Case Study Research in Accounting

Case Study Research in Accounting
Cooper, David J;Morgan, Wayne Accounting Horizons; Jun 2008; 22, 2; ProQuest pg !"#
Accounting Horizons $o% 22, &o 2 Association 2008 !0 2(08)acc* 2008 22 2 !"# pp !"#+!,8
A'erican
DOI:
Accounting
Case -tudy .esearc* in Accounting
David J Cooper and Wayne Morgan
SYNOPSIS: We describe case study research and explain its value for developing theory and informing practice While recogni!ing the complementary nature of many research methods" #e stress the benefits of case studies for understanding situations of uncertainty" instability" uni$ueness" and value conflict We introduce the concept of phronesis%the analysis of #hat actions are practical and rational in a specific context% and indicate the value of case studies for developing" and reflecting on" professional &no#ledge 'xamples of case study research in managerial accounting" auditing" and financial accounting illustrate the strengths of case studies for theory development and their potential for generating ne# &no#ledge We conclude by disputing common misconceptions about case study research and suggesting ho# barriers to case study research may be overcome" #hich #e believe is an important step in ma&ing accounting research more relevant
ccounting researc* is periodica%%y c*a%%enged a3out its practica% re%evance and its progressive scienti4ic ac*ieve'ents 5.eiter and Wi%%ia's 2002; Hop6ood 200,7 Case studies can *e%p researc*ers respond to t*ese c*a%%enges and contri3ute to re%evant 8no6%edge We use e9a'p%es 4ro' 4inancia% and 'anageria% accounting and auditing to s*o6 t*e va%ue o4 case studies in 'a8ing accounting researc* 'atter, 3ot* 4or t*e deve%op'ent o4 t*eory and 4or i'proving practice /n so doing, 6e identi4y 4our types o4 case study and s*o6 *o6 eac* type can en*ance accounting researc* and practice We conc%ude 3y re4%ecting on so'e o4 t*e reasons t*at case study researc* 'ay in 4act 3e discouraged, and suggest so'e avenues to address t*is situation Most accountants are 4a'i%iar 6it* case studies in re%ation to teac*ing 0*ey provide vivid e9a'p%es t*at can 3e used 4or 'any purposes, not %east to generate an appreciation o4 t*e 6ay a genera% princip%e can 3e app%ied in speci4ic, and o4ten co'p%e9, settings /n t*is paper 6e concentrate on case studies 4or researc* purposes, s*o6ing *o6 t*e 3ene4its t*at are 6ide%y recognized 4or teac*ing purposes can a%so en*ance accounting researc* A crucia% di44erence 3et6een teac*ing and researc*+ oriented case studies is t*e centra% ro%e o4 t*eory in t*e %atter Moreover, 6e s*o6 *o6 researc*+oriented case studies are va%ua3%e 4or practitioners
David J Cooper is a Pro4essor and Wayne Morgan is a P* D student, 3ot* at t*e 2niversity o4 A%3erta
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We are grate4u% 4or co''ents 4ro' C*ris C*ap'an, :ves ;endron, Mi8e ;i33ins, <o3 =ipe, >%%a Mae Matsu'ura, Murray =indsay, and ?ari =u88a We a%so appreciate co''ents 4ro' participants at t*e ;%o3a% Manage'ent Accounting Con4erence, Mic*igan -tate 2niversity, and t*e accounting 6or8s*ops at t*e 2niversity o4 A%3erta, 2niversity o4 -out*ern Ca%i4ornia, =ancaster 2niversity, =ava% 2niversity, ?yoto 2niversity, and t*e 2niversity o4 194ord, 6*ere ear%ier versions o4 t*is paper 6ere presented Pro4essor Cooper ac8no6%edges t*e 4inancia% support o4 t*e Certi4ied ;enera% Accountants o4 A%3erta and t*e -ocia% -cience and Hu'anities .esearc* Counci%
$ %&Cooper and 'organ
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-u3'itted@ January 200" Accepted@ January 2008 Pu3%is*ed 1n%ine@ June 2008 Corresponding Author: David J. Cooper Email: david.cooper@ualberta.ca
Case studies are a researc* approac*, a syste'atic and organized 6ay to produce in4or'ation a3out a topic, as 6e%% as t*e product o4 t*is approac*, 4or e9a'p%e, a paper 5-ta8e 20007 Aor t*e approac* 6e are reco''ending, various ter's can 3e used, inc%uding field studies interpretive studies !ualitative research small n "small sample# studies action research and constructive research. 2n4ortunate%y, none o4 t*ese ter's is entire%y satis4actory 4or reasons t*at 6i%% 3eco'e c%ear in t*e paper Aor us, case study researc* is an in+dept* and conte9tua%%y in4or'ed e9a'ina+ tion o4 speci4ic organizations or events t*at e9p%icit%y address t*eory 0*e case study approac* does not prescri3e 6*at t*eories s*ou%d in4or' t*e study or 6*ic* 'et*ods s*ou%d 3e used 4or gat*ering and ana%yzing data <ased on t*e pro3%e' and researc* Buestions 3eing addressed, a variety o4 'et*ods 'ay 3e used, inc%uding ana%ysis o4 arc*iva% 'ateria%s, o3servation, intervie6s, and Buantitative tec*niBues Case studies 4ocus on 3ounded and particu%ar organizations, events, or p*eno'ena, and scrutinize t*e activities and e9periences o4 t*ose invo%ved, as 6e%% as t*e conte9t in 6*ic* t*ese activities and e9periences occur 5-ta8e 20007 0*e case study researc* approac* is use4u% 6*ere t*e researc*er is investigating@ C co'p%e9 and dyna'ic p*eno'ena 6*ere 'any varia3%es 5inc%uding varia3%es t*at are not Buanti4ia3%e7 are invo%ved; C actua% practices, inc%uding t*e detai%s o4 signi4icant activities t*at 'ay 3e ordinary, unusua%, or in4reBuent 5e g , c*anges in accounting regu%ation7; and C p*eno'ena in 6*ic* t*e conte9t is crucia% 3ecause t*e conte9t a44ects t*e p*eno'ena 3eing studied 5and 6*ere t*e p*eno'ena 'ay a%so interact 6it* and in4%uence its conte9t7 :in 5!#8#7 notes t*at case studies are suited to ans6er D*o6D and D6*yD Buestions Aurt*er'ore, 6e%%+done case study researc* ans6ers *o6 and 6*y so co'pe%%ing%y and vivid%y t*at readers understand and re'e'3er t*e 4indings t*e study revea%s Practitioners 4ind D*o6D Buestions to 3e particu%ar%y i'portantE 4or e9a'p%e, case studies are va%ua3%e in descri3ing t*e detai%s o4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibiteddone without *o6 ne6 accounting and auditing innovations are actua%%y permission. Providing detai%s *e%ps convert private 8no6%edge 54or e9a'p%e, t*e detai%ed procedures and ca%cu%ations t*at are ot*er6ise *idden
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in t*e reports or 'inds o4 innovators7 into pu3%ic%y avai%a3%e 8no6%edge 2n%i8e t*e Daction researc*D so'e espouse 5?ap%an !##87, a t*eory+oriented case study reBuires e9p%icitness in t*e t*eory under%ying t*e case ana%ysis, and in t*e contri3ution to t*eory deve%op'ent or testing Case studies a%so address D6*yD Buestions, i%%ustrating 6*y so'et*ing 6as done or ca'e to 3e, or 6*en and 6*y so'et*ing 6or8s -c*on 5!#8(, "07 argues t*at case studies are va%ua3%e to t*e Dentire process o4 re4%ection+in+action, 6*ic* is centra% to t*e FartF 3y 6*ic* practitioners so'eti'es dea% 6e%% 6it* situations o4 uncertainty, insta3i%ity, uniBueness and va%ue con4%ict D -uc* case researc* considers t*e va%ues, interests, and operations o4 po6er invo%vedE6*o gained, 6*o %ost, and 6*y W*i%e researc*ers 'ay disagree a3out 6*at s*ou%d 3e done, a good case 6i%% sti'u%ate re4%ection and %earning a3out t*e actions o4 a%% invo%ved, inc%uding t*e researc*er Action or constructivist researc*ers o4ten use cases to descri3e e9a'p%es o4 an accounting intervention, 3ut t*ey too o4ten neg%ect t*e t*eoretica% %essons to 3e %earned 5Jonsson and =u88a 200,7
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Accounting (ori)ons *++& American Accounting Association
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A%t*oug* any researc* approac* can 4ocus on *o6 or 6*y, non+case approac*es typica%%y e'p*asize di44erent Buestions ! -tatistica% ana%yses using %arge data sets *ave a co'parative ad+ vantage in ans6ering D*o6 'uc*D Buestions, suc* as t*e average size o4 C>1 co'pensation or t*e average di44erence in co'pensation 4or co'panies 6it*, 4or e9a'p%e, *ig* versus %o6 .1A >9peri'ents 'ay 3e particu%ar%y *e%p4u% in ans6ering D6*atD Buestions suc* as 6*at type o4 response individua%s 'ig*t *ave to a proposed accounting 'easure or disc%osure Case studies, arc*iva% researc*, and e9peri'ents are co'p%e'entary researc* approac*es 0o i%%ustrate t*e co'p%e'entary nature o4 di44erent approac*es, consider t*at as part o4 an accounting 4ir'Fs e44orts to i'prove its audits, it 'ay@ C statistica%%y ana%yze data on t*e properties o4 speci4ic accounts;
!Many acade'ics re4er to t*is strea' o4 researc* as arc*iva%, 3ecause it uses data generated 3y actua% decisions 'ade 3y peop%e in t*eir activities /n t*at sense, it re%ies on past data t*at *as 5or cou%d *ave 3een7 arc*ived 4or %ater study, and researc*ers typica%%y pay %itt%e attention to *o6 t*e arc*ive 6as produced /n contrast, t*e researc*er gat*ers data 4or 3e*aviora% e9peri'ents 3y as8ing su3Gects to per4or' tas8s in a contro%%ed, rat*er t*an natura%, setting; suc* data are produced as a resu%t o4 t*e researc*erFs acting 4irst Case ana%ysis uses 3ot* o4 t*ese approac*es to gat*er data a%ong 6it* intervie6s and o3servations, 3ut in case ana%ysis, t*e data are co%%ected 4ro' a %i'ited nu'3er o4 organizations, events, or su3Gects rat*er t*an t*e %arger sa'p%es used in arc*iva% and 3e*aviora% 6or8 Case studies invo%ve ric* and detai%ed data a3out t*ese organizations, events, or su3Gects
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C conduct pi%ot studies 5e9peri'ents7 3e4ore dep%oying ne6 audit procedures; and C study t*e 3est+practice cases o4 audits, considering *o6 t*e c%ient, audit sta44, regu%ators, and partners 'ig*t vary in t*eir assess'ents o4 6*at is 3est 0*e Bua%ity o4 t*e accounting 4ir'Fs overa%% ana%ysis decisions is i'proved 3y using a%% approac*es to acBuiring assessing 8no6%edge W*et*er used on t*eir o6n or conGunction 6it* ot*er researc* approac*es, case studies contri3ute insig*ts to practitioners and researc*ers
and and in can
Case study researc* co'es in 'any 4or's, 3ut 6e e9a'ine t*ose t*at *ave signi4icant potentia% to 'a8e researc* re%evant to in4or'ed practice 0*is restriction reBuires t*at 6e e9p%ain 4urt*er our criteria 4or assessing t*e i'portance and re%evance o4 accounting researc* and *o6 it re%ates to pro4essiona% e9pertise W*i%e t*e idea% o4 genera%ized, rep%ica3%e, e'pirica%%y 3ased 8no6%edge 'ay 3e ac*ieva3%e in t*e natura% sciences, and 'ay *e%p ans6er 'any Buestions in accounting, severa% co''entators *ave pointed out accounting researc*Fs %i'ited success in producing use4u% 8no6%edge 0*at is, accounting researc* *as *ad %itt%e success in ter's o4 its capacity 4or 3eing 5!7 genera%ized to re%ated 4ie%ds 5<ric8er et a% H200(I 4ind %itt%e i'pact o4 accounting researc* on 4inance or econo'ics7, or 527 re%evant to practitioners 5.eiter and Wi%%ia's H2002I descri3e practitioner Buestioning o4 accounting researc*Fs re%evance, assu'ptions used, and ina3i%ity to e9a'ine ric* and co'p%e9 p*eno'ena7 De's8i et a% 5!##!7 provide a 4urt*er critiBue o4 t*e state o4 'uc* o4 accounting researc* in ter's o4 its %ac8 o4 inte%%ectua% and practica% contri3ution <y adding case 'et*ods to our approac*es to 8no6%edge generation, testing, and use, 6e 3e%ieve accounting researc* can 3eco'e 'ore success4u% Case study researc* is e9tre'e%y use4u% in raising Buestions, *ig*%ig*ting issues, deve%oping and testing t*eory, and providing guidance in so%ving pro3%e's Cases can 3e se%ected to understand discontinuity and diseBui%i3riu', 6*ereas studies e'p%oying %arge sa'p%es tend to assu'e te'pora% sta3i%ity and e'p*asize eBui%i3riu' 0*is is a crucia% advantage o4 case studies -tar3uc8 5!##(7 suggests t*at to understand 'eaning4u% di44erences, rat*er t*an genera% properties a%% organizations s*are, one s*ou%d %oo8 at syste's in 4%u9 and see8 diverse perspectives Case studies are 4reBuent%y se%ected to %earn 4ro' Go%ts t*at disrupt routines; e9pose di44erences a'ong apparent%y si'i%ar actors, syste's, and organizations; and activate processes t*at see8 to restore eBui%i3riu' 0*ese processes are 'ore %i8e%y t*an a study o4 eBui%i3ria to revea% *idden 3oundary conditions and syste' constraints Many va%ua3%e cases in 'anage'ent accounting e9a'ine organizations 'a8ing su3stantive c*anges to t*eir cu%ture, 'anage'ent syste's, or accounting practices 5<erry et a% !#8"; Dent !##!; Mi%%er and 1F=eary !##(7 -toc8 'ar8et cras*es 'ay a%so 3e considered Go%ts, and .osenFs 5!##07 et*nograp*ic ana%ysis o4 t*e !#8, stoc8 'ar8et cras* ta8es advantage o4 t*e opportunity t*is Go%t provided to researc* t*e socia%, econo'ic, and po%itica% net6or8s invo%ved in trying to restore eBui%i3riu' and 'ar8et con4idence 0*e sensitivity to conte9t o4 case researc* a%%o6s and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without encourages researc*ers to consider Buestions t*at 'ay not 3e permission. considered in ot*er researc* approac*es .esearc*ers 'ay se%ect cases 6*ere t*e use o4 accounting in4or'ation is contested,
DE/E012345 64170ED5E /3A CASES
per*aps invo%ving decisions on p%ant c%osures or 'oving Go3s o44s*ore to a %o6 6age or %ess regu%ated econo'y Aunne%% 5!##87 provides a dra'atic and provocative case t*at e9a'ines accountingFs ro%e in de*u'anizing victi's t*roug* t*eir
Buanti4ication Aurt*er cases 'ay t*en 3e se%ected to identi4y si'i%ar situations 6*ere accounting 'ay *ave de*u'anized t*ose 6*o are a44ected 3y a decision Provocative cases can raise i'portant genera% concerns, and de%i3eration a3out t*e' can *e%p accountants and po%icy 'a8ers 'ore adeBuate%y Gudge t*e %i'its o4 vie6ing accounting as a neutra% tec*no%ogy 14 course, provocative researc* 'ust 3e 6e%% e9ecuted, so readers can 3e con4ident t*at t*e evidence 6as care4u%%y e9a'ined As 0in 5!#8#7 notes, t*e case 'ust s*o6 su44icient evidence, consider 2 a%ternative perspectives, and 3e co'p%ete A critica% issue in accounting researc*, as 6e%% as in practice, is t*e 3est 6ay to generate re%evant in4or'ation in re%ation to ( so'e pro3%e' or t*eory Muc* researc* in accounting 4ocuses on deter'ining t*e average 3e*avior o4 varia3%es in %arge sa'p%es 6it* t*e purpose o4 producing re%ia3%e and va%id genera%izations to a 6ider popu%ation -uc* researc* is appropriate 4or pro3%e's suc* as capita% 'ar8etsF reactions to ne6 accounting ru%es or t*e average response o4 6or8ers to c*anged per4or'ance standards As -tar3uc8 5!##(7 o3serves, t*e 8no6%edge generated 3y suc* 'et*ods is use4u% 4or so'e pro3%e's, 3ut not ot*ers -tate'ents 'ay 3e true 4or a popu%ation 3ut 4a%se 4or every 'e'3er o4 t*at popu%ation 5e g , t*e average 4a'i%y *as 2 ! c*i%dren7 Aurt*er'ore, to i'prove %earning 6e 'ay a%so 3e interested in e9tre'e resu%ts 0*e resonance o4 popu%ar 'anage'ent 3oo8s, suc* as Co%%ins 5200!7, suggests 'anagers 6ant to %earn 4ro' t*e 3est co'panies, to understand 6*at t*ey did to so%ve 'aGor pro3%e's rat*er t*an 6*at t*e average co'pany did Case studies can produce and co''unicate in4or'ation on 6*at t*e 3est did, and *o6 t*ey did it 0*e ric* detai% provided and e9a'ined 3y case studies increases t*e %i8e%i*ood o4 generating nove% t*eory and creative insig*ts =arge+sca%e e'pirica% studies re%y on su''ary statistics t*at tend to see out%iers and variance as a pro3%e'; case studies, in contrast, o4ten speci4ica%%y 4ocus on out%iers and ano'a%ies <ai%ey 5!##27 suggests t*e accu'u%ation o4 ano'a%ies %eads to t*e identi4ication o4 ne6 scienti4ic paradig's An i'portant sti'u%us 4or t*eory deve%op'ent is t*e investigation o4 ano'a%ies .agin 5!##2, 22"7 notes@ Ds'a%%+& Bua%itative researc* is 'ost o4ten at t*e 4ore+4ront o4 t*eoretica% deve%op'ent D 0*e DGu9tapositionHsI o4 contradictory or parado9ica% evidenceD 5>isen*ardt !#8#, "JK7 4orces researc*ers to re4ra'e t*eir o6n perceptions as t*ey atte'pt to reconci%e ano'a%ies <eing con4ronted 6it* contradictory and co'p%e9 data and i''ersed in evidence t*at is di44icu%t to su''arize tends to un4reeze t*in8ing 'ore t*an Dt*eory 3ui%t 4ro' incre'enta% studies or ar'+c*air, a9io'atic deductionD 5>isen*ardt !#8#, "J,7
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2:in 5!#8#, !J,+!J87 suggests t*at a co'p%ete case is one in 6*ic* Dt*e 3oundaries o4 t*e case Ht*e distinction 3et6een p*eno'enon and conte9tI are given e9p%icit attentionD; t*e docu'entation de'onstrates t*e researc*er De9pended e9*austive e44ort in co%%ecting t*e re%evant evidenceD; and arti4actua% conditions are a3sent, rat*er t*an t*e researc*er ran out o4 ti'e (0*is issue a%so inc%udes t*e re+conceptua%ization o4 a pro3%e' or t*eory
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2hronesis: Conte8t9Specific 7isdom

We *ave discussed *o6 case studies 'ay *ave co'parative advantages 4or generating 8no6%edge and can co'p%e'ent ot*er, 'ore traditiona% approac*es to accounting researc* Ho6ever, t*e situationa% and speci4ic 4ocus o4 case studies *as anot*er advantage@ insig*t into a type o4 8no6%edge ca%%ed phronesis 6*ic* Aristot%e considered Dpractica% 6isdo'D@ P*ronesis goes 3eyond 3ot* ana%ytica%, scienti4ic 8no6%edge 5episte'e7 and tec*nica% 8no6%edge or 8no6+*o6 5tec*ne7 and invo%ves Gudg'ents and decisions 'ade in t*e 'anner o4 a virtuoso socia% and po%itica% actor 5A%yv3Gerg 200!, 27 0*e ter' 'ay 3e un4a'i%iar, 3ut practitioners are %i8e%y to recognize 6*at it descri3es@ t*e 8no6%edge or 6isdo' 5o4ten tacit7 in app%ying scienti4ic or tec*nica% 8no6%edge in a particu%ar conte9t, 6it* speci4ic purposes in 'ind A%yv3Gerg 5200!7 suggests t*at socia% scientists s*ou%d p%ay to our strengt*s, and use not on%y t*e 'et*ods o4 t*e natura% sciences, 3ut a%so e'3race t*e study o4 va%ues and t*e app%ication o4 4or'a% and tacit 8no6%edge in co'p%e9, speci4ic, and 4reBuent%y con4%ictua%, circu'stances W*i%e t*e success o4 e9peri'enta% and arc*iva% researc* de'onstrates t*e 3ene4its o4 4o%%o6ing t*e 'et*ods and approac* o4 natura% sciences, accounting researc* s*ou%d a%so recognize t*at organizationa%, econo'ic, and socia% activities are J a44ected 3y t*e va%ues, interests, and po6er o4 t*e peop%e invo%ved Aor e9a'p%e, va%ues a%6ays enter into a researc*erFs c*oice o4 researc* topic and eva%uation o4 t*e i'portance o4 a study $a%ues are a%so crucia% to practitioners, 6*o recognize t*at reco'+ 'endations to c%ients depend on t*e purpose 3ot* o4 t*e practitioners and t*e interests o4 t*e c%ient -cienti4ic and tec*nica% 8no6%edge 'ay 3e 4or'a%izedEas 4ound, 4or e9a'p%e, in ;AAP, audit 'anua%s, and 3udget te'p%atesE3ut p*ronetic e9pertise reBuires app%ying t*is 8no6%edge 6it* Gudg'ent in re%ation to t*e conte9t 5speci4ics o4 t*e case7 P*ronesis does not si'p%y ta8e t*e conte9t as given, 3ut e9a'ines t*e conte9t in su44icient detai% to appreciate t*e va%ues, interests, and po6er t*at a44ect t*e situation 0*e i'portance o4 va%ues, po6er, and interests can 3e de'onstrated t*roug* -c*onFs 5!#8(7 se'ina%, e'pirica% study o4 t*e 8inds o4 8no6%edge t*at co'petent practitioners engage in He s*o6s *o6 senior practitioners *e%p t*eir Guniors in %earning a3out and doing t*eir 6or8 and argues t*at Dt*ey e9*i3it a 8ind o4 8no6ing+in+practice, 'ost o4 6*ic* is tacitD 5-c*onFs !#8(, viii7 His case studies o4 *o6 pro4essiona% e9perts construct and test 'ode%s o4 8no6ing a%so indicate t*at practitioners Dre4%ect on t*eir intuitive 8no6ing in t*e 'idst o4 actionD 5-c*onFs !#8(, viii+i97 tend to regard eac* case as uniBue, and construct an understanding o4 situations as uncertain and invo%ving con4%ict
J 0*e concepts o4 va%ues, interests, and po6er *ave 3een de3ated in t*e socia% sciences 4or a %ong ti'e Aor t*is paper, 6e si'p%y stress t*at po6er inc%udes t*e a3i%ity to in4%uence agendas and vie6s o4 6*at is natura% and o3vious 5ideo%ogy7 as 6e%% as t*e 'ore o3vious 3argaining and con4%ict A%% t*ese aspects o4 po6er can 3e seen in t*e researc* on accounting standard setting 5Cooper and .o3son 200K7, as 6e%% as in studies o4 'anage'ent accounting 5Cooper and Hopper 200,7 -i'i%ar%y, va%ues and interests are 3ot* an input to decision 'a8ing, and a%so t*e product o4 decisions and interaction 5<urc*e%% et a% !#80; .o3son !##(7
Accounting (ori)ons
June *++& American Accounting Association
0*us, 4or re4%e9ive practitioners, practica% 6isdo' or p*ronesis re+ Buires t*e active 'anage'ent o4 %arge a'ounts o4 in4or'ation, an a3i%ity to deve%op %ong %ines o4 invention and in4erence, and a capacity to 'aintain severa% 6ays o4 %oo8ing at t*ings at t*e sa'e
ti'e -c*on 5!#8(, !J07 stresses Dre4%ection+in+actionD as centra% to pro4essiona% 8no6%edge and practice 5and, 6e argue, p*ronesis7, stressing *o6 e9pert pro4essiona%s con4ront surprises in t*eir e44ort to 'a8e reco''endations and c*anges in an uncertain 6or%d@ .e4%ection+in+action in a uniBue case 'ay 3e genera%ized to ot*er cases, not 3y giving rise to genera% princip%es, 3ut 3y contri3uting to t*e practitionerFs repertoire o4 e9e'p%ary t*e'es 4ro' 6*ic*, in t*e su3seBuent cases o4 *is practice, *e 'ay co'pose ne6 variations -o, returning to t*e issue o4 *o6 cases *e%p deve%op re%evant accounting 8no6%edge, case studies o4 practice in a%% areas o4 accounting 6i%% *e%p practitioners re4%ect on t*eir e9periences and 3ui%d up an inventory o4 e9a'p%es 4ro' 6*ic* ne6 variations can 3e identi4ied and e9peri'ented 6it* Case researc* can a%so *e%p articu%ate and e9p%ore t*e con4%icts a3out va%ues, interests, and t*e operation o4 po6er 0*e su3stantia% 4ra'e6or8s t*at ena3%e rationa% de3ate a3out va%ues and et*ics 5<ourdieu !##,; Ha3er'as !#8J, !#8,; Mac%ntyre !#8J7 e'p*asize t*e i'portance o4 in+ dept*, grounded understandings o4 situations and actors, an " understanding t*at can 3e ac*ieved t*roug* case researc* Case researc* 4ocuses on conte9t speci4ic, in+dept* 8no6%edge, and t*is e'p*asis 'a8es case researc* particu%ar%y use4u% in e9a'ining t*e app%ication o4 va%ues and po6er in co'p%e9 and 'essy situations We are not arguing t*at conte9t+speci4ic 8no6%edge and e9perience is su44icient 4or a virtuoso practitioner; p*ronesis a%so K re%ies on scienti4ic and tec*nica% 8no6%edge /nstead, a care4u% and t*roug* investigation o4 *o6 re4%ective practitioners 3e*ave in certain circu'stances can produce 8no6%edge a3out *o6 t*eir sensitivity to t*e conte9t, and an appreciation o4 t*e %i'its o4 4o%%o6ing ru%es, a44ect t*eir decisions Aor e9a'p%e, is a particu%ar auditor %i8e%y to 3e recognized as a virtuoso 3ecause o4 *is or *er a3i%ity to adapt t*e tec*no%ogies to t*e nature o4 t*e organization 3eing audited and t*e speci4icity o4 t*e circu'stancesL <eing a virtuoso or re4%ective practitioner a%so reBuires 3eing a3%e to identi4y, ana%yze, and Gudge 6*at 'ay 3e desira3%e, to 6*o', and 6*y .esearc* 3ased on a 4e6 care4u%%y se%ected o3servations *as an advantage 4or understanding and co''unicating suc* detai%ed aspects o4 3usiness activities co'pared 6it* studies using %arge sa'p%es and t*e re%ative 4e6 varia3%es t*at can 3e o3served 4or t*e 6*o%e sa'p%e DHCIase studies produce t*e type o4 conte9t+ dependent 8no6%edge t*at researc* on %earning s*o6s to 3e necessary to a%%o6 peop%e to deve%op 4ro' ru%e+3ased 3eginners to virtuoso e9pertsD 5A%yv3Gerg 200J, J2!7
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2hronesis: 3nterface :ith ;heory
"W*i%e t*ese 4ra'e6or8s do not provide a set o4 ru%es 4or Gudging va%ues, t*ey o44er a set o4 conte9tua% conditions t*roug* 6*ic* va%ues can 3e rationa%%y de3ated KWe use t*e ter' scienti4ic *ere in t*e sense o4 8no6%edge t*at is va%id and re%ia3%e 5representationa%%y 4ait*4u%7 /t 'ay 3e used 4or understanding and i'prove'ent, as 6e%% as 4or prediction
P*ronesis invo%ves t*e inte%%ectua%, conte9tua%, and po%itica% 8no6%edge in t*e e'p%oy'ent o4 scienti4ic and tec*nica%
June *++&
8no6%edge /t can 3e oriented si'p%y to identi4ying and e9p%oring issues o4 e9pertise and va%ues, 3ut it can a%so a%%o6 t*e researc*er to engage in de3ate 6it* practitioners, ot*er researc*ers, and t*e interested pu3%ic to as8@ W*at e44ects are desira3%e and 6*ic* are undesira3%e, and 4or 6*o'L W*i%e one response is to treat t*e researc*er as t*e ar3iter or e9pert to reso%ve t*e net 3ene4its, 6e agree 6it* A%yv3Gerg t*at Dt*e goa% o4 p*renetic researc* is to produce input to t*e ongoing dia%ogue rat*er t*an to generate u%ti'ate, uneBuivoca%%y veri4ied 8no6%edge one oug*t to trust 'ore in t*e pu3%ic sp*ere t*an in scienceD 0*is i'p%ies a Buite di44erent 'ode% 4or t*e eva%uation o4 researc*, since t*e Bua%ity o4 a p*ronetic case study 6ou%d 3e Gudged 3y its contri3ution to a discussion a3out t*eory and a searc* 4or understanding and inte%+ %igent action .esearc* is t*us si'i%ar to a conversation; use4u% contri3utions 6i%% 3e Gudged 3y participants 6*o can assess t*e persuasiveness and va%idity o4 co''unications, a point 6e return to in t*e conc%usion Aurt*er'ore, case studies, 6*i%e contri3uting to practice, can a%so 3e va%ua3%e 4or t*eoretica% 6or8 in identi4ying ne6 pro3%e's to 3e investigated and testing t*eories o4 reasoning, decision 'a8ing, and Gusti4ication in co'p%e9 and va%ue+%aden conte9ts P*ronetic researc* *as t*e potentia% to produce a di44erent type o4 8no6%edge a3out *o6 scienti4ic and tec*nica% 8no6%edge can 3e used /t 'ay dra6 on and see8 to deve%op t*eories 4ro' any discip%ine; it 'ay use Buantitative or Bua%itative evidence and ana%ysis; it 'ay use scienti4ic or tec*nica% 8no6%edge to so%ve any issue; 3ut it 6i%% a%6ays as8 6*o 3ene4its and 6*o is disadvantaged 3y addressing an issue or so%ving 6*at so'e 'ay regard as a pro3%e' P*ronetic researc* 'ay 3e directed at deve%oping or testing t*eory, as 6e%% as in4or'ing practica% action Case+3ased researc* *as t*e advantage o4 a%%o6ing t*e researc*er to interact 6it* t*e socia% and econo'ic 6or%d, a 4eature t*at is 'ore di44icu%t 4or researc*ers using arc*iva% 'ateria%s A%yv3Gerg 5200!7 argues t*at p*ronesis is not so 'uc* a3out universa% t*eory or 'et*od, 3ut rat*er it is concerned 6it* conte9t+speci4ic t*eories t*at can guide 6*at is practica% to do in a speci4ic situation 0*ese t*eories 'ay 3e in4or'ed 3y 3roader 4ra'e6or8s suc* as agency t*eory, contingency t*eory, or po%itica% econo'y -ta8e 520007 re4ers to t*eory as t*e D3est possi3%e e9p%anation o4 p*eno'ena D We use t*e %a3e% Dt*eory,D 3ut stress t*at t*e Dp*eno'ena,D 6*ic* are t*e 4ocus o4 p*ronesis, 6i%% 3e particu%ar, speci4ic, and situationa% Aurt*er'ore, t*e De9p%anationD arrived at in t*e case study 6i%% 3e interpretative and inc%ude consideration o4 va%uesE6*o 6ins, 6*o %oses, and 3y 6*at 'ec*anis'sEand ana%ysis o4 6*at is desira3%e W*i%e not a%% case researc* needs to address t*eory, or e9p%icit%y address va%ues and generate p*ronetic 8no6%edge, case studies t*at re%ia3%y contri3ute to practice are %i8e%y to do so We i%%ustrate *o6 case studies can en*ance researc* in 'anageria% accounting, auditing, and 4inancia% accounting W*i%e none o4 t*ese e9a'p%es are per4ect, t*ey a%% can 3e interpreted to s*o6 t*e va%ue o4 case study researc* in accounting 1ur se%ections i%%ustrate 4our types o4 cases oriented to 'a9i'izing t*e in4or'ation content o4 t*e study@ e9tre'e or deviant cases, 'a9i'u' variation cases, critica% cases, and paradig'atic cases Reproduced with ! permission of the copyright without 0a3%e su''arizes t*ese owner. types Further and reproduction i%%ustrates prohibited t*e di44erent permission. purposes case studies *ave in deve%oping t*eory and advancing
E<A'20ES 1= CASE S;>D? RESEARC(
8no6%edge 14 course, t*ese types over%ap and case study researc* 'ay incorporate 4eatures o4 severa% o4 t*ese types 0*e appropriateness o4 t*e type o4 case study 6i%% depend on t*e purpose and pro3%e' under investigation
,
0*e e9tre'e case can 3e po6er4u% in co''unicating an idea, or e9a'ining t*e 3oundary conditions o4 a t*eory /t 6or8s on t*e princip%e t*at 'uc* o4 va%ue can 3e %earned 3y %oo8ing at out%iers or even deviant cases Ma9i'u' variation cases provide va%ua3%e insig*t into a speci4ic pro3%e' or t*eory 3y se%ecting cases t*at are di44erent 6it* respect to so'e di'ension, suc* as t*e type o4 accounting syste' 0*e signi4icance o4 t*e di'ension 4or processes or outco'es o4 interest can t*en 3e deter'ined Critica% cases *ave a strategic i'portance in re%ation to a genera% pro3%e'
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,1t*er types o4 case studies, suc* as i%%ustrative or e9p%oratory cases, 'ay a%so 3e va%ua3%e a%t*oug* t*ey 'ay not *ave t*e sa'e 3ene4its 4or t*eory deve%op'ent We do not 4ocus on t*ese types o4 cases *ere
or t*eory, 4or e9a'p%e suggesting t*at i4 a t*eory is 4a%si4ied 4or t*is case, t*en it is 4a%si4ied 4or a%% cases 0*e crucia% issue t*en 3eco'es t*e c*oice o4 6*at a critica% case 'ig*t 3e, a c*oice driven 3y t*eory /n t*is 6ay, case researc* 'ay *ave t*e goa% o4 testing, revising, or 3ui%ding ne6 t*eory Aina%%y, 0a3%e ! re4ers to paradig'atic or e9e'p%ar cases, 6*ic* can provide vivid and i'portant in4or'ation a3out a situation, and o4ten see8 to de'onstrate t*e va%ue o4 ne6 t*eories McC%os8ey 5!##J7 points out t*at vivid cases, o4ten disparaging%y re4erred to as anecdotes, are crucia% in econo'ics as t*ey provide persuasive e9e'p%ars, ric* in conte9tua% in4or'ation and resonance W*i%e a%% case study researc* *as a storyte%%ing e%e'ent, e9e'p%ar cases o4ten strong%y disp%ay t*is 4eature 0*is storyte%%ing e%e'ent can 3e e9tre'e%y po6er4u% 3ecause it *e%ps to descri3e p*eno'ena so 6e%% t*at ot*ers *ave %itt%e di44icu%ty seeing t*e sa'e p*eno'ena in t*eir o6n e9perience and researc* 0*ese descriptions can act as De9e'p%ars o4 a ne6 paradig' c%ear e9a'p%es o4 ne6 re%ations*ips, ne6 orientations, or ne6 p*eno'ena t*at current t*eory and t*eoretica% perspectives *ave not capturedD 5Dyer and Wi%8ins !##!, K!,7 /t can 3e di44icu%t to 6rite co'pe%%ing and understanda3%e stories, o4ten invo%ving considera3%e co'p%e9ity and a'3iguity We s*ou%d a%6ays a%so %oo8 out 4or seductive 3ut poor%y su3stantiated cases <ut po6er4u% storyte%%ing can sti'u%ate 4urt*er researc* and, not uni'portant%y, i'prove t*e enGoy'ent in reading and 6riting accounting researc* 5$an Maanen !#,#; Czarnia6s8a 200J; A%vesson 200(7 McC%os8ey 5!##J7 points out t*at a%% researc* 6riting invo%ves r*etoric@ c*arts, grap*s, statistics, and even t*e conventiona% structure o4 a Gourna% artic%e are designed to te%% a persuasive story Accounting practitioners 'ay 3e as engaged and persuaded 3y co'pe%%ing narratives 5prose and poetry7 as 3y su''ary statistics and corre%ation ta3%es
Accounting (ori)ons
Case Study Research in 'anagement Accounting
Case study researc* in 'anageria% accounting is 'ore popu%ar t*an in ot*er areas o4 accounting, and e9ce%%ent revie6s o4 t*ese studies e9ist, o4ten inc%uding insig*t4u% co''ents on researc* 'et*odo%ogy 5e g , ?eating !##"; A*rens and Dent !##8; <a9ter and C*ua !##8, 200(; Merc*ant and $an der -tede 200K; A*rens et a% 4ort*co'ing7 ?ap%an 5!#8K, !##87 *as p%ayed an i'portant ro%e in popu%arizing case researc* in 'anage'ent accounting Ho6ever, 6e 6ou%d e'p*asize t*e
June *++&
E8treme@deviant Case chosen to learn from unusual =unnell "-AA&#B 0ys and /incent "-AAC#.
0ypes o4 Cases
"but often important# events or situations. 'a8imum Cases chosen to learn about one 'erchant and 'an)oni "-A&A#B variation phenomenon :hile enabling variation Simons "-AA+#. of other potentially moderating variables. Critical Case selected to enable logical deductions 2reston "-A&A#B 'erino and 4eimarD "-A&*#. about the falsification of a theory. 2aradigmatic Case selected to establish a ne: 2entland "-AAE#B ;o:nley et al. "*++E# perspective or theoretical understanding.
M 0a3%e 'odi4ied 4ro' A%yv3Gerg 5200!, ,#, 0a3%e K !7
0A<= >/ 0ypes o4 CasesF Description
Accounting >9a'p%es
i'portance o4 greater e'pirica% dept* in case studies, re%ying %ess on senior 'anage'entFs understandings and e9pectations, and p%acing 'ore e'p*asis on *o6 'anage'ent accounting syste's are used /n genera%, p*ronetic case studies e'p*asize conte9tua%ization o4 t*e p*eno'ena under study, recognition o4 t*e i'portance o4 incorporating and understanding di44erent va%ues and interests, and t*e operation o4 po6er 0o6n%ey et a% 5200(7 conducted a %ongitudina% case study o4 t*e adoption o4 per4or'ance 'easures 0*is case deve%ops t*eory, 'ost nota3%y around issues o4 po6er, se%4+8no6%edge, and t*e co%onization o4 3usiness va%ues into govern'enta% and cu%tura% organizations /ts use o4 a ne6 t*eory %eads us to c%assi4y it as an e9e'p%ar or paradig'atic case /t is in4or'ed 3y t*eories o4 *o6 'e'3ers o4 an organization 'ay rationa%ize organizationa% c*anges 5Ha3er'as !#8J, !#8,7 and a desire to understand 6*at 'anagers considered to 3e et*ica% co''unication 0*e study is 3ased on !J( intervie6s conducted over a si9+year period, as 6e%% as e9a'ination o4 arc*iva% docu'ents and o3servation o4 'eetings 0o6n%ey et a% Fs 5200(7 case 3egins 6it* t*e atte'pt 3y govern'ent depart'ents in a Canadian province to introduce a strategic per4or'ance 'easure'ent syste' /t docu'ents *o6, un%i8e 'ost t*eoretica% vie6s o4 syste' i'p%e'entation, 'anagers *ad initia% ent*usias' 4or t*e re4or's, 3ecause t*e c*anges sti'u%ated opportunities 4or de%i3eration and discussion Aaci%itated 3y a per4or'ance 'easure+ 'ent syste' t*at encouraged e9peri'entation and 6as 6ea8%y 4or'a%ized, 'anagers ent*usiastica%%y deve%oped t*eir o6n per4or'ance 'easures and e'3raced t*e opportunity to de3ate t*e va%ues o4 t*e organization, its strategies, and 6*ic* actions 6ere appropriate Ho6ever, as centra% govern'ent agencies 4or'a%ized and standardized t*e syste' in t*e na'e o4 i'proving account+ a3i%ity, t*e syste' 3eca'e %ess use4u% 4or de%i3eration 0*e concern to %oo8 good on t*e 'easures eventua%%y %ed to cynicis' and 'anipu%ation o4 t*e 'easures and t*e reported resu%ts Aurt*er opportunities 4or dia%og and de%i3eration around issues o4 va%ues 6ere not 4u%4i%%ed, as 'any 'anagers 4e%t t*eir vie6s 3eca'e 'argina%ized, and dia%og a3out interests 3eca'e i%%egiti'ate 50o6n%ey et a% 200(, !0KJ, !0K,7 0*e idea o4 p*ronesis is centra% to 0o6n%ey et a% 5200(7 0*e researc* tea' started 6it* c%ear t*eoretica% interests 0*roug*out t*e study 'any 'anagers, at di44erent %eve%s in t*e organization, 6ere interested in discussing t*e resu%ts 6it* t*e researc*ers and advising t*e' 6*ere t*eir initia% o3servations and t*eorizations 6ere insig*t4u%, inco'p%ete, or 6rong 0*e researc*ers 6ere invited on severa% occasions to present and de3ate t*eir 4indings 0*e 'anagers t*e'se%ves 4ound t*e une9pected 4inding a3out t*e dyna'ics o4 ent*usias' and cynicis' to 3e insig*t4u% A per4or+ 'ance 'easure'ent syste' seen to *ave t*e potentia% o4 en*ancing reasoned Gusti4ication and t*e deve%op'ent o4 %earning and e9pertise, si'u%taneous%y 6or8ed to6ard one o4 do'inance and 'anipu%ation, and 3eca'e ine44ective 50o6n%ey et a% 200(, !0KJ7 Preston 5!#8#7 studies t*e creation o4 an accounting syste' in an e9p%icit%y anarc*istic organization 0*e researc* atte'pts to app%y t*e t*eory o4 sy'3o%ic interaction to understand t*e 4or'a%ization o4 'anage'ent contro% syste's Preston 5!#8#7 presents a critica% case in 6*ic* t*e researc*er se%ects t*e case to a%%o6 a t*eory to 3e 4a%si4ied; in t*is e9a'p%e, t*e conditions Reproduced with permission the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without under 6*ic* of 4or'a% accounting deve%ops Preston 5!#8#7 permission. e9a'ines pressures 4or a 4ir' in t*e cu%tura% sector, co''itted to
Case Study Research in Accounting - " .
6or8ing 6it*out contracts and 4or'a% records, to deve%op a 4or'a% 5and standard7 accounting syste' He a%so e9a'ines t*e i'pact o4 t*e accounting syste'E*o6 it under'ined t*e intended %ogic o4 t*e organization and a44ected t*e degree o4 cooperation a'ong organizationa% 'e'3ers <y se%ecting an organization t*at esc*e6ed any 4or' o4 contract, *e 6as a3%e to identi4y ot*er institutiona% pressures 5t*e reBuire'ents o4 t*e ta9 aut*orities7 4or proper accounting records Preston 5!#8#7 a%so de'onstrates t*at a record+8eeping 5accounting7 syste' dra'atica%%y a44ects t*e 6ay t*ose invo%ved in t*e organization dea% 6it* one anot*er 0*e case does not invo%ve p*ronesis e9cept in recognizing t*e po6er o4 ta9 aut*orities
Accounting (ori)ons *++& June
App%ying t*e argu'ents o4 >isen*ardt 5!#8#7, =indsay 5200J7 suggests t*at a 'u%tip%e+case approac* 6ou%d yie%d considera3%e 3ene4its 4or 'anage'ent accounting researc*, in 3ot* testing and deve%oping t*eory Mu%tip%e cases a%so provide insig*t to aspiring 'anage'ent accounting e9perts in 3etter understanding t*e conditions under 6*ic* speci4ic reco''endations 'ig*t 3e e44ective ;ood e9a'p%es are -i'ons 5!##07, 6*o uses severa% in+ dept* cases in t*e sa'e industry to investigate *o6 contro% syste' design varies depending on 4ir' strategy, and Merc*ant and Manzoni 5!#8#7, 6*o investigate ac*ieva3i%ity o4 3udget targets across !2 corporations t*at di44er a%ong various di'ensions, suc* as industry, gro6t*, and tec*no%ogy Merc*ant and Manzoni 5!#8#7 represent a D'a9i'u' variationD case study, in 6*ic* a series o4 care4u%%y c*osen cases t*at are opposites on so'e di'ension are used to provide insig*t into a speci4ic 8 pro3%e' or t*eory 0*e signi4icance o4 t*e di'ension 4or processes or outco'es o4 interest can t*en 3e assessed Merc*ant and Manzoni 5!#8#7 are a3%e to provide insig*t into t*e setting o4 3udgets t*at did not 4o%%o6 te9t3oo8 prescriptions in ter's o4 t*e ac*ieva3i%ity o4 t*e targets 0*e cases are a3%e to identi4y 'u%tip%e reasons 4or setting easy targets, and t*e case studies a%%o6 t*e researc*ers to e9p%ore t*e co'p%e9 'eanings attac*ed to target setting and ac*ieve'ent 0*e cases indicate t*at target setting is on%y one co'ponent o4 a pac8age o4 contro%s 0*e case studies 4aci%itate an e9p%oration o4 target setting and its 6ider organizationa% conte9t in 6ays t*at 6ou%d 3e in4easi3%e in %arger sa'p%e studies /n ter's o4 'a9i'u' variation case researc*, t*e study 6ou%d *ave 3een i'proved i4 eac* o4 t*e cases 6ere 'ore detai%ed and i4 t*e c*oice o4 t*e di'ensions over 6*ic* t*e cases varied 6ere 'ore e9p%icit :et, Merc*ant and ManzoniFs 5!#8#7 case %ed to 4urt*er t*eoretica% and e'pirica% researc* on t*e ac*ieva3i%ity and contro%%a3i%ity princip%es o4 'anage'ent contro% 5e g , Hart'ann 20007 and t*us initiated 4urt*er studies t*at a%%o6 4or so'e genera%ization o4 resu%ts 5an issue 6e return to %ater7
8 Ma9i'u' variation cases can i'prove t*e genera%iza3i%ity o4 a t*eory in t*e sense o4 indicating t*at it app%ies across a 6ide range o4 cases, eac* operating under di44erent conditions
Case Study Research in Auditing
June *++&
0*ere is an increasing tradition o4 case studies o4 audit 6or8 and t*e operation o4 audit 4ir's 5e g , Dirs'it* and Cova%es8i !#8"; Cova%es8i et a% !##87 /n t*is section 6e discuss researc* cases t*at 4ocus 'ore on t*e 6ay an audit is produced Pent%andFs
Reproduced with permission of'ore the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited withoutt*eir # 0*is co''ent re4%ects a genera% concern t*at researc*ersF 4ai%ure to articu%ate permission. researc* 'otivation %i'its t*eir a3i%ity to *ave a dia%og a3out t*e o3Gect o4 study and 6*y it
5!##(7 case study o4 auditors *e%ped to sti'u%ate a series o4 case studies on auditing 5Po6er 200(7 /n t*is 6ay Pent%andFs 5!##(7 case can 3e seen as an e9a'p%e o4 a paradig'atic case, o44ering a ne6 6ay o4 seeing a 4a'i%iar activity He studied t*e activities o4 t6o audit tea's in an e44ort to 3etter understand *o6 auditors 3eco'e co'4orta3%e 6it* t*e nu'3ers in 4inancia% state'ents and t*e representations provided 3y 'anage'ent Pent%andFs 5!##(7 interest 6as t*e socia% processes t*at produce co'4ort, a concept t*at, 6*i%e per*aps 4a'i%iar to practitioners, is di44icu%t to study 6it*out direct%y o3serving auditors and understanding *o6 t*ey 3eco'e co'4orta3%e Case studies are particu%ar%y suited 4or researc* Buestions t*at see8 to understand co'p%e9 *u'an 3e*avior As Pent%and 5!##(7 notes, auditors are situated in t*e conte9t o4 intensive, ongoing interactions 6it* ot*er 'e'3ers o4 t*e engage'ent tea', t*eir 4ir', t*e c%ientFs organization, and t*eir pro4ession; t*ey 6or8 in c%uttered, cro6ded con4erence roo's, not %a3oratories Pent%and 5!##(7 studied audits o4 3et6een !,000 and 2000 *ours and se%ected cases 6it* signi4icant variation, providing a 'a9i'u' variation case 0*e sa'e 4ir' *ad done one audit 4or ten years; in t*e ot*er t*e 4ir' *ad audited t*e c%ient 4or on%y one year Aurt*er, Pent%and 5!##(7 ana%yzed routine auditor activities, suc* as attendance at an inventory count, as 6e%% as 'ore co'p%e9 auditor activities, suc* as va%uation o4 a port4o%io o4 securities 2sing 'u%tip%e 'et*ods to co%%ect data, inc%uding o3servation, intervie6s, and ver3a% protoco%s o4 6or8ing paper revie6s, *e co%%ected over 200 pages o4 notes, 4ro' 6*ic* *e 6as a3%e to re%ay t*e persona% e9periences and e'otions o4 t*e auditors, p%acing t*e' 6it*in t*eoretica% ana%yses o4 identity and se%4+presentation Pent%andFs 5!##(7 case study co'p%e'ents and e9tends researc* on auditor Gudg'ent He descri3es *o6 t*e co'4ort produced in t*e audit process a%%o6s auditors to reac* a conc%usion A predo'inant conception o4 auditor Gudg'ent as si'p%y 4o%%o6ing a set o4 ru%es i'p%ies t*at one cou%d 3eco'e a good audit partner 3y %earning t*e ru%es 0o t*e contrary, 3eco'ing a virtuoso reBuires 'ore <y o3serving t*e practices o4 t*e engage'ent tea', suc* as revie6 notes, sign+o44s, and partner 3e*avior, Pent%and 5!##(7 cou%d understand *o6 co'4ort is produced during t*e audit process, a%%o6ing *i' to advance t*eoretica% perspectives on auditor Gudg'ent Pent%and 5!##(7 argues t*e co'4ort created in t*e 'icro+interactions o4 audit tea' 'e'3ers %eads to co'4ort in t*e audit opinion, co'4ort in securities docu'ents 5via Dco'4ort %etters,D 4or e9a'p%e7, and co'4ort 3y capita% 'ar8et participants and society in t*e 4inancia% state'ents Pent%and 5!##(7 *as a nu'3er o4 %i'itations as p*renetic case researc* 0*e period o4 o3servation and data co%%ection is s*ort, so t*e data are not as e9tensive as 'ig*t 3e desired Conte9+ tua%ization o4 t*e o3Gects o4 investigation is %i'ited 0*e c*oice 4or t*e variation 3et6een cases is not 3ased on strong t*eoretica% grounds, nor is it 6e%% Gusti4ied 0*e researc*er does not e9p%icit%y # ac8no6%edge *is or *er ro%e in t*e study Aor e9a'p%e, 6*o are t*e 6inners and %osers in t*e process o4 producing co'4ortL :et, t*e study is innovative and *as sti'u%ated a deve%oping and
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is i'portant A co''it'ent to p*ronesis 6ou%d suggest t*at researc*ers *ave a pu3%ic responsi3i%ity to engage in de3ate a3out t*e purposes and i'p%ications o4 t*eir researc*
cu'u%ative 3ody o4 researc* t*at e%a3orates t*eories o4 audit e9pertise, co'4ort, and auditor 3e*avior 5e g , .adc%i44e !###; -*ar'a 200J; ;endron et a% 200,; Justesen and -8aer3ae8 200"7
/n contrast to 'anage'ent accounting and auditing, t*e contents o4 accounting Gourna%s and t*e state'ents o4 so'e editors 5Ni''er'an 200!7 i'p%y t*at 4inancia% accounting researc*ers do not appreciate t*e va%ue o4 case+3ased researc* /n rea%ity, 6e 4ind a nu'3er o4 case studies in 4inancia% accounting 5e g , A%eg' !#8#; <%ac8 !##(; Dio;uardi !##"; <eres4ord !##,; Oiang !##8; -o44er 2000; =ipe 20027 /n t*is section 6e dra6 attention to case+3ased 4inancia% accounting researc* to de'onstrate so'e o4 t*e advantages o4 e9panding case study researc* in 4inancia% accounting Per*aps t*e 'ost 6e%%+8no6n type o4 case study in 4inancia% accounting re%ates to *o6 accounting ru%es a44ect t*e 3e*avior o4 investors and 'anagers Aor e9a'p%e, =ys and $incent 5!##"7 can 3e regarded as an e9a'p%e o4 an De9tre'e caseD as it portrays an unusua% circu'stance, intended to deve%op ne6 t*eoretica% insig*ts, e9tensions, or 'odi4iers =ys and $incent 5!##"7 e9a'ine 6*y A0P0 pursued its acBuisition o4 &C., despite a dec%ine in va%ue o4 A0P0Fs s*ares, and in particu%ar 6*y A0P0 paid e9tra to ac*ieve poo%ing o4 interests accounting /n e9a'ining D*o6D Buestions, t*e case study a%so investigates t*e steps A0P0 too8 to ac*ieve 3ot* its acBuisition and t*e poo%ing o4 interests accounting treat'ent it desired 0*e =ys and $incent 5!##"7 study i%%ustrates severa% 4eatures o4 t*e case study approac* 0*ey use diverse data sources, inc%uding annua% reports, stoc8 prices, ne6spapers, and 8ey in4or'ants 0*ey gat*er data via intervie6s, revie6ing docu'ents, and Buantitative tec*niBues 0*e study a%so uses di44erent t*eories in interpreting data, suc* as e44icient 'ar8ets t*eory 4ro' 4inancia% econo'ics, esca%ation o4 co''it'ents t*eory 4ro' psyc*o%ogy, and Dt*e endo6'ent e44ectD 4ro' organizationa% 3e*avior =ys and $incent 5!##", (,K7 state t*at t*e patterns in A0P0Fs acBuisition are Dconsistent 6it*, 3ut stronger t*an, t*ose o4 %arge+sa'p%e studies,D and t*at A0P0Fs preoccupation 6it* >P- 5and using poo%ing o4 interests accounting7 cou%d contradict a signi4icant 3ody o4 researc*D 5(,,7 We suggest t*at =ys and $incentFs 5!##"7 4indings, 6*ic* 'ay contradict pre+e9isting t*eories, s*o6 t*e strengt*s o4 e9tre'e cases to contri3ute to t*eoretica% deve%op'ent Aurt*er, =ys and $incentFs 5!##"7 case contains e%e'ents o4 p*ronesisEin particu%ar, t*ey e9a'ine *o6 va%ue 6as destroyed 56*o 6on and 6*o %ost a3out Q( 3i%%ion7, and 3y 6*at 'ec*anis's 0*e case a%so contains, a%t*oug* indirect%y, an ana%ysis o4 *o6 case participants used t*eir po6er to in4%uence t*e u%ti'ate outco'e Ein t*is case, A0P0Fs discussions 6it* t*e ->C &ei'ar8 a%so studied t*e reporting practices o4 one %arge corporation, 3ut did not %i'it *erse%4 to t*e 4inancia% in4or'ation in annua% reports -*e *as a c%ear interest in issues o4 po6er and 6ider, socia% e44ects o4 representations in accounting reports /n &ei'ar8 5!##27 and 0in8er and &ei'ar8 5!#8,7, s*e 4ocuses on t*e 'essages produced 3y t*e non4inancia% co'ponent o4 ;enera% MotorFs annua% reports, arguing t*at t*ey are an i'portant e%e'ent in enacting and rein4orcing socia% attitudes -*e e9a'ines di44erent *istorica% conditions 3et6een !#!, and !#8, in 6*ic* Reproduced with permission of the5conte9ts7 copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
permission.
Case Study Research in =inancial Accounting
Accounting (ori)ons
;MFs annua% reports 6ere produced, and uses content ana%ysis o4 t*e te9ts o4 t*e annua% reports Her study can 3e regarded as a paradig'atic case, in t*at s*e app%ies a t*eory o4 ideo%ogy to e9a'ine *o6 t*e nature o4 annua% reports varies under di44erent
*istorica% conditions Her researc* Buestions re%ate to understanding di44erent 4or's o4 e9p%oitation o4 6or8ers, 6o'en, and t*e p*ysica% environ'ent 3y senior 'anage'ent and t*e 6ays annua% reports operate as a 4or' o4 ideo%ogy -*e e9a'ines *o6 t*e annua% reports re4%ected as 6e%% as rein4orced s*i4ting socia% attitudes suc* as t*e va%ue o4 state e9penditures and regu%ation, t*e ro%e o4 6o'en, t*e identi4ication o4 desira3%e %a3or+ 'anage'ent re%ations, and t*e 3ene4its o4 science, tec*no%ogy, and consu'ption &ei'ar8Fs study is c%ear%y concerned 6it* an ana%ysis o4 t*e va%ues in*erent in ;MFs annua% reports, and *er concern 6it* socia% 6e%4are a44ects *er c*oice o4 t*e issues s*e e9a'ines C*aracteristic o4 p*ronetic case researc*, t*e study considers issues o4 t*e re%ative po6er o4 ;M and its unions Her 4ocus on t*e ideo%ogica% ro%e o4 annua% reports %eads *er to suggest t*at corporate accounta3i%ity 6ou%d 3e en*anced i4 t*e econo'ic %in8 3et6een audit 4ir's and corporations 6ere 3ro8en and i4 t*e non4inancia% e%e'ent o4 annua% reports 6ere!0 t*e responsi3i%ity o4 a unit independent o4 corporate 'anage'ent -evera% 4inancia% accounting cases e9a'ine issues in accounting regu%ation, ranging 4ro' negotiations over speci4ic standards 5e g , .o3son !##(7 to e9p%orations o4 innovative t*eories o4 decision processes 3y speci4ic standard+setting 3odies 5e g , Mezias and -carse%%etta !##J7 0*ese cases are 'ain%y concerned 6it* t*eoretica% deve%op'ent and e%a3oration Merino and &ei'ar8 5!#827 can 3e regarded as a critica% case, 6it* a goa% o4 testing 6*et*er accounting regu%ations are 4ocused on in4or'ation 4or investor decision 'a8ing 0*eir *istorica% case study o4 t*e !#((+!#(J -ecurities Acts suggests t*at t*e regu%atory c*anges *ad %itt%e to do 6it* t*e provision o4 3etter Bua%ity in4or'ation to en*ance investor decision 'a8ing or protection 5as assu'ed 3y studies suc* as C*o6 H!#8(I7, 3ut 6ere 3ased on t*e perceived need to repair t*e %egiti'acy o4 t*e stoc8 'ar8et 0*ey t*us co'pare t*eories t*at are 3ased on t*e in4or'ationa% ro%e o4 accounting in capita% 'ar8ets 6it* institutiona% t*eories t*at stress t*e %egiti'izing and po%itica% ro%es o4 accounting 5e g , <urc*e%% et a% !#807 Merino and &ei'ar8 5!#827 co%%ect arc*iva% data, and 6*i%e t*ey 4ocus on a speci4ic case, t*ey a%so incorporate conte9tua% e%e'ents, inc%uding po%itica% p*i%osop*y, to understand t*e ro%e o4 accounting regu%ation in reconci%ing corporate do'inance 6it* discourses a3out t*e i'portance o4 de'ocracy 0*is study %eads 0in8er et a% 5!#827 to suggest t*at accounting researc*ers s*ou%d e9a'ine e9tre'e cases to appreciate t*e causes o4 regu%atory c*ange 3ecause accounting and corporate scanda%s engage pu3%ic opinion and t*e attention o4 %egis%ators >9tre'e case studies o4 *o6 regu%ation is a44ected 3y scanda% can *e%p regu%ators %earn 6*en and *o6 t*ey 'ig*t respond to suc* events 0*ey provide insig*ts eit*er di44erent
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!0 Ho6 'ig*t a reader or Gourna% editor assess t*e appropriateness o4 &ei'ar8Fs 5!##27 reco''endations o4 6*at oug*t to 3e doneL We 3e%ieve t*at a good case study 6i%% present su44icient dept* o4 ana%ysis and evidence as to de'onstrate t*e appropriateness o4 its reco''endations 0*e p*ronetic consideration o4 D6*at oug*t to 3e doneD in 'ost circu'stances deter'ines 6*o 6i%% %i8e%y 6in and 6*o 6i%% %ose, given so'e course o4 prudent action 0*e ric* detai% t*e case study provides s*ou%d a%%o6 readers to derive t*eir o6n assess'ents o4 t*e appropriateness o4 6*o is t*e 6inner, given t*e course o4 action proposed, and i4 t*e reader disagrees, 4urt*er pu3%ic dia%og 'ay resu%t
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4ro', or not as readi%y accessi3%e as, t*ose %arge n studies t*at consider, 4or e9a'p%e, t*e average 4ir' and 6*et*er it 'anages its earnings or *as de4icient governance structures7 and t*e i'p%ications 4or regu%atory c*ange
Case studies are co'p%e'entary to ot*er researc* approac*es; 6e do not c%ai' case studies are t*e pre4erred 'et*od 4or researc* 5no researc* 'et*od is superior to a%% ot*ers, 4or a%% types o4 researc* Buestions7 Ho6ever, a nu'3er o4 concerns and 'isconceptions e9ist a3out case studies and %i'it t*eir acceptance A co''on concern is t*at case study researc* can 3e directed on%y at D4inding out t*ings,D generating ideas prior to e'p%oying Dscienti4icD researc*, deve%oping 'ateria% 4or teac*ing, or generating *ypot*eses t*at can t*en 3e tested 3y statistica% 'et*ods Ni''er'an 5200!7 co'p%ains t*at ?ap%anFs 5!#8K7 ca%% 4or 'ore 4ie%d studies does not ca%% 4or researc*ers to go into t*e 4ie%d and test t*e *ypot*eses o4 t*eories, 3ut, rat*er, encourages researc*ers to 6ander t*e *a%%6ays o4 corporations and 'anu4acturing p%ants, searc*ing 4or 4acts unguided 3y tentative *ypot*eses 5Ni''er'an 200!, J227 ;ood case researc* 3egins 6it* a care4u% researc* design t*at inc%udes identi4ying t*e 4o%%o6ing@ t*e studyFs Buestions 5*o6 and 6*y7, unit o4 ana%ysis 56*ic* cases 6i%% 3e e9a'ined7, and criteria 4or interpreting t*e 4indings 5:in !#8#7 Aurt*er'ore, case researc*ers 'ust care4u%%y coordinate t*eir activities 6it* t*e organization or individua% under study, negotiating appoint'ents, arrange'ents, and access As :in 5!#8#7 notes, t*e researc* Buestion s*ou%d drive t*e c*oice o4 6*at case to study, 6*o to see, 6*at to o3serve, and 6*at to discuss as 6e%% as decisions a3out ti'e periods, %ocations, and data sourcesEnot resources t*e researc*er *as avai%a3%e As tea's o4ten e9ecute case studies, good case design resu%ts in a care4u% assign'ent o4 tas8s, a%%o6ing t*e case to 3e vie6ed 4ro' t*e di44erent perspectives o4 'u%tip%e o3servers, providing opportunities to c*a%%enge and strengt*en t*e resu%ts 51a8es et a% !##87 0*us, a good case studyFs design and data co%%ection are %ess *ap*azard t*an so'e 'ay 3e%ieve A re%ated 'isconception is t*at case researc* is not su44icient%y in4or'ed 3y t*eory <arrett et a% Fs 5200"7 study o4 t*e coordination o4 t*e audit o4 a g%o3a% 'u%tinationa% i%%ustrates t*at t*eory is centra% to t*e design and e9ecution o4 case study researc* 0*ey use re4%e9ive intervie6ing, an approac* t*at invo%ves t*eoretica%%y in4or'ed c*oices a3out 6*o s*ou%d 3e intervie6ed, 6*at s*ou%d 3e discussed, and 6*at issues s*ou%d 3e pursued 4urt*er during and a4ter t*e intervie6 5A%vesson 200(7 =i8e ot*er approac*es t*at reBuire t*eoretica%%y driven design c*oices, t*e case researc*er p%ays an active part o4 t*e researc* process in t*e sense o4 3ot* 3eing invo%ved in t*e recognition 5and o4tenti'es production7 o4 t*e data and t*eir i'pact on t*e researc* site and participants <arrett et a% 5200"7 *ad to decide, 4or e9a'p%e, 6*o s*ou%d 3e intervie6ed in t*e c%ient 4ir'E genera% 'anagers, interna% auditors, corporate 4inance sta44, t*e 4ir'Fs audit co''ittee, t*e 3oard o4 directors, or regu%ators o4 t*e 4ir'Eand 6*at s*ou%d 3e t*e 4ocus o4 discussions A standardized Buestionnaire 6as inappropriate as eac* intervie6 6as e9pected to raise Buestions a3out 6*at coordination o4 t*e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without audit 'eant, t*e re%ations*ip 3et6een g%o3a% prescriptions and permission. %oca% actions, and so on Digging deeper, t*e researc*ers *ad to decide 6*ic* auditor personne% t*ey s*ou%d intervie6@ -*ou%d it
C1''14 C14CER4S A4D '3SC14CE2;314S AF1>; CASE RESEARC(
3e Gust t*ose actua%%y conducting t*is yearFs auditL /4 so, t*en s*ou%d everyone 3e intervie6ed, inc%uding support sta44L As t*e 6or8 un4o%ded, t*e researc*ers recognized t*e i'portance o4 t*e *istory o4 t*e audit 4or current coordination practices and, as a
resu%t o4 t*eir en*anced e'pirica% and t*eoretica% understandings, additiona% c*oices *ad to 3e 'ade
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a3out intervie6ing previous auditor personne% 6it*in t*e 4ir' and auditor personne% in o44ices t*at *ad 3een, 3ut 6ere no %onger, responsi3%e 4or t*e audit 0*e %ist can go on and on, and 6ou%d c%ear%y inc%ude assess'ents o4 t*e va%idity o4 6*at t*e researc*ers 6ere to%d and t*e 3oundaries o4 t*e ana%ysis 0*eoretica% Buestions and t*e !! purposes o4 t*e researc* proGect deter'ined priorities and 4ocus W*i%e case researc* s*ou%d 3e t*eoretica%%y in4or'ed, a re%ated 53ut opposite7 concern is t*at case se%ection and data co%%ection can 3e driven 3y a desire to support t*e researc*erFs 4avored t*eory 5peGorative%y o4ten re4erred to as biases#. 0*is issue is co''on to a%% researc* 'et*ods, since data are recognized as data t*roug* t*e %ens o4 a t*eory 5Hanson !#K"7 Aor e9a'p%e, 4ocusing on%y on econo'ic 5cu%tura%7 aspects tends to ignore cu%tura% 5econo'ic7 aspects o4 p*eno'ena &evert*e%ess, case researc*ers tend to se%ect cases t*eoretica%%y, and suc* se%ection *as 3ot* ris8s and 3ene4its 0*e se%ection 'ay 3e 3ased on concerns a3out prior t*eory 54or e9a'p%e, Merino and &ei'ar8 !#827, to deve%op and e%a3orate t*eory 50o6n%ey et a% 200(7, or to study issues t*at *ave not 3een studied 4ro' a particu%ar perspective 5Pent%and !##(7 0*is 'eans t*at case researc* can 'a8e su3stantia% contri3utions to t*eory deve%op'ent .e%iance on t*eory can, *o6ever, 'ean t*e case researc*er can 3e insensitive to e'pirica% surprises; it is t*ere4ore not surprising t*at researc*ers are advised to constant%y and deep%y re4%ect on t*eir assu'ptions and positions in t*e acade'ic 4ie%d 5<ourdieu and WacBuant !##27 Aurt*er'ore, >isen*ardt 5!#8#7 points out t*at t*e iterative processes invo%ved in case study researc*, in 6*ic* t*e researc*er deve%ops t*in8ing, co%%ects data, revises t*in8ing, ree9a'ines t*eory, returns to t*e data, deve%ops t*in8ing 4urt*er, and per*aps *as to revisit sources 5suc* as going 3ac8 to participants or *istorica% arc*ives7, %i'its t*e %i8e%i*ood o4 e'pirica% insensitivity or t*eoretica% in4%e9i3i%ity Aurt*er'ore, case studies typica%%y use 'u%tip%e 'et*ods o4 co%%ecting data, and 3ring t*e perspectives o4 'u%tip%e researc*ers to 3ear, 6*ic* 4urt*er reduces t*e potentia% 4or 3ias
!! <arrett et a% 5200"7 do not 4u%%y 'eet t*e reBuire'ents o4 p*ronesis 0*is re4%ects t*e po%itics o4 researc*Et*e co'pro'ises t*at are o4ten reBuired to o3tain researc* access and cooperation /t a%so re4%ects di44erent vie6s 6it*in t*e researc* tea' a3out 6*at 6as possi3%e 4or t*is study, as 6e%% as concerns a3out e9peri'enter e44ects Ho6ever, even in t*e natura% sciences, rep%ication is never Buite as straig*t4or6ard as is so'eti'es *oped Co%%ins 5!##27 e9a'ined rep%ication in so'e 4a'ous scienti4ic e9peri'ents, and 4ound t*at 'ost rep%ications invo%ve di44erent instru'ents and 'et*ods, and are not, and o4ten cou%d not, 3e si'p%e dup%ications >ven in %arge sa'p%e studies in accounting researc*, <a'3er et a% 520007 4ound t*at re%ated studies in capita% 'ar8et researc* are rare%y rep%icated, and indeed t*at Bua%i4ied state'ents o4 resu%ts are overgenera%ized in su3seBuent studies Atte'pts at rep%ication in 'anage'ent accounting tend to 3e e%a3orations rat*er t*an rep%ications 5Hart'ann 20007 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
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permission.
Accounting (ori)ons
June *++&
.ep%ica3i%ity o4 case researc* represents anot*er 'isconception W*et*er t*e 4indings o4 case studies 'ay 3e rep%icated depends on t*e degree to 6*ic* t*e o3Gect o4 study 'ay c*ange over ti'e .ep%ication is i'portant in !2 princip%e, even i4 accounting Gourna%s se%do' pu3%is* rep%ications -o'e argue t*at case researc* *as di44icu%ty 6it* rep%ication since ot*er researc*ers cannot gain access to speci4ic organization5s7 at t*e sa'e ti'e as t*e origina% study, and even i4 t*ey cou%d, t*e precise 4or's and tec*niBues used to gat*er data 'ay depend on researc*er Gudg'ent 5see a3ove7, t*us causing anot*er source o4 variation 3et6een t*e origina% and t*e rep%ication <ut t*ere is %itt%e reason 6*y 'u%tip%e researc*ers cannot investigate co''on t*eoretica% issues across 'u%tip%e organizations and so'e cases studies *ave 3een used 3y ot*er researc*ers to deve%op ne6 t*eoretica% insig*ts 5Macintos* and -capens !##07 /ndeed, t*e %iterature on t*e p*i%osop*y o4 science uses t*e ter' Drep%icationD to inc%ude 3ot* e9tension and a narro6er vie6 o4 rep%ication t*at reBuires, 4or e9a'p%e, t*e use o4 t*e sa'e co'panies during t*e sa'e ti'e period, and t*e sa'e varia3%es as a previous study 5Co%%ins !##27 <ot* %aige sa'p%e and case studies 'ay encounter di44icu%ties rep%icating resu%ts in e9tending a study to ot*er ti'e periods or co'panies C*anges over ti'e provide opportunities to speci4y conditions under 6*ic* genera%izations can 3e 'ade W*i%e *istorica% events cannot 3e rep%icated, 'u%tip%e researc*ers can study e9p%anations 4or si'i%ar events in 3ot* case and capita% 'ar8et studies More genera%%y, rep%ication o4 resu%ts 'ay 3e di44icu%t to ac*ieve in socia% sciences 3ecause t*e socia% and econo'ic 6or%d c*anges as it %earns and adapts to ne6 8no6%edgeE6*at ;iddens 5!##!7 re4ers to as c*ronic re4%e9ivity Mar8ets, individua%s, and organizations respond to ne6 8no6%edge a3out t*eir operation, and t*is %earning 'eans t*at success4u% po%icy instru'ents, trading strategies, or practices rare%y endure A 4urt*er concern a3out case researc* re%ates to genera%iza3i%ity o4 t*e 4indings and e9p%anations Ho6ever, to consider genera%iza3i%ity, one 'ust address Buestions suc* as genera%iza3i%ity to 6*at, and 4or 6*at Coo8 and Ca'p3e%% 5!#,#, ,!+,(, cited in =indsay H200JI7 identi4y t6o 4or's o4 genera%izationEstatistica% 5to popu%ations7 and e'pirica% 5across popu%ations7Eand accounting researc*ers tend to 4ocus undu%y on t*e 4or'er >'pirica% genera%ization addresses 6*en t*e 8no6%edge 6i%% app%y, and 6*en it 6i%% not Consistent 6it* e'pirica% genera%ization, case studies can address Buestions a3out 6*ic* types o4 4ir's are a44ected 'ore t*an ot*ers 3y speci4ic ac+ counting ru%es or tec*niBues, and 6*y t*e resu%ts app%y to so'e organizations 3ut not ot*ers 54or e9a'p%e, =ipe 20027 W*i%e %arge sca%e, arc*iva% studies *e%p to identi4y t*e 3road patterns, case studies *e%p to identi4y t*e speci4ics and t*e conte9t, 6*ic* are i'portant in e9pert use o4 t*e resu%ts Case studies a%so provide t*e opportunity to genera%ize to t*eories in t*e sense o4 o44ering co''on e9p%anations o4 events, or identi4ying 'u%tip%e events t*at possess t*e sa'e t*eoretica% 4eatures =u88a and ?asanen 5!##"7 re4er to t*is as ana%ytic genera%ization /n our discussion o4 e9a'p%es o4 case researc* in accounting, 6e *ave de'onstrated t*at cu'u%ative and genera%iza3%e 4indings can 3e produced over ti'e Aurt*er'ore, our discussion o4 e9tre'e and paradig'atic cases a%so suggests t*at genera%iza3i%ity 'ay not a%6ays 3e a re%evant concern; in t*ese cases, 6*at prohibited is re%evant is Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction without
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!2American Accounting Association
t*e creation o4 a ne6 4ie%d o4 researc* and genera%iza3i%ity can 3e addressed 3y 4uture researc* sti'u%ated 3y t*e origina% case study
C14C0>S314
Case studies are a va%ua3%e too% to understand co'p%e9 p*eno'ena Case studies *ave 'u%tip%e researc* 3ene4its and can 3e used to test e9isting t*eory and to generate ne6 t*eory 0*e vividness o4 cases can dra'atize t*eoretica% issues, i'proving co''unication o4 i'portant insig*ts to practitioners Case studies, 3y e9a'ining speci4ic e9a'p%es in t*eir conte9t and 3y 3eing attentive to va%ues, interests, and t*e operation o4 po6er can 3e use4u% 4or %earning to 3e virtuoso practitioners, contri3uting to p*renetic 8no6%edge 1ur e9a'p%es s*o6 t*at case studies, using various approac*es in se%ecting t*e case to study and co%%ecting t*e data, can provide va%ua3%e insig*ts t*at open up ne6 and pro'ising areas 4or accounting researc* 0*e e9a'p%es a%so de'+ onstrate *o6 case studies 'ay 3e use4u% to practitioners, *e%ping t*e' understand t*e app%ica3i%ity o4 speci4ic accounting innovations in co'p%e9 conte9ts, re+assessing t*eir conceptua%izations o4 pro3%e's, and %earning *o6 to 3e 'ore s8i%%ed in using ru%es :et 6e 4ind re%ative%y 4e6 case studies in accounting researc* W*y 'ig*t t*is 3eL Case studies are di44icu%t and c*a%%enging to underta8e, o4ten reBuiring signi4icant resources 5ti'e and 4inancia%7 :et 'any researc* 'et*ods in accounting *ave t*ese attri3utes 1ne e9p%a+ nation 4or t*e %ac8 o4 case studies 'ig*t 3e t*at 'any novice accounting researc*ers deve%op t*eir attitudes to science and case studies 4ro' te9ts suc* as Ca'p3e%% and -tan%ey 5!#KK, K7 6*ic* asserts DHsIuc* studies *ave suc* a tota% a3sence o4 contro% as to 3e o4 a%'ost no scienti4ic va%ue D 1ur paper addresses 'any o4 t*e 'isconceptions t*at under%ie suc* attitudes; so'e are 'isp%aced; so'e di44icu%ties are s*ared 6it* ot*er approac*es, and ot*ers are va%id concerns Aurt*er'ore, t*ese sa'e novice researc*ers %i8e%y do not con4ront Ca'p3e%%Fs %ater vie6s on t*e po6er o4 case studies@ Dnatura%istic o3servation is t*e on%y route to 8no6%edgeEnoisy, 4a%%i3%e, and 3iased t*oug* it 'ay 3eD 5Ca'p3e%% !#,", !,#7 &or are t*ese accounting researc*ers typica%%y e9posed
- " .
!( 0*e Accounting .evie6 once *ad a section tit%ed D-'a%% -a'p%e -tudies D W*i%e suc* a section 'ay 'argina%ize case studies 5and present t*e' as so'e*o6 in4erior7, at %east t*at Gourna% 'ade suc* studies so'e6*at visi3%e and %egiti'ate /ssues o4 independence are Buite di44icu%t to reso%ve 4or researc*ers A%yv3Gerg 5200!7 e'p*asized one 4eature o4 case Reproduced with ro%e permission the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without studiesEt*e o4 t*e of researc*er as part o4 t*e researc* process, as a source o4 insig*t permission. into t*e processes 3eing e9a'ined Aor e9a'p%e, case studies using action researc* recognize t*at t*e researc*er 'ay not 3e tru%y independent o4 t*e event or organization 3eing studied Maintaining autono'y and disc%osing t*e nature o4 t*e re%ations*ip are
to studies o4 actua% scienti4ic practice or 'odern p*i%osop*ica% discussions o4 8no6%edge, as opposed to o%d p*i%osop*ica% proposa%s t*at see' concerned to po%ice t*e 3oundaries 3et6een science and nonscience t*roug* prescriptive ru%es 0*is training a44ects t*eir preparation o4 'anuscripts and t*eir decisions as revie6ers, resu%ting in a deart* o4 case studies in 'any accounting Gourna%s Aurt*er'ore, 'any *ig*+reputation Gourna%s *ave pre4erences 4or certain types o4 t*eory t*at *ave a 6ea8%y deve%oped tradition in case researc* 5e g , 4inancia% econo'ics7 and 4or researc* 'et*ods t*at *ave t*e appearance o4 o3Gectivity, !( rep%ica3i%ity, and genera%iza3i%ity
-c*o%ars are o4ten concerned a3out *o6 to assess case researc* We *ave a%ready re4erred to 4actors t*at s*ou%d 3e considered to distinguis* good case researc*, and 'any discip%ines 5inc%uding *istory, ant*ropo%ogy, and socio%ogy7 *ave e9tensive e9perience in eva%uating case researc* =i8e a%% researc* approac*es, va%ues 5suc* as, D/s t*is an interesting pro3%e'LD and DDoes t*e researc* 'a8e a signi4icant contri3utionLD7 and taste 53earing on t*e sty%e o4 6riting and 6*et*er t*e presentation is engaging7 6i%% enter into an eva%uation Ae6 una'3iguous ru%es e9ist 4or eva%uating case researc*, and concepts o4 rigor vary according to t*e 'et*od and t*eory used &evert*e%ess, so'e c%ear guide%ines can 3e speci4ied, re%ating to t*e persuasiveness o4 t*e study 5:in !#8#; Mc?innon !#8,7 0*e 'anuscript 'ust 3e 3ased on adeBuate i''ersion in t*e case, in ter's o4 t*e range o4 docu'ents studied, intervie6s conducted, ti'e spent in t*e organization, and range o4 sources used 0*e researc*er needs to speci4y t*e conditions o4 access and t*e degree o4 *is or *er independence 4ro' t*e peop%e 3eing studied, to convince readers t*at t*e in4or'ation is va%id 0*e contri3ution to, and use o4, t*eory 'ust 3e articu%ated, and researc* design c*oices s*ou%d 'a9i'ize t*e c*ance o4 providing insig*ts a3out t*e t*eory /n 3rie4, t*e case s*ou%d 3e co'p%ete 5see 4ootnote 27 P*renetic case researc* poses additiona% c*a%%enges in eva%uation, nota3%y in re%ation to its concern 6it* va%ues, and issues a3out *o6 t*ese 'ig*t 3e assessed Previous%y, 6e co'pared researc* to a conversation; so'e sc*o%ars 5Ha3er'as !#8J; .a6%s !##(; <o*'an !##K7 discuss ru%es 4or good conversation and co''unication t*at 'ay 3e *e%p4u% in eva%uating p*renetic cases Many o4 t*ese ru%es are si'i%ar to ru%es 4or any scienti4ic conversation@ sincerity 3y participants, co''it'ent to de3ate and %earning t*e trut*, 'utua% respect, and ru%es deter'ining 6*o *as t*e rig*t to contri3ute $a%ues are not assessed direct%y, 3ut de3ated pu3%ic%y Pu3%ic de3ate i'p%ies an e9tended ro%e 4or acade'ic Gourna%s, invo%ving a 6i%%ingness to 3e open to dia%og, de3ate, and co''entary a3out researc* pu3%is*ed t*erein -evera% actions 'ig*t *e%p rea%ize t*e 3ene4its o4 case study researc* 4or advancing t*eoretica% deve%op'ent and contri3uting to scienti4ic and practica% deve%op'ents .esearc* training t*at inc%udes t*e study o4 'odern p*i%osop*y and socio%ogy o4 socia% science 'ig*t *e%p to avoid a naive understanding o4 Dscienti4ic 'et*od D 0raining o4 researc*ers s*ou%d inc%ude instruction !J in case 'et*ods and p*i%osop*y 5inc%uding et*ics and va%ues 7 recognizing t*e i'portance o4 t*eory deve%op'ent as 6e%% as testing Practitioners and parties suc* as regu%ators, standard setters, and 'anagers can provide access to organizations or data to 4aci%itate researc* t*at can i%%u'inate issues t*ey 4ace 5;endron 20007 -uc* actions 'ay *e%p to de'onstrate t*e va%ue o4 p*renetic researc* Ho6ever, 6e recognize t*at researc* 5and contri3uting to practice7 is as 'uc* a po%itica% as a scienti4ic process, and, in p*ronetic 4as*ion, 6e recognize t*at our suggestions 'ig*t under'ine t*e po6er and privi%eges o4 e9isting researc* e%ites 5Ar%ington and -c*6ei8er !##2; Hop6ood 200,7 Any 'ove to case studies and p*ronetic researc* in accounting 6i%% invo%ve a po%itica% as 'uc* as a scienti4ic s*i4t 5=atour !###; Di%%ard 4ort*co'ing7
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!JAmerican Accounting Association
o4 researc* 5inter a%ia7 W*i%e suc* concepts are app%ica3%e to a%% researc* approac*es, t*ey see' particu%ar%y i'portant to p*ronetic case researc*
Ahrens ;. A. FecDer J. Furns C. Chapman '. 5ranlund '. (abermas A. (ansen ;. 'almi 6. Rihab A. 'ennicDen A. 'iDes =. 2ano))o '. 2iber 2. Guattrone and ;. Scheytt. ;he
RE=ERE4CES
Case Study Research in Accounting - " . future of interpretive accounting research: A polyphonic debate. Critica% Perspectives on Accounting "forthcoming#. 99999 and J. =. Dent. -AA&. Accounting and organi)ations: Reali)ing the richness of field research. Journa% of 'anagement Accounting Research f !0@ !+(# Alvesson '. *++E. Feyond neopositivists romantics and localists: A refle8ive approach to intervie:s in organi)ational research. Acade'y o4 Manage'ent .evie6 *& "-#: -E9EE. Arlington C. E and 7. Sch:eiDer. -AA*. ;he rhetoric and rationality of accounting researc*Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety -H "I#: C--9CEE. Failey '. ;. -AA*. Do physicists use case studiesJ ;houghts on public administration research. Pu3%ic Ad'inistration .evie6 C* "-#: KH9CK. Famber 0. S. ;. E. Christensen 6. '. 5aver. *+++. Do :e really %Dno:% :hat :e thinD :e Dno:J A case study of seminal research and its subse!uent overgenerali)ation. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety, *C "*#: -+E9-*A. Farrett '. D. J. Cooper and 6. Jamal. *++C. 5lobali)ation and the coordinating of :orD in a global audit. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety E+ "-#: -9*K. Fa8ter J. and 7. =. Chua. -AA&. Doing field research: 2ractice and meta9theory in counterpoint. Journa% o4 Manage'ent Accounting .esearc* -+: IA9&&. 99999 and999. *++E. Alternative management accounting researchL 7hence and :hither. Accounting, 1rgani)ations and Society 28 52)(7@ #,+!2K Feresford D. R. -AAH. (o: to succeed as a standard setter by trying really hard. Accounting Horizons -- "E#: HA9A-. Ferry A. J. ;. Capps D. J. Cooper 2. =erguson ;. (opper and E. A. 0o:e. -A&C. 'anagement control in an area of the 4CF: Rationales of accounting practice in a public enterprise. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety -+: E9*&. FlacD =. -AAE. Choosing accounting rules. Accounting Horizons H "K#: -9-H. <o*'an, J !##K 2ublic Deliberation: 2luralism Comple8ity and Democracy. Ca'3ridge, MA@ M/0 Press Fourdieu 2. and 0. 7ac!uant. -AA*. An /nvitation to .e4%e9ive -ocio%ogy Chicago 30: >niversity of Chicago 2ress. 99999. -AAH. Practica% .eason Cambridge >.6.: 2olity 2ress. FricDer R. J. 6. ForoDhovich and F. SimDins. *++E. ;he impact of accounting research on finance. Critica% Perspectives on Accounting -K "K#: K-H9KE&. Furchell S. C. Clubb A. 5. (op:ood J. (ughes and J. 4ahapiet. -A&+. ;he roles of accounting in organi)ations and society. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety C "-#: C9*H. Campbell D. ; and J. C. Stanley. -AII. >9peri'enta% and Quasi+ >9peri'enta% Designs 4or .esearc* Chicago: Rand 'c4ally. 99999. -AHC. Degrees of freedom and the case study. Co'parative Po%itica% -tudies & "-#: -H&9-AE. Cho: C. 7. -A&E. ;he impacts of accounting regulation on bondholder and shareholder :ealth: ;he case of the securities acts. 0*e Accounting .evie6 C& "E#: K&C9C*+. Co%%ins, H M !##2 Changing 1rder: Replication and 3nduction in Scientific 2ractice. C*icago, /=@ 2niversity o4 C*icago Press 99999. *++-. ;ood to ;reat 4e: ?orD 4?: (arper Collins. CooD D. ;. and ;. D. Campbell. -AHA. Quasi+>9peri'entation@ Design and Ana%ysis /ssues 4or Aie%d -ettings Chicago 30: Rand9'c4ally 2ublishing. Cooper D. J. and 6. Robson. *++I. Accounting professions and regulation: 0ocating the sites of profes9 sionali)ation. Accounting, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without 1rganizations and -ociety E"K9C#: K-C9KKK.
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Association 99999 and ;. (opper. *++H. Hand3oo8 o4 Manage'ent Accounting .esearc* /ol. -. C. Chapman A. 5. (op:ood and '. Shields eds. 18ford >.6.: Elsevier. CovalesDi '. A. '. 7. Dirsmith J. (eian and S. Samuel. -AA&. ;he calculated and the avo:ed: ;echni!ues of discipline and struggles over identity in Fig I public accounting firms. Ad'inistrative -cience Quarter%y KE "*#: *AE9E*H. C)arnia:sDa F. *++K. &arratives in -ocia% -cience .esearc* ;housand 1aDs CA: Sage. DemsDi J. S. 4. Dopuch F. 0ev J. Roneh 5. Searfoss and S. Sunder. -AA-. A -tate'ent on t*e -tate o4 Acade'ic Accounting Statement to the Research Director of the American Accounting Association. Sarasota =0: AAA. Dent J. -AA-. Accounting and organi)ational cultures: A field study of the emergence of a ne: organi)ational reality. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety -I "&#: H+C9HE*. Dillard J. A political base of a polyphonic debate. Critica% Perspectives on Accounting "forthcoming#. Dio5uardi J. J. -AAC. 1ur unaccountable federal government: 3t doesn%t add up. Accounting Horizons A "*#: ()*(+ Dirsmith '. 7. and '. A. CovalesDi. -A&C. 3nformal communications nonformal communications and mentoring in public accounting firms. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety -+ "*#: -KA9-IA. Dyer 7. 5. Jr. and A. 0. 7ilDins. -AA-. Fetter stories not better constructs to generate better theory: A re,oinder to Eisenhardt. Acade'y o4 Manage'ent .evie6 -I "E#: I-E9I-A. Eisenhardt 6. '. -A&A. Fuilding theories from case study research. Acade'y o4 Manage'ent .evie6 -K "K#: CE*9CC+. =legm E. (. -A&A. ;he limitations of accounting. Accounting Horizons E "E#: A+9A&. =lyvb,erg F. *++-. Ma8ing -ocia% -cience Matter Cambridge >.6.: Cambridge >niversity 2ress. 99999. *++K. Qua%itative .esearc* Practice C. Seale 5. 5obo J. 5ubrium and D. Silverman eds. K*+KEK. 0ondon >.6. and ;housand 1aDs CA: Sage. =unnell 7. -AA&. Accounting in the service of the (olocaust. Critica% Perspectives on Accounting A "K#: KEC9KIK. 5endron ?. *+++. 1penness to conte8t based research: ;he gulf bet:een the claims and actions of Fig Si8 firms in the >SA. Accounting, Auditing P Accounta3i%ity Journa% -E "*#: -HC9-AI. 99999 D. J. Cooper and F. ;o:nley. *++H. ;he construction of auditing e8pertise in measuring government per4or'ance Accounting 1rgani)ations and Society (2 5!+27@ !0!+ !2# ;iddens, A !##! 'odernity and Self93dentity: Self and Society in the 0ate 'odern Age. -tan4ord, CA@ -tan4ord 2niversity Press (abermas J. -A&K. 0*e 0*eory o4 Co''unicative Action /ol. -. Foston 'A: Feacon 2ress. 99999. -A&H. 0*e 0*eory o4 Co''unicative Action /ol. *. Foston 'A: Feacon 2ress. Hanson, & . !#K" 2atterns of Discovery: An 3n!uiry into the Conceptual =oundations of Science. Ca'3ridge, 2 ? @ Ca'3ridge 2niversity Press (artmann =. *+++. ;he appropriateness of RA2': ;o:ard the further development of theory. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety *C "K@C#: KC-9K&*. (op:ood A. 5. *++H. 7hither accounting researchJ 0*e Accounting .evie6 &* "C#: -EIC9-EHK. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without Jnsson S. and 6. 0uDDa. *++H. Hand3oo8 o4 Manage'ent permission. Accounting .esearc* /ol. -. C. Chapman A. 5. (op:ood and '. Shields eds. 18ford >.6.: Elsevier.
Case Study Research in Accounting - " . KC*. 99999. -AA&. 3nnovation action research: Creating ne: management accounting theory and practice. Journa% of 'anagement Accounting Research !0@ 8#+!!8 6eating 2. J. -AAC. A frame:orD for classifying and evaluating the theoretical contributions of case research in management accounting. Journa% o4 Manage'ent Accounting .esearc* H: II9&I. 0atour F. -AAA. PandoraFs Hope Cambridge 'A: (arvard >niversity 2ress. 0indsay R. '. *++K. 'aDing progress in theory development in management accounting research by focusing on both conte8t and pattern: ;o:ards a broader and more respectable role for case study research. >npublished paper >niversity of 7estern 1ntario. Accounting (ori)ons June *++& American Accounting Association 0ipe R. *++*. =air valuing debt turns deteriorating credit !uality into positive signals for Foston ChicDen. Accounting Horizons -I "*#: -IA9-&*. 0uDDa 6. and E. 6asanen. -AAC. ;he problem of generali)ability: Anecdotes and evidence in accounting research. Accounting, Auditing P Accounta3i%ity Journa% &: H-9A+. 0ys ;. and 0. /incent. -AAC. An analysis of value destruction in A;M;%s ac!uisition of 4CR. Journa% o4 Ainancia% >cono'ics EA: ECE9EH&. 'acintosh 4. '. and R. 7. Scapens. -AA+. Structuration theory in management accounting. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety -C "C#: KCC9KHH. 'aclntyre A. -A&K. A4ter $irtue@ A -tudy in Mora% 0*eory 4otre Dame 34: >niversity of 4otre Dame 2ress. 'cClosDey D. 4. -AAK. ?no6%edge and Persuasion in >cono'ics 4e: ?orD 4?: Cambridge >niversity 2ress. 'c6innon J. -A&&. Reliability and validity in field research: Some strategies and tactics. Accounting, Auditing P Accounta3i%ity Journa% - "-#: EK9CK. 'erchant 6. and J9=. 'an)oni. -A&A. ;he achievability of budget targets in profit centers: A field study. 0*e Accounting .evie6 IK "E#: CEA9CC&. 99999 and 7. /an der Stede. *++I. =ield9based research in accounting: Accomplishments and prospects. Fehavioral Research in Accounting !8@ !!,+!(J 'erino F. D. and '. D. 4eimarD. -A&*. Disclosure regulation and public policy: A sociohistorical reappraisal. Journa% o4 Accounting and Pu3%ic Po%icy - "-#: EE9CH. 'e)ias S. J. and '. Scarselletta. -AAK. Resolving financial reporting problems: An institutional analysis of the process. Ad'inistrative -cience Quarter%y EA "K#: ICK9IH&. 'iller 2. and ;. 1%0eary. -AAE. Accounting e8pertise and the politics of the product: Economic citi)enship and modes of corporate governance. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety -& "*@E#: -&H9 *+I. 4eimarD '. 6. -AA*. 0*e Hidden Di'ensions o4 Annua% .eports 4e: ?orD 4?: 'arcus 7iener 2ublishing. 1aDes 0. F. ;o:nley and D. J. Cooper. -AA&. Fusiness planning as pedagogy: 0anguage and control in a changing institutional field. Ad'inistrative -cience Quarter%y KE "*#: *CH9*A*. 2entland F. ;. -AAE. 5etting comfortable :ith the numbers. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety -& "H@&#: I+C9I*+. 2o:er *++E. of Auditing and the production of legitimacy. Reproduced with '. permission the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety *& "K#: EHA9EAK.
Justesen 0. and 2. SDaerbaeD. *++C. Accounting in -candinaviaE0*e &ort*ern =ig*ts S. Jnsson and J. 'ouritsen eds. E*-9EKE. (erndon /A: Copenhagen Fusiness School 2ress. 6aplan R. S. -A&I. ;he role for empirical research in management accounting. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety -- "K@C#: K*A9
2reston A. '. -A&A. ;he ta8man cometh: Some observations on the interrelationship bet:een accounting and inland revenue practice. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety -K "C9I#: E&A9K-E. Radcliffe /. S. -AAA. 6no:ing efficiency: ;he enactment of efficiency
$ %&Cooper and 'organ in efficiency auditing. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety *K "K#: EEE9EIE. Ragin C. C. -AA*. W*at /s a CaseL >9p%oring t*e Aoundations o4 -ocia% /nBuiry C. C. Ragin and (. S. FecDer eds. Cambridge >.6.: Cambridge >niversity 2ress. Ra:ls J. -AAE. Po%itica% =i3era%is' 4e: ?orD 4?: Columbia >niversity 2ress. Reiter S. and 2. 7illiams. *++*. ;he structure and progressivity of accounting research: ;he crisis in the academy revisited. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety *H "I#: CHC9I+H. Robson 6. -AAE. Accounting policy maDing and NinterestsN: Accounting for research and development. Critica% Perspectives on Accounting K "-#: -9*H. Rosen '. -AA+. Staying on the string: ;he ?1 and the marDet in eighty9nine. Critica% Perspectives on Accounting - "K#: EEH9EIC. -c*on, D !#8( ;he Reflective 2ractitioner: (o: 2rofessionals ;hinD in Action. &e6 :or8, &:@ <asic <oo8s Sharma 4. *++K. Constructing and legitimating audit practice: /alue for money studies of environmental programmes. 2h.D. dissertation >niversity of 'anchester 3nstitute of Science and ;echnology. Simons R. -AA+. ;he role of management control systems in creating competitive advantage: 4e: perspectives. Accounting, 1rganizations and -ociety -C "-9*#: -*H9-KE. Soffer 0. C. *+++. S=AS 4o. -*E disclosures and discounted cash flo: valuation. Accounting Horizons -K "*#: -IA9-&+. Accounting (ori)ons *++& June
& Denzin and : =inco%n, eds 0*ousand 1a8s, CA@ -age -tar3uc8, W H !##( ?eeping a 3utter4%y and an e%ep*ant in a *ouse o4 cards@ 0*e e%e'ents o4 e9ceptiona% success Journal of 'anagement Studies (0 5K7@ 88"+#2! 0in8er, A M , < D Merino, and M D &ei'ar8 !#82 0*e nor'ative origins o4 positive t*eories@ /deo%ogy and accounting t*oug*t Accounting 1rgani)ations and Society , 527@ !K,+200 ++++, and M D &ei'ar8 !#8, 0*e ro%e o4 annua% reports in gender and c%ass contradictions at ;enera% 'otors: -A-H9-AHI. Accounting 1rgani)ations and Society -* "-#: H-9&&. 0o6n%ey, < , D J Cooper, and = 1a8es 200( Per4or'ance 'easures and t*e rationa%ization o4 organizations 1rgani)ation Studies 2J 5,7@ !0J"+!0K, $an Maanen, J !#,# 0*e 4act o4 4iction in organizationa% et*nograp*y Administrative Science Guarterly 2J 5J7@ "(#+""0 Oiang, < !##8 /nstitutiona% 4actors in4%uencing C*inaFs accounting re4or's and standards Accounting (ori)ons !2 527@ !0"+!20 :in, . ? !#8# Case Study Research: Design and 'ethods. .evised edition &e63ury Par8, CA@ -age Ni''er'an, J = 200! ConGectures regarding e'pirica% 'anageria% accounting researc* Journal of Accounting and Economics (2 5!+(7@ J!!+J2,
American Accounting Association -ta8e, . > 2000 (andbooD of Gualitative Research. 2nd edition
Accounting (ori)ons *++&
A'erican Accounting Association
June
0*e consideration o4 va%ues in researc* need not 3e %i'ited to case study researc*; any type o4 researc* 'ay identi4y 6inners and %osers, and 6*at is desira3%e Ho6ever, 6e suggest t*e ric*ness o4 case studies, and t*e Dt*ic8nessD o4 t*eir descriptions, a%%o6s 'ore in+dept* discussion and ana%ysis o4 t*ese co'p%e9 and dyna'ic issues t*an ot*er researc* approac*es /n particu%ar, t*e case researc*er can ana%yze ite's t*at are not easi%y 'easured, or ite's 6*ose cost o4 'easure'ent is so *ig* as to 3e pro*i3itive across a %arge sa'p%e
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Accounting (ori)ons *++&
June

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Case Study Research in Accounting

Case -tudy .esearc* in Accounting

David J Cooper and Wayne Morgan

$ %&Cooper and 'organ