Chen3 Shpyrko 1 Chernobyl: Recognizing Human Rights and Responsibilities in the Nuclear Industry Annotated Bibliography

Primary sources (36):

Andropov, Yuri. "Shortcomings in the Construction of the Chernobyl AEhS." Letter to CPSU CC General Department. 21 Feb. 1979. . Nuclear Proliferation International History Project. Wilson Center Digital Archive. Web. 2 Jan. 2014. In a letter published several years before the Chernobyl disaster, Andropov, then chairman of KGB, documents deviations from design and breaches of construction protocol. He states that this may lead to accidents, and then lists certain weak features of the design of the reactors. Andropov also claims a lack of attention being paid to the safety and quality of the construction, which he states has led to one hundred and seventy people receiving work-related injuries. This letter demonstrates the Soviets negligence toward proper safety protocol and the construction of safe power plants.

"A Witness' View Of Chernobyl Disaster Soviet Expert Says A Simulation Of Reactor Accident Turned Into The Real Thing." Chicago Tribune [Chicago] 27 Nov. 1988: n. pag. Print. This primary source features Sergei Gazin, a former worker at the Chernobyl nuclear reactor and a first-hand witness/observer of the explosion. Gazin gives a succinct closeup of what really went behind the closed doors of the Chernobyl nuclear station. As a victim of the harmful radiation himself, he also offers an insightful vision towards the brightness of nuclear future. In particular, he believes that the workers in the reactor failed to fulfill their safety responsibilities, which ultimately ruined the right of the USSR to further expand its nuclear power plants.

Associated Press. "SOVIET STATEMENT AND TASS DISPATCH ON CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT." New York Times. The New York Times Company, 6 May 1986. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. A translation of a statement made by the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union in conjunction with a report by Pravda, this New York Times article demonstrates the extent to which the Soviet Union attempted to cover up the severity of the situation. TASS assures the public that radiation levels are decreasing and that a swift evacuation has been executed. Additionally, the presence of heroic firemen, according to TASS, helps to alleviate the aftermath of the explosion directly as a result of their bravery and courage. In a final bout of propaganda, TASS insists that there is no panic among the population except a few individuals, that Western news agencies had been creating a false sense of

Chen3 Shpyrko 2 panic, and that the situation is wholly under control in part due to the brave volunteers who helped in evacuating the region. This description demonstrates a lack of responsibility on the part of the Soviet government in providing accurate information to the public.

B., Sergei. "Interview with a Chernobyl Liquidator: Sergei B." Interview by Mark Resnicoff. Chernobyl and Eastern Europe. Mark Resnicoff, n.d. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. Resnicoff interviews an army reservist who also volunteered as a liquidator in the Chernobyl disaster. In the interview Sergei B. provides interesting and significant details about his experience in Chernobyl. He and other volunteers did not know of the severity of the situation until weeks after he arrived at the disaster site, and the dosages of radiation accumulated by him and other workers were lowered in documents. After his volunteer work, Sergei experienced a number of health issues. Additionally, residents living near the Chernobyl site did not believe the radiation was a threat. Sergei also expresses surprise at the Soviet cover-up of the disaster and indicates that it was a factor that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. Despite the accident, Sergei believes that nuclear power is completely safe and potentially necessary. The interview questions both the potency of the Soviet government in its responsibility to inform its people of major events and to protect basic human rights, and also the safety of nuclear power with respect to human rights.

Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster - in Pictures. 1986. Photograph. The Guardian. By Igor Kostin. theguardian.com, 26 Apr. 2011. Web. 06 Oct. 2013. These photographs from The Guardian, give the group a visual of the Chernobyl Disaster and its aftermath. Captions below the photographs detail the events taking place and provide interesting bits of information on the figures, effects, such as giant, mutated plants, and events involved in the Chernobyl Accident. The group can now consider the Chernobyl Accident form a visual standpoint. A few captions present some helpful details. One reveals that the Soviet government ordered three men to climb the steps of a chimney stack sitting directly on top of the Chernobyl power station in order to hoist a red flag on the chimneys summit. This exposed the men to enormous doses of radiation, so much radiation that the Soviet government only expected the operation to last a mere nine minutes. Another caption explained that a picture taken in 1989 was of a protest demanding the government make public secret Chernobyl documents, revealing that three years after the accident the Soviet government was still not willing to tell its citizens the truth of the Chernobyl Accident. These two incidents support the arguments that the Soviet Union violated both the right of its citizens to know the full impact of a disaster that directly threatened and could still potentially threaten them and the safety of its workers.

Chen3 Shpyrko 3 "Chicago Ukrainian Family Shares First-hand Account of Chernobyl." WBEZ. WBEZ, 28 Apr. 2011. Web. 5 Oct. 2013. This interview on WBEZ news offers a thorough and adequate first-hand account of the Chernobyl accident and its subsequent madness. A Ukranian family living in Chicago recounts their indirect experience of the Chernobyl disaster, where they evacuated from their home in Kiev and dealt with many difficulties afterwards. For instance, the familys mother explains the absence of government regulation immediately following the accident, forcing many people (including themselves) to develop self-reliance and selfcommunities of people helping each other, which was often ineffective. This point, along with other points about illnesses and government dishonesty, are significant in the greater analysis of how Chernobyl disaster manifested the incompetence and irresponsibility on behalf of the government to control health and nuclear matters.

"CONSTITUTION(FUNDAMENTAL LAW)." 1977 Constitution of the USSR, Part I. Bucknell University, 1996. Web. 07 Oct. 2013. This is the 1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union published by Bucknell University. This was the third and last constitution adopted by the Soviet Union and it was ratified during the Brezhnev era, the preceding time period of the Gorbachev era in which the Chernobyl disaster took place. It states in the constitution in Article 9 that the Soviet Union would seek greater transparency and responsiveness to the public. Also, in Article 42, it states that the citizens of the USSR have the right to health protection. It has been made clear in the Soviet Constitution the many rights of its citizen.

Daum, Christine, and Igor Kostin. ""The Vodka Was Supposed to Cleanse Our Thyroid Glands" Igor Kostin on His Chernobyl Photos." Eurozine.com. Eurozine, 02 Jan. 2014. Web. 02 Jan. 2014. In an interview by Eurozine, a European net magazine as well as a network of European cultural journals with over 80 partner journals and just as many partner magazines and institutions, Chernobyl photographer Igor Kostin recounts his work concerning the Chernobyl Accident. Kostin recalls that his first pictures of the Chernobyl Accident came after he visited the power plant hours after the accident occurred. He also reveals that this trip was illegal as he was forbidden to photograph Chernobyl until the 5th of May. Kostin then explains that TASS refused to publish these photographs in an effort to conceal the extent of the catastrophe. Kostin goes on to say that the Soviet government urged liquidators to drink vodka as this would supposedly cleanse them of radiation. These two incidents illustrate how the Soviet government violated the right of its citizens to know the extent of a disaster directly affecting them and in its responsibility to protect their health.

Chen3 Shpyrko 4 Deputy Press Secretary Larry Speakes, "U.S. Reaction to the Chernobyl Explosion," Making the History of 1989. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. A description of the United States response to the Chernobyl accident in 1986, this brief account contains measures taken by the United States both to provide assistance if necessary and to document any possible damage to the states. It is determined that any radiation reaching the United States would be of minimal concern due to dispersion. Additionally, it is implied that some data is made available from the Soviets, but that the United States wishes that the Soviet Union provide more information as it is made available. Finally, it is addressed that the Soviet Union has not informed the United States about the precautions they are taking in protecting United States citizens in the affected area, which is implied to be part of its responsibility.

Eaton, William J. "Soviets Report Nuclear Accident : Radiation Cloud Sweeps Northern Europe; Termed Not Threatening." Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, 29 Apr. 1986. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. An article from the Los Angeles Times, this source further details the conditions under which the Soviet government indicated the presence of a nuclear accident. It is indicated that countries expected the radiation not to present any considerable danger and additionally expected a return to normal. The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union made a statement that this was the first accident in Soviet history. However, exiled Soviet scientists remarked that a similar accident had occurred in 1958. The article also indicates that the Soviets denied any knowledge of an accident when the Swedish embassy asked about a radiation leak, but later reported that there had indeed been an accident. It is also indicated that safety standards in the Soviet Union were poor and that the West should demand higher safety standards after the lack of communication in relation to the accident. The Soviets maintain that nuclear plants are acceptable forms of energy and pose no greater danger than a conventional facility. Also, TASS, although having written three paragraphs on the accident in Chernobyl, wrote a further eight paragraphs explaining nuclear accidents in the United States. The inconsistency in the reporting of the Soviet Union indicates a flaw in the handling of issues by its government with respect to its responsibility and shows disregard for the safety of its people as well as those of other countries.

Fairhall, David, and Martin Walker. "Russia Admits Blast as Death Fears Rise." The Guardian [New York] 30 Apr. 1986. Theguardian. Guardian News and Media Limited. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. In this article from The Guardian, it is shown that the Soviet government admitted the incidence of a disaster three days after its occurrence, once Scandinavia had already begun to detect abnormal radiation levels. However, the Soviet government downplays the situation, describing the event more as an accident than as a disaster. Additionally, it reports that only two deaths had been confirmed and that the total death count was in the

Chen3 Shpyrko 5 tens -- this contrasts with Western news reports, which stated that the death count could be as high as 2000. Certain indications, such as the transfer of nuclear decontamination teams from Poland, Czechoslovakia and East Germany, indicate a more severe accident than is reported by the Soviets. Both the United States and Britain requested more information from the Soviets. The article deals with the responsibility of the Soviet government in distributing detailed and accurate information, as well as the responsibilities of nuclear power.

Fusco, Paul. "Chernobyl." Magnum in Motion RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Sept. 2013. A photo album by Paul Fusco illustrates the legacy of Chernobyl through pictures and a spoken narration using his own voice. The album contains a grand total of 37 photos. This is a different kind of primary source now providing a visual perspective to the legacy of the Chernobyl disaster.

Gorbachev, Mikhail. "Turning Point at Chernobyl." Project Syndicate RSS. Project-syndicate.org, 14 Apr. 2006. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. Written by Mikhail Gorbachev, former head of state of the Soviet Union and recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, for Project Syndicate, a news organization relying on articles written by statesmen, activists, economists, businesses leaders and others prominent in their fields, this article is a contradiction of the traditional view that Perestroika caused the collapse of the Soviet Union. Instead Mr. Gorbachev suggests that Chernobyl was the likely cause of the Soviet Union's collapse. Mr. Gorbachev also insists that the Soviet Government did not cover up Chernobyl and that the government failed to inform its citizens and the world about the Chernobyl Accident, as they did not realize the scale of disaster until a few days had passed. Mr. Gorbachev then goes on to give a positive report of the governments response to the disaster. This article presents a unique point of view, which will help decide if the Soviet Union should be absolved of any responsibility to warn its people about the disaster.

Grogan, David. "An Eyewitness to Disaster, Soviet Fireman Leonid Telyatnikov Recounts the Horror of Chernobyl." People 5 Oct. 1987: 57-61. People.com. Time Inc. Web. 6 Oct. 2013. Leonid Telyatnikov is a Soviet fireman who was called to the scene of the Chernobyl accident. He notes specifically the horror of the details surrounding the disaster. Even though the radiation level surpassed the readable limit of the dosimeters that had been supplied, Telyatnikov and other firefighters were supplied only with water hoses, standard uniform, and gas masks. As a result, they were exposed to the extremely high radiation levels that were present, and many of the firefighters later died. The impact of the radiation on Telyatnikov leaves him feeling, as he describes himself, like an AIDS patient. Despite his unfortunate condition, Telyatnikov does not blame the Soviet

Chen3 Shpyrko 6 government for this outcome, but instead refers to the malapropos practices of the plant management, stating that with more appropriate and careful conduct, the accident could have been prevented. This raises questions regarding the safety of nuclear plants in general and the responsibilities that must be maintained by plant operators. "How the Public Was Informed." [Moscow] 26 May 1986: 4. Defense Technical Information Center. Web. 13 Oct. 2013. This is the Soviets' own chronology of events. The newspaper indicates that information regarding the accident was released after two days, and that in the following week the Soviet Union informed various governments and relevant agencies about the accident. Additionally, conferences were held and interview questions were answered by Soviets. On May 13 diplomats in a large number of countries were given "detailed explanations" of the condition of Chernobyl. Gorbachev announces the measures that were being taken the day after. Soviet press recognizes that outside sources had accused the Soviet government of withholding necessary information, and releases this timeline to prove that they were transmitting important information. It is interesting to note that there is a two week delay between the accident and a statement by Gorbachev, and also that the newspaper writes about the "information available at that time" whereas outside sources indicate that there was more information available than was given. In either case, the importance of broadcasting important environment information, and its relevance to the responsibility of the Soviet Union, is confirmed by all involved parties.

Itkes, Peter. E-mail interview. 5 Jan. 2014.

James, Nickel. "Human Rights." Stanford University. Stanford University, 07 Feb. 2003. Web. 06 Oct. 2013. This article, written for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, delves deep into the concept of human rights. The article states what they are, ranging from environmental and social to political and civil rights, whom they belong to and goes on to cover regional arrangements for human rights and the UNs role in shaping these rights. An understanding of human rights will allow the group to better interpret if the Soviet Union violated the human rights of its citizens by keeping them uninformed about the Chernobyl Accident and by doing little in the initial phases of the disaster to protect them. And, as I am quite convinced that the Soviet Union did in fact violate the rights of its citizens, will probably help me identify specifically which rights the Soviet Union violated.

Johnson, Paul M. "Communism." Auburn.edu. Auburn University, n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2013.

Chen3 Shpyrko 7 Created by a professor of Auburn University for his students, this glossary gives the definition of the word Communism, explaining its ideology of classless society, communal ownership of property and its ending of all major social problems and supposed creation of a utopia. This definition will help the group better understand the philosophical foundations the Soviet Union was built upon, and will therefore allow for a better understanding of whether the Soviet Union violated its own philosophical principles and its own concept of rights and responsibilities in its actions, or inaction, during the Chernobyl Accident.

Makukhin, A. N. URGENT REPORT, ACCIDENT AT CHERNOBYL ATOMIC POWER STATION. Issue brief. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Wilson Center Digital Archive. Wilson Center. Web. 02 Jan. 2014. Provided by the Wilson Center, a United States Presidential Memorial, part of the Smithsonian Institution and prestigious think tank, this report on the Chernbyl Accident sent on the day of the accident to Gorbachev from the Soviet Minister of Power and Electrification details the initial consequences of the disaster. The report mentions that a reactor in the Chernobyl power plant exploded and that workers are attempting to control the situation. The report also mentions that the 3rd Main Directorate of the USSR Ministry of Health believes evacuations are unnecessary and that 9 plant personnel and 25 militarized firefighters had been hospitalized. These details reveal that the Soviet government was informed on the events unfolding at Chernobyl, however none of this information was released to the public proving that the Soviet government failed in its responsibility to warn its citizens of disasters that could directly affect them.

Neef, Christian. "'This Reactor Model Is No Good': Documents Show Politburo Skepticism of Chernobyl." Der Spiegel n.d.: n. pag. SPIEGEL ONLINE. Spiegel.de. Web. 02 Jan. 2014. This news article from Der Spiegel, a popular and respected German news magazine, reports on and gives a series of quotes from the politburo illustrating how the culture of secrecy and deception within the Soviet Union ultimately lead to the Chernobyl Accident. The article states that Soviet officials knew from the beginning that the design of the reactors used in the Chernobyl Power Station was unsafe, but that resistance from the Academy of Sciences and the Ministry of Medium Machine Building prevented this knowledge from reaching the higher levels of government. The article follows by revealing that reactors of the same type or similar to those in Chernobyl were operating near major population centres such as Kursk and Leningrad giving possibility to the occurrence of a second Chernobyl. These descriptions show the failure of the Soviet government in protecting the public through its neglect of the safety of its nuclear reactors.

"Nuclear Nightmare Is Here." Daily Express 30 Apr. 1986. Web. 5 Jan. 2014.

Chen3 Shpyrko 8 This newspaper article from the Daily Express is an example of the exaggeration of the initial effects of the accident, as suggested by the title. It describes the events immediately following the accident, and predicts that twenty-eight rescue workers and staff would die in the following weeks. It also states that the Soviet Union attempted to cover up the accident until workers in the Forsmark nuclear power station noticed radioactivity surpassing warning levels. However, the authorities denied the existence of the accident. The article, especially its title, is a demonstration of the panic that western news media created when they reported deaths in the thousands and tens of thousands without substantial evidence or knowledge.

Paschyn, Christina Maria. "Chernobyl's Lone Woman Survivor Shares Her Story of Courage."Global Room for Women. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Oct. 2013. Globel Room for Women, a site that bases itself around helping ambitious women get their voice heard, offers a semi-primary source about Chernobyl. The beginning of the article is about Natalia Manzurova, a nuclear engineer who was ordered to go clean and clear up the Chernobyl power plant after the accident. The Chernobyl accident and her work there cleaning up, she says, exposed her not only to radiation that caused her several illnesses but also the disturbing discovery of pre-mature baby fetuses from women who were ordered by the soviet government to give pre-mature birth. She expresses her strong contempt towards the dis-organization of Soviet politics and information communication. Her statements are then followed by Robert Alvarez, a nuclear expert at the Institute for Policy Studies, who expands on the severity of Chernobyl by comparing it to Japans Fukushimas recent nuclear disaster. He concludes by saying that while Chernobyl and Fukushimas reactors differed greatly, both their disasters inflicted numerous health problems on innocent victims that shouldve been prevented by government measures. Manzurova, too, ends the article with a final thought by mentioning that new safer energy measures should be adopted in favor of unsafe nuclear energy, and that ultimately it is the peoples responsibility to speak up about their safeness from energy activities.

Orlov, Alex. "Witness." Interview. Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, 19 Apr. 2006. Web. 07 Oct. 2013. Alex Orlov, a Ukrainian adult who experienced the Chernobyl accident evacuation during his childhood, is interviewed on the spiritual and mental transformations that he underwent as a result of Chernobyl. He exposes many important life changes that occured due to the Chernobyl disaster. Perhaps Orlovs most important mention is how the Chernobyl event shaped his career and influenced/motivated him to become an environmental scientist. This decision, he claims, was from wanting to help improve environment conditions and to prevent countries (like Ukraine and USSR) from neglecting environment responsibilties. Thus, Alex Orlov offers this insightful view on how the USSR had behaved negligently towards environmental and nuclear concerns,

Chen3 Shpyrko 9 leading to the ultimate madness and chaos that wouldve otherwise been prevented from simple responsible behaviors.

Schmemann, Serge. "Soviet Announces Nuclear Accident at Electric Plant." Soviet Announces Nuclear Accident at Electric Plant. The New York Times, 28 Apr. 1986. Web. 13 Oct. 2013. This article was printed two days after the Chernobyl accident by the New York Times. The Soviet Union announced the accident after the Scandinavian countries reported high levels of radioactivity. At the time, American experts said that the accident would likely not affect nations beyond the Soviet Union, which is apparently, quite an incorrect and uninformed conclusion. This indicates insufficient information being released to the public, for such conclusions would not have been drawn if the scope of the disaster was specified. Also, the Soviet Union also made a statement that the Chernobyl accident was the first ever accident at a Soviet nuclear plant, which many sources we have found discredits this claim as false. This point of view confirms the fact that the Soviet Union has withheld substantial information regarding the Chernobyl disaster, given the unalarming tone of the article.

Siegelbaum, Lewis. "Meltdown in Chernobyl." Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. In SovietHistory.org, several significant events are elaborated and explored through the use of primary sources. Among these events includes Chernobyl, which is supported by several primary documents from the KGB (written in Russian). The archive summary is a short and helpful translation (English) of all the documents as a whole. Towards the end of the summary, the translator blatantly states that the soviet government had failed tremendously in serving its people. Examples such as secrecy, deception, disregard for safety and welfare, and inability to provide services such as health care and transportation illuistrated the fault of the government on behalf of its people. As a result, the people would protest for their independence in 1991 out of anger towards their unfulfilled rights.

Sirota, Liubov. A Voice From Dead Pripyat. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Web. Liubov Sirota was on her porch one night in her native home of Pripyat, when she witnessed the Chernobyl reactor explode, which provoked her to write the collection of powerful, emotional poems. In her poems, Sirota expresses a hopeless mood/atmosphere aroused by the Chernobyl accident. Through her indirect vocabulary and elaborate description, that are all from her own point of view, she discusses the pain felt by average Soviet citizens. In her greater extended metaphor, it is implied that the true cause of shame and sadness felt by many citizens was the incompetence of government to protect its citizens from nuclear radiation. Thus, the irresponsibility of the government and the

Chen3 Shpyrko 10 deserved rights of the citizens to be granted life and protection manifests itself in the authors declining Soviet pride (including the collapse of the USSR itself).

Smolyak, Dana. "A Witness Remembers Chernobyl on 25th Anniversary of Disaster." The Progressive. N.p., 25 Apr. 2011. Web. 20 Dec. 2013. Dana Smolyk recounts her experience as an evacuator from Ukraine during the Chernobyl accident. In her brief recall, Dana explains the procedures and protocols her family was forced to undergo by order of Soviet authorities. Often times the orders were mis-informed and were weak against the threat of radiation. One instance was when her family was told to seal their windows shut by replacing it with wood. Little did they know, the wood served of little protection against radiation. Not to mention, Dana, her family and others in their community felt unshakable fear that arose from the accident and the delayed rescue from authorities. The article as a whole serves as a strong illustration of the health and informative news rights that many people living in the USSR lost within the blink of an eye, which was caused by faulty management by Soviet government officials, evacuating authorities and other high-duty personnel.

Soviet Union. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS. Moscow: Novosti Agency House, 1985. 1977 Constitution of the USSR, Part I. Bucknell.edu. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. The Constitution of the Soviet Union, in its final form, provided by Bucknell University, details the workings of the Soviet Union. Most importantly, Section II defines and lays the boundaries of the rights, freedoms and duties of citizens of the USSR. This section appears to grant Soviet citizens political and civil rights, such as freedom of speech and religion, similar to those of western nations, however certain articles in this section and one in the first severely limit these rights. The extent these freedoms apply will help determine if the Soviet government had the right to suppress and manipulate information about the Chernobyl Accident.

Times Wire Services. "Soviets Blame Atom Disaster on Negligence." Los Angeles Times 20 July 1986. Los Angeles Times. Web. 6 Oct. 2013. Taken from the Los Angeles Times, this 1986 newspaper article offers a different perspective on the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. Specifically, instead of referencing government neglect in transmitting vital information and taking necessary measures to protect its people, the blame is placed on the workers that were operating the plant at the time of the incident. The article states that workers showed negligent behavior in supervising, preparing, and maintaining safety with respect to the operation of the nuclear plant. It is indicated that the accident was caused by breaches of regulations regarding the operation of the power plant, and that the perpetrators would be put on trial. An additional result of this was the creation of an Atomic Power Engineering

Chen3 Shpyrko 11 Ministry that would increase the standards of safety and regulations on such practices relating to nuclear power. This therefore indicates that the Chernobyl accident is related to responsibility not only on part of the government, but also to the responsibilities of the workers on the site at the time of the accident.

USSR Report, Political and Sociological Affairs, Aftermath of Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident. [United States]: Joint Publications Research Service Arlington Va, 1986. Dtic.mil. Defense Technical Information Center. Web. 12 Sept. 2013. This source contains a list of many passages translated into English. They cover everything from the day of the accident to Soviets views of the effects of the accident to reports on the danger of the nuclear industry. The articles are classified into five groups: nuclear plant fire, sealing reactor, evacuation, cleanup mobilization, and environment and health. While many are irrelevant to our research, some are extremely useful in providing a viewpoint of the Soviets responsibility in dealing with the situation. Velikhov, Yevgeniy. "We Were Born for Creation." [Moscow] 3 June 1986, First Edition ed.: 3. Defense Technical Information Center. Web. 14 Oct. 2013. An article written by Yevgeniy Velikhov illustrates a shift in thoughts regarding nuclear power following the Chernobyl disaster. Velikhov, an academician, insists that anyone who witnessed the scope of the accident recognizes the immediate danger of nuclear weapons and the necessity to eliminate them. Despite this, the report ensures that Chernobyl poses no lasting consequences, and that the real danger lies in western countries and their stockpiles of weapons that could hit Chernobyl reactors. The report also indicates that Gorbachev has made a statement suggesting to rid the threat of nuclear war. Thus, it explains the responsibilities related to retaining nuclear devices and a responsibility to maintain that nuclear war does not occur, but it also shows the Soviets' redirection of focus from the consequences of Chernobyl to the consequences of a cruise missile in the Netherlands hitting another reactor, adding to the speculation that not enough information had been provided about the disaster at Chernobyl.

Volkov, Andrey. "Chernobyl Plant Worker Shares Painful Memories." The Epoch Times. N.p., 8 Apr. 2011. Web. 09 Oct. 2013. In an interview with Nikolai Vsisovich, a former worker at the Chernobyl power plant and one of the only survivors, valuable insights about health and nuclear energy matters are explained. In a clear and concise manner, Vsisovich gives his narrative about the unfolding of events when the Chernobyl reactor exploded. He narrates his own experience as a worker who was forced by the government to stay behind and clean up the radioactive waste. Afterwards he explains the brutal diseases and health problems that he picked up that have persisted to this day. From this, he transitions into the greater significance of nuclear activity and energy consumption. Like many nuclear workers, he

Chen3 Shpyrko 12 uses Fukushimas nuclear disaster to compare Chernobyls accident. Using this helpful comparison, Vsisovich states his prominent view of how nuclear reactors are too risky, especially for the health of those around. Chernobyl and Japan, he insists, should use their disasters as lessons for enacting stricter political reforms to control nuclear reactors. Or, they could simply turn to new, less risky energy routes to guarantee the right to good health for all citizens.

"Word for Word: Chernobyl Witnesses;After Meltdown, Unsung Heroes Talk of Rads, Duty and Vodka." New York Times 21 Apr. 1996: n. pag. New York Times. Web. 10 Nov. 2013. In an interview with Yuri Korneev, a Chernobyl operator whose task involved shutting down the turbine during an emergency test on April 26, 1986, several details and behindthe-scenes aspects are revealed. He explains his actions and conditions within his duty room, followed by his alarming, confused reaction to the explosion. His narrative helps get a close-up of what many workers had to go through during and after the disaster. After mentioning the tragic deaths, injuries and health problems that he experienced and/or witnessed in his co-workers, Korneev asserts his belief that him and the workers were not prepared for such an accident, and had no training in working in radioactive conditions. The immediate handling of the situation, according to him, was an extreme failure on behalf of the workers, firemen and rescuers who behaved irresponsibly not only for their own health but towards the many innocent USSR victims who had the right to be protected from radiation.

Yaroshinskaya, Alla. "The Big Lie." Eurozine 21 Apr. 2006: n. pag. Web. 15 Dec. 2013. In this article by Russian journalist Alla Yaroshinskaya, the topic of discussion is the secrecy of the USSR, particularly with regards to the Chernobyl accident. Yaroshinskaya was able to get a hold of many hidden documents from the USSR government archive folders. These include hospital and public health records of accurate numbers of people who were irradiated and/or hospitalized. Throughout her article, the author integrates excerpts and quote passages from several of these secret documents. Each excerpt is then followed by a brief analysis of the quote and its contradicting relation to publicly exposed statistics. In one example, Yaroshinskaya explains that in a particular incident, once hospital patients reached above 10,000, some victims suffering from radiation were automatically released as healthy. This was done for simplicity sake and money, as the USSR couldnt afford to take care of so many people. In conclusion, the article is helpful in that it highlights key points of statistics and other important information that was concealed by the untruthful Soviet government. This in turn shows just how negligent the soviet government was towards many of its own internal affairs and problems, leading to its own destruction due to frustration from hidden health reports.

Yaroshinskaya, Alla. "Chernobyl's Dirty Secrets." Editorial. Moscow Times 28 Apr. 2011: n. pag. The Moscow Times. Themoscowtimes.com, 28 Apr. 2011. Web. 02 Jan. 2014.

Chen3 Shpyrko 13 Alla Yaroshinskaya, a Ukrainian politician and journalist, criticizes the Soviet governments handling of the Chernobyl Accident in this article for The Moscow Times. Yaroshinskaya states that in order to accommodate the massive influx of patients after the accident the Soviet government approved new levels of radiation exposure for the public 10 or even 50 times former levels. She goes on to write that for the purposes of concealing the true extent of the radiation exposure Soviet authorities began resettling formerly evacuated areas only two months after the disaster. Yaroshinskaya then adds that the politburo ordered contaminated meat to be mixed with non-contaminated meat in a 1 to 10 ratio and to have it distributed across the country to be consumed by unsuspecting citizens, thus exposing even more people to harmful doses of radiation. These examples reveal the Soviet government's callousness towards its responsibility to protect the health of its citizens.

Yasyulenis, R., V. Luyanas, and T. Nedveskayte. SECOND REPORT ON RADIATION LEVELS IN LITHUANIA FOLLOWING THE CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT. Rep. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Wilsoncenter.org. Wilson Center. Web. 02 Jan. 2014. Composed by the Lithuanian Academy of Science this report provided by the Wilson Center, a United States Presidential Memorial, part of the Smithsonian Institution and prestigious think tank, summarizes the levels of radiation detected in the atmosphere and food produced in Lithuania or imported from other Soviet Republics in the few months following the Chernobyl Accident. The report states that a sharp rise in atmospheric radiation levels occurred in late April, up to 50 times higher than Soviet standards for safe levels of exposure. It also reveals that certain foods contained dangerously high levels of radiation. These illustrations reveal that the Soviet government was informed regarding the amount of radiation present within the air and in food, however this information was not made public and the government still allowed large amounts of radioactive food to be consumed showing that the government ignored the right of the public to know information affecting their health and did not fulfill its responsibility to guard public health.

Secondary sources (47):

01, January. "New Fallout From Chernobyl : THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF THE CHERNOBYL DISASTER by David R. Marples (St. Martin's Press: $35, Cloth; $14.95, Paper; 316 Pp., Illustrated; 0-312-02432-0)." Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, 01 Jan. 1989. Web. 06 Oct. 2013.

In New York Times, James Oberg reviews The Social Impact of The Chernobyl Disaster with overall positive commentary and approval. He describes the book as the best non-soviet written analysis of the Chernobyl event, as it explains in detail a myriad of different points about Chernobyl. Oberg prominently notes how the author of the book

Chen3 Shpyrko 14 constantly brings up many propaganda and dishonest policies that epitomized the flaws in Soviet society and government. The USSRs propaganda applied to many aspects of Chernobyl, such as the causes and health effects of Chernobyl. James Oberg also demonstrates appreciation for the authors well thought out analysis of the USSRs paradoxical Glasnost policy, since it contradicted with the untruthful cover-up of the Chernobyl disaster. Ultimately, Oberg helps point out the books significance in that the book explores Chernobyls greater legacy on nuclear, government, and health effects.

Bohlen, Celestine. "Chernobyl Was Test Case for Gorbachev's Policy of Openness." The Washington Post 26 Apr. 1987, A SECTION sec.: A.21. Highbeam Research. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. This article written by The Washington Post and published on the database Highbeam Research analyzes the impact of Glasnost on the transmittance of information regarding the Chernobyl disaster. It indicated that, although almost 500 articles on the accident had appeared in Soviet news within a week, the information within these articles is sparse and incomprehensive. The absence of important statistics leads to Moscow News describing the fact that it became harder to obtain information despite openness. Additionally, most accounts of Chernobyl hinged on the brave actions of firemen and volunteers, not on the matters important to the safety of the people following the accident. A secondary impact of the accident was the questioning of the viability of nuclear power due to safety concerns. Despite this, the Soviet Union remained adamant in its decision to double its nuclear program within four years. The article addresses issues with Glasnost and its inability to propagate openness in that official reports lacked necessary information, as well as issues concerning nuclear safety, both of which relate to responsibility.

Charles, Monty. "CHERNOBYL: CONSEQUENCES OF THE CATASTROPHE FOR PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT ." Radiation Protection Dosimetry (2011): 101-04. University of Birmingham. Web. 2 Jan. 2014. Monty Charles, a professor of the University of Birmingham, delivers a scathing review of the book Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment in this critical review. Charles states that the research upon which the book is based suffers from major shortcomings. He explains that many important studies and reports regarding the impacts of the Chernobyl accident, as well as those contradicting their claims have been excluded, that the widely accepted concept of cause and effect is discounted by the authors and that there are also numerous scientific flaws present within the book. Charles declares that these shortcomings make the book heavily biased and therefore not scientifically viable. He concludes that the book gives an exaggerated rather than accurate representation of the consequences of the Chernobyl Accident. This review shows that the Soviet government may have acted more appropriately in its responsibility to protect the health of its citizens than originally thought.

Chen3 Shpyrko 15 The Chernobyl' Accident: Social and Political Implications. Rep. N.p.: CIA, 1987. The Chernobyl' Accident: Social and Political Implications. CIA. Web. 6 Oct. 2013. Issued by the Central Intelligence Agency, this report contains information concerning the Soviet government's coverup of the Chernobyl Accident, providing details such as the KGBs confiscation of radiation monitoring equipment and the Kremlins silence on the disaster. The report also reports the justification by Soviet officials that the coverup was necessary to prevent panic among the public. The Soviet Unions Propaganda Counterattack is also covered in this report, and propaganda techniques such as accusing the foreign press of creating hysteria and creating scapegoats out of a handful of low level officials are explicitly listed. The report further covers the callous actions of the government, such as evacuating the ruling class shortly after the disaster while keeping the public in the dark, and the tremendous cost in terms of health, damages etc. of the disaster. The article goes on to state that in the aftermath of the Chernobyl Accident widespread unrest and resentment against the Soviet government had arisen among the populace. This information will help judge if the Soviet government really was justified in covering up the Chernobyl Accident in order to prevent large scale panic. The report will also aid the group in determining whether the actions of the Soviet Union after the accident represent a failure in its responsibility to govern and a violation of the rights of its citizens to know the truth.

"Chernobyl Accident 1986." World Nuclear Association. World Nuclear Association, n.d. Web. 12 Sept. 2013. The World Nuclear Association provides an extremely detailed and thorough explanation of the entire Chernobyl disaster. The WNA, an official organization for global nuclear matters, uncovers the roots, circumstances, characteristics and consequences of the Chernobyl accident as a whole. Although it is mostly scientific and is more interested in the chemical aspects of Chernobyl, such as nuclear physics and chemical health effects, the source still employs a very close narrative of all events. Furthermore, the source briefly comments on the legacy of nuclear rights and responsibilities and how they have changed/developed in Europe (and the globe) ever since.

"Chernobyl Cover-up a Catalyst for glasnost." Msnbc.com. NBC NEWS, n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. Used by NBC News, this news article written by the Associated Press covers how the Chernobyl Accident and the following cover-up emboldened the Soviet media and opened the way for the application of the Soviet policy of Glasnost. The article then relates how this policy lead to the collapse of the Soviet Union. In doing this the article details how the failure of the Soviet Government to act on its responsibility to warn its people of the Chernobyl Accident lead to the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Chen3 Shpyrko 16 Chernobyl: Environmental, Health, and Human Rights Implications. 47. Permanent People's Tribunal. 12-15 Apr. 1996. This session on the human rights of Chernobyl victims centers on the population of Belarus, which experienced the greatest effect of Chernobyl's radiation. According to the speakers, the people's rights are violated because they have no clear information. Additionally, according to the same speaker, only sixteen percent of children in Moghilev are healthy. Additional aspects of the victims' human rights include payment due to disability and other compensation, and "social protection" in accordance was a law created in Russia in 1991 during democratic reforms. However, certain aspects of the law are a violation of citizens' rights as they contradict the Constitution of the Russian Federation. The tribunal also analyzes the various dangers of nuclear power and asserts that a fundamental part of human rights is the ability to take part in and influence one's environment. Thus it provides details about the extent and nature of human rights concerning the victims, how these rights have been violated, as well as whether there is a clear indication of the individuals responsible for the victims' conditions and their obligations in such actions as compensation and recognition of liability.

"The Committee For Nuclear Responsibility." The Committee For Nuclear Responsibility. Web. 05 Jan. 2014. This source is created by the Committee for Nuclear Responsibility, an organization founded by nuclear scientist and activist, John Gofman. This website provides insight in the contributions of pro-nuclear institutions in the Soviet cover-up of the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster.

Fort, Jacques. "The Causes of The Chernobyl Event." The Causes of the Chernobyl Event(n.d.): n. pag. Nov. 2000. Web. 10 Nov. 2013. Jacques Fort, an engineer and a member of the the association of Environmentalists For Nuclear Energy, writes a scholarly analysis on the dominating factors behind the Chernobyl accident. He includes an elaborate delineation on design flaws in the Chernobyl reactor, the Soviet Unions history of building nuclear stations, and faults on behalf of nuclear station workers. Fort also analyzes the political factors behind the nuclear mismanagement, such as the cold war. The analysis is then ended with a comparison between soviet nuclear reactors and western nuclear reactors, in addition to commentary on how USSR nuclear stations have been modified to fit modern day safety regulations. Jacques Forts analysis offers helpful pieces of information that demonstrate the irresponsible and hasty actions carried out by the USSR for the sole purpose of building nuclear power stations. All in all, the lack of safety that ultimately led to the Chernobyl accident stemmed from USSR negligence towards emergency procedure outlines, design flaws and worker training - all of which otherwise deserved careful attention.

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Gee, Alastair. "Chernobyl Victims Struggle With Consequences of Radiation Exposure." US News. U.S.News & World Report, 24 Apr. 2008. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. The news article, written for U.S. News, covers the plight of former Chernobyl plant workers and liquidators, a term used for the engineers, soldiers,medics and other personnel who who worked to resolve the Chernobyl Accident. In the article the health problems and inadequate benefits Chernobyl veterans are currently entitled to and the Russian governments steady removal or watering down of the benefits Chernobyl veterans were originally entitled to is discussed. This article puts into question what responsibilities the Russian government has in caring for Chernobyl veterans and what entitlements Chernobyl veterans have rights to.

Goldstein, Steve. "Inside A Nuclear `Dead Zone' -- Cover-Up At Chernobyl." Nwsource.com. The Seattle Times, n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. Written for The Seattle Times, this news article article brings to light the Soviet cover-up of the Chernobyl Accident and its aftermath as well as the government's botched attempt to resolve the effects of the disaster. The article reveals how the Soviet government forced doctors and government officials to lie about the disaster and its effects, and how the government failed to evacuate at all, or in a timely manner citizens too close to the plant as well as the governments poor treatment of the liquidators. Therefore the article reveals how the Soviet government failed in its responsibility to warn the public of the danger of the Chernobyl Accident and its denial of the entitlements victims of the Chernobyl Accident have a right to.

Havenaar J, Rumyantzeva G, Kasyanenko A, Kaasjager K, Westermann A, van den Brink W, van den Bout J, Savelkoul J. Health Effects of Chernobyl Disaster: Illness or Illness Behavior? A Comparative General Health Survey in Two Former Soviet Regions. Environ Health Perpect.1997;105(Suppl 6):15331537. doi: 10.2307/3433666 In the scholarly journal health article about Chernobyl, two groups of Russian speaking citizens, one from Belarus and another from Russia, each underwent a general health survey. The studies that were carried out measured the physiological and psychological scores of the individuals in both groups and compared the averages between both groups. In conclusion, the study overall determined that the radiation-exposed group scored more poorly than the non-exposed group. However, a significant conclusion was that both groups experienced greater psychological damage than that of their physical condition. From this, the researchers inferred that the Chernobyl disaster had caused long-term stress and mental disorders to many people in surrounding regions. The fact that mental stress stress overpowered physical symptoms showed the instability of peoples faith and pride in the soviet social system, which had greatly disturbed/ruined their health rights.

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"The Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident." UNDP and UNICEF, 25 Jan. 2002. Web. 13 Sept. 2013. This source contains the research and studies commissioned by the agencies of the UN on the effects of the Chernobyl accident in 2002. This document also proposes several possible tactics to approach and resolve the Chernobyl issue through ecology, health, and economics. This source may not directly help answer the question of the rights of people and the responsibilities of the Soviet government, but still it provides much more accurate and definite statistics about health, environmental impacts, and economics, which can be used as evidence to support the explanation of the scope of the Chernobyl disaster.

Johnson, Paul M. "Socialism." Auburn.edu. Auburn University, n.d. Web. 11 Oct. 2013. Created by a professor of Auburn University, this web page gives a definition of the term socialism. The definition states that socialism is in essence an ideology promoting an economic system where the government runs the nation's economy and therefore controls most resources, property and the distribution of most goods and services. More importantly, the definition directly states that a socialist government is one that truly reflects the will of the people. This fact lends enormous weight to the argument that the Soviet Union blatantly compromised both its own responsibilities in governance and the rights of its people when it refused to warn of the Chernobyl Accident for days after the disaster.

Kennedy, Charles. "Chernobyl's Role in the Fall of the Soviet Union." Oil Price. N.p., Jan.-Feb. 2013. Web. 12 Sept. 2013. Charles Kennedy, in his brief article on the Oil Price website, explores the relationship between the Chernobyl disaster and the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Oil Price website centers itself around energy news and other reports and updates involving oil, nuclear topics and similar subjects. In "Chernobyl's Role in the Fall of the Soviet Union" Charles Kennedy (a well-known contributor on the site) argues that Chernobyl was the true cause of the USSR collapse. This was due to the Soviet government's delay of notifying its citizens about the radiation, which ultimately ruined the reform program Glasnost that had begun before. From this information, it is helpful to conform to the rights and responsibilities theme. For example, the Chernobyl disaster illustrated the failure of the government's responsibility to report immediately to its citizens (as part of Glasnost).

Kravchenko, Svitlana. "Is Access to Environmental Information a Fundamental Human Right?"Oregon Review of International Law 11.2 (2009): 227-66. University of Oregon.

Chen3 Shpyrko 19 University of Oregon School of Law, 2009. Web. 6 Oct. 2013. In this article from the Oregon Review of International Law, Kravchenko analyzes whether receiving information from the government is a fundamental human right. She concludes that in most cases important information cannot be withheld from the public, but also that there are specific examples of exceptions to this right. Especially relevant is an excerpt from the constitution of multiple former Soviet countries, which states that information on issues regarding life and health and environmental protection should be open and accessible to all. Additionally, Article 50 of the Constitution of Ukraine states explicitly, Everyone is guaranteed the right of free access to information about the environmental situation. No one shall make such information secret. Additionally, due to withholding of information regarding the Chernobyl disaster, schoolchildren participated in an open-air parade in Kiev five days after the accident, exposing them to radiation and causing thyroid cancer. Thus, this classifies Chernobyl as a direct environmental threat as well as a threat to the health and safety of the populace, and therefore the Soviet Unions lack of communication indicated an infringement of what is now considered to be a fundamental right. This article is important in further connecting Chernobyl to the rights of victims.

Krushelnycky, Askold. "Chernobyl Threat Ignored for Years." The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, 08 May 2003. Web. 08 Dec. 2013. In this article, Krushelnycky states that, although Soviet officials knew that Chernobyl was a disaster waiting to happen, workers ignored the warning signs that could have helped to prevent the accident from occurring. The same situation is implied by the one hundred secret files released by Ukraine regarding the fact that the plant was flawed from the beginning, including having a flawed design that meant that accidents could potentially occur. This information was released in hopes of maintaining historic truth as it had commonly been the case that the Soviet Union kept all matters secret

Lambelet, Doriane. The Contradiction Between Soviet And American Human Rights Doctrine: Reconciliation Through Perestroika And Pragmatism. Duke.edu. Duke University, n.d. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. This article written by a faculty scholar of Duke University contains information explaining the Soviet definition of the term humans rights. The article explained that what Soviets term as human rights is far different from Western conceptions of the topic. According to the article economic rights, such as the right to choose a profession, pursue an education and receive medical care play a far weightier role in the Soviet definition of humans rights than civil and political rights, though the Soviet constitution surprisingly does allow for broad civil and political rights. It is also stated that the reason for this is that Marxist doctrine considers civil and political rights to be meaningless without fully developed economic rights. The article further highlights many other distinctions between Western and Soviet perceptions of human rights; several important

Chen3 Shpyrko 20 ones being mans natural state, the importance of the individual versus society, the role of the government and the suppression of dissent. This information will be useful in determining whether the Soviet government truly did have the responsibility for warning its people of the Chernobyl Accident or if the government had the right to cover it up.

"Legasov Suicide Leads to Unanswered Questions." Legasov Suicide Leads to Unanswered Questions. Nuclear Engineering International, 19 Apr. 2006. Web. 6 Oct. 2013. This article discusses the uncertainty that revolves around Valery Legasov, the First Deputy Director of the Kurchatov Institute. He was a key member of the government commission established to investigate the causes of the Chernobyl disaster and to plan an effective solution to the disaster. After committing suicide, Legasov left memoirs and details about the significant design flaws of the Chernobyl reactor and the ignorance of the scientists towards these obvious engineering flaws. Legasov believed that the major contributor of the Chernobyl disaster was the lack of individual responsibility for the quality of work involved in Chernobyls nuclear reactor, such as welding, pipework defects, faulty valves, RMBK channel failures. Perhaps this poor quality work might have resulted from the Communist rule of government. People were disinclined towards putting effort into the quality of ones work without the given rewards provided by a free market economy. In regards to the theme, it brings forth the concept of the responsibility of individuals involved in the Chernobyl accident as opposed to only simply the responsibility of government.

Malone, Linda A. "The Chernobyl Accident: A Case Study in International Law Regulating State Responsibility for Transboundary Nuclear Pollution." College of William & Mary Law School, 1987. Web. 12 Sept. 2013. This report written in 1987 by Linda Malone, a current law professor at William and Mary, uses the Chernobyl case study to analyze international law governing transboundary nuclear pollution. At the time of the disaster, many nations have demanded compensation from the Soviet Union but without international law and regulations over nuclear reactors, these nations had no means to enforce their demands and the Soviet Union had no legal obligations for recovery. Malones report will help answer whos responsibility is it when a countrys environmental disaster (in this case the Soviet Union) extends beyond the boundaries of its own nation.

Marples, David R. The Social Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster. New York: St. Martin's, 1988. Print. In The Social Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster, David Marples explores many aspects of the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster. These include the Soviet citizens lives,

Chen3 Shpyrko 21 changes in attitude towards nuclear activities, environmental concern arises, media communications of the event and the post-accident reconstruction of the Chernobyl area. The author, a British-educated historian and economist, is a research associate with the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies at the University of Alberta. He writes and focuses mainly on the effects of the Chernobyl accident rather than the causes. In particular, he expresses his belief that the only beneficial and pragmatic effect of the entire Chernobyl disaster was the changes brought about in nuclear matters. In fact, Marples attempts to figure out if the Chernobyl accident was really responsible for urging responsibilities such as safety and government regulation in future nuclear reactors.

Marples, David R. "The Decade of Despair." CHERNOBYL-Ten Years LATER. Vol. 52. N.p.: n.p., 1996. 22-31. Print. This chapter was written by David R. Marples, a professor of history at the University of Alberta, for The Bulletin , a book published by the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, a famous organization composed of many prominent members of todays science fields and founded by the scientists and experts who worked in the Manhattan Project. The chapter mainly describes the casualties, nuclear fallout and long term health problems caused by the Chernobyl disaster. Revealingly it is shown that the Soviet governments death toll for the accident numbered at only 31 deaths. These widely inaccurate numbers stand in sharp contrast to the authors opinion that there were a minimum of 6000 deaths. The article also describes how the Soviet government classified health information regarding the Chernobyl Accident, only allowing a single and almost unreadable volume on the health effects of the disaster to be released. Furthermore the article covers how the Soviet government attributed health problems actually caused by the accident to radiophobia and sensational journalism. This information highlights how the Soviet government supplied false information to its people in order to save face and shed responsibility for the accident, strengthening the argument that the Soviet Union failed in its responsibility to perform the will of the people.

McConnell, Robert. "Remembering the Soviet Response to Chornobyl | National Review Online." National Review Online, 26 Apr. 2011. Web. 06 Oct. 2013. The author, Robert McConnell, was the co-founder of the US-Ukraine Foundation, a group dedicated to strengthening mutual relations with the US. McConnell provides a detailed timeline of the Soviet Response to Chernobyl. From the very instant of the accident, the Soviet Union gave no initial official reaction, announcements, nor warnings about the incident. A day after the Chernobyl accident, Scandinavian countries began to pick up elevated levels of radiation. On the following day, April 28, 1986, these countries publicized this information forcing the Kremlin to recognize the Chernobyl accident, but the Kremlin had downplayed the significance of the accident. Even with details leaking out of Ukraine and into the world, the Soviet Union continues to deny the truth by providing misinformation to the public. This article gives specific details about the Soviet Response which provides evidence of the Soviet ignorance towards Chernobyl.

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Melnichuk, Anna. "A Worker Recalls the Chernobyl Disaster." Washington Post. The Washington Post, 25 Apr. 2006. Web. 08 Dec. 2013. A worker recalls that in answering one of the questions he was asked at a exam for a job at the power plant, he gave three scenarios of a reactor explosion, but they were rebuked because Soviet officials ensured him that Soviet reactors could not ever explode. Unfortunately, this was proven false in 1986. He continues with a recollection of the chaos that occurred following the accident, as well as health problems that he suffered due to the disaster.

Pelzer, Norbert. "Learning the Hard Way: Did the Lessons Taught by the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident Contribute to Improving Nuclear Law?" Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2006. Web. 14 Oct. 2013. (Pg. 73 of larger document: "International Nuclear Law in the Post-Chernobyl Period." Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2006. Web. 14 Oct. 2013.) This document is written Dr. Pelzer, the Consultant in Nuclear Law and the Honorary President of the International Nuclear Law Association (INLA). The document describes the legal developments in the post-Chernobyl period in the former Soviet states. The new independent states faced the legacy of the Chernobyl accident as well as the possession of nuclear reactors like the one that malfunctioned on April 26, 1986. International nuclear treaties set in motion reassessment of existing state laws and regulations. Nuclear law established by the former Soviet states embraced a set of fundamental nuclear principles of safety, security, permission, continuous control, compensation, and international cooperation. After the accident, the Soviet Union withheld information, thus delaying proper responses towards mitigating the radiological consequences. Established at the Soviet Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution was the responsibility that activities of one State should not negatively impact other States. But yet, it was not a legal obligation for the Soviet States to notify people of a nuclear accident.

Rautenbach, Johan, Wolfram Tonhauser, and Anthony Wetherall. "Overview of the International Legal Framework Governing the Safe and Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy." Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2006. Web. 14 Oct. 2013. (Pg. 7 of larger document: "International Nuclear Law in the Post-Chernobyl Period." Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 2006. Web. 14 Oct. 2013.) This document is was created by three nuclear law professionals and was presented to the OECDs International Atomic Energy Agency and Nuclear Energy Agency regarding the progress made at Chernobyl and propositions as to possible improvements moving forward. The Chernobyl accident helped highlight the main flaws in international law and

Chen3 Shpyrko 23 regulations on nuclear energy. Radioactive chemicals were released from Chernobyl beyond the boundaries of the Soviet Union which became an international issue that required collective focus on a resolution. The authors propose an Emergency Response Network Manual which sets up a global response protocol to make containment of radiation much more efficient. In addition to this, the document also mentions increasing the safety of nuclear power plants and better radioactive waste management. The fact that these were the propositions made to improve the safety of nuclear energy use indicates that the Soviet Union didnt establish rigid enough laws and regulations on nuclear energy, that it should require the international community to be involved.

Reisch, Frigyes. "Neutron Kinetics of the Chernobyl Accident." Neutron Kinetics of the Chernobyl Accident. European Nuclear Society, 2006. Web. 05 Dec. 2013. Frigyes gives a scientific analysis of the Chernobyl accident, specifically on the topic of the positive void coefficient, a fatal characteristic of the reactor.

Rhodes, Richard. "A Matter of Risk." Nuclear Renewal: Common Sense about Ene. N.p.: n.p., 1993. N. pag. PBS. WGBH. Web. In chapter of 5 of Nuclear Renewal, Richard Rhodes (an Amiercan historian, journalist and Pultzer-Prize winner) writes a brief and succint chapter about nuclear topics. Within this chapter, there is a valuable excerpt where the Chernobyl accident is disucssed. Half of the excerpt explains the scientific and chemistry-related causes of the accident, along with the scientific severity and consequences. However, the second half of the excerpt is based on a deeper analysis of the Chernobyl nuclear station. Rhodes compares the Chernobyl reactor to the standard American nuclear reactor, explains the illusioned general public of the USSR and the propaganda of nuclear activity in the USSR. Particularly, Rhodes points out that the mis-informing by the soviet government to its people about technological issues such as Chernobyl, which is a manifestation of the incompetence of the government to abide by its responsibility of helping those governed.

"RBMK Reactors." RBMK Reactors. World Nuclear Association, June 2010. Web. 05 Dec. 2013. This article defines and explains the general design of the RBMK reactor, the same kind of reactor used at Chernobyl.

Rolston, Holmes. Rights and Responsibilities on the Home Planet. Colostate.edu. Colorado State University, n.d. Web. 11 Oct. 2013.

Chen3 Shpyrko 24 Written by Holmes Rolston, a professor of philosophy at Colorado State University, and used by the Yale Journal of International Law, this journal article delves into the rights and responsibilities humans have in regard to the environment. Relevant parts of the article state that humans should have a right to a quality environment, protection of air, soils, waters, biodiversity, protection against contamination by toxic substances and that humans should preserve wild ecosystems. Based upon this information the Soviet government wholly violated nearly every single one of its environmental responsibilities, as it failed to protect the environment from radiological contamination, as well as the environmental rights of its citizens, since the Soviet government failed to evacuate its citizens in time.

Schwartz, Julia A. "International Nuclear Third Party Liability Law: The Response to Chernobyl." International Nuclear Third Party Liability Law: The Response to Chernobyl. OECD, 2006. Web. 13 Sept. 2013. Julia Schwartz is the Head of Legal Affairs for the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. In retrospect to the Chernobyl accident, Schwartz analyzes and interprets the way the international community has reacted toward the solidifying a system of liabilities and compensations for operators and victims of a nuclear disaster. This source will be helpful in defining responsibilities of a government through the liabilities and compensations that need to be addressed if environmental nuclear output affects a third party. Shaffer, Howard C. E-mail interview. 1 Jan. 2014. Shapiro, Alan. "Chernobyl & the Nuclear Power Controversy." Morningside Center for Teaching Social Responsibility. N.p., 19 Apr. 2013. Web. 13 Oct. 2013. Morningside Center for Teaching Social Responsibility, a program designed to educate people about developing social skills to be functional citizens in society, offers this dilatory article about nuclear energy controversies and matters. Rather than side with a particular point of view, the author objectively explores both sides of the nuclear energy controversy, which revolves around the question of whether nuclear energy is safe enough to be continued globally, especially ever since the Chernobyl accident. Alan Shapiro accomplishes this by utilizing statistics, records and statistics from authoritative nuclear physicists and organizations, such as the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership. The primary subtopics in Shapiros discussion are radioactive waste, nuclear weapons, environmental safety and employment opportunities - important issues that are crucial in the analysis of Chernobyls lasting legacy on nuclear energy responsibilities, rights, limits, duties and liabilities.

Shlyakhter, Alexander, and Richard Wilson. "Chernobyl: The Inevitable Results of Secrecy." N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Sept. 2013.

Chen3 Shpyrko 25 Written by Shlyakhter, a former staff scientist at the Leningrad Nuclear Physics Institute in Russia, and Wilson, a professor of physics at the Jefferson Physical Laboratory at Harvard University. They point out that the fact that there were so many causes for the Chernobyl disaster indicates that crisis was preventable. Furthermore, the Soviet Unions penchant for secrecy concealed previous nuclear leaks from the public. By avoiding scrutiny from the public, the government had no incentive for managing the hazardous materials with delicately. The Soviet fear for panic among their citizens became a constant excuse used to explain their secrecy.

Szyszlo, Peter. "RUSN 276: Environmental Crises in Former Soviet Space." Dr. Walter Richmond (University of Southern California). Dr. Walter Richmond, 2005. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. In all three parts of his work, Peter Szyszlo goes into depth about Russias nuclear activities. Starting from the nations roots of nuclear activity all the way to modern-day Russian nuclear activity, the many flaws in Russias radioactive programs are uncovered. The most common theme addressed by peter Szyszlo is the general radioactive waste mismanagement that was habitual in Russias history. He finally mentions Chernobyl towards the middle in reference to the title: Chernobyl in Slow Motion, implying that Russias negligence towards radioactive material could spread into the worlds oceans and infect the entire globe. Overall, Szyszlos work is useful in that he thoroughly analyzes the USSRs irresponsible attitude toward radioactive waste management, which demonstrated itself in incidents such as Chernobyl.

"Timeline." The Chernobyl Gallery. Web. 06 Oct. 2013. This is a broad context source that lists chronologically the events that happened leading up to, during, and after the Chernobyl disaster. There are a number of interesting facts to note. In 1982, there was a partial meltdown of the first reactor, which was not publicly reported for three years. The explosion and resulting damage was caused by a failed test, and even though there had been warnings to abort the test due to a drop in reactor power, the plant operators are forced to continue. Also, there is a sizable gap between the accidents occurrence and its acknowledgement. Also interesting to note is the lack of knowledge regarding the severity of the accident: reporters spoke of a brief evacuation, and only on May 6 is it recommended for Kiev residents to stay indoors. The chronology of events strengthens the argument relating to the responsibility of the Soviet government to transmit the necessary information, as well as responsibility regarding the handling of nuclear power.

"Truth and Lies about Chernobyl Disaster." Pravda. PRAVDA.Ru, 28 Apr. 2012. Web. 14 Oct. 2013.

Chen3 Shpyrko 26 Important to this newspaper article are the facts that more than 30 people out of 600000 liquidators died within three months of the accident, and that the total death count due to Chernobyl has been between 25000 and 100000 people. Additionally, the total evacuation count hovers around 115000. Additionally, this article from Pravda, a Russian newspaper, attempts to expel a number of "myths" surrounding Chernobyl. First, it suggests that the health effects of Chernobyl have been minimal -- the only significant effect has been 200 cases of thyroid cancer. Additionally, Chernobyl's long-term consequences are not nearly as severe as generally reported to be. Finally, the authorities arranged efficient and professional evacuation and provided adequate information regarding the accident. The article then attributes the cause of the disaster to the negligence of the personnel and the flawed construction of the reactor. Thus there is controversy regarding the responsibility of nuclear power and its potential consequences, as well as regarding whether the Soviet government fulfilled broadcasting necessary environmental information.

Tymoshenko, Yuliya. "The Real Meaning of Chernobyl." Editorial. The Prague Post n.d.: n. pag. - Opinion. The Prague Post, 27 Apr. 2011. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. This newspaper article by The Prague Post was written by a two-time former prime minister of Ukraine. The article presents a unique perspective by detailing the indifference of the Soviet government towards the Chernobyl Accident and using this as a catalyst for discussing the dangers of government indifference. In essence saying that a government that does not believe it has responsibility in warning its people about danger has no right to power.

"Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: Economy. Part 1." Countries of the World. 1991. eLibrary. Web. 30 Sep. 2013. This provides a short depiction of the economic conditions of the Soviet Union. Apparently, in 1988, nuclear energy only accounted for 13.1 percent of all energy produced in the Soviet Union, and the numbers of nuclear power usage has increased afterwards. This is due to the scientific investigations that followed the Chernobyl accident, better disciplinary measures and safety measures have been placed. This source has background information but stated directly and concisely. It will be useful for quick reference on the economic status in Soviet Russia during and after Chernobyl

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UDHR, Declaration of Human Rights, Human Rights Declaration, Human Rights Charter, The Un and Human Rights." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, created by the United Nations, lists the various rights all peoples of the world are entitled to by birth. This document provides a mainly western view of human rights. Several important examples of this are the

Chen3 Shpyrko 27 prohibition of torture, cruel or inhuman punishment or treatment, freedom of peaceful assembly and association, the right to own property alone, freedom of religion and the right to leave any country. By examining the Chernobyl Accident through the lens of western nations, it will be possible to answer the question of whether the Soviet Union had the responsibility to warn its citizens of the Chernobyl Accident or the right to cover up the accident, from a western perspective. It will also be possible to determine, from a western viewpoint, what rights Soviet citizens should have had during the accident.

U.N. Economic and Social Council. 57th session. Protection of the Human Rights of the Chernobyl Victims, Promotion of the International Support and Compensation. 16 Mar. 2001 (E/CN.4/2001/NGO/179). Official Record. 19 Mar. 2001. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. The United Nations Economic and Social Council acknowledges the disastrous outcome of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster, which has exposed millions of people to unacceptable levels of radiation. Such levels of radiation, it states, creates a dramatic increase in cancer cases, particularly those of children. Additionally, it maintains that the conditions under which these people are forced to live, is a direct violation of law in accordance with the Constitution and an infringement of the human rights of the Chernobyl victims. Evidence for this lies in that victims lack necessary relief and compensation to combat their problems. Furthermore, this issue is exacerbated due to propaganda, which conceals the reality of the situation. The United Nations proposes a number of solutions to support the victims of the Chernobyl disaster. This source deals with issues relating to the rights of victims of the Chernobyl accident.

Vasilyeva, Natayla, and Yuras Karmanau. "Ex-Soviet States Accused of Neglect on Chernobyl." Philly [Philadelphia] 28 Apr. 1986: n. pag. Philly.com. 26 Apr. 2011. Web. 20 Sept. 2013. This brief article describes the negligent attitude of the Soviet government in failing to protect its people from the disaster's aftermath. In addition, the government had cut benefits of workers affected by the radiation, and there was failure in repairing a hospital in Bryansk. Vasilyeva and Karmanau note that the Soviet Government failed to make any mention of the accident until several days after its occurrence. Each of these shows the inadequacy of the Soviet Government in making necessary progress in the recuperation phase of Chernobyl.

Voloshin, Yan. Personal interview. 3 Jan. 2014.

Weston, Burns H. "Memorandum." Unep.org. United Nations Environment Program, n.d. Web. 11 Oct. 2013.

Chen3 Shpyrko 28 Produced for the United Nations Environmental Program, this memorandum reports the responsibility humans are deemed to have towards the environment. Useful points of the memorandum are the assertions that the living have the responsibility to leave the world habitable for posterity, maintain the quality of the planet so it is inherited by future generations in no worse condition than previously received and preserve the diversity of nature. Viewing the actions of the Soviet government during the Chernobyl Accident through an environmental perspective therefore reveals that the Soviet government fell far short of meeting most of its environmental responsibilities. The Soviet government failed to leave the area in the vicinity of the Chernobyl power plant habitable for future generations and did not succeed in maintaining the quality of this land either.

Yablokov, Alexey V., Vassily B. Nesterenko, and Alexey V. Nesterenko. Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment. Hoboken: Willy Subscription Services, n.d. Google Books. Google. Web. 02 Jan. 2014. Published by the New York Academy of Sciences, the third oldest and one of most prestigious scientific societies in the US, this book presents a critical viewpoint of the Soviet government's response towards the Chernobyl Accident. The book argues that the number of casualties caused by the accident is far higher than the Soviet government's official figure. It also states that the overall consequences of the disaster, in terms of health problems caused by radiation and environmental contamination, are far more severe than claimed by the Soviet government. The book also mentions that the Soviet government kept secret many documents and reports relating to Chernobyl to conceal the magnitude of the disaster. This information serves as further evidence of the Soviet government's negligence in its responsibility to inform the public of disasters directly threatening them.

Yaroshinska, Alla, Rosalie Bertell, and Lynn Ehrle. Chernobyl: Crime without Punishment. New Brunswick (U.S.A.): Transaction, 2011. Print. This book is written by Russian journalist, Alla Yaroshinska, was published in 2011. This source contains a conglomeration of primary sources and analysis by the author. Also, as a journalist reporting on the ground near Chernobyl after the accident, interacting with the people and recording their reactions towards the accident. Yaroshinska provides her own analysis and explanation as to why Soviet officials have escaped trial despite covering up the incident. This source will be extremely beneficial to our research, providing a wealth of primary sources and professional interpretation of the responsibilities of the Soviet Union in the midst of the Chernobyl disaster.

Yaroshinska, Alla. "DiaNuke.org." Secret Chernobyl Documents Expose the Cover-Up. N.p., 28 Mar. 2013. Web. 12 Oct. 2013.

Chen3 Shpyrko 29 Yaroshinska is a Russian journalist who acquired secret documents about the Chernobyl disaster that reveal the cover-up by the Soviet government. After decades of nuclear power usage did the US establish a separate ministry for the legal matter regarding the use of nuclear energy. The Council of Ministers passed the Law on the Chernobyl Catastrophe in 1990, four years after the disaster. Secret protocols obtained by Yaronshinska indicated that it was recognized the growing number of patients being treated for radiation, but the Soviet response was to raise the maximum level of radiation acceptable to be considered healthy. This course of action was due to the economics of the Soviet Union: they could not afford to resettle so many people. This is an example of how the Soviet government manipulated information to undermine the effects of the Chernobyl in the face of the public.

Yaroshinskaya, Alla. "The Big Lie: The Secret Chernobyl Documents." Eurozine. Eurozine, 06 Dec. 2013. Web. 08 Dec. 2013. This article by Yaroshinskaya details the cover-up of the Soviet Union following the Chernobyl disaster as well as the secret documents that were uncovered some years after. Despite glasnost and perestroika, despite demands of compensation for health and environmental damage, the Soviet Union was not prepared to take responsibility for the accident and its effects; this legislative acts came five years after the disaster occurred. Among the documents that were concealed due to the cover-up of the accident include reports on hospital admission, illustrating the large volume of sick people as a result of the aftermath of the explosion. Additionally, acceptable radiation levels were raised by up to fifty times. The fact that such important data were kept from the Soviet public demonstrates the irresponsibility of the Soviet government in providing information to both its own people and the outside world, as well as the necessity of such transmittance of information especially regarding health and the environment.