ph mng, c lo i phng in bng h tr ion nhit, trong in t th cp c tng cng t si vonfram t nng. Phn x chm ion c ng l mt cu h nh t ra hu hiu trong cng ngh ch to mng mng. Trong cu h nh ny, ngu n ion c thit k tch h n ra khi catt, l m vic vi in th phng in thp h n.

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T ngun ny chm ion bn thng v o bia vi ng nng ln nht t c tng ng n ng lng trong cao p mt chiu.

Hnh 5 : nh chp thit b sputtering Univex 450 ti tr ng i hc Khoa hc T nhi n, i hc Quc gia H Ni III. PHNG PHP PHN X MAGNETRON RF TRONG

CH TO M NG M NG
1. Gii thiu RF-Magnetron Sputter l m t k thut to mng mng (Thin films) hiu qu nht trong cc k thut phn x . T trng to ra bi Magnetron s nh hng dng plasma t o thnh thnh cc loops (vng trn) do mt ion trong plasma cao h n v ng u hn do plasma mt cao c th to thnh trong p sut thp. Hn na, Magnetron s by cc in t tp trung tr n b mt ca target v trong qu trnh di tc dng ca in trng RF s s ion cc tiu phn kh v chnh cc ti u phn kh to thnh ny s bn ph b mt ca target. RF y l vit tt ca ch Radio Frequency nhng ngha ca n y l nng lng ca qu tr nh to plasma c cung cp bi cc d ng in xoay chiu cao tn ( tn s sng radio t 2 - 20 MHz). Thng thng kh Ar, Nit hay hn hp cc kh n y vi Oxy ng vai quan tr ng trong bc bay vt liu target ngo i ngha l kh to ion n c n tham gia vo qu trnh t o mng na. Ni chung l mng mng (thin films) to bi k thut n y c th bao gm nhiu vt liu

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khc nhau v mng r t ng u. 2. Nguyn l hot ng

Hnh 6 : Nguyn l ho t ng chung Dng kh (th ng l argon ho c argon+O2, argon+N2) c bm vo bung chn khng to plasma hnh thnh cc ion Ar+. Cc ion ny hng v target (kim loi cn to mng mng) c p th m. Cc ion n y di chuyn vi vn tc cao, bn ph target v nh bt cc nguy n t ca target ra khi target. Cc nguy n t ny "bc hi" v i n substrate (thu tinh hay silicon wafer), tch t trn substrate v hnh thnh mng m ng khi s lng nguy n t ln. Trong qu trnh b n ph ca ion Ar+ v o target, ngoi qu trnh nh bt cc nguy n t ca target, c n c cc qu trnh khc x y ra nh hnh thnh cc electron th cp, hp ph, h nh thnh hp cht... Trong qu trnh sputtering, ta c th li dng cc ion th cp h nh thnh tng tc to m ng hoc gim th p v o target ho c gim p sut dng Ar. K thut n y gi l magnetron sputtering. Trong k thut n y ta p 1 t trng vo target. T trng ny s gi cc electron th cp dao ng trn cc ng sc t quanh target. Cc electron dao ng gn b mt target s gp phn ion ho nhiu nguy n t Argon hn. Chnh iu ny tng tc qu tr nh to mng mng.

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Hnh 7 : Nguyn l ho t ng ca phn x Magnetron RF Qu trnh hnh thnh mng m ng : cc nguyn t tp hp li th nh tng cm tr n substrate. khi cc c m ln s li n kt li h nh thnh mng (gm mt s lp nguy n t). T cc lp ban u n y mng s tip tc pht trin, nhng ko phi pht trin ng u cho c b mt, m pht tri n theo cc hng c nng lng t do thp nht. C th h nh thnh cc c t hay cc cm v c th pht trin, h nh thi v tnh ch t ca mng s khc nhau. Hnh thi (morphology) c a mng mng : tu theo nhit ca substrate, nng lng ca ion Ar (hay p sut), m ng mng hnh thnh c cc hnh thi khc nhau. V d : Nu ta thay i d ng kh Argon b ng hn hp Argon + O2 hoc Argon + N2 th ta thu c mng oxid ho c nitrid tng ng. 2.1. H s phn x :

s
s : h s phn x

n n i , Trong :

n : s nguyn t b phn x ni : s ion p v o b mt cathode H s phn x s ph thuc v o : - Bn cht ca vt liu phn x - Loi ion v nng lng ca ion bn ph l n bia - Gc p ca ion l n b mt cathode - Ph thuc v o p sut kh lm vic

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2.2. S ph thuc vo gc ti ca s phn x

Hnh 8 : H s phn x t gi tr cao nht v o khong gc ti c gi tr 720 3. Cu to My phn x magnetron RF N vn c cu to chung ca cc h phn x, tuy nhi n my pht l mt my pht cao tn s dng d ng in tn s sng v tuyn (th ng l 13,56 MHz). V dng in l xoay chi u, nn n c th s dng cho cc b ia vt liu khng dn in. My pht cao tn s to ra cc hiu in th xoay chiu dng xung vung.

Do h s dng d ng in xoay chiu n n phi i qua mt b phi hp tr khng v h t in c tc dng tng cng sut phng in v bo v my pht. Qu trnh phn x c hi khc so vi phn x mt chiu ch

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bia va b bn ph bi cc in c nng l ng cao na chu k m ca hiu in th v b bn ph bi cc in t na chu k d ng. Gm cc b phn chnh sau : - Bung chn khng. - Bia : c gn v o mt bn gii nhit. Bn gii nhit c gn v o cathode - B phn Magnetron : T trng do mt v ng nam chm bn ngoi bao quanh v khc c c vi nam chm gia. Chng c ni vi nhau bng mt tm st, c tc dng khp k n ng sc t pha di - : c p vo in cc anode - Ngun xoay chiu cao tn 3.1. Bu ng phn x

Hnh : Bu ng phn x 3.2. Mt s loi d ng trong h phn x

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Ceramic (gm)

Silicon

thy tinh

3.3. Bia - Bia phn x kch thc c 2 hoc 3.


a) Bia kim lo i C th ni trong cc loi vt liu phn x th vt liu kim loi n cht l d gia cng bia hn c. Th d, bia vng, ng, tantan, platin, v.v ... c th ch to bng cch khun ng kch th c ca catt. Do kim loi dn in v dn nhit rt tt cho n n dng magnetron cao p m t chiu phn x cc loi bia kim loi n y s cho hiu sut ph n x cao. Th d, trong phng php hin vi in t (SEM v TEM) ngi ta thng ph lp vng hay platin rt mng l n b mt mu cch in ( dn in t xung catt). L p vng ny c lng ng trong bung phn x m chn khng c htbng h bm ca thit b knh hin vi. Cc bia v ng hay platin s dng c rt lu, bi v mi ln phn x chng ch b ty i mt lp d y vi chc nanmt. Mng m ng kim loi v ng cn c ph ln thy tinh lm gng bn phn x s dng trong cc th it b quang hc v laze. Mng platin hay palai phn tn b ng phn x to ra lp hot ha tr n b mt cc vt liu silic xp hay SnO2 cu trc nan tinh th. Nh m nhy ca cc sens kh ch to t vt liu k trn tng ln ng k. b) Bia h p kim Cc vt liu hp kim nh CoCrTa, CoNiCrTa, CoCrPt, CoFeTb v CoCrNiPt ( y khng a cc ch s thnh phn vo trong cng th c) cng c phn x. Do m ng mng ca cc hp kim i hi kht khe v thnh ph n, hn na, chng c t t nh lm nh hng n hiu sut magnetron, cho nn vi c gia cng b mt bi a cn phi p ng: (i) ng nht cao v th nh phn, (ii) hp thc trong cu to ca bia cn c tnh n kh nng ha hi khc nhau ca cc th nh phn sao cho khi phn x c th nhn c mng ng hp thc mong mun.

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c) Bia h p cht cha xy Cc loi mng c c u trc nhiu th nh phn nh mng st t BaTiO3, LiNbO3, SrTiO3 hay mng siu d n nhit cao YBa2Cu3O7 cng c ch to bng phn x magnetron. Vic gia cng b ia cho cc v t liu tr n quyt nh s th nh cng ca cng ngh. C t h ch to bia gm cc thnh phn cu to k trn, nhng hm lng ca tng nguy n t th cn iu chnh sao cho hp thc trong m ng ph hp vi cu trc ca tng cht. Cch th hai l ch to hai hoc ba bia l cc oxit, s dng phng php ng phn x t hai hoc ba bia nh n mng c h p thc v cu trc mong mu n. Cui cng, c th nhn thy rng, phng php phn x magnetron cn c ng dng ch to nhiu chng lo i vt liu khc m phng php bc bay khng thc hin c. Cc vt liu mng mng oxit hay nitrua c ch to d d ng bng cch phn x kim loi tng ng trong kh argon tr n xy hoc nit - gi l phn x phn ng. Thit b phn x hin i c t ng ha cao, cho n n qu trnh l ng ng mng mng c th khng ch chnh xc hn. Hu ht cc thit b u c t hai n ba ngun phn x (hain ba bia), nh c th thc hin phn x ng thi nhiu loi vt liu khc nhau, t o ra cc m ng mng hp cht, vt liu pha tp, vt liu cu trc nan ph c tp k hc, ... Vit Nam hin na y cng c nhiu c s nghin cu v o to c trang b cc thit b phn x hin i c cc chc nng k trn. 3.4. B phn to chn khng : Thng dng 2 lo i bm: -Bm s cp (bm rote hoc bm quay du) Tc : 30 m3/h. p sut ti hn: 10 -2 torr - Bm khuch tn: Tc : 200 l/sec p sut ti hn : 10 -10 torr

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- Chn khng phn x : Chn khng t i hn : 10 -7 torr Chn khng lm vi c : 10-2 10-3 torr 3.5. B phn Magnetron

- T trng do mt v ng nam chm bn ngoi bao quanh v khc c c vi nam chm gia. Chng c ni vi nhau bng mt tm st, c tc dng khp kn ng sc t pha di

Hnh 14 : Cu trc ca mt s h Magnetron thng th ng

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3.6. Plasma: c to ra do c ch sau : Khi ta bm kh tr vo bu ng chn khng, trong bu ng vn c sn mt s t electron t do, cc e n y va ch m vi cc nguyn t kh tr trung h a lm ion ha cc nguyn t ny thnh cc ion dng ( V d Ar +). Cc ion ny di tc dng ca in trng gia tc bay n p v o catot, y l bia lm cc nguyn t bia vng ra, ng thi cc e th cp cung h nh thnh bay ra, cc e th cp tip tc ion ha cc nguyn t kh to th nh khi plasma pht sng gi a hai in cc.

Khi Plasma

Hnh 15 : Vng plasma gi a 2 in cc

Hnh 16 : nh chp Plasma trong bung phn x 4. Cc y u t nh hng ln tc lng ng m ng 4.1. Dng v th Trong h u ht cc trng hp phn x th vic tng cng sut phn x cng khng nh hng nhiu n tc lng ng. Mt khc nh chng ta thy s ion bn l n catt t l thun vi mt dng. Cho nn, y u t

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nh hng ln l n tc lng ng chnh l dng, hn l in th t tr n catt. Trn hnh l s liu thc nghim nhn c v s ph thuc chiu dy mng mng vo in th catt vi thi gian phn x l 1 gi, bia s dng l tantan ng knh 76 mm. Chng ta thy sau g i tr 1500 V, in th c tip tc tng hn na th tc lng ng cn g ch tng khng ng k (chiu dy ca mng nhn c khng tng). Nh vy trong trng hp cng su t ca thit b hn ch th chng ta nn t ng dng phn x v gim in th tr n catt. Vic tng d ng phn x c th thc hin c bng cch gim p sut, tng pht x in t, d ng t trng (magnetron), hay tng din tch bia, gim kch thc bia-, 4.2. p su t Chng ta c ng bit, trong k thut phng in phn x th khi tng p sut, mt ion tc l mt dng s tng l n. Khi cng su t phn x c gi khng i th tc lng ng cng tng theo mt d ng, c ngha l tng theo p sut phn x. Trong kho ng p sut khng ln lm, tc lng ng tng tuyn tnh theo p sut. Trn hnh trnh by k t qu thc nghim kho st s ph thuc vo p su t ca tc lng ng m ng mng molipen. Trn h nh cn c c ng ph thuc v o p su t ca d ng phn x. C hai ng ph thuc u l tuyn tnh, nhng dng tng vi tc nhanh hn tc lng ng. iu ny cng chng t s lng ion / nguy n t c thot ra khi bia m c th quay tr li catt do hiu n g khuc h tn ngc cng c gim. Tuy nhin, hi u ng khuch tn ngc ch quan s t thy khi p sut vt mt gi tr ngng nht nh. Thc nghim cho thy, d ng catt v tc lng ng mng khng cn t ng theo p sut khi chn khng gi m xung, p sut vt gi tr 1,3.10 -1Torr. Tc lng ng ti u trong trng hp phn x bng kh argon nhn c khi p sut phn x bng 5 6.10-2 Torr.

Hnh 17. Tc lng ng ph thuc v o dngnhi u hn l vo in th trn bia trong phn x magnetron. 4.3. Nhit Khc vi p sut, nhit l yu t phc tp, trong mt s tr ng hp, tc lng ng ph thu c rt mnh v o nhit . Th d, khi hp

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phn x SiO2, AsGa, Ge ti nhit thp, tc lng ng nh. C n a s cc trng hp khc th tc lng ng tng ng k khi nhit gim t cao xung thp. Tr n hnh 7.16 l th ph thuc v o nhit ca tc lng ng i vi mt s gi tr phn p tr n .

Hnh 18 : Vai tr c a nhit i vi tc lng ng th hin khng r rt trong phn x.

5. u im v hn ch ca phn x 5.1. u im: - Tt c cc loi vt l iu u c th phn x, ngha l t nguyn t, hp kim hay hp cht. - Bia phn x thng dng c lu, bi v lp phn x rt mng. - C th t bia theo nhiu hng, trong nhiu trng hp c th d ng bia din tch ln, do bia l ngun bc bay rt ln . - Trong magnetron c th ch to m ng mng t bia c cu h nh a dng, ph thuc v o cch l p t nam chm, bia c th thit k theo hnh dng ca b mt (h nh cn ho c hnh cu). - Quy trnh phn x n nh, d lp li v d t ng ha. - bm dn h ca mng vi rt t t do cc nguyn t n lng ng tr n mng c ng nng kh cao so vi phng php bay bc nhit . - D dng ch to cc mng a lp nh to ra nhiu bia ri ng bit. ng thi, y l phng php r tin, v d thc hin n n d dng trin khai quy m cng nghi p.

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- Mng to ra c mp m b mt thp v c hp thc gn vi ca bia, c dy chnh x c hn nhiu so vi phng php bay bc nhit trong chn khng. 5.2. Nhc im - Phn ln nng lng phn x tp t rung ln bia, lm nng bia, cho nn phi c b lm lnh bia. - Tc phn x nh hn nhiu so vi tc bc bay chn khng. - Hiu sut v nng lng thp, cho n n phn x khng ph i l phng php tit kim nng lng. - Bia thng l rt kh ch to v t tin. - Hiu sut s dng bia thp (khng s dng c ht, nhi u khi do bia gin, cho nn d b nt dn n hng sau s ln phn x ch a nhiu. - Trong nhi u trng hp, khng cn n nhit , nhng n lun b t nng. - Cc tp cht nhim t th nh chung, trong chung hay t ant c th b ln vo trong mng. - Do cc ch t c hiu sut phn x khc nhau n n vic khng ch th nh phn vi bia t hp tr n n phc tp. Kh nng to ra cc m ng rt mng vi chnh xc cao ca ph ng php phn x l khng cao. Hn na, khng th to ra m ng n tinh th. - p sut thp,khong t 5 -15 mTorr. iu ny i hi phi ht chn khng cao - S electron theo thi gian tch t nhiu tr n bn cc l m hy s ti phn x - Ion dng p vo ph h y mng

Thc mc xin a ln din n ti: www.myyagy.com/mientay

TI LIU THAM KHO


[1] Trn nh Tng, M ng mng quang hc,NXBKHKT H Ni,2004 [2] V Th Kim Chung,Lu n vn Thc s Khoa Hc T Nhi n, Tng hp mng mng TiO2 Bng pp phn x Magnetron -m ion,Trng H KHTN TPHCM,1999 [3] ThS V Th Hnh Thu,cc b i ging v Vt L M ng M ng,Trng H KHTN TPHCM [4] L Phng Ngc,Nguyn Th Thu Tho,Kha Lun Tt Nghip [5] Nguy n Ngc Th y Trang,Kha Lu n tt nghip [6] L V Tun H ng,Nguy n Vn n,Hunh Thnh t,Nghi n cu ch to mng mng TiO 2 bng phng php phn x Magnetron RF,Tp ch pht trin KH&CN ,tp 9,s 6/2006 [7] Nguyn Hu c (2003). Vt liu t li n kim loi. Nh xu t bn i hc Quc gia H Ni. 1K -02044-01403.

Mt s trang web tham kho :


http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0ng_m%E1%BB%8Fng http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%BAn_x%E1%BA%A1_cat%E 1% BB%91t http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputtering http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency www.freepatentsonline.com http://www.lermps.com/PHP/HTML/textes.php?ref=process_dep ot+pha se+vapeur.xls http://www.ajaint.com/whatis.htm

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