Module 4 Sampling

Content of the module: Meaning & need Advantages of sampling over census Probability & non probability sampling methods Criteria of selecting a sampling procedure

Meaning Population - Empirical field studies require collection of first-hand information or data pertaining to the units of study from the field. The units of study may include geographical areas like districts, talukas, cities or villages which are covered by the study, or institutions or households about which information is required, or persons from whom information is required, or persons from whom information is available.

The aggregate of all the units pertaining to a study is called the population or the universe. Population is the target group to be studied. All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute Universe or Population. The population or universe may be finite or infinite.

Sample is subset of a larger population. It is the aggregate of elements about which we wish to make inferences. A member of the population is an element. It is the subject on which measurement is taken. It is the unit of study. Sampling is the process of selecting a small number of elements from a larger defined target group of elements such that the information gathered from the small group will allow judgments to be made about the larger groups. In the other words, it is the process of drawing a sample from a larger population is called sampling. Sampling frame - The list of sampling units from which a sample is taken is called sampling frame, e.g., a map, a telephone directory, a list of industrial undertakings, a list of car licensees etc. Example: A researcher wants to survey the brand preferences of households regarding toilet soaps in Jayanagar area of the city of Bangalore. A household is the sampling unit. The total of all households in Jayanagar area is the population. Suppose in a detailed map of Jayanagar, but list of

households is not available, each block may be considered a sampling unit. A list of such blocks will be used as the frame. Need to sample Lower cost need for sample arises due to budget constraints, where it is not feasible to study population. Greater speed of data collection Due to time constraints in data collection, we can employ sampling. When greater accuracy of results is needed - Sampling will lead to greater accuracy of results Impracticable to survey the entire population

Census Vs. Sampling Data originally collected for an investigation are known as primary data. Such data are collected original in character. The primary data may be collected by following either census method or the sampling method. Census - A count of all the elements in population is census. When all the units are studied, such a complete coverage is census survey. A complete detail of all the items in the population is known as a census inquiry. Besides this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Example- According to the Census 2001, in India out of total population of 1028 million about 285 millions live in urban areas and 742 millions live in rural areas. Sample survey - When only a sample of universe is studied, the study is called a sample survey. The process of designing a field study, among other things, involves a decision to use sampling or not. The researcher must decide whether he should cover all the units or a sample of units. In making this decision' of census or sampling, the following factors are considered: 1. The size of the population: If the population to be studied is relatively small, say 50 institutions or 200 employees or 150 households, the investigator may decide to study the entire population. The task is easily manageable and the sampling may not be required. But if the population to be studied is quite large, sampling is warranted. However, the size is a relative matter. Whether a population is large or small depends upon the nature of the study, the purpose for which it is undertaken, and the time and other resources available for it. 2. Amount of funds budgeted for the study: The decision regarding census or sampling depends upon the budget of the study. Sampling is opted when the amount of money budgeted is smaller than the anticipated cost of census survey.

3. Facilities: The extent of facilities available- staff, access to computer facility and accessibility to population elements- is another factor to be considered in deciding to sample or not. When the availability of these facilities is extensive, census survey may be manageable. Otherwise, sampling is preferable. 4. Time: The time limit within which the study should be completed is another important factor to be considered in deciding the question of census or sample survey. This, in fact, is a primary reason for using sampling by academic and marketing researchers. Advantages of sampling over census Sampling reduces the time and cost of research studies. With the use of sampling, it has become possible to undertake even national or global studies at a reasonable cost and time. Such economy in time and cost improves the viability of several field studies like credit surveys, poverty surveys and marketing surveys. Sampling saves labour. A smaller staff is required both for fieldwork and for processing and analyzing the data. The quality of a study is often better with sampling than with a complete coverage. The possibility of better interviewing, more thorough investigation of missing, wrong or suspicious information, better supervision, and better processing is greater in sampling than in complete coverage. Sampling provides much quicker results than does a census. The speed of execution minimizes the time between the recognition of a need for information and the availability of that information. The speed of execution is vital in feasibility studies, evaluation studies and business research. Timely execution of a study is essential for making use of its findings. Sampling is the only procedure possible, if the population is infinite, e.g. consumer behaviour surveys etc. Statistical sampling yields a crucial advantage over any other way of choosing a part of the population for a study. Limitations of Sampling 1. Sampling demands a thorough knowledge of sampling methods and procedures and an exercise of greater care; otherwise the results obtained may be incorrect or misleading. 2. When the characteristic to be measured occurs only rarely in the population, a very large sample is required to secure units that will give, reliable information about it. A large sample has all the drawbacks of a census survey. 3. A complicated sampling plan may require more labour than a complete coverage.

4. It may not be possible to ensure the representativeness of the sample, even by the most perfect sampling procedures. Therefore sampling results in a certain degree of sampling errors, i.e., there will be some difference between the sample value and the population value. Characteristics of Good Sample Whether the result obtained from a sample survey would be accurate or not depends upon the quality of the sample. 1. Representativeness: A sample must be representative of the population. Probability sampling technique yield representative sample. 2. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An accurate (unbiased) sample is one which exactly represents the population. It is free from any influence that causes any difference between sample value and population value (say, average). 3. Precision: The sample must yield precise estimate. Precision is measured by the standard error or standard deviation of the, sample estimate. The smaller the standard error or estimate, the higher is the precision of the sample. 4. Size: A good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable. The sample should be of such size that the inferences drawn from the sample are accurate to the given level of confidence. Steps in sampling There are five steps which precede collection of the data by means of sample. 1. Defining the population or universe. The population or universe is the specific group of items which the researchers wish to study and about which they plan to generalize. If a theatre owner is investigating the movie going habits of local college students, the population will be the students enrolled on a particular date. The definition of the universe, in any particular case is determined solely by the research objectives of the particular study. 2. Development of a frame. A frame is a list of the population. It consists of names and addresses of the individuals and institutions. It can also specify a definite location, boundary, an address or a set of rules by which sampling unit can be identified. For example, a researcher has undertaken a study for finding the proportion of the grocery stores in the Chennai metropolitan area, which stock cardamom. Here grocery stores would be observed. For the purpose of identifying the stores, a list of all Chennai metropolitan area grocery stores must be obtained. From the list it will be easy to choose. If no such list is available one may choose a sample of areas. 3. Selection of sample design. The researcher can go for probability or non-probability design. If the researcher wants to estimate the sampling error of the results, a probability sample should be used. If it is very difficult to develop a frame, a non-probability sample should be used. The

researcher should feel confident that the sample used provides a legitimate and accurate picture of the universe. 4. Selecting the sample size. The sample size should never be less than thirty. But the final decision on proper sample size really depends on whether the researcher feels reasonably confident that his sample is large enough to accurately depict the population. 5. Selecting the representative sample. The selected sample should have all the characteristics of the population and it must provide the whole information about the population from which it is drawn. Types of Sampling Methods or techniques Sampling methods or techniques may be classified into two generic types: (a) Probability or Random Sampling (b) Non-probability or Non-random Sampling Probability Sampling Methods 1. Simple random sampling 2. Stratified random sampling 3. Systematic random sampling 4. Cluster sampling 5. Area sampling 6. Multi-stage 7. Double sampling 8. Sequential methods Non probability Sampling Methods 1. Convenience or accidental sampling 2. Purposive or Judgmental sampling 3. Quota sampling 4. Snow-ball sampling Probability Sampling Methods A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. Simple Random Sampling Random sampling refers to the sampling technique in which each and every item of the population is given an equal chance of being included in the sample. The selection is thus free from personal bias because the investigator does not exercise his discretion or preference in the choice of items.

Since selection of items in the sample depends entirely on chance this method is also known as the method of chance selection. Random sampling is sometimes referred to as 'representative sampling'. If the sample is chosen at random and if the size of the sample is sufficiently large, it will represent groups in the universe. A random sample is also known as 'probability sample, because every item of the universe has an equal opportunity of being selected in the sample. Methods of obtaining a random sample To ensure randomness of selection one may adopt any of the following methods: 1. Lottery Method. This is a very popular method of taking a random sample. Under this method, all the items of the universe are numbered on separate slips of paper of identical -size and shape. These slips are then folded and mixed up in a container or drum, a blindfold selection is then made of the number of slips required to constitute the desired sample size. The selection of items thus depends entirely on chance. Example: If we want to take a sample of 10 persons out of a population of 100, the procedure is to write the name of all the 100 persons on separate slips of paper, fold these slips, mix them thoroughly and then make a blindfold selection of 10 slips

2. Table of Random Numbers: The lottery method discussed above becomes quite cumbersome to use as the size of population increases. An alternative method of random selection is that of using the table of random numbers. Three such tables are available, namely (i) Tippett's table of random numbers, (ii) Fisher and Yate's numbers, and (iii) Kendall and Babington Smith numbers. Tippett's numbers are most popular. They consist of 41,600 digits taken from census reports and combined by fours to give 1400 four-figure numbers. We give here the first forty sets as an illustration of their general appearance. . 2952 4167 2370 0560 2754 6641 9524 7483 5246 9143 3992 1545 3408 1112 1405 9792 1396 2762 6107 9025 7969 7203. 3563 6008 7002 5911 5366 1089 8126 6111 3170 1300 6913 4233 8816 5624 2693 7691 8776 6446

One may question, and quite rightly, as to how it was ensured that these digits are random. It may be pointed out that the digits in the table were chosen haphazardly but the real guarantee of their

randomness lies in practical tests. Tippett's numbers have been subjected to numerous tests and used in many investigations and their randomness has been well established for all practical purposes. An example to illustrate how Tippett's table of random numbers may be used is given below. Suppose we have to select 20 items out of 6,000. The procedure is to number all the 6,000 items from 1 to 6000. A page from Tippett's table may then be consulted and the first twenty numbers up to 6000 noted down. Items bearing those numbers will be included in the sample. Making use of the portion of table given above, the required numbers are: 2952 1545 3408 1112 3992 1396 2762 4233 5911 5366 3563 3170 1300 1089 5624 2693 0560 4167 2370 5246

The items which bear the above numbers constitute the sample. Fisher and Yate's table consist of 15,000 numbers. These have been arranged in two digits in 300 blocks, each block consisting of 5 rows, and 5 columns. Kendall and Smith table also constructed random numbers (10,000 in, all) by using a randomizing machine. However, this method of random selection cannot be followed in case of articles like ghee, oil petrol, wheat, etc. 3. Use of computer If the population is very large and if computer facilities are available, a computer may be used for drawing a random sample. The computer can be programmed to print out a series of random numbers as the researcher desires. Advantages of random sampling All the elements in the population have an equal chance of being selected. Since the selection of items in the sample depends entirely on chance there is no possibility of personal bias affecting the results. A random sample represents the universe in a better way. As the size of the sample increases, it becomes increasingly representative of the population. The analyst can easily assess the accuracy of his estimate because sampling errors follow the principles of chance. The theory of random sampling is developed much more than any other type of sampling and provides the most reliable information at the least cost.

Disadvantages of random sampling It is often impractical, because of non-availability of population list, or of difficulty in listing the population. Sometimes it is difficult for the investigator to have up-to date lists of all the items of the population to be sampled. This restricts the use of random sampling method. The task of preparing slips is time-consuming and expensive. The size of the sample required to ensure statistical reliability is usually large under random sampling than in stratified sampling. From the point of view of field survey it has been claimed that cases selected by random sampling tend to be too widely dispersed geographically and that the time and cost of collecting data become too large. Stratified random sampling Stratified random sampling is a method of probability sampling in which the population is divided into different homogeneous subgroups or strata or classes and a sample is drawn from each subgroup or stratum at random. Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample from each population stratum. Example, if we are interested in studying the consumption pattern of the people of Delhi, the city of Delhi may be divided into various parts (such as zones or wards) and from each part a sample may be taken at random. However, the selection of cases from each stratum must be done with great care and in accordance with a carefully designed plan as otherwise random selection from the various strata may not be accomplished. Stratified sampling may be either proportional or disproportional. In proportional sampling the cases are drawn from each stratum in the same proportion as they occur in the universe. For example, if we divide the city of Delhi into four zones A, B, C and D with 40%, 30%, 20% and 10% of the total population respectively and if the sample size is one thousand then we should draw 400, 300, 200 and 100 cases respectively from zones A, B, C and D, i.e., sample is proportional to the size in the universe. .

In disproportional stratified sampling an equal number of cases is taken from each stratum, regardless of how the stratum is represented in the universe. Thus, in the above example, an equal number of items from each zone may by drawn, that is, 250. This approach is obviously inferior to the proportional stratified sampling.

Advantages of stratified sampling 1. More representatives. Since the population is first divided into various strata and then a sample is drawn from each stratum there is little possibility of any essential group of the population being completely excluded. A more representative sample is thus secured. Stratified sampling is frequently regarded as the most efficient system of sampling. 2. Greater accuracy. Stratified sampling ensures greater accuracy. The accuracy is maximum if each stratum is so formed that it consists of uniform or homogeneous items. Disadvantages of stratified sampling 1. Each stratum must contain, as far as possible, homogeneous items as otherwise the results may not be reliable. However, this is a very difficult task and may involve considerable time & expense. Utmost care must be exercised in dividing the population into various strata. 2. This method requires a prior knowledge of the composition of the population, which is not always possible. 3. This method is also subject to classification errors. It is possible that researcher may misclassify certain elements. 4. The items from each stratum should be selected at random. But this may be difficult to achieve in the absence of skilled sampling supervisors and a random selection within each stratum may not be ensured. Systematic Sampling or Fixed Interval Method This method is popularly used in those cases where a complete list of the population from which sample is to be drawn is available. The method is to select every kth item from the list where 'k' refers to the sampling interval. The first item between the first and the kth is selected at random. Sampling Interval or k = (size of the universe / size of the sample) Example, if a complete list of 1,000 students of a college is available and if we want to draw a sample of 200 this means we must take every fifth item (i.e., k=5). The first item between one and five shall be selected at random. Suppose it comes out to be three. Now we shall go on adding five and obtain numbers of the desired sample. Thus, the second item would be the 8th student, the third 13th student; the fourth, 18th student and so on.

Advantages of Systematic Sampling 1. It is much simpler than random sampling. It is easy to use. 2. The time and work involved in sampling by this method are relatively smaller. The results obtained are also found to be generally satisfactory provided care is taken to see that there are no periodic features associated with the sampling interval. 3. This method is cheaper than simple random sampling.

4. Sample is spread evenly over the population. 5. It is statistically more efficient than a simple random sample when population elements are ordered chronologically, by size, class etc.

Disadvantages of Systematic Sampling 1. This method ignores all the elements between two kth element selected. Further, except the first element, other selected elements are not chosen random. Hence, this sampling cannot be considered to a probability sampling in the strict sense of the term. 2. As each element does not have an equal chance of being selected, the resulting sample is not a random one. For studies aiming at estimations or generalization, this disadvantage would be a serious one. 3. If the population is ordered in a systematic way with respect to the characteristic the investigator is interested in, then it is possible that only certain types of items will be included in the population, or at least more of certain types than others. For instance, in a study of salaries of workers the list may be such that every tenth worker of the list gets wages above Rs. 5000 per month.

Cluster sampling Where the population elements are scattered over a wider area and a list of population elements is not readily available, the use of simple or stratified random sampling method would be too expensive and time-consuming. In such cases cluster sampling is usually adopted. Cluster sampling means random selection of sampling units consisting of population elements. Each such sampling unit is a cluster of population elements. Then from each selected sampling unit, a sample of population elements is drawn by either simple random selection or stratified random selection. Example: Suppose a researcher wants to select a random sample of 1,000 households out of 40,000 estimated households in a city for a survey. A direct sample of individual households would be difficult to select, because a list of households does not exist and would be too costly to prepare. Instead, he can select a random sample of a few blocks/wards. The number of blocks to be selected depends upon the average number of estimated households per block. Suppose the average number of households per block is 200, then 5 blocks comprise the sample. Since the number of households per block varies, the actual sample size depends on the block which happen to be selected. Alternatively, he can draw a sample of more blocks and from each sample blocks a certain number of households may be selected by systematic sampling.

Advantages of Cluster sampling 1. This method is much easier and more convenient to apply when large populations are studied or large geographical areas are covered. 2. The cost of this method is much less when compared with other sampling method. 3. Units of study can be easily substituted for other units within the same random section. Disadvantages of Cluster sampling 1. The cluster sizes may vary and this variation could increase the bias of the resulting sample. For example, if the researcher were to interview all adults in households in each selected street the number of adults would vary from house to house. There would be certain bias resulting from the large coverage of big families. 2. The sampling error in this method of sampling is greater. Thus, this method is statistically less efficient than other probability sampling methods. Area Sampling This is an important form of cluster sampling. In larger field surveys, clusters consisting of specific geographical areas like districts, talukas, villages or blocks in a city are randomly drawn. As the geographical areas are selected as sampling units in such cases, their sampling is called area sampling. It is not a separate method of sampling, but forms part of cluster sampling. Multi-stage sampling In this method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The material is regarded as made up of a number of first stage sampling units, each of which is made of a number of second stage units, etc. At first, the first stage units are sampled by some suitable method, as such random sampling. Then, a sample of second stage units is selected from each of the selected first stage units again by some suitable method which may be the same as, or different from the method employed for the' first stage units. Further stages may be added as required. Example: Suppose, it is decided to take a sample of 5,000 households from the State of U.P. At the first stage, the State may be divided into a number of districts and a few districts selected at random. At the second stage, each district may be sub-divided into a number of villages and sample of villages may be taken at random. At the third stage, a number of households may be selected from each of the villages selected at the second stage. In this way, at each stage the sample size becomes smaller and smaller.

Merits of multistage sampling 1. Multistage sampling introduced flexibility in the sampling method which is lacking in other methods. It enables existing divisions and sub-divisions of the population to be used as units at various stages, and permits the field work to be concentrated and yet large area to be covered. 2. Another advantage of the method is that sub-division into second stage unit, (i.e., the construction of the second stage frame) need be carried out for only those first stage units which are included in the sample. 3. It is, therefore, particularly valuable in surveys of underdeveloped areas where no frame is generally sufficiently detailed and accurate for, sub-division of the material into reasonable small sampling units.

Limitations of multistage sampling However, a multi-stage sample is in general less accurate than a sample containing the same number of final stage units which have been selected by some suitable single stage process.

Other probability sampling techniques In addition to the four basic probability-sampling techniques, there are a variety of other sampling techniques. Most of these may be viewed as extensions of the basic techniques and were developed to address complex sampling problems. Two techniques with some relevance to marketing research are double sampling & sequential sampling.

Double ( or Two-Phase) Sampling and Multi-Phase Sampling Double sampling also called two-phase sampling, certain population elements are sampled twice. In the first phase, a sample is selected and some information is collected from all the elements in the sample. In the second phase, a sub sample is drawn from the original sample and additional information is obtained from the elements in the sub-sample. The process may be extended to three or more phases, and the different phases may take place simultaneously or at different times.' Double sampling can be useful when no sampling frame is readily available for selecting final sampling units but when the elements of the frame are known to be contained within a broader sampling frame. For example, a researcher wants to select households in a given city that consume apple juice. The households of interest are contained within the set of all households, but the researcher does not know which they are. In applying double sampling, the researcher would obtain a sampling frame of all households in the first phase. This would be constructed from the city directory or purchased. Then a sample of households would be drawn, using systematic random sampling to determine the amount of apple juice consumed.

In the second phase, households that consume apple juice would be selected and stratified according to the amount of apple juice consumed. Then a stratified random sample would be drawn and detailed questions regarding apple juice consumption asked.

Sequential methods In sequential sampling, the population elements are sampled sequentially, data collection and analysis are done at each stage, and a decision is made as to whether additional population elements should be sampled. The sample size is not known in advance, but a decision rule is stated before sampling begins. At each stage, this rule indicates whether sampling should be continued or whether enough information has been obtained. Sequential sampling has been used to determine preferences for two competing alternatives. In one study, respondents were asked which of two alternatives they preferred, and sampling was terminated when sufficient evidence was accumulated to validate a preference. It has also been used to establish the price differential between a standard model and a deluxe model of a consumer durable.

Non-probability Sampling Methods Non-probability sampling the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is nonrandom, non-probability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors. The primary methods of non-probability sampling are: Convenience sampling or Accidental sampling Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. It means selecting sample units in a just 'hit and miss' fashion, e.g., interviewing people whom we happen to meet. This sampling also means selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently available, e.g., a teacher may select students in his class. This method is also known as accidental sampling because the respondents whom the researcher meets accidently are included in the sample. Usefulness: Though convenience sampling has no status, it may be used for simple purpose such as testing ideas or gaining ideas or rough impression about a subject of interest. It lays groundwork for a subsequent probability sampling. Sometimes it may have to be necessarily used. Advantages: 1. Convenience sampling is the cheapest and simplest. 2. It does not require a list of population.

3. It does not require any statistical expertise. Disadvantages: 1. Convenience sampling is highly biased, because of the researcher's subjectivity, and so it does not yield a representative sample. 2. It is the least reliable sampling method. There is no way of estimating the representativeness of the sample. 3. The findings cannot be generalized. Purposive (or Judgement) sampling Judgment sampling relies upon belief that participants fit characteristics. A judgement sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is familiar with the relevant characteristics of the population. This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some predetermined criteria. This is also known as Judgement sampling. This involves selection of cases which we judge as the most appropriate ones for the given study. It is based on the judgement of the researcher or some expert. It does not aim at securing a cross section of a population. The chance that a particular case be selected for the sample depends on the subjective judgement of the researcher. For example, a researcher may deliberately choose industrial undertakings in which quality circles are believed to be functioning successfully and undertakings in which quality circles are believed to be a total failure. Advantages: 1. It is less costly and more convenient. 2. It guarantees inclusion of relevant elements in the sample. Probability sampling plans cannot give such guarantee. Disadvantages: 1. This does not ensure the representativeness of the sample. 2. This is less efficient for generalizing when compared with random sampling.

3. This method requires more prior extensive information about the population one studies. Without such information, it is not possible to adjudge the suitability of the sample items to be selected. 4. This method does not lend itself for using inferential statistics, because, this sampling does not satisfy the underlying assumption of randomness. Quota sampling This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible sampling units by traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. when the population is known to Consist of various categories by sex, age, religion, social class etc., in specific proportions, each investigator may be

given an assignment of quota groups specified by the pre-determined traits in specific proportions. He can then select accessible persons, belonging to those quota groups in the area assigned to him. "Quota Sampling is therefore a method of stratified sampling in which selection within strata is non-random. It is this non-random element that constitutes its greatest weakness. " Quotas are stratified by such variables as sex, age, social class and religion. It is easy to classify the accessible respondents under sex, age and religion, but it is very difficult to classify them into social categories, since social class usually involves a combination of factors such as occupation, income and caste and the interviewer's subjective judgement and bias play some role in the social class classification of respondents. Snow-ball sampling Snowball sampling relies upon respondent referrals of others with like characteristics. This is the colourful name for a technique of building up a list or a sample of a special population by using an initial set of its members as informants. For example, if a researcher wants to study the problem faced by Indians through some source like Indian Embassy. Then he can ask each one of them to supply names of other Indians known to them, and continue this procedure until he gets an exhaustive list from which he can draw a sample or make a census survey. This sampling technique may also be used in socio-metric studies. For example, the members of a social group may be asked to name the persons with whom they have social contacts, each one of the persons so named may also be asked to do so, and so on. The researcher may thus get a constellation of associates and analyse it. For example, if the investigator was able to find a few bonded labourers willing to talk to him he might ask them for the names and locations of others; who might also be willing to be interviewed. Sampling of this type has often been done in studies for elite groups, either those in power in a community or members of upper classes. In community studies there is often the feeling that only those in power really know who else has power.

Sampling and non-sampling error To appreciate the need for sampling surveys, it is necessary to understand clearly the role of sampling and non-sampling errors incomplete enumeration and sample surveys. The errors arising due to drawing inference about the population on the basis of a few observations (sample) is termed sample errors. Clearly the sampling error in this sense is nonexistent in a complete enumeration survey, since the whole population is surveyed. However, the errors mainly arising at the stages of ascertainment and processing of data which are termed non-sampling errors are common both in complete enumeration and sample surveys.

1. Sampling errors Even if utmost care has been taken in selecting a sample, the results derived from the sample may not be representative of the population from which it is drawn, because samples are seldom, if ever, perfect miniatures of the population. This gives rise to sampling errors. Sampling errors are thus due to the fact that samples are used and to the particular method used in selecting the items from the population. Sampling errors are of two types-biased and unbiased. (1) Biased errors. These' errors arise from any bias in selection, estimation, etc For example, if in place of simple random sampling, deliberate sampling has been used in a particular case some bias is introduced ,in the result and hence such errors are called biased sampling errors. (2) Unbiased errors. These errors arise due to chance differences between the members of population included in the sample and those not included.

Thus the total sampling error is made up of error due to bias, if any, and the random sampling error. The essence of bias is that it forms a constant component of error that does not decrease in a large population as the number in the sample increases. Such error is, therefore, also known as cumulative or non-compensating error. The random sampling error, on the other hand, decreases on an average as the size of the sample increases. Such error is, therefore, also known as noncumulative or compensating error. Causes of bias Faulty process of selection. Faulty work during the collection of information. Faulty methods of analysis.

2. Non-sampling errors When a complete enumeration of units in the universe is made one would expect that it would give rise to data free from errors. However, in practice, it is not so. For example, it is difficult to completely avoid errors of observation or ascertainment. So also in the processing theory to the available facilities and resources. That is, it represents a compromise between idealism and feasibility. One should use simple workable methods instead of unduly elaborate and complicated techniques. Criteria for Selecting Sampling Techniques 1. Purpose of the survey What does the researcher aim at? If he intends to generalize the findings based on the sample survey to the population, then an appropriate probability sampling method must be selected. The choice of a particular type of probability sampling depends on the geographical area of the survey

and the size and nature of the population under study. On the other hand, if he is interested in just understanding the nature of the phenomenon under study, and does not aim at generalizing his finding, some non-probability sampling method will suffice. 2. Measurability The application of statistical inference theory requires computation of the sampling error from the sample itself. Probability samples only allow such computation. Hence, where the research objective requires statistical inference, the sample should be drawn by applying simple random sampling method or stratified random sampling method, depending on whether the population is homogeneous or heterogeneous. All probability samples are non-measurable, e.g., selecting a single cluster, a systematic sampling from a population with periodic variation, and cluster sampling in which the primary clusters are not identified. 3. Degree of precision Should the results of the survey be very precise, or even rough results could serve the purpose? The desired level of precision is one of the criteria of sampling method selection. Where a high degree of precision of results would serve the purpose (e.g., marketing surveys) any convenient non-random sampling like quota sampling would be enough. 4. lnformation about population: How much information is available about the population to be studied? Where no lists of population and no information about its nature are available, it is difficult to apply a probability sampling method. Then exploratory study with non-probability sampling may be made to gain a better idea of the population. After gaining sufficient knowledge about the populations through the exploratory study, appropriate probability sampling design may be adopted. 5. The Nature of the population: In terms of the variables to be studied, is the population homogeneous or heterogeneous? In the case of a homogeneous population, even a simple random sampling will give a representative sample. If the population is heterogeneous, stratified random sampling is appropriate. "Systematic sampling would, however, be preferred in those cases where the list of units of population is available or easily obtainable and where there is no periodic variation or trend present in the population. 6. Geographical area of the study and the size of the population: If the area covered by a survey is very large (e.g., a country or a state) and the size of the population is quite large, multi-stage cluster sampling would be appropriate. But if the area and the size of the population are small, single stage probability sampling methods could be used.

7. Financial resources: Is the available finance a limiting factor or not? If the available finance is limited, it may become necessary to choose a less costly sampling plan like multistage cluster sampling or even quota sampling as a compromise. However, if the objectives of the study and the desired, level of precision cannot be attained within the stipulated budget, there is no alternative than to give up the proposed survey. Where finance is not a constraint, a researcher can choose the most appropriate method of sampling that fits the research objective and the nature of population. 8. Time limitation: The time limit within which the research project should be completed restricts the choice of a sampling method. Then, as a compromise, it may become necessary to choose less time consuming methods like simple random sampling instead of stratified sampling/sampling with probability proportional to size; multi-stage cluster sampling instead of single-stage sampling of elements. Of course, the precision has to be sacrificed to some extent. 9. Economy should be another criterion in choosing the sampling method. It means achieving the desired level of precision at minimum cost. "A sample is economical if the precision per unit cost is high or the cost per unit of variance is low." The precisions and costs of various measurable probability sampling methods can be compared and the method which achieves the optimal balance between reliability of results and costs may be selected. This calls for much thought and ingenuity. The above criteria frequently conflict and the researcher must balance and bend them to obtain a good sampling plan. The chosen plan thus represents an adaptation of the sampling theory to the available facilities and resources. That is, it represents a compromise between idealism and feasibility. One should use simple workable methods instead of unduly elaborate and complicated techniques. References: Methodology of research in social science, 2nd Ed., OR Krishnaswamy & M. Ranganathan, Himalaya Publications. Research Methodology, 2nd Ed., CR. Kothari, New Age Int. Publishers. Business research methods, BBM BU textbook, Appannaiah Reddy & Ramanath, Himalaya Publications. Answer the following questions: Section -A (2 marks questions) 1. What is sampling? 2. Mention any 4 characteristics of good sample.

3. What is area sampling? 4. Mention any two uses of Sampling? 5. Mention any two characteristics of 'Good Sample' 6. What is meant by 'representativeness' of a Sample? 7. What is meant by lottery method? 8. Mention any two limitations of Sampling. 9. Define Cluster Sampling? 10. How is a simple random sampling done? 11. Define the term' Census'. 12. Why sampling is used? 13. What is convenient sampling? 14. What is snowball sampling? 15. What is quota sampling? 16. What is simple random sampling? 17. What is systematic sampling? 18. What is stratified sampling 19. What is multistage sampling? Section -B (5 marks questions) 1. Explain the need for sampling 2. Differentiate census and sampling 3. Explain characteristics of good sample 4. Explain various non-probability sampling techniques. 5. Explain various probability sampling techniques 6. What are the advantages of sampling? 7. What are the limitations of sampling? 8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of random sampling? 9. Give an account of sampling error. How it affects the research findings? 10. Analyze the relevance of 'Sampling frame'.

Section -C (15 Marks questions) 1. What is sampling? Explain various sampling techniques. 2. Define sampling. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sampling? 3. Explain criteria governing choice of the sampling techniques. 4. What do you mean by population? Discuss the need for a sample study. 5. What do you mean by 'Sample Design'? What points should be taken into consideration by a researcher in developing a sample design for his research project?

6. Differentiate between Convenience and purposive sampling Systematic and stratified sampling Cluster and area sampling.

7. Under what circumstances you will go for Simple random sampling Stratified sampling Systematic random sampling

8. What are different methods of sampling? Discuss the non-probability sampling designs in detail. 9. What do you mean by probability sampling? Discuss different probability sampling designs with example. 10. Differentiate between probability and non probability sampling. Analyze the merits of stratified random sampling.

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE: 1. OR Krishna Swamy, Research Methodology. 2. Wilkinson & Bhandarkar, Methodology and Techniques of Social Research. 3. V.R Michael, Research Methodology in Management. 4. CR. Kothari, Research Methodology. Note: Module is just a reference material. Please do refer the books mentioned above.