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a r t i c l e i n f o abstract
Article history: Lava dome eruptions are sometimes characterised by large periodic fluctuations in extrusion rate over
Received 28 November 2011 periods of hours that may be accompanied by Vulcanian explosions and pyroclastic flows. We consider
Received in revised form a simple system of nonlinear equations describing a 1D flow of lava extrusion through a deep elastic
9 May 2012
dyke feeding a shallower cylindrical conduit in order to simulate this short-period cyclicity. Stick-slip
Accepted 11 May 2012
conditions depending on a critical shear stress are assumed at the wall boundary of the cylindrical
Editor T. Spohn
conduit. By analogy with the behaviour of industrial polymers in a plastic extruder, the elastic dyke acts
like a barrel and the shallower cylindrical portion of the conduit as a die for the flow of magma acting as
Keywords: a polymer. When we applied the model to the Soufrie re Hills Volcano, Montserrat, for which the key
lava dome
parameters have been evaluated from previous studies, cyclic extrusions with periods from 3 to 30 h
extrusive eruption
were readily simulated, matching observations. The model also reproduces the reduced period of cycles
slip flow
periodic behaviour observed when a major unloading event occurs due to lava dome collapse.
dynamical system Crown Copyright & 2012 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction decreases relative to the viscosity of the bulk of the fluid. Often
slip appears together with, or as consequence of, other over-
In flows of viscous fluids over solid surfaces, slip at the fluid– lapping effects, such as shear banding and viscous heating.
solid interface is a widely accepted boundary condition experi- In most cases apparent slip, rather than true slip, is the
mentally verified by direct observations. Materials like polymers more common and viable mechanism for observable wall slip
having entangled chains tend to show either wall slip or bulk (Sochi, 2011).
shear banding depending on the shear rate and chain relaxation A stick-slip mechanism was proposed as an explanation for
time (e.g., Wang et al., 2011). Silicate melts also show complex 3D cyclic behaviour observed during the extrusive flow of magma
structures associated with different degrees of polymerisation from silicic volcanoes (e.g., Denlinger and Hoblitt, 1999; Iverson
(Mysen et al., 1982) and here we infer that these structures play a et al., 2006; Lensky et al., 2008). Denlinger and Hoblitt (1999)
role in magma flow dynamics. The flow of magma in a volcanic heuristically suggested that cyclicity results from a flow of
conduit, however, is an example with no direct observations of compressible magma through a volcanic conduit combined with
the interface and we must infer the flow conditions there. a stick-slip condition along the wall of the upper conduit, similar
In the literature, wall slip is divided into ‘true slip’ where there to the behaviour of the extrusion of industrial polymers (Den
is a discontinuity in the velocity field at the fluid–solid interface, Doelder et al. 1998). Stick-slip behaviour of a solid plug at the top
and ‘apparent slip’ where there is an inhomogeneous thin layer of of the volcanic conduit has also been proposed to explain some
fluid adjacent to the wall with different rheological properties to observed cyclic activity at volcanoes. At Mount St. Helens (MSH),
the bulk of fluid which promotes fluid motion (see Sochi, 2011 for USA, Iverson et al. (2006) described periodic seismicity as a
an extensive review). For the case of the ‘apparent slip’ a large consequence of stick-slip flow of a solid magma plug pushed by
velocity gradient across a very thin low-viscosity slip layer occurs, compressible magma. They reproduced oscillations on a timescale
effectively producing slip at the wall although strictly the non- of minutes, proposing a dynamic model that had behaviour
slip condition is not violated (e.g., Kalyon, 2005). The apparent similar to that of a variably damped oscillator. Stick-slip transi-
slip becomes more pronounced as the viscosity of the slip layer tion in andesitic magma near the conduit wall was also invoked
as an explanation for the flow cycle prior to the Strombolian
eruptions of Karymsky Volcano, Russia (Ozerov et al., 2003).
n
Corresponding author at: Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia,
Lensky et al. (2008) presented a model of cyclic volcanic activity
Naples, Italy. at the Soufrie re Hills Volcano (SHV), Montserrat, coupling magma
E-mail addresses: antonio.costa@ov.ingv.it, a.costa@reading.ac.uk (A. Costa). flow with degassing of supersaturated magma, gas escape from
0012-821X/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright & 2012 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2012.05.011
Author's personal copy
40 A. Costa et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 337–338 (2012) 39–46
A. Costa et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 337–338 (2012) 39–46 41
dQ pR4 r dP d
¼ þ pR2 r vslip ð5Þ
dt 8mLc dt dt
We assume that the slip velocity is mainly a function of P,
d dv
i.e. vslip ¼vslip(P). Therefore, we can write dt vslip ¼ dPslip dP
dt
, and
Eqs. (1) and (5) can be written as
8 4
>
< dP ¼ r gV d Q in p8Rmr PLcn pR2 rvslip
dt d
4 ð6Þ
>
: dQ ¼ pR r þ pR2 r dvslip dP :
dt 8mLc dP dt
42 A. Costa et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 337–338 (2012) 39–46
(in this case vn ¼RPn/m). Using these characteristic quantities, the et al. (2007b). In this way we are able to calculate volume, viscosity
above dimensionless quantities become and density profiles of magma in the dyke, and the effective
compressibility–rigidity parameter g. The set of values we adopt
y ¼ mQ =ðpR3 rP n Þ, e ¼ b=8,qin ¼ mQ in =ðpR3 rP n Þ, x ¼ g pR3 =ðP n V d Þ:
is the following: R¼15 m, Lc ¼1 km, L¼5 km, Vd ¼ 107m3, a magma
Setting the variables X ¼ x,Y ¼ xðyqin Þ, equation system (8) viscosity of m ¼3 1010 Pa s (the averaged value within the cylind-
can be rewritten as an autonomous system of the form: rical region of the conduit), an overpressure at the base of the
( cylindrical conduit Pn ¼13 MPa, and an average magma density of
X_ ¼ Y
2 ð9Þ r ¼2100 kg m3 (Costa et al., 2007b). The average value of g, the
Y_ ¼ x ½e þF 0 ðXÞ½eX þ FðXÞq in overall compressibility–rigidity parameter, is 0.3 GPa, but values
( range from about 0.01 GPa to 5 GPa on a timescale of the order of a
aX m , X Z X C
where FðXÞ ¼ week (see Fig. 2). On timescales of the order of hours g can be
0, X o XC
assumed constant and here we carry out a parametric study
and a ¼ mas P n =ðRP n Þ ¼ as P m
m
n =vn . The dynamical system (9) can considering the values an order of magnitude smaller and larger
be solved numerically using the Runge–Kutta method (here using a than the average value, i.e. 0.03, 0.3 and 3 GPa. In accord with
Runge–Kutta order 4 scheme, RK4) and its features studied in the Odbert and Wadge’s (2009) analysis of flux time series at
phase plane to understand which conditions produce oscillations. SHV in 1997, we assume an average flow rate of 3.5 m3s 1 that,
A simple analysis of the dynamical system (9) allows us to for an average magma density 2100 kg m 3, corresponds to
describe some general properties even without knowing the Qin ¼7350 kg s 1, and all the other parameter values as
numerical solution (e.g., Strogatz, 1994): (i) its fixed point (i.e.,
the point of the phase space where both derivatives are zero) is
given by ð0,X n Þ where Xn is such that eXn þ F(Xn) qin ¼0; (ii) since
the Jacobian matrix of (9), has a zero trace and the determinant of
the matrix at the fixed point is positive then the fixed point is a
neutrally stable centre and the eigenvalues are purely imaginary;
(iii) knowing that the determinant of the matrix at the fixed point
is D ¼ x2[e þF0 (Xn)]2, we can calculate the (dimensionless) time-
scale of the oscillation tnas
2p 2p
tn pffiffiffiffi ¼ : ð10Þ
D x½e þ F 0 ðX n Þ
It is worth noting that in a few cases of interest (i.e., when m is
an integer smaller than or equal to 3, that is m ¼1,2,3) the fixed
point can be calculated analytically. In particular for m¼3, the
system is similar to an undamped Duffing equation without
forcing terms (e.g., Strogatz, 1994), therefore we expect that the
period will depend on the amplitude of oscillations.
3. Model parameterisation
Fig. 3. Phase diagram of equation system (9). Example for Xc ¼ 0.1, qin ¼ 0.76,
In order to carry out a quantitative analysis and calculate the e ¼ 0.0019, x ¼ 0:15,m ¼ 3, a ¼ 1. One oscillation corresponding to the initial con-
dimensionless parameters we use effective average values ditions X(0) ¼0.3, Y(0)¼ 0, i.e. P(0) ¼0.3P* and Q(0) ¼Qin, are exemplified by the
obtained from the dyke/cylinder conduit model results of Costa thick line with two turning points, A and B.
Table 1
Parameters used in the simulations.
A. Costa et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 337–338 (2012) 39–46 43
reported by Costa et al. (2007b). Considering the above estima- et al., 2002) suggest flow is continuous at flow rates of about 10 m3/s,
tions, we have tn ¼ m/Pn ¼2300 s, vn ¼RPn/m ¼ 0.0065 m/s, and whereas stick conditions occur at flow rates below 1 m3/s. Consider-
b ¼0.015. This yields the following values for the dimensionless ing that at 5–10 m3/s we are in the slip regime, for a cylindrical
quantities: qin ¼ mQin/(pR3rPn) ffi 0.76, e ¼ b=8 0:0019, and x ¼ cross sectional area of 700 m2 we obtain a slip velocity of the order of
g pR3 =ðPn V d Þ ffi 0:0024,0:024,0:24 for the three values of g. 10 2 m/s that for a driving stress of the order of 15 MPa gives a value
Estimation of the slip law parameters (as and m in Eq. (7)) for for as of 10 6 m s 1 MPa 3 and implies a as P 3n = vn 1. Here we
magmas is difficult because of a lack of experimental data. As consider values in a wide range around this estimate:a ¼ 0:1110.
discussed, the closest analogue experiments are those for polymers, Table 1 summarises all the parameter values.
which yield values of m ranging from 2.5 to 3.6. Here, as a reference
value, we consider m¼3, although we investigate how variation of
this parameter influences the results. Slip is assumed to appear above 4. Results
a critical stress of 1–2 MPa (similar to the value observed in Lavallée
et al. (2012)’s frictional experiments). However, the order of magni- In Figs. 3 and 4 we illustrate examples of solutions for XðtÞ and
tude of the slip law parameters can be estimated from field observa- Y(t) obtained by setting Xc ¼ 0.1, qin ¼ 0.76, e ¼0.0019,
tions on lava dome extrusions at SHV. These observations (Watts x ¼ 0:15,m ¼ 3, a ¼ 1. In particular, Fig. 3 shows an example of a
phase diagram of equation system (9). The cycle corresponding to
the initial conditions X(0)¼0.3, Y(0)¼0 that correspond, respec-
tively, to P(0) ¼0.3Pn and Q(0) ¼Qin, is highlighted. As mentioned
above, a feature of equation system (9) is that, for m4 1, the
oscillation period depends on oscillation amplitude, i.e. on the
initial conditions. In fact, numerical results show that the oscilla-
tion period depends on the distance between the two turning
points A and B (Fig. 3). The position of point B is mainly a function
of the value of a; the smaller the value of a, the larger the value of
B, whereas the position of point A depends on the initial condition
X(0) (i.e., on the initial pressure drop value). As a general feature,
the closer the turning points, the shorter the dimensionless
oscillation period, the more symmetrical the evolution of the
flow rate variable will be. For fixed typical parameter values, the
period varies within an order of magnitude in response to
variation of the initial point X(0). For m ¼1, the system becomes
linear and, for a fixed set of parameter values, the period does not
depend on the amplitude.
Fig. 4 shows an example of the time evolution of X(t) (a) and
Y(t) (b) for the system illustrated in Fig. 3. We show only one
example here because, typically, time evolution plots look similar
with only the time scale changing. All the cases we explored
clearly showed that the oscillation period is inversely propor-
tional to x and, also decreases as a increases, as predicted by
Eq. (10). In terms of dimensional variables, relationship (10)
becomes:
2pt n 2pt n 2mV d 2mV d
T pffiffiffiffi ¼ ¼
D x½e þ F 0 ðX n Þ gR3 ½e þ amðX n Þm1 amgR3 ðX n Þm1
ð11Þ
44 A. Costa et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 337–338 (2012) 39–46
Fig. 6. Effect of m on the time evolution of Y(t) (proportional to the flow rate) obtained for x ¼0.1, a ¼ 10, XC ¼0.1, qin ¼ 0.76, e ¼ 0.002 for the cases m ¼2 (left) and m ¼ 4
(right).
A. Costa et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 337–338 (2012) 39–46 45
parameters within their typical ranges (x ¼ 0:15, a ¼ 5,X C ¼ 2D/3D models when the geometry of volcanic conduits can be
0:1,qin ¼ 0:76, e ¼ 0:0019, and m ¼3) it is possible to change the better constrained.
period of the system from 12 h to 7 h by changing the initial
pressure condition by DXE0.15. Fig. 8 illustrates such a beha-
viour: the system starts from the initial conditions X(0) ¼0.2, Acknowledgements
Y(0)¼ 0, corresponding to P(0) ¼0.2Pn and Q(0) ¼Qin, with a
periodicity of 12 h, then at a given time (corresponding to the
This work was supported by NERC research grant reference
dome collapse) the solution is matched with that corresponding
NE/H019928/1. OEM acknowledges the support from the ERC
to the initial conditions X(0)¼0.35, Y(0) ¼0 that has a period of
grant no 228064 (VOLDIES), and the grant of the Russian Founda-
7 h. The model indicates that overpressure fluctuations have a
tion for Basic Research (12-01-00465). We benefited from sugges-
reduced period after the dome collapse (Fig. 8). It is worth noting
tions on polymer behaviour by A. Likhtman and dynamical
that instrumental observations (Fig. 7) show a reduction of the
systems by B. Pelloni. We thank RSJ Sparks for the useful
relative seismic amplitude and an increase in the tilt amplitude
comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. Finally we
after the collapse, but also an increase in seismic amplitude and
are grateful to the editor, T. Spohn, and one of the reviewers,
event rate before the collapse. Hammer and Neuberg (2009)
K. Anderson, for the very useful comments that improved the
interpreted this in terms of increasing magma flux in each cycle
clarity of the paper.
leading to the collapse, which is not modelled here. The observed
increase in tilt amplitude after the collapse (Fig. 7) may be related
to the increased gradient of magma overpressure (Fig. 8). Surface
lava extrusion had resumed by 27 June 1997, but it is not known Appendix A
if conduit flow to the surface was disrupted in the previous two
days. This could have had a significant impact on the observed In this Appendix we estimate the typical range of values of the
dynamic behaviour. compressibility–rigidity modulus g used for the parametric study.
Other volcanoes show a cyclic behaviour similar to SHV. For
example, Mount St Helens (MSH) typically displays a shorter cycle
(from minutes to a few hours, Anderson et al., 2010). Analysis of
cyclic ground tilt associated with the 2004–2008 MSH eruption
indicates that deformation patterns are consistent with a stick-
slip mechanism of the plug (Anderson et al., 2010). Assuming for
MSH a dyke volume and a conduit diameter at MSH similar to
those of SHV (Melnik et al., 2011), relationship (11) implies that
we can obtain such timescales if the product ag is an order of
magnitude larger (assuming a similar viscosity m in both cases).
This would necessitate a larger dimensionless slip factor a or a
larger compressibility–rigidity parameter g, or both. However, the
dyke-cylinder geometry may not be appropriate in the MSH case.
Relocation of earthquake hypocenters indicates a narrow conduit
(Musumeci et al., 2002) connecting the magma chamber to the
surface (implying a larger rigidity of the system) and also
estimations of the shallow conduit diameter (Anderson et al.,
2010 and references therein) suggest values significantly larger
than used here for SHV. For a deep conduit that is less deformable
than the geometry we considered here (i.e., a conduit similar to a
cylinder or to a narrow dyke), magma compressibility will
represent the major contribution to g. This will result in a shorter
period (as g will be larger), as observed. Although potentially
applicable at MSH, the model should be calibrated using the most
appropriate estimates of the MSH conduit system.
5. Conclusions
46 A. Costa et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 337–338 (2012) 39–46
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