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Use the right chemicals it really does matter!
It is critical that any water treatment plant operates in accordance with design parameters. Always ensure that the chemicals recommended by the manufacturer are used. Keep in mind that these chemicals have been specified because they have the characteristics and concentrations that match the needs of each particular water treatment plant.

Three main groups of chemicals are commonly used in Tristar Water Solutions Reverse Osmosis water treatment plants. These are membrane antiscalants; membrane cleaning and preservation chemicals; and disinfection chemicals.

Membrane antiscalants
The recovery rate of reverse osmosis plants is dictated by the salinity and the fouling and scaling potential of the feed water. Consequently, reverse osmosis plants may have recovery rates from as low as 8% to as high as 90%.

When the feed water passes along the membranes surface in an RO plant there is an increase in salt concentration with some p roblem salts, such as calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate, coming out of solution as solids. If these salts precipitate on the surface of the membrane, scaling up of the membranes can result. This can lead to reduced output and an increase in product water conductivity. It is critical to prevent this happening in order to ensure the membrane operates efficiently.

It may be possible to eliminate scale formation by reducing both the recovery rate and the product water output. However, this is often not the most desirable option since in effect it means running the RO plant below optimal water efficiency. Obviously, its best to achieve recovery rates as high as possible whilst at the same time preventing membrane scaling.

For this reason antiscalants are commonly used in RO Plants to prevent carbonate scaling, sulfate scaling, calcium fluoride scaling and silica scaling. There are generally two different types of antiscalant - organophosphonates and polyacrylates. Organophosphonates act as antifoulants for insoluble aluminium, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, barium sulfate, strontium sulfate, calcium fluoride and iron by keeping them in solution. Polyacrylates (high molecular weight) are generally known for reducing silica scale formation via a dispersion mechanism. For dosage rates on all antiscalants, please contact the RO plant manufacturer. Over-dosing and under-dosing are both to be avoided.

Scaling and iron fouling of the RO membranes will reduce system performance and lead to premature membrane replacement. Precipitation of scale and deposits build up on the RO membrane, which leads to poor permeate quality, low permeate production, unscheduled downtime, increased water consumption and increased energy costs.

To prevent this Tristar produce a range of membrane antiscalants covering a range of applications.

TWSL CC123 RO membrane antiscalant is an organophosphate exhibiting excellent performance against the following scalants: calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, barium sulfate, strontium sulfate, calcium fluoride, silica and iron.

TWSL CC050 RO membrane antiscalant is a dilute concentration of TWSL CC123 RO membrane antiscalant and is used for RO units with feed water flow rates below 545m3/day.

TWSL CC046 RO membrane antiscalant is a carboxylate polymer with a specially formulated blend of highly effective antiscalants and dispersants developed for RO systems with high silica feed waters. Its designed to be used in RO applications where the reject brine sil ica levels are as high as 230 ppm at 30C and with a pH of 7.5. It is also an effective scale inhibitor against calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate scalants. TWSL CC046 RO membrane antiscalant prevents silica fouling by a combination of anti-precipitation, anti-agglomeration and dispersion processes. Unlike other antiscalants, it is not deactivated in the presence of iron.

Membrane cleaners
During normal operation over a period of time, RO membrane elements are subject to fouling by suspended or sparingly soluble materials that may be present in the feed water. Common examples of foulants are:

Calcium carbonate scale Sulfate scale of calcium, barium or strontium Metal oxides (iron, manganese, copper, nickel, aluminum, etc.) Polymerised silica scale Inorganic colloidal deposits Mixed inorganic/organic colloidal deposits NOM organic material (Natural Organic Matter) Man-made organic material (e.g. antiscalant/dispersants, cationic polyelectrolytes) Biological (bacterial bioslime, algae, mould, or fungi) The nature and rapidity of fouling depends on a number of factors, such as the quality of the feedwater and the system recovery rate. Typically, fouling is progressive, and if not controlled early, will impair the RO membrane element performance in a relatively short time. Cleaning is recommended when the RO shows evidence of fouling, just prior to a long-term shutdown, or as a matter of scheduled routine maintenance.

Fouling characteristics that signal the need to clean are:

A 10-15% decrease in normalised permeate flow. A 10-15% decrease in normalised permeate quality. A 10-15% increase in normalised pressure drop, as measured between the feed and concentrate headers. The operating parameters that have to stay constant are permeate flow, permeate back-pressure, recovery, temperature, and feed TDS. If these operating parameters fluctuate, then it is highly recommended that you normalise the data to determine if fouling is occurring or if the RO is actually operating normally based on the change in a critical operating parameter. Hydranautics offers a free normalisation software program called ROData, which can be downloaded from its web site at www.membranes.com.

Monitoring overall plant performance on a regular basis is an essential step in recognising when membrane elements are becoming fouled. Performance is affected progressively and in varying degrees, depending on the nature of the foulants.

RO cleaning frequency due to fouling will vary by site. A rough rule of thumb is once every 1 to 3 months. If you have to clean more than once a month, you should be able to justify further capital expenditures for improved RO pre-treatment or a re-design of the RO operation.

It is important to clean the membranes when they are only lightly fouled, not heavily fouled. Heavy fouling can impair the effectiveness of the cleaning chemical by impeding the penetration of the chemical deep into the foulant and in the flushing of the foulant out of the elements. If normalised membrane performance drops 30 to 50%, it may be impossible to fully restore the performance back to baseline conditions.

One RO design feature that is commonly overlooked in reducing RO cleaning frequency is the use of RO permeate water for flushing foulants from the system. Soaking the RO elements during standby with permeate can help dissolve scale and loosen precipitates, reducing the frequency of chemical cleaning. What you are cleaning for can vary from site to site depending on the foulant. Frequently complicating the situation is that more than one foulant can be present, which explains why cleaning frequently requires a low pH and high pH cleaning regimen.

Tristar produce a range of membrane cleaners covering a range of applications.

TWSL CC052 RO membrane alkaline cleaner is a general-purpose

membrane cleaner designed to support the cleaning of acid insoluble sulphates of calcium, barium and strontium, as well as calcium fluoride. It is effective in removing iron oxides and hydroxides as well as calcium carbonate.

TWSL CC0585 20 Series RO membrane acid cleaner is a used to remove inorganic precipitates (including iron).

Membrane Preservatives
RO membranes need to be preserved if the RO plant is shutdown for more than 48 hours to prevent bacterial growth taking root in the membranes.

The standard preservative solution is 1% food-grade SMBS (not cobalt-activated) in good-quality water preferably reverse osmosis (RO) or nanofiltration (NF) permeate). If the RO plant is to be shut down for less than a month then the RO membranes are typically preserved in-situ. If the RO plant is to be shut down for longer than a month then the membranes are normally removed from the membrane housings and preserved in storage tubes.

Membranes preserved in sealed storage tubes should be visually inspected for biological growth every three months. When the preservation solution appears to be not clear, or after six months, the element should be removed from the storage tube, soaked in a fresh preservation solution and restored.

The pH of the preservation solution must never drop below pH 3. A pH decrease can occur when bisulfite is oxidised to sulfuric acid. Therefore, the pH of the bisulfite preservation solution should be spot checked at least every 3 months. Re-preservation is mandatory when the pH is 3 or lower.

Before long term shut-downs of RO plants (typically in excess of 48 hours), the membranes should be preserved in a storage solution. The preservative storage solution prevents biological growth in the membranes whilst the RO plant is shut-down. The pH of the preservation solution must never drop below pH 3. A pH decrease can occur when bisulfite is oxidised to sulfuric acid. Therefore, the pH of the bisulfite preservation solution should be spot checked at least once a month. Re-preservation is mandatory when the pH is 3 or lower.

Tristar CC1181 20 Series membrane preservative is food grade sodium metabisulphite.

Water Treatment Disinfection Chemicals

Liquid sodium hypochlorite is the most common disinfectant used in Tristar Water potable water treatment plants.

Sodium hypochlorite has been used for many years to treat municipal and industrial water and waste waters to control microorganisms because of its capacity to inactivate most pathogenic micro-organisms quickly.

By adding hypochlorite to water, hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is formed: NaOCl + H2O HOCl + NaOH-

Hypochlorous acid is divided into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and oxygen (O). The oxygen atom is a very strong oxidator. Tristar CC11418 sodium hypochlorite solution is effective against bacteria, viruses and fungi. Sodium hypochlorite disinfects the same way as chlorine does.

The effectiveness of chlorine is dependent on the chlorine concentration, time of exposure, and the pH of the water. Sodium hypochlorite is used for treating potable water where a free chlorine residual concentration near 0.5 mg/L is commonly used.

Disinfectants Sodium hypochlorite

discovery characteristics pH production applications disinfection health effects advantages and disadvantages regulation

Sodium hypochlorite Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is a compound that can be effectively used for water purification. It is used on a large scale for surface purification, bleaching, odor removal and water disinfection. When was sodium hypochlorite discovered? Sodium hypochlorite has a long history. Around 1785 the Frenchman Berthollet developed liquid bleaching agents based on sodium hypochlorite. The Javel company introduced this product and called it 'liqueur de Javel'. At first, it was used to bleach cotton. Because of its specific characteristics it soon became a popular compound. Hypochlorite can remove stains from clothes at room temperature. In France, sodium hypochlorite is still known as 'eau de Javel'. What are the characteristics of sodium hypochlorite? Sodium hypochlorite is a clear, slightly yellowish solution with a characteristic odor. Sodium hypochlorite has a relative density of is 1,1 (5,5% watery solution). As a bleaching agent for domestic use it usually contains 5% sodium hypochlorite (with a pH of around 11, it is irritating). If it is more concentrated, it contains a concentration 10-15% sodium hypochlorite (with a pH of around 13, it burns and is corrosive). Sodium hypochlorite is unstable. Chlorine evaporates at a rate of 0,75 gram active chlorine per day from the solution. Then heated sodium hypochlorite disintegrates. This also happens when sodium hypochlorite comes in contact with acids, sunlight, certain metals and poisonous and corrosive gasses, including chlorine gas. Sodium hypochlorite is a strong oxidator and reacts with flammable compounds and reductors. Sodium hypochlorite solution is a weak base that is inflammable. These characteristics must be kept in mind during transport, storage and use of sodium hypochlorite. What happens to the pH value when sodium hypochlorite is added to water? Due to the presence of caustic soda in sodium hypo chlorite, the pH of the water is increased. When sodium hypo chlorite dissolves in water, two substances form, which play a role in for oxidation and disinfection. These are hypochlorous acid(HOCl) and the less active hypochlorite ion (OCl-). The pH of the water determines how much hypochlorous acid is formed. While sodium hypochlorite is used, hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used to lower the pH. Sulfuric acid (H 2SO4) can be used as an alternative for acetic acid. Less harmful gasses are produced when sulfuric acid is used. Sulfuric acid is a strong acid that strongly reacts with bases and that is very corrosive. How can sodium hypochlorite be produced? Sodium hypochlorite can be produced in two ways: - By dissolving salt in softened water, which results in a concentrated brine solution. The solution is electrolyzed and forms a sodium hypochlorite solution in water. This solution contains 150 g active chlorine (Cl 2) per liter. During this reaction the explosive hydrogen gas is also formed. - By adding chlorine gas (Cl2) to caustic soda (NaOH). When this is done, sodium hypochlorite, water (H 2O) and salt (NaCl) are produced according to the following reaction: Cl2 + 2NaOH + NaOCl + NaCl + H2O What are the applications of sodium hypochlorite? Sodium hypochlorite is used on a large scale. For example in agriculture, chemical industries, paint- and lime industries, food industries, glass industries, paper industries, pharmaceutical industries, synthetics industries and waste disposal industries. In the textile industry sodium hypochlorite is used to bleach textile. It is sometimes added to industrial waste water. This is done to reduce odors. Hypochlorite neutralizes sulphur hydrogen gas (SH) and ammonia (NH 3). It is also used to detoxify cyanide baths in metal industries. Hypochlorite can be used to prevent algae and shellfish growth in cooling towers. In water treatment, hypochlorite is used to disinfect water. In households, hypochlorite is used frequently for the purification and disinfection of the house. How does sodium hypochlorite disinfection work? By adding hypochlorite to water, hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is formed:

NaOCl + H2O HOCl + NaOHHypochlorous acid is divided into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and oxygen (O). The oxygen atom is a very strong oxidator. Sodium hypochlorite is effective against bacteria, viruses and fungi. Sodium hypochlorite disinfects the same way aschlorine does. How is sodium hypochlorite applied in swimming pools? Sodium hypochlorite is applied in swimming pools for water disinfection and oxidation. It has the advantage that microorganisms cannot build up any resistance to it. Sodium hypochlorite is effective against Legionella bacteria and bio film, in which Legionella bacteria can multiply. Hypochlorous acid is produced by the reaction of sodium hydroxide with chlorine gas. In water, the so-called 'active chlorine' is formed. There are various ways to use sodium hypochlorite. For on-site salt electrolysis, a solution of salt (NaCl) in water is applied. Sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions are produced. 4NaCl- 4Na+ + 4ClBy leading the salty solution over an electrolysis cell, the following reactions take place at the electrodes: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e- 2H2O + 2e- H2 + 20H2H20 O2 + 4H++ 4eSubsequently, chlorine and hydroxide react to form hypochlorite: OH- + Cl2 HOCl + ClThe advantage of the salt electrolysis system is that no transport or storage of sodium hypochlorite is required. When sodium hypochlorite is stored for a long time, it becomes inactive. Another advantage of the on site process is that chlorine lowers the pH and no other acid is required to lower pH. The hydrogen gas that is produced is explosive and as a result ventilation is required for expolsion prevention. This system is slow and a buffer of extra hypochlorous acid needs to be used. The maintenance and purchase of the electrolysis system is much more expensive than sodium hypochlorite. When sodium hypochlorite is used, acetic or sulphuric acid are added to the water. An overdose can produce poisonous gasses. If the dosage is too low, the pH becomes to high and can irritate the eyes. Because sodium hypochlorite is used both to oxidize pollutions (urine, sweat, cosmetics) and to remove pathogenic microorganisms, the required concentration of sodium hypochlorite depends on the concentrations of these pollutions. Especially the amount of organic pollution determines the required concentration. If the water is filtered before sodium hypochlorite is applied, less sodium hypochlorite is needed. What are the health effects of sodium hypochlorite? Exposure There is no threshold value for to sodium hypochlorite exposure. Various health effects occur after exposure to sodium hypochlorite. People are exposed to sodium hypochlorite by inhalation of aerosols. This causes coughing and a sore throat. After swallowing sodium hypochlorite the effects are stomach ache, a burning sensation, coughing, diarrhea, a sore throat and vomiting. Sodium hypochlorite on skin or eyes causes redness and pain. After prolonged exposure, the skin can become sensitive. Sodium hypochlorite is poisonous for water organisms. It is mutagenic and very toxic when it comes in contact with ammonium salts. Sodium hypochlorite in swimming pools The concentration of sodium hypochlorite that is found in swimming pools is generally not harmful to people. When there is too much chlorine in the water, this burns the body tissues, which causes damage to air tracts, the stomach and the intestines, the eyes and the skin. When sodium hypochlorite is used in swimming pools, it sometimes causes red eyes and it gives off a typical chlorine odor. When there is a lot of ureum (a mixture of urine and sweat) present, hypochlorous acid and ureum react to form chloramines. These chloramines irritate mucous membranes and cause the so-called ' chlorine smell'. In most swimming pools, these problems are prevented by water purification and ventilation. Eyes irritation disappears after a while. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sodium hypochlorite use? Advantages Sodium hypochlorite as a disinfectant has the following advantages: It can easily and be stored and transported when it is produced on-site. Dosage is simple. Transport and storage of sodium hypochlorite are safe. Sodium hypochlorite is as effective as chlorine gas for disinfection. Sodium hypochlorite produces residual disinfectant.

Disadvantages Sodium hypochlorite is a dangerous and corrosive substance. While working with sodium hypochlorite, safety measures have to be taken to protect workers and the environment. Sodium hypochlorite should not come in contact with air, because that will cause it to disintegrate. Both sodium hypochlorite and chlorine do not deactivate Giardia Lambia and Cryptosporidium. What is the legislation for sodium hypochlorite? The regulation for sodium hypochlorite is the same as the regulation considering chlorine.

Discharge demands When cooling tower water is tapped from a river or lake, and must be discharged into the same water body after it has been used, it must meet certain discharge demands. Additionally, the water temperature may not be too high, because warm water has a low oxygen content, which promotes algal growth. This can cause fish mortality and a decrease in water biodiversity. United States Discharge demands for cooling tower water in the USA are mentioned in the Clean Water Act (CWA) and are established by the Environmental Protection Agency (EP

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