BASICS OF WELDING

Welding
A localized coalescence (joining together) of metals or non-metals produced either by heating the materials to the welding temperature, with or without the application of pressure, or by the application of pressure alone and with or without the use of filler metal.

Welded Joints

T Joint

Lap Joint

Butt Joint

Edge Joint
Corner Joint

Welding processes
Fusion welding
Welding in the liquid state with no pressure and union is by molten metal bridging e.g: SMAW, GTAW,SAW,FCAW, MMAW .

Solid phase welding

Carried out below the melting point without filler additions. The pressure often used and union is often by plastic flow. e.g: Forge welding & Friction welding

WELD TYPES
BW- Butt-weld SW-Socket weld SOB-Set-on branch

RFD-Reinforced pad
LET- Sockolet, weldolet, latorolet

Butt Joint
1. Root gap 2. Root face 3. Bevel surface 4. Bevel angle 5. Included angle 6. Seam width 7. Thickness of the plate

Fillet Joint
1. Throat thickness 2. Leg length 3. Joint root 4. Joint edge 5. Joint surface 6. Fusion depth 7. Seam width

Butt weld & SW - Socket weld

.

Butt weld fittings

Socket weld fittings

.

WELDING POSITIONS
1F 2F 3F 4F 5F 1G 2G 3G 4G 5G 6G
1F 1G

2F

2G

3F

3G

4F

4G

Allied processes
Thermal cutting Oxy-fuel gas, plasma, laser cutting Gouging Air-arc, plasma, oxy-fuel gas Surfacing Powder and arc spray coating Clad welding, hard facing

Electric arc
Electric arc is sustained electric discharge over a gaseous path between two poles. The arc current is carried by ionized gas called plasma. Welding arc temperature has been found to the range between 5000 deg. C to 18000 deg. C depending on the nature of the plasma and current passing through the arc. In covered electrode the max. Temperature is about 6000 deg. C. In inert gas shielded arc, the axial temperature

The electric arc

Peak temperatures 18000 K

Cathode zone

Anode zone

Electric discharge between 2 electrodes through a gas

This process involves the partial melting of the two members welded in the join region. The thermal energy required for this fusion is usually supplied by chemical or electrical means.
Base metal melt + filler melt

Fusion welding

Characteristics of the fusion weld joint

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) .

Work piece

Features of electrode coating

Shielding - decomposes to form gaseous shield for molten metal. Deoxidation - fluxing action removes oxygen and other atmospheric gases. Alloying provides additional alloying elements for weld deposit. Ionizing improves electrical characteristics to increase arc stability. Insulating - solidified slag provides insulating blanket to slow down weld

Electrode classification as per AWS E XX XX - X

operating current)

Electrode Minimum Tensile Strength in thousands psi Positions in which electrode can be used Composition of the coating (determines

characteristics and recommended electrical

Minimum content of alloying elements for low alloy steels only.

SMAW Equipment
Constant current power source having drooping characteristic. The arc voltage is inversely related to arc current. The arc voltage is directly related to the arc length. Any changes in the arc length, changes the arc current or the amount of heat created by the welding arc. By manipulating the electrode to provide longer or shorter arc lengths, the arc current can be altered instantaneously resulting in uniform heating.

POWER SOURCES

Advantages
Most of the materials can be welded. Equipment is relatively simple and inexpensive. Welding can be accomplished in remote locations. The process is quite versatile.

Limitations
Very slow process - less productivity. Removal of solidified layer of slag. Electrodes particularly low H2 type require proper storage in order to maintain low moisture levels.

Discontinuities
Porosity - due to the presence of moisture in the electrode coating / material surface / atmosphere or using too long arc length.
Arc blow - due to presence of magnetic field resulting in porosity, spatter, undercut, improper weld contour and nonuniform penetration.

Slag inclusion - due to trapping slag within the weld deposit.

Numerous other discontinuities can result from improper manipulation of the electrode such as incomplete fusion,

Shielded metal arc welding process

Fig : Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process ( also known as stick welding, because the electrode is in the shape of a stick).

Fig : Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process. About 50% of all large-scale industrial welding operations use this process.

Covered electrodes

Functions of coating
Slag protects weld pool from oxidation Gas shielding also protects weld pool Surface tension (fluxing) Arc stabilising (ionising) Alloying and deoxidation Some ingredients aid manufacture (binder and

Typical coating constituents

Organic materials (Cellulose) Titanium dioxide (rutile) Silica, alumino-silicates Sodium and potassium silicate binders Calcium carbonate and fluoride Iron powder, ferro-alloys

Submerged arc welding:

Submerged arc welding:

Weld arc is shielded by a granular flux ,consisting of silica, lime, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride and other compounds.
Flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through nozzle Thick layer of flux covers molten metal Flux acts as a thermal insulator ,promoting deep penetration of heat into the work piece Consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire fed automatically through a tube

Power is supplied by 3-phase or 2-phase power

 SAW is an arc welding process, in which arc is struck between a consumable electrode and the work piece and the arc is completely submerged under a blanket of granular, fusible flux, which adequately shields the arc from atmospheric contamination. The process can be fully automatic or semiautomatic, single arc or multiple arc.

Submerged arc welding

 The SAW equipment essentially consists of A wire feeder to drive the electrode to the work through the contact tube of a welding gun or wire feeder head. A welding power source to supply electric current to the electrode at the contact tube. An arrangement for holding the flux and feeding it ahead of the arc. A means of traversing the weld joint.

Equipment details

Welding power source

A welding power source can be any one of the following A DC generator of the constant voltage or constant current type A DC rectifier of the constant voltage or constant current type

SAW consumable
FXXX-EXXX Example: F7A6-EM12K F indicates the flux 1st digit 7 indicates the minimum tensile strength of the weld metal deposited in terms of 10000 psi. A indicates the condition of heat treatment in which the test were conducted.A stands for as welded and P stands for post weld heat treated. 6 indicates the lowest temperature at which the impact strength of weld metal meets or exceeds 27 joules (20 ft lbs.) E indicates an electrode(solid) M refers to medium manganese content.(L-Low, H-High Mn). K refers to Killed Steel. Last two digits indicates the percentage of

Advantages of SAW process

High deposition rate when compared to other processes like SMAW,GTAW,GMAW,FCAW etc. It has a very high operator appeal because of lack of visible arc which allows the operator to control the welding without the need for a filter lens and other heavy protective clothing. Spatter and smoke generation is very less. Very high penetration

Limitations
Can only be operated in flat and horizontal position, where the flux can be supported in the weld joint. Prevents the operator from seeing exactly where the arc is positioned with respect to the joint. The granular flux needs to be baked prior to use as in SMAW low hydrogen electrode. When the welding parameters are improper, weld contours could be such that the job of slag removal becomes more difficult. When bead width is much greater then its depth or vice versa, center line shrinkage cracking could occur during solidification.

SAW weld defects

Slag inclusion porosity cracking of welds Incomplete fusion

Consumables
Solid or cored wires Granular fluxes
Agglomerated, fused or sintered Alloying activity
Contribution to weld metal chemistry from flux

Basicity
Acid fluxes made from manganese oxide, silica, rutile are easy to use Basic fluxes (MgO, CaO, CaF2, Al2O3) provide excellent toughness welds

Applications of SAW
Long straight welds in heavier material
Vessel longitudinal and circumferential welds Flange to web joints of I beams

Flat or horizontal position

Flux has to be supported

Access has to be good

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Alternative names GTAW,TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas), Argonarc Heat source is an electric arc between a nonconsumable electrode and the workpiece Filler metal is not added or is added independently

GTAW process outline

Tungsten electrode Torch Ceramic shroud Collet Gas lens (optional) Arc
Weld metal Weld pool

Torch lead (-)

Inert gas

Power source

Filler

Work lead (+)

Process features
Stable arc at low power (80A at 11V) Independently added filler Ideal for root runs in pipe or thin sheet Low productivity 0.5kg/h manual Clean process, no slag Low oxygen and nitrogen weld metal Excellent profile even for single sided welds

Equipment for GTAW

Welding power source with constant current characteristic
DC for most metals, AC for Al Arc starting by high frequency (5000V, 0.05A) Sequence timers for arc starting, arc finishing & gas control

Water- or gas-cooled torch with tungsten electrode

Electrode may contain thoria or zirconia, etc

Shielding gases
Torch is fed with an inert or reducing gas
Pure argon - widespread applications Argon-helium - Higher arc voltage, inert Argon-20% hydrogen - Cu alloys & austenitic steel Torch gas must not contain oxygen or CO2 Used for all single-sided welds except in carbon steel Argon, nitrogen, former gas (N2 + H2) Reactive metals: Ti, etc Gas filled chambers or additional gas supply devices

Backing (or purge) gas

Supplementary shielding

Filler metals
Autogenous welding (no filler) Filler wire or rod of matching composition
C-Mn & low alloy steel Stainless Steel Al, Mg, Ti Cu & Ni

Consumable inserts - filler preplaced in joint

Gas Metal-Arc Welding

Fig : Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process, formerly known as MIG (for metal inert gas) welding.

Main equipment torch

electric power source shielding gas source wire spool with wire drive control
Equipment required for the GMAW (Modern Welding (p63))

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Similar to GMAW process except that the electrode is tubular containing a granular flux.
Shielding gas may or may not be used depending on the type of electrode used (e.g. self-shielded flux cored wires do not require gas shielding). Solidified weld metal is covered by a layer of slag. Equipment used is identical to GMAW except high current capacity guns and power sources.

Advantages
High efficiency due to Increased deposition rate. Good performance on contaminated surfaces. Can be used for field applications. Deep penetrating arc reduces the possibility of fusion problems. Frequent changing of electrodes is eliminated

Limitations
Presence of a layer of solidified slag. Smoke generated is more than in GMAW. Equipment required is more complex. Slag inclusion due to trapping slag within the weld deposit. High travel speed is required.

GMAW and FCAW outline

Torch gas Wire feed
Wire feeder

+
Power source

_
Weld Metal Base material Weld pool

Return Lead

Heat balance in Arc welding

SMAW process:

15 % - heat consumed by core wire of the electrode. 15% - heat consumed by the coating of the electrode. 15% - heat goes to atmosphere. 55% - heat gets the work piece. (Out of this 10% of the heat goes to the atmosphere at root area and rest will be absorbed by work piece)

Torch gas mixtures

Inert gases (MIG)
Argon or helium or mixtures of these Active base metals, Al, Mg, Ti

Active gases (MAG and FCAW)

Carbon dioxide Argon plus oxygen and/or carbon dioxide Nitrogen, hydrogen

Heat balance in Arc welding

GTAW process
Work piece gets 33% heat and Electrode gets 66% heat. It is vise versa whenever polarity changes.

Distortion & Residual Stress The Problems

If two materials are free to move - usually results in Distortion. Weldment usually bends upwards from top of weld. If material is held in a jig throughout the heating and cooling process, massive internal stresses will build up. Once released from jig, if stress is high enough to deform the material, distortion will result often a problem when welding sheet, or thin plate. Otherwise, stress will remain as residual stress. This stress can cause cracking or fracture of the weld, or unexpected failure during the weldments working life. Residual stress may be removed by using a suitable heat treatment must be careful not to alter the materials other properties.

Distortion & Residual Stress The Solutions I

Design of weld joint to allow weldment to distort
into the desired shape. Eg:

Reduce the amount of heat applied to the plate by using faster welding speeds, or smaller, more powerful heating methods, eg. Electron beam welding, laser welding

Distortion & Residual Stress The Solutions II

Internal stresses can be reduced by prebending the plates using clamps and allowing it to be cooled in the stressed position. When the clamps are removed the plates spring back into alignment, reducing the internal stresses in the process
Use balanced welding 2 welders working on either side of the structure to balance out the forces Weld away from the point of restraint and towards the point of freedom

Use welds with the minimum root openings, reduced bevel angles and weld reinforcement

Distortion & Residual Stress The Solutions III

Distortion can be reduced if welds are arranged in such a way that the forces cancel out:

Butt Joint T Joints

Distortion & Residual Stress The Solutions IV

Pre-heating. The entire structure may be preheated, with the heat maintained throughout the welding. Heating must be uniform, otherwise additional stresses will be added. Structure must be allowed to cool slowly Post-heating. Most common method. Has the effect of relaxing the microstructure. Heating and cooling must be uniform and preferably slow. As example, mild steel is normally heated to ~600C Annealing. Superior results, but difficult to achieve. Steels are heated to ~880C. Can cause the formation of heavy scale and can cause the collapse of welds.

Preheating
Preheating of the base material is necessary for the following: To minimize the distortion. To prevent the cracking of the deposit. To prevent cracking of the job. To improving ductility of the base material and HAZ. To eliminate hydrogen induced crack.

Post heating
Post heating of the weld material is necessary for the following: To prevent delayed hydrogen diffused crack To improve the performance of structures subjected to dynamic load.

PWHT Post Weld Heat Treatment

PWHT of the weld material is necessary for the following:
To reduce the hardness of the weldment and HAZ. To reduce the residual stresses and increasing the ductility of the weld metal and HAZ.

WELDING DEFECTS AND THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION

Definition of Discontinuity
In welding the main objective is to obtain sound, defect-free welded joints. Normal welds may contain imperfections which cause some variation in the normal average properties of the weld metal. These are called as discontinues.

Definition of Defects
Whenever such discontinuities exceeds the limit specified by engineering design, those are called as defects.

Defects are caused by the following reasons :

Use of wrong welding consumables.

Improper welding parameter.

Poor workmanship.

Lack of cleanliness of the welding joint.

Some of the common welding defects are as follows :

Slag Inclusion Cracks, Distortion Incomplete penetration Porosity and blow holes Lack of fusion Undercut

Slag Inclusion
Non metallic particles of comparatively large size entrapped in the weld metal are termed as slag inclusion. Slag inclusions are normally detected by normal non destructive test methods.

To prevent slag inclusion, following steps are to be taken:

Use of proper welding consumable

Keep joint surfaces and bare wires clean

Avoid undercuts and gaps between weld passes

Cleaning of visible slag from the deposited layers.

Crack
Crack is defined as a discontinuity caused by the tearing of the metal while in a plastic condition (hot crack)
or By fracturing of the metal when cold (cold crack). Crack represents a failure under stress of a metal when it is behaving in a brittle manner.

The main causes of crack :

Rigidity of the joint.

i.e. joint members are not free to expand or contract when subjected to welding heat and subsequent cooling (localized stress). Poor ductility of the base metal. High S and C % of base metal. Improper preheating. Fast arc travel speed. Electrode with high H2 content.

Prevention of Crack by :
Using a steel of lower carbon equivalent

Higher heat input during welding.

Preheating. Low-hydrogen welding consumables.

Distortion

Distortion is a serious problem in welding. It creates difficulties in maintaining correct shape, dimensions and tolerances of a finished fabrication. Reason of Distortion:
Increase in the volume of metal deposited. Unequal heating and cooling of a metallic body during welding. It is also caused by the contraction of the weld-metal during solidification and cooling to room temperature, they try to pull the parts together and the result is distortion.

Prevention of Distortion: Use as few weld passes as possible. Use skip method of welding. Balance shrinkage forces with opposing forces imposed by clamps, jigs and fixtures.

Incomplete Penetration
This defect occurs at the root of the joint when the weld metal fails to reach it or the weld-metal fails to fuse completely with the root faces of the joint. Reason for Incomplete penetration
Too large root face.

Root gap too small.

Too small bevel angle. Less arc current. Faster arc travel speed. Too large electrode diameter.

Prevention of Incomplete Penetration

Proper fit-up of welds with proper root gap, root face. Selection of proper welding process and size of electrode / filler wire. Use of skilled welder

Porosity, blow holes or gas pockets

The presence of a group of gas pores in a weld caused by the entrapment of gas during solidification is termed as porosity. The pores are in the form of small spherical cavities, either clustered locally or scattered throughout the weld deposit. Sometimes the entrapped gases give rise to a single large cavity, which is termed as a blowhole. Gases are evolved by the chemical reaction in the welding arc. These gases may have high solubility in the molten weld metal, but as the metal solidifies and cools, their solubility decreases rapidly and they are evolved from the metal. Sometimes if the weld-metal solidification and cooling is too rapid, the gas gets entrapped in the form of porosity.

Reason of Porosity Improper welding consumables. i.e. deficient in deoxidizers. Oil, grease, moisture and mill scale on the joint surface. Inadequate gas shielding or impure gas in a gasshielded process. Low welding current or too long an arc.

Prevention of Porosity
Use dry, clean filler rods /electrodes. Base plate should be thoroughly cleaned of oil, grease, paint etc. Do not overheat the welding zone.

Remove all flux and slag between multi-pass weld.

Keep a weld puddle of sufficient size that slows down the cooling rate of the weld metal. Creating the inert gas atmosphere in the vicinity of the welding zone.

Lack of fusion Lack of fusion is defined as a condition where boundaries /gaps exist between the weld metal and base metal or between adjacent / subsequent layers of weld metal.

Reason of Lack of Fusion

This defect is caused by the presence of scale, dirt, oxide, slag and other non metal is substances which prevent the underlying metal from reaching the molten stage. Use of improper weaving / travel speed and current may also contribute to the non fusion.

Prevention of lack of fusion Keep joint surfaces free from oil, slag, grease. Use adequate welding current with proper weaving and travel speed. De-slag each weld pass

Undercut
In undercutting a groove gets formed in the parent metal along the sides of the weld bead. Groove reduces the thickness of the plate and thus the area along the bead, which in turn weakens the weld. Reason of undercut 1. Wrong manipulation and inclination of electrode and excessive weaving. 2. Too large electrode diameter. 3. Higher current. 4. Faster arc travel speed. 5. Longer arcs.

Prevention of Undercut
1. Proper control of welding current.

2. Clean surfaces.
3. Shorter arc.

4. Proper selection of welding electrodes.

Safety requirement in arc cutting and welding

All metal cutting & welding operations involves electric arc as an intense source of heat. This can harm the operators eyes and skin, and fire hazard.
The other sources of fire in these process are hot metal and its flying particles, and stray arcs due to short circuiting.

Safety requirement in arc cutting and welding

Arc cutting and welding process expose the welder to

the danger of electric shock, and releases fumes and gases which can be potential health hazards.

Safety requirement in arc cutting and welding Precautions:

Welder must be explained the method of avoiding electric shock. The welder must always wear shoes, gloves and protective clothing. He must use head shied / goggles to protect the eyes from rays of an electric arc. Electrode must be removed from the holder and Gas cylinders valves must be closed when not in use. Welders and supervisors must check their equipment regularly to see that electric connections and insulation on the holders and cables are in good order. Whenever welders are working in confined space, life line is essential.

Safety requirement in arc cutting and welding

The fumes and gases produced from welding is non-toxic or toxic, depending on the materials being welded.
Prolonged exposure to the various toxic gases can produce inflammation of the lung, chronic bronchitis and loss of elasticity of the lung.