INDUCED CAVING TECHNIQUES AMENABLE TO UNDERGROUND COAL MINES FOR HARD ROOF MANAGEMENT

CHANDRANI D. PRASAD*, ACHYUTA KRISHNA GHOSH**

Abstract Hard, massive, difficult-to-cave sandstone roof is commonly encountered in Indian coal measure during winning of coal. Though such roof ensures ground stability during development because of their high self-supporting capability, but often poses a serious techno-economic problem at the time of winning of coal due to its non-caving nature and high strain energy storing capacity. Mining with stowing or partial extraction may be technically feasible solutions, but in most cases, are not economically viable. In such condition, induced caving of roof holds the key of success of coal winning. f different induced caving techni!ues, blasting of roof in goaf either in underground or from surface, high-pressure water in"ection, hydro-fracturing, use of expanding materials #also referred as silent explosives$, can be practised depending on their respective technical suitability and economic viability with respect to a given set of geo-mining conditions. However, induced caving by blasting is the only method practised in a few Indian collieries. %hile &'( is on to establish the high-pressure water in"ection system in India, this method is !uite common in )hinese coal mines and hydraulic fracturing has been used successfully in some of the mines of *ustralia. +uccessful application of these techni!ues depends upon a number of geomining factors such as depth of working, gassiness of seam, in situ stress distribution pattern, rock mass stiffness, porosity and permeability of strata, geological disturbances etc. and several legislative and technical parameters relevant to that techni!ue, like diameter, depth and number of holes, type and amount of explosive to be used, etc. Hence, to select a techno-economically acceptable induced caving techni!ue for any given set of geo-mining condition, systematic guidelines are re!uired and a !uick review should be made available. In this paper, an attempt has been made to present a !uick review of all these techni!ues.

Introduction
Strata control is the major problem in underground coalmines where the immediate roof is massive sandstone. After accumulating good deal of strain energy, it fails all of a sudden, often with violence causing air blasts, rock bursts and/or coal bumps. Spalling of coal, collapse of faces and overriding of pillars are some other common phenomena associated with such roof that endangers the mine workings and sometimes result in heavy damages to supports, machineries and ventilation network, and serious and fatal accidents.

Several accidents have taken place in the past with huge loss of production and equipment. A well-known e ample is that of the longwall face collapse at !hurcha "est !olliery in #$$% and at &ottadih !olliery in #$$' in (ndia, a major windblast in )oonee !olliery, Australia and huge caving in )ajiliang !oal )ine, !hina that created a subsidence basin of '%%%% m* in area and %.' m in depth. An earth tremor of +.* had been detected. A schedule of windblasts occurs in ,ewstan !olliery between #$$- and #$$', a total of *+ events. (n all the cases air velocities of range .% m/s to #.% km/hr have been recorded. (t was found that delayed

caving due to massive sandstone has created the trouble. / traction with stowing is the safest option, where the goaf is solidly packed with sand, but it is highly cost intensive and cumbersome. 0n the other hand, partial e traction, the other option where splitting is taken as final operation and small stooks are formed and left in situ, is low in production and productivity, and does not comply with the basic principles of mineral conservation because of very poor recovery. 1ield pillar technique was developed based on the concept that if pillars with safety factor marginally left in situ over time under massive roof, the left over pillars/stooks allows the roof to cave slowly and gradually. 2owever, the method has been banned in (ndia since the roof failure in 3arascole "est !olliery. 2owever, a number of induced caving techniques vi4., blasting of roof in goaf either from underground or from surface, high-pressure water injection, hydraulic fracturing, use of e panding materials 5also referred as silent explosives6 are available. (nduced caving by underground blasting is the most popular method despite its limitations of amount of e plosive to be used underground, risks associated with it, and ventilation problems. 7argediameter deep-hole surface blasting above uncaved goaf is suitable for shallow working depths, preferably not e ceeding #%% m. 2ydraulic fracturing from surface can deal any depth but it requires knowledge of in situ stress. Sleeve fracturing in combination with hydraulic fracturing is suitable for fracturing any type of rock. 2igh-pressure water injection is appropriate for weakening of porous and permeable roof rock to turn it cave-able.

,on-e plosive e panding materials that have not been tried till date to break roof rocks in underground openings, but have been used for secondary breaking of boulders and winning small opencast benches in soft formations may be tried to induce caving. Induced cavin All the induced caving techniques currently available in the global technological shelf are based on either of the two principles 8o break the immediate roof with

good fragmentation and bulking factor so that it fills the goaf adequately to prevent overriding or air blast /windblast to any further sudden and massive collapse of higher roof9 and 8o weaken the roof, or in other words, to improve its cavability, by modifying its geotechnical characteristics by creating artificial planes of weakness in it and/or by reducing its physicomechanical strength. 0n the basis of these two principles, various available techniques are: ;eep hole surface blasting !aving by underground blasting 2ydraulic fracturing 2igh pressure water injection 0ther possible techniques like use of non-e plosive chemical compounds

All these methods can be applied in two ways, pre-fracturing or post-fracturing and proper identification of strong beds that play dominant role in roof caving and loading at the face, is the prerequisite for successful application of any of above said techniques.

3re-fracturing is a better choice as here roof rock is weakened in advance of working. "hen falling in goaf, an already fragmented or pre-fractured roof rock will further swell in volume making greater bulking factor to be achievable even in hard rocks 5!houdhury, *%%*6. <nhindered advancement of face and reduction in level of periodic weightings on supports are other noteworthy advantages associated with prefracturing technique. Alternatively, post-fracturing is the common way where caving is induced in the roof strata in goaf after winning of coal. 8his method requires less meticulous planning compared to prefracturing systems, but as the roof treatment operation is carried out in goaf, unlike pre-fracturing technique, it has limited control on the consequence in terms of rock fragmentation. !"# Dee$ %o&e 'ur(ace )&a'tin (n this method, a number of large diameter deep holes are drilled from the surface above the goaf area and e plosive is placed in such a way as to ensure the breakage of the identified strong rock bed on blasting. (f the identified rock strata are well above the coal seam being worked, non-permitted e plosives may be used9 otherwise only permitted e plosives should be used. An e periment was carried out at longwall panel 3-# 5=ig. #6 of width #-% m, in >urhar ?( > coal seam of thickness * to +.++ m at @ajendra 3roject, S/!7. ;epth of coal seam was varying from A% to A+ m. .B-%+ 8 chock shield supports of were deployed to provide support resistance of '- t/m* at yield pressure of .% )3a. 8he strong bed of high @ock Cuality ;esignation 5@C;6 was found at a height of #' to *% m above the coal seam. 2oles of +% to -* m depth, A to #* in number, spaced at a distance of

.- to '- m from the face were blasted using +-% to #%%% kg of Aquadyne e plosive. 0bservation of leg closure on supports, subsidence advance due to weighting, convergence in the gate roads, cavity formation, spalling at the face and the weighting interval were made to study the severity of weightings. Average subsidence advance was #..' m to #.$- m. ,o severe weighting was observed where goaf blasting was adopted. 0n the contrary, with few e ceptions, severe weighting was observed where blasting was not practised. 0ther than the risk of ha4ard from e plosives, application of this technique is limited by depth from surface. ?ery deep holes may deviate and may not fulfil the desired purpose apart from increased cost of drilling. Also providing casing in weaker sections of rock is a difficult in very deep holes. 8his technique has also been tried in longwall projects of >alrampur, &umda D @ajendra mines of S/!7 and roof weightings have been managed successfully 5>hati, *%%+6. !"* Under round )&a'tin (t is the most commonly practised technique in (ndian mines as no additional set up and laboratory tests are required for its application. A number of inclined holes towards goaf are drilled and charged in advance. 8hese holes are then blasted out with the help of e plosives after the goaf edge is reached. 2owever, it has a number of limitations. (t is not suitable for gassy mines due to several blasting ha4ards associated with the use of e plosives, even a small crack filled with gas may cause e plosion. Another factor is height of roof that can be dislodged is limited to A-Em with the permitted amount of e plosives which varies with degree of gassiness of seam

or any particular mine as shown in table #. (n addition to this, presence of fault planes may provide an escape route for e plosion gases and thus reduction in utilised e plosive energy effect. Also, drilling holes beyond #% m length with usual coal drill is difficult. Similar situation occurred in !hurcha "est )ine of S/!7. Seam ? having thickness of + to +..- m is being worked at a depth of +*% m with strata monitoring and induced caving by blasting. 3illars are of si4e .- B .- m with a gallery width of ..* m. 8he blasting pattern in practice is shown in =ig.*. Si to fifteen numbers of holes of .+ mm diameter drilled at an angle of --% towards goaf of depth ' m is blasted with 3# e plosive. 8hey are drilled in three rows such that after blasting they will provide a breakage plane along which the hanging roof will detach as in =igs. *5a6 D 5b6. !umulative and daily convergence at 'A7/*AF 5#- m ;ip6 is shown in =ig.+. >oth the cumulative and daily convergence increases due to weighting and get reduced after introduction of blasting on #-th, *%th, *+rd, *.th and *Ath =eb *%%+ at a distance of #--.- m and corresponding fall on ##th, #.th and *%th =eb *%%+. 8hough, severity of falls has been reduced, spalling of %.- to # m is observed at one pillar from pillar under e traction. >ased on the instrumentation observations !)@( suggested blast to a height of #- m for maintaining safe stress level in workings, but the mine management is finding it difficult to deal with and are managing with a depth of ' m at present. 8hus, it is necessary to develop e isting induced caving techniques for greater depth. !"+ Hi % $re''ure ,ater in-ection (t is mainly practised as a pre-fracturing technique, where the immediate roof is

broken in advance of mining. (t is suitable for roof rock which loses its strength under water. =rom the results of petrographic test, water immersion test and permeability test are needed to determine the e tent to which strength of rock reduces after absorption of water. Adhesion, absorption, hydration, wedge effect and dissolution are the mechanisms utilised to alter the mechanical properties of roof rock. ,umber of inclined holes towards goaf is drilled and water is injected at high pressure to fracture the roof rock after sealing +-A m length of hole by cement grout. 8he ma imum injection pressure depends on the resistance of roof rock to passage of water, which in turn depends on permeability and aperture of joints, fissures and cracks. Cuantity of water per hole and its duration of injection are other important factors. @igorous efforts are going on in !)@( to establish this technique, as it is applicable to greater depth irrespective of gassiness of mine. (n addition to that water infusion inside the rock covers a wider area and number of holes required is appreciably less than that of blasting. 2owever, it may raise humidity of working areas at depths. Schematic arrangement for water injection is shown in fig.-. A number of trials have been made at !hurcha "est !olliery and 3arascole !olliery and results are quite encouraging. (n #%" e tended panel of !hurcha "est !olliery, #+ numbers of ,F si4e holes of length -%-'% m were drilled at an angle of *-oG+%o 5=ig. .6. 8hese holes were sealed to a length of A m by cement grout and water was injected at an initial pressure of #.%% 3si. 8he pressure was gradually reduced but rate of injection was increased. About +*,%%% litres of water was injected at a rate of AE l/min till water leakage from roof was observed. (t was found that, in the water-injected 4one, spalling and overriding of pillars

gets reduced significantly and roof fall occurred layer-by-layer accompanied by water 5!)@( @eport, *%%%a6. 8he total cumulative convergence also increased before periodic and local falls of the overlying roof rocks in the goaf 5=ig. A6 this indicates a significant decrease in the dynamism and intensity of caving. "hile, (ndia is still in developing stage, it is a well-known practice in !hinese coalfields. (n working section ,o. .%*, )ajiliang !oal )ine, !hina the depth of seam no. * was #%A m. working height was A m, and the immediate roof was ..- m thick sandy conglomerate overlain by -% to #%% m thick sandstone. 8he area of overhanging reached #-#%%% m* before caving into the gob. "hen caving occurs the caved area of the roof in the gob area was appro imately #*-%%% m*. An earth tremor had been detected9 the seismic shock measured was +.* in magnitude and . G - in violence on the surface. (n consequence a subsidence basin was formed on the surface with a dimension of '%%%% m* in area and %.' m in depth. 8here were about tens of places severely fractured on the surface, and the largest width of crack was near about . m. 8o reduce such overhangs high pressure water jetting was adopted. >oreholes were drilled into the roof area ahead of the face and water was injected at a high pressure. 8his method reduced the strength of the roof rock by creating various cracks and thus the cavability of immediate roof was enhanced. 8his method is a well-known practice now in !hinese coalfields 57insheng, #$E'6 !"! H.drau&ic (racturin 8he basic principle of hydraulic fracturing is to isolate a section of borehole and create a fracture by applying hydraulic pressure H=ig. '5a6I for determination of in situ stresses. 8he fracture so created propagates in a

direction normal to the minimum stress direction. 8his fracture can be utilised to induce caving in massive sandstone bed by drilling required number of holes and joining them by hydraulic pressure to provide a breakage plane. 2owever, isolated part of a borehole should be free from geological weakness planes or pre-e isting fractures. (f the line of goaf is parallel to ma imum stress direction an effective breakage plane can be obtained otherwise it will not help. (n such case, serrata S-+-% an instrument of sleeve fracturing technique, another in situ stress measurement technique, having semi-cylindrical friction shells with two gaps diametrically opposite surrounded by hard rubber membrane, can be utilised to create fracture H=ig. '5b6I. (t facilitates creation of fracture in any desired direction irrespective of field stresses. 2owever, the cracks do not propagate far from the borehole. 8hus a combination of this instrument and hydraulic fracturing technique can serve the purpose to a good e tent. 3ure hydro fracturing has been tried in &umda ' D E inclines of >isrampur area of S/!7. 7ongwall retreating with caving using powered supports of about -%% 8 capacity is being practised at this mine. 8he working depth is having a depth of around -%-A% m with a face length of #-% m. "ater was injected in boreholes at a depth of *E-*$ m to weaken the stable block and subsequent to that light intensity fall started taking place and face condition remained normal 5>hati, *%%+6. Similar technique adopted in )oonee !olliery, Australia enabled the mine management to regain the level of productivity after a temporary closure of mine there. )oonee !olliery is a coal mining operation in the ,ewcastle coalfields of ,ew South "ales located in the !atherine 2ill >ay area, which is appro imately #%% km north of Sydney.

(t operates on longwall e traction system. =irst longwall block commences in ,ovember #$$'. ,orthern seam is a high volatile low sulphur medium ash coal, which is used for power generation. 8he seam was mined at a height of around +.# m of a total seam thickness of upto . m. (n the roof the >ooragul tuff member forms the immediate roof of the working seam, which was termed as claystone roof. Above this was the 8eralba !onglomerate that was upto .% m thick and composed of conglomerate, sandstone and some mudstone. 8he compressive strength of the conglomerate averages around .- )3a and e hibits tensile strength around E )3a. ;ue to overlying claystone the development height is restricted top *.E m. A major windblast occurred on April +% #$$$. Although there was no audible warning of impending roof fall and no micro-seismic warning of the event but the crew loader was blown appro imately + m bodily and suffered multiple compound fractures of the left arm. 8he helmet he was wearing and the phone piece he was holding were blown more than .% m through the adjacent cut-through. 8he mines department (nspector then issued a stop work notice. 7ater to reduce such overhangs hydraulic fracturing accompanied by a real time microseismic monitoring was introduced as a part of the production process at )oonee !olliery. 8his has enabled the mine to regain the level of productivity. 2ydraulic fracturing has introduced consistent and far less variable falls, averaging around -%%% m* 53eter, *%%%6. Successful application of hydraulic fracturing alone requires the lithological knowledge of immediate roof strata as well as the in situ stress distribution pattern of the concerned region. 0f course, it is a costly endeavour but will

not be so at greater depth. >ecause, days are not far off when mining industry has to opt for deeper mining that itself necessitates determination of in situ stress for much better and safe mine design, as shallow deposits are depleting very fast. )oreover, elimination of ha4ards associated with use of e plosive is an added advantage. !"/ Ot%er 0o''i)&e A$$roac%e' Accone is a compound developed by Associated !ement !o., )umbai, which when mi ed with potable water of +%J of its weight, e pands and generates stress of +% to .% )3a in confined condition. 8his has been used to break large boulders as a replacement of secondary blasting, as well as tried in winning small opencast benches in soft formations, by pouring its mi ture with right quantity of water into boreholes of suitable diameter and length. 8he mi ture e pands and e erts forces on the wall of the hole, thus initiating, widening and propagating cracks in surrounding rocks. 2owever, the mi ture is to be used within #% minutes of its preparation and the depth of a hole should be E% to $%J of the desired depth of breakage. 8he rate of reaction depends on environmental conditions, rock types, etc. and the effects begin to manifest after #% to #* hours. 8his technique has not yet been tried for controlled fragmentation of in situ roof rocks whether in underground or from surface and is still at conceptual stage. 2owever, the tests conducted at !)@(, ;hanbad on sandstone boulders indicate that it is possible to generate good breakage in all directions in high strength rocks by this process 53al @oy, #$$A6. A sandstone boulder of compressive strength of -- )3a and tensile strength of . )3a was drilled with holes of depth nearly .%J of the boulder width. Appro imately - kg/tonne

of Accone was used and the action started #E hours after the pouring of the mi ture and completed in .E hours. 8he process seems to hold a good possibility to find applications in induced caving. Se&ection 0rocedure 0f different options, stowing, particularly the hydraulic sand stowing version of it, is a proven and well-known one, especially with reference to control of subsidence. 2owever, as this system is cumbersome, cost-intensive and hinders mining operation cycle reducing production and productivity of the total system, it is not a desirable solution for hard roof management nowadays. !onstraints of availability of fill material 5commonly river sand6 and water sometimes restrict the application of this system. 2owever, fly ash 5particularly bottom ash6 has been successfully tried to fill underground mine voids. "here fly ash is available in plenty, i.e. in the vicinity of thermal power plants, and water is adequately available, stowing may be a techno-economically viable proposition. (n other cases, this option may be left beyond consideration. 3artial e traction of bord-D-pillar workings with splitting of pillars as the final operation, sometimes followed by partial or complete backfilling of galleries and splits, is also a proved method for subsidence control. 2owever, for hard roof management this method should not be considered as it defies the basic principle of mineral conservation because of very poor 5less than #- J6 recovery. >ased on the review of the available techniques the selection of appropriate induced caving technique should be done in two steps of a6 selection of technically feasible solutions and then b6 the most economic alternative by comparing the costs of the selected methods if more than one choice is available.

Conc&u'ion (n a considerable number of underground coal mines, roof rocks comprise of massive sandstone that does not cave regularly on its own in goaf during coal winning and causes high stress accumulation in roof and pillars. =inally, such a roof caves violently resulting in severe overriding and air blasts. ,umber of accidents has taken place in the past and still, after adopting induced caving techniques, weightings are e perienced in working 4ones in many mines, though its frequency and magnitude has reduced. (mprovement of the e isting technique of underground blasting of goaf edge to make it more compatible to gassy conditions and to develop other options is the need of the hour. 8his idea is further supported by the facts that day by day coal mine workings are becoming deeper that itself necessitates determination of in situ stress for much better and safe mine design, but making backfilling more and more difficult and uneconomic. /limination of ha4ards associated with use of e plosive and other advantages definitely supports hydraulic fracturing. "hile each induced caving technique is having its own limitations, some of them are suitable for gassy mines and other for deep mines. (t is obvious that any particular method may not be suitable for all the cases. Ac1no,&ed e2ent The authors are grateful to (irector, )M&I, (hanbad, for his permission to publish this paper. ,iews expressed are of authors only. The authors are thankful to (r. -. .aner"ee ' Mr. *. /. &ay, +cientists, )M&I, (hanbad for their support in preparation of this paper. Re(erence' >anerjee, K., @ay, A.&., Singh, K.S.3 D 1adava, &.3., 2ard @oof

)anagement G A &ey for 2igh 3roductivity in 7ongwall !oal )ines, Lournal of )ines, )etals D =uels, ?ol. -#, ,os. ' D E, Luly-August, *%%+, pp. *+E-*... >hati, ,. 3., (nducing the !aving by 2ydro-fracture 8echnology, Lournal of !oal )ining 8echnology and )anagement, ?ol E, ,o. *, =eb *%%+, pp. #-$. !houdhury, )., 3re-fracturing of @oof @ocks G A 3ossible =uture Strategy for Successful 7ongwall mining in (ndia, Lournal of )ines, )etals D =uels, ?ol. -%, ,o. A, Lune, *%%*, pp. *#$-**.. !)@( @eport on !ontrol of )assive and 2ard @oof by "ater (njection under 2igh 3ressure, !oal SD8 3roject, !entral )ining @esearch (nstitute, ;hanbad, Lune *%%% pp. #A-.%. !)@( @eport on Scientific Study 0f !aving !haracteristics and Associated Kround !ontrol 3roblems in -' 7" D A- 7" >ord D 3illar ;epillaring 3anels in !hurcha west )ine, S/!7, !entral )ining @esearch (nstitute, ;hanbad, April *%%% pp. #-+.

@oy, 3. 3 D Singh, @.>., /fficacy of M@A1;/8N, M/F/7N and MAccone N in /co-=riendly >lasting 0perations G Some 0bservations based on / periments, ;rilling D >lasting /ditors - 3radhan D Khose6, #$$A, )(,/8/!2 publications, >hubaneswar, (ndia, pp '# - '+ Sarkar, S. &., !hatterjee, 8. &. D Singh, S. &., !haracterisation of (ndian !oal )easures and Some Aspects of their 8ypical >ehaviour, =irst ,ational !onference on Kround !ontrol in )ining, /ditor - S. &. Sarkar, (ndia, #$$-, pp. + G #$. Sheorey, 3.@, >arat, ;, )ukherjee, &. 3, 3rasad, @. &, ;as, ). ,, >anerjee, K D ;as, &. &., Application of the 1ield 3illar 8echnique for Successful ;epillaring under stiff strata, (nt. L. @ock )ech. )in. Sci. D Keomech, vol. +*, ,o. ', #$$-, pp. AA$ - '%E "illian, L, Scoble, ) D 3akalnis, ?., ;estressing 3ractice in @ockburst 3rone Kround, 3roceedings =ourth !onference on Kround !ontrol in )ining, /ditors G S. S. 3eng D L. 2. &elley, "est ?irginia, Luly **-*., #$E-, pp #+--#+E

Das, S. K., Modern Coal Mining technology, Lovely Prakasan, Dhanbad, 1994, pp 1 !
3eter 2. D =lowers ;., @isk )inimisation in 7ongwall 0perations in )assive Koaf !onditions <sing )icroseismic and 2ydraulic =racturing 8echniques, Australia, *%%%, pp #-+, ,,,"3rc"or "au

"# Linsheng., $n e%peri&ental st#dy o' ind#ced caving o' very strong thick &assive roo' by high press#re (ater )etting, Mining Science * +echnology, +ranstech P#blication, 19,-, pp. ,./91.

Ta)&e # DGMS 'ti$u&ation' on 2a4i2u2 $er2i''i)&e c%ar e' in a '%ot %o&e T.$e o( Ma4" $er2i''i)&e Ga''ine'' o( Sea2 5innin Met%od E4$&o'ive c%ar e6'%ot %o&e 3# ;egree ( !ut face E%% 3+ ;egree (, (( D ((( !ut face #%%% 3;egree ( >lasting off-the-solid #%%% 3;egree (( D ((( >lasting off-the-solid -A-

=ig #. 7ayout of 3anel 3 G # at @ajendra 3roject, S/!7

0oa' side pillar

$3

Solid side pillar

1.

1.,

1.1

23

1..

23

$3 =ig.* Koaf edge blasting pattern for induced caving at !hurcha west mine

 = 4! / !!

0oa' side pillar 1..

1.

5oo' 1.

1.1

Solid side pillar

4loor

=ig *5a6 Section >O>O

6 7 4! / !!

1.,

5oo' 1., 1.,

4loor

=ig. * 5b6: Section AOAO

Date v' Conver ence .% ++% **% ##% % Conver ence 7228

;aily !onv. !um. !onv.

#*/#$/*%%*

#*/+#/*%%*

#*/*+/*%%*

#*/*'/*%%*

#/#*/*%%+

#/*%/*%%+

*/#+/*%%+

*/*#/*%%+

*/*-/*%%+

#/#A/*%%+

#/*./*%%+

#/*E/*%%+

*/#'/*%%+

#/E/*%%+

*/#/*%%+

*/$/*%%+

Date

=ig.+ !umulative and daily convergence in induced blasting 4one at 'A7/*A F 5#- m ;ip6

=ig. . 7ocation of holes drilled for water injection in #% " e tended panel at !hurcha "est )ine, S/!7

+/-/*%%+

#/./*%%+

*/-/*%%+

+/#/*%%+

=ig A !umulative convergence in water injected and non-injected 4one

=luid 3ressure

(nflatable 3acker

!onsolidation by compression 4riction Shell

=racture

3 =racture

=racture

5a6 5b6 =ig.' 5a6: 2asic step press#risation o' borehole in 8ydra#lic 4ract#ring
>orehole

9b: Single fracture developed by S-+-% system